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| author | Yaco <franco@reevo.org> | 2022-03-07 21:15:33 +0000 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Yaco <franco@reevo.org> | 2022-03-07 21:15:33 +0000 |
| commit | 2abc3feb5f2711451caa9d7464258e25c1c1d358 (patch) | |
| tree | 5c125a8ef13ab1d19a48acb67b16e81cec03b3ce /data | |
first commit after acervus tech
Diffstat (limited to 'data')
826 files changed, 50518 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/data/attic/.gitkeep b/data/attic/.gitkeep new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e69de29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/attic/.gitkeep diff --git a/data/attic/_dummy b/data/attic/_dummy new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e492265 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/attic/_dummy @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +You can safely delete this file.
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item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,this._formatFileName(fileName));this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';this._listElement.appendChild(item);},_getItemByFileId:function(id){var item=this._listElement.firstChild;while(item){if(item.qqFileId==id)return item;item=item.nextSibling;}},_bindCancelEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(list,'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;if(qq.hasClass(target,self._classes.cancel)){qq.preventDefault(e);var item=target.parentNode;self._handler.cancel(item.qqFileId);qq.remove(item);}});}});qq.UploadDropZone=function(o){this._options={element:null,onEnter:function(e){},onLeave:function(e){},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){},onDrop:function(e){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._disableDropOutside();this._attachEvents();};qq.UploadDropZone.prototype={_disableDropOutside:function(e){if(!qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled){qq.attach(document,'dragover',function(e){if(e.dataTransfer){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='none';e.preventDefault();}});qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled=true;}},_attachEvents:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(self._element,'dragover',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var effect=e.dataTransfer.effectAllowed;if(effect=='move'||effect=='linkMove'){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='move';}else{e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='copy';}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();});qq.attach(self._element,'dragenter',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onEnter(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'dragleave',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onLeave(e);var relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(qq.contains(this,relatedTarget))return;self._options.onLeaveNotDescendants(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'drop',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;e.preventDefault();self._options.onDrop(e);});},_isValidFileDrag:function(e){var dt=e.dataTransfer,isWebkit=navigator.userAgent.indexOf("AppleWebKit")>-1;return dt&&dt.effectAllowed!='none'&&(dt.files||(!isWebkit&&dt.types.contains&&dt.types.contains('Files')));}};qq.UploadButton=function(o){this._options={element:null,multiple:false,name:'file',onChange:function(input){},hoverClass:'qq-upload-button-hover',focusClass:'qq-upload-button-focus'};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;qq.css(this._element,{position:'relative',overflow:'hidden',direction:'ltr'});this._input=this._createInput();};qq.UploadButton.prototype={getInput:function(){return this._input;},reset:function(){if(this._input.parentNode){qq.remove(this._input);}qq.removeClass(this._element,this._options.focusClass);this._input=this._createInput();},_createInput:function(){var input=document.createElement("input");if(this._options.multiple){input.setAttribute("multiple","multiple");}input.setAttribute("type","file");input.setAttribute("name",this._options.name);qq.css(input,{position:'absolute',right:0,top:0,fontFamily:'Arial',fontSize:'118px',margin:0,padding:0,cursor:'pointer',opacity:0});this._element.appendChild(input);var self=this;qq.attach(input,'change',function(){self._options.onChange(input);});qq.attach(input,'mouseover',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'mouseout',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'focus',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});qq.attach(input,'blur',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});if(window.attachEvent){input.setAttribute('tabIndex',"-1");}return input;}};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/upload.php',maxConnections:999,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,response){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._queue=[];this._params=[];};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype={log:function(str){if(this._options.debug&&window.console)console.log('[uploader] '+str);},add:function(file){},upload:function(id,params){var len=this._queue.push(id);var copy={};qq.extend(copy,params);this._params[id]=copy;if(len<=this._options.maxConnections){this._upload(id,this._params[id]);}},cancel:function(id){this._cancel(id);this._dequeue(id);},cancelAll:function(){for(var i=0;i<this._queue.length;i++){this._cancel(this._queue[i]);}this._queue=[];},getName:function(id){},getSize:function(id){},getQueue:function(){return this._queue;},_upload:function(id){},_cancel:function(id){},_dequeue:function(id){var i=qq.indexOf(this._queue,id);this._queue.splice(i,1);var max=this._options.maxConnections;if(this._queue.length>=max&&i<max){var nextId=this._queue[max-1];this._upload(nextId,this._params[nextId]);}}};qq.UploadHandlerForm=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._inputs={};};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{add:function(fileInput){fileInput.setAttribute('name','qqfile');var id='qq-upload-handler-iframe'+qq.getUniqueId();this._inputs[id]=fileInput;if(fileInput.parentNode){qq.remove(fileInput);}return id;},getName:function(id){return this._inputs[id].value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));delete this._inputs[id];var iframe=document.getElementById(id);if(iframe){iframe.setAttribute('src','javascript:false;');qq.remove(iframe);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;},_attachLoadEvent:function(iframe,callback){qq.attach(iframe,'load',function(){if(!iframe.parentNode){return;}if(iframe.contentDocument&&iframe.contentDocument.body&&iframe.contentDocument.body.innerHTML=="false"){return;}callback();});},_getIframeContentJSON:function(iframe){var doc=iframe.contentDocument?iframe.contentDocument:iframe.contentWindow.document,response;this.log("converting iframe's innerHTML to JSON");this.log("innerHTML = "+doc.body.innerHTML);try{response=eval("("+doc.body.innerHTML+")");}catch(err){response={};}return response;},_createIframe:function(id){var iframe=qq.toElement('<iframe src="javascript:false;" name="'+id+'" />');iframe.setAttribute('id',id);iframe.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(iframe);return iframe;},_createForm:function(iframe,params){var form=qq.toElement('<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"></form>');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);form.setAttribute('action',queryString);form.setAttribute('target',iframe.name);form.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(form);return form;}});qq.UploadHandlerXhr=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._files=[];this._xhrs=[];this._loaded=[];};qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported=function(){var input=document.createElement('input');input.type='file';return('multiple'in input&&typeof File!="undefined"&&typeof(new XMLHttpRequest()).upload!="undefined");};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{add:function(file){if(!(file instanceof File)){throw new Error('Passed obj in not a File (in qq.UploadHandlerXhr)');}return this._files.push(file)-1;},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},getLoaded:function(id){return this._loaded[id]||0;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_onComplete:function(id,xhr){if(!this._files[id])return;var name=this.getName(id);var size=this.getSize(id);this._options.onProgress(id,name,size,size);if(xhr.status==200){this.log("xhr - server response received");this.log("responseText = "+xhr.responseText);var response;try{response=eval("("+xhr.responseText+")");}catch(err){response={};}this._options.onComplete(id,name,response);}else{this._options.onComplete(id,name,{});}this._files[id]=null;this._xhrs[id]=null;this._dequeue(id);},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));this._files[id]=null;if(this._xhrs[id]){this._xhrs[id].abort();this._xhrs[id]=null;}}});qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);},onUpload:function(){self._onUpload();}});return handler;},_onUpload:function(){this._handler.uploadAll(this._options.params);},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,fileName);this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';var nameElement=this._find(item,'nameInput');fileName=fileName.toLowerCase();fileName=fileName.replace(/([ !"#$%&\'()+,\/;<=>?@[\]^`{|}~:]+)/g,'_');fileName=fileName.replace(/^_+/,'');nameElement.value=fileName;nameElement.id='mediamanager__upload_item'+id;this._listElement.appendChild(item);}});qq.FileUploaderExtended=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>'+LANG.media_drop+'</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">'+LANG.media_select+'</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'<div class="qq-action-container">'+' <button class="qq-upload-action" type="submit" id="mediamanager__upload_button">'+LANG.media_upload_btn+'</button>'+' <label class="qq-overwrite-check"><input type="checkbox" value="1" name="ow" class="dw__ow"> <span>'+LANG.media_overwrt+'</span></label>'+'</div>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file hidden"></span>'+' <input class="qq-upload-name-input edit" type="text" value="" />'+' <span class="qq-upload-spinner hidden"></span>'+' <span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+' <a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">'+LANG.media_cancel+'</a>'+' <span class="qq-upload-failed-text error">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',nameInput:'qq-upload-name-input',overwriteInput:'qq-overwrite-check',uploadButton:'qq-upload-action',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail',failedText:'qq-upload-failed-text'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._bindUploadEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,qq.FileUploader.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,{_bindUploadEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_button'),'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;qq.preventDefault(e);self._handler._options.onUpload();jQuery(".qq-upload-name-input").each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',true);});});},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));var nameInput=this._find(item,'nameInput');var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,nameInput.value);qq.removeClass(fileElement,'hidden');qq.remove(nameInput);jQuery('.qq-upload-button, #mediamanager__upload_button').remove();jQuery('.dw__ow').parent().hide();jQuery('.qq-upload-drop-area').remove();if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);$link='<a href="'+result.link+'" id="h_:'+result.id+'" class="select">'+nameInput.value+'</a>';jQuery(fileElement).html($link);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);var fail=this._find(item,'failedText');if(result.error)qq.setText(fail,result.error);}if(document.getElementById('media__content')&&!document.getElementById('mediamanager__done_form')){var action=document.location.href;var i=action.indexOf('?');if(i)action=action.substr(0,i);var button='<form method="post" action="'+action+'" id="mediamanager__done_form"><div>';button+='<input type="hidden" value="'+result.ns+'" name="ns">';button+='<input type="hidden" value="1" name="recent">';button+='<button type="submit">'+LANG.media_done_btn+'</button></div></form>';jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').append(button);}}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._inputs[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{return null;}}},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._inputs){this.upload(key,params);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var nameInput=qq.toElement('<input name="mediaid" value="'+fileName+'" type="text">');form.appendChild(nameInput);var checked=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var owCheckbox=jQuery('.dw__ow').clone();owCheckbox.attr('checked',checked);jQuery(form).append(owCheckbox);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;}else{return null;}}},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];if(file==null)return null;return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);if(name==null||size==null)return;this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;params['ow']=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._files){this.upload(key,params);}}});function substr_replace(str,replace,start,length){var a2,b1;a2=(start<0?str.length:0)+start;if(typeof length==='undefined'){length=str.length-a2;}else if(length<0&&start<0&&length<=start){length=0;}b1=(length<0?str.length:a2)+length;return str.substring(0,a2)+replace+str.substring(b1);}function bind(fnc){var Aps=Array.prototype.slice,static_args=Aps.call(arguments,1);return function(){return fnc.apply(this,static_args.concat(Aps.call(arguments,0)));};}function logError(e,file){if(window.console&&console.error){console.error('The error "%s: %s" occurred in file "%s". '+'If this is in a plugin try updating or disabling the plugin, '+'if this is in a template try updating the template or switching to the "dokuwiki" template.',e.name,e.message,file);if(e.stack){console.error(e.stack);}}}var timer={_cur_id:0,_handlers:{},execDispatch:function(id){timer._handlers[id]();},add:function(func,timeout){var id=++timer._cur_id;timer._handlers[id]=func;return window.setTimeout('timer.execDispatch('+id+')',timeout);}};function Delay(func,timeout){this.func=func;if(timeout){this.timeout=timeout;}}Delay.prototype={func:null,timeout:500,delTimer:function(){if(this.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(this.timer);this.timer=null;}},start:function(){DEPRECATED('don\'t use the Delay object, use window.timeout with a callback instead');this.delTimer();var _this=this;this.timer=timer.add(function(){_this.exec.call(_this);},this.timeout);this._data={_this:arguments[0],_params:Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments,2)};},exec:function(){this.delTimer();this.func.call(this._data._this,this._data._params);}};var DokuCookie={data:{},name:'DOKU_PREFS',setValue:function(key,val){var text=[],_this=this;this.init();if(val===false){delete this.data[key];}else{val=val+"";this.data[key]=val;}jQuery.each(_this.data,function(key,val){if(_this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)){text.push(encodeURIComponent(key)+'#'+encodeURIComponent(val));}});jQuery.cookie(this.name,text.join('#'),{expires:365,path:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.path,secure:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.secure});},getValue:function(key,def){this.init();return this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)?this.data[key]:def;},init:function(){var text,parts,i;if(!jQuery.isEmptyObject(this.data)){return;}text=jQuery.cookie(this.name);if(text){parts=text.split('#');for(i=0;i<parts.length;i+=2){this.data[decodeURIComponent(parts[i])]=decodeURIComponent(parts[i+1]);}}}};if('function'===typeof jQuery&&'function'===typeof jQuery.noConflict){jQuery.noConflict();}var clientPC=navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase();var is_macos=navigator.appVersion.indexOf('Mac')!=-1;var is_gecko=((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('khtml')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));var is_safari=((clientPC.indexOf('applewebkit')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));var is_khtml=(navigator.vendor=='KDE'||(document.childNodes&&!document.all&&!navigator.taintEnabled));if(clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1){var is_opera=true;var is_opera_preseven=(window.opera&&!document.childNodes);var is_opera_seven=(window.opera&&document.childNodes);}function closePopups(){jQuery('div.JSpopup').hide();}jQuery(function(){jQuery(document).on('click',closePopups);});jQuery.fn.dw_qsearch=function(overrides){var dw_qsearch={output:'#qsearch__out',$inObj:this,$outObj:null,timer:null,curRequest:null,init:function(){var do_qsearch;dw_qsearch.$outObj=jQuery(dw_qsearch.output);if(dw_qsearch.$inObj.length===0||dw_qsearch.$outObj.length===0){return;}do_qsearch=function(){if(dw_qsearch.curRequest!=null){dw_qsearch.curRequest.abort();}var value=dw_qsearch.getSearchterm();if(value===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').addClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'qsearch',q:encodeURI(value)},dw_qsearch.onCompletion,'html');};dw_qsearch.$inObj.on('keyup',function(){if(dw_qsearch.timer){window.clearTimeout(dw_qsearch.timer);dw_qsearch.timer=null;}dw_qsearch.timer=window.setTimeout(do_qsearch,500);});dw_qsearch.$outObj.on('click',dw_qsearch.clear_results);},getSearchterm:function(){return dw_qsearch.$inObj.val();},clear_results:function(){dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.$outObj.hide();dw_qsearch.$outObj.text('');},onCompletion:function(data){var max,$links,too_big;dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=null;if(data===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$outObj .html(data).show().css('white-space','nowrap');dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','visible');$links=dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('a');max=dw_qsearch.$outObj[0].clientWidth;if(document.documentElement.dir==='rtl'){max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-left'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetLeft<0;};}else{max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-right'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetWidth+l.offsetLeft>max;};}$links.each(function(){var start,length,replace,nsL,nsR,eli,runaway;if(!too_big(this)){return;}nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');eli=0;runaway=0;while((nsR-nsL>3)&&too_big(this)&&runaway++<500){if(eli!==0){if((eli-nsL)>(nsR-eli)){start=eli-2;length=2;}else{start=eli+1;length=1;}replace='';}else{start=Math.floor(nsL+((nsR-nsL)/2));length=1;replace='…';}this.textContent=substr_replace(this.textContent,replace,start,length);eli=this.textContent.indexOf('…');nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');}});dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','hidden').css('text-overflow','ellipsis');}};jQuery.extend(dw_qsearch,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_qsearch.init();}return dw_qsearch;};jQuery(function(){jQuery('#qsearch__in').dw_qsearch({output:'#qsearch__out'});});jQuery(function(){'use strict';var $searchForm=jQuery('.search-results-form');if(!$searchForm.length){return;}var $toggleAssistanceButton=jQuery('<button>').addClass('toggleAssistant').attr('type','button').attr('aria-expanded','false').text(LANG.search_toggle_tools).prependTo($searchForm.find('fieldset'));$toggleAssistanceButton.on('click',function(){jQuery('.advancedOptions').toggle(0,function(){var $me=jQuery(this);if($me.attr('aria-hidden')){$me.removeAttr('aria-hidden');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','true');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','on');}else{$me.attr('aria-hidden','true');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','false');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','off');}});});if(DokuCookie.getValue('sa')==='on'){$toggleAssistanceButton.trigger('click');}$searchForm.find('.advancedOptions .toggle div.current').on('click',function(){var $me=jQuery(this);$me.parent().siblings().removeClass('open');$me.parent().siblings().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');$me.parent().toggleClass('open');if($me.parent().hasClass('open')){$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','true');}else{$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');}});});jQuery.fn.dw_tree=function(overrides){var dw_tree={throbber_delay:500,$obj:this,toggle_selector:'a.idx_dir',init:function(){this.$obj.on('click',this.toggle_selector,this,this.toggle);jQuery('ul:first',this.$obj).attr('role','tree');jQuery('ul',this.$obj).not(':first').attr('role','group');jQuery('li',this.$obj).attr('role','treeitem');jQuery('li.open > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','true');jQuery('li.closed > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','false');jQuery('li.closed',this.$obj).attr('aria-live','assertive');},toggle:function(e){var $listitem,$sublist,timeout,$clicky,show_sublist,dw_tree,opening;e.preventDefault();dw_tree=e.data;$clicky=jQuery(this);$listitem=$clicky.closest('li');$sublist=$listitem.find('ul').first();opening=$listitem.hasClass('closed');dw_tree.toggle_display($clicky,opening);if($sublist.is(':visible')){$listitem.removeClass('open').addClass('closed');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','false');}else{$listitem.removeClass('closed').addClass('open');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','true');}if(!opening){$sublist.dw_hide();return;}show_sublist=function(data){$sublist.hide();if(typeof data!=='undefined'){$sublist.html(data);$sublist.parent().attr('aria-busy','false').removeAttr('aria-live');jQuery('li.closed',$sublist).attr('aria-live','assertive');}if($listitem.hasClass('open')){$sublist.dw_show();}};if($sublist.length>0){show_sublist();return;}$sublist=jQuery('<ul class="idx" role="group"/>');$listitem.append($sublist);timeout=window.setTimeout(bind(show_sublist,'<li aria-busy="true"><img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="loading..." title="loading..." /></li>'),dw_tree.throbber_delay);dw_tree.load_data(function(data){window.clearTimeout(timeout);show_sublist(data);},$clicky);},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){},load_data:function(show_data,$clicky){show_data();}};jQuery.extend(dw_tree,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_tree.init();}return dw_tree;};var dw_index=jQuery('#index__tree').dw_tree({deferInit:true,load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$clicky[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=index',show_sublist,'html');}});jQuery(function(){var $tree=jQuery('#index__tree');dw_index.$obj=$tree;dw_index.init();});function selection_class(){this.start=0;this.end=0;this.obj=null;this.scroll=0;this.fix=0;this.getLength=function(){return this.end-this.start;};this.getText=function(){return(!this.obj)?'':this.obj.value.substring(this.start,this.end);};}function DWgetSelection(textArea){var sel=new selection_class();textArea.focus();sel.obj=textArea;sel.start=textArea.selectionStart;sel.end=textArea.selectionEnd;sel.scroll=textArea.scrollTop;return sel;}function DWsetSelection(selection){selection.obj.setSelectionRange(selection.start,selection.end);if(selection.scroll)selection.obj.scrollTop=selection.scroll;}function pasteText(selection,text,opts){if(!opts)opts={};selection.obj.value=selection.obj.value.substring(0,selection.start)+text+selection.obj.value.substring(selection.end,selection.obj.value.length);if(is_opera){selection.end=selection.start+text.replace(/\r?\n/g,'\r\n').length;}else{selection.end=selection.start+text.length;}if(opts.startofs)selection.start+=opts.startofs;if(opts.endofs)selection.end-=opts.endofs;if(opts.nosel)selection.start=selection.end;DWsetSelection(selection);}function insertTags(textAreaID,tagOpen,tagClose,sampleText){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);var text=selection.getText();var opts;if(text.charAt(text.length-1)==' '){selection.end--;text=selection.getText();}if(!text){text=sampleText;opts={startofs:tagOpen.length,endofs:tagClose.length};}else{opts={nosel:true};}text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;pasteText(selection,text,opts);}function insertAtCarret(textAreaID,text){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);pasteText(selection,text,{nosel:true});}var pickercounter=0;function initToolbar(tbid,edid,tb,allowblock){var $toolbar,$edit;if(typeof tbid=='string'){$toolbar=jQuery('#'+tbid);}else{$toolbar=jQuery(tbid);}$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($toolbar.length==0||$edit.length==0||$edit.attr('readOnly')){return;}if(typeof allowblock==='undefined'){allowblock=true;}$toolbar.html('');jQuery.each(tb,function(k,val){if(!tb.hasOwnProperty(k)||(!allowblock&&val.block===true)){return;}var actionFunc,$btn;$btn=jQuery(createToolButton(val.icon,val.title,val.key,val.id,val['class']));actionFunc='tb_'+val.type;if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){$btn.on('click',bind(window[actionFunc],$btn,val,edid));$toolbar.append($btn);return;}actionFunc='addBtnAction'+val.type.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+val.type.substring(1);if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){var pickerid=window[actionFunc]($btn,val,edid);if(pickerid!==''){$toolbar.append($btn);$btn.attr('aria-controls',pickerid);if(actionFunc==='addBtnActionPicker'){$btn.attr('aria-haspopup','true');}}return;}alert('unknown toolbar type: '+val.type+' '+actionFunc);});}function tb_format(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title;insertTags(edid,fixtxt(props.open),fixtxt(props.close),fixtxt(sample));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_formatln(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title,opts,selection=DWgetSelection(jQuery('#'+edid)[0]);sample=fixtxt(sample);props.open=fixtxt(props.open);props.close=fixtxt(props.close);if(selection.getLength()){sample=selection.getText();opts={nosel:true};}else{opts={startofs:props.open.length,endofs:props.close.length};}sample=sample.split("\n").join(props.close+"\n"+props.open);sample=props.open+sample+props.close;pasteText(selection,sample,opts);pickerClose();return false;}function tb_insert(btn,props,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,fixtxt(props.insert));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_mediapopup(btn,props,edid){window.open(DOKU_BASE+props.url+encodeURIComponent(NS)+'&edid='+encodeURIComponent(edid),props.name,props.options);return false;}function tb_autohead(btn,props,edid){var lvl=currentHeadlineLevel(edid),tags;lvl+=props.mod;if(lvl<1)lvl=1;if(lvl>5)lvl=5;tags=(new Array(8-lvl)).join('=');insertTags(edid,tags+' ',' '+tags+"\n",props.text);pickerClose();return false;}function addBtnActionPicker($btn,props,edid){var pickerid='picker'+(pickercounter++);var picker=createPicker(pickerid,props,edid);jQuery(picker).attr('aria-hidden','true');$btn.click(function(e){pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn);e.preventDefault();return'';});return pickerid;}function addBtnActionLinkwiz($btn,props,edid){dw_linkwiz.init(jQuery('#'+edid));jQuery($btn).click(function(e){dw_linkwiz.val=props;dw_linkwiz.toggle();e.preventDefault();return'';});return'link__wiz';}function pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn){var $picker=jQuery('#'+pickerid),pos=$btn.offset();if($picker.hasClass('a11y')){$picker.removeClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','false');}else{$picker.addClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','true');}var picker_left=pos.left+3,picker_width=$picker.width(),window_width=jQuery(window).width();if(picker_width>300){$picker.css("max-width","300");picker_width=300;}if((picker_left+picker_width+40)>window_width){picker_left=window_width-picker_width-40;}if(picker_left<0){picker_left=0;}$picker.offset({left:picker_left,top:pos.top+$btn[0].offsetHeight+3});}function pickerClose(){jQuery('.picker').addClass('a11y');}function fixtxt(str){return str.replace(/\\n/g,"\n");}jQuery(function(){initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);jQuery('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');});function createToolButton(icon,label,key,id,classname){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')),$ico=jQuery(document.createElement('img'));$btn.addClass('toolbutton');if(classname){$btn.addClass(classname);}$btn.attr('title',label).attr('aria-controls','wiki__text');if(key){$btn.attr('title',label+' ['+key.toUpperCase()+']').attr('accessKey',key);}if(id){$btn.attr('id',id);$ico.attr('id',id+'_ico');}if(icon.substr(0,1)!=='/'){icon=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/toolbar/'+icon;}$ico.attr('src',icon);$ico.attr('alt','');$ico.attr('width',16);$ico.attr('height',16);$btn.append($ico);return $btn[0];}function createPicker(id,props,edid){var $picker=jQuery(document.createElement('div'));$picker.addClass('picker a11y');if(props['class']){$picker.addClass(props['class']);}$picker.attr('id',id).css('position','absolute');function $makebutton(title){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('pickerbutton').attr('title',title).attr('aria-controls',edid).on('click',bind(pickerInsert,title,edid)).appendTo($picker);return $btn;}jQuery.each(props.list,function(key,item){if(!props.list.hasOwnProperty(key)){return;}if(isNaN(key)){if(item.substr(0,1)!=='/'){item=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+props.icobase+'/'+item;}jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',item).attr('alt','').appendTo($makebutton(key));}else if(typeof item=='string'){$makebutton(item).text(item);}else{initToolbar($picker,edid,props.list);return false;}});jQuery('body').append($picker);return $picker[0];}function pickerInsert(text,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,text);pickerClose();}function addBtnActionSignature($btn,props,edid){if(typeof SIG!='undefined'&&SIG!=''){$btn.on('click',function(e){insertAtCarret(edid,SIG);e.preventDefault();});return edid;}return'';}function currentHeadlineLevel(textboxId){var field=jQuery('#'+textboxId)[0],s=false,opts=[field.value.substr(0,DWgetSelection(field).start)];if(field.form&&field.form.prefix){opts.push(field.form.prefix.value);}jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var str="\n"+opt,lasthl=str.lastIndexOf("\n==");if(lasthl!==-1){s=str.substr(lasthl+1,6);return false;}});if(s===false){return 0;}return 7-s.match(/^={2,6}/)[0].length;}window.textChanged=false;window.doku_edit_text_content='';function deleteDraft(){if(is_opera||window.keepDraft){return;}var $dwform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($dwform.length===0){return;}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:$dwform.find('input[name=id]').val()});}jQuery(function(){var $editform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0){return;}var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){if($edit_text.attr('readOnly')){return;}var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;DWsetSelection(sel);$edit_text.trigger('focus');doku_edit_text_content=$edit_text.val();}var changeHandler=function(){doku_hasTextBeenModified();doku_summaryCheck();};$editform.change(changeHandler);$editform.keydown(changeHandler);window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged){return LANG.notsavedyet;}};window.onunload=deleteDraft;jQuery('#edbtn__save').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;});jQuery('#edbtn__preview').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;});var $summary=jQuery('#edit__summary');$summary.on('change keyup',doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();});function doku_hasTextBeenModified(){if(!textChanged){var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){textChanged=doku_edit_text_content!=$edit_text.val();}else{textChanged=true;}}}function doku_summaryCheck(){var $sum=jQuery('#edit__summary'),missing=$sum.val()==='';$sum.toggleClass('missing',missing).toggleClass('edit',!missing);}var dw_editor={init:function(){var $editor=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($editor.length===0){return;}dw_editor.initSizeCtl('#size__ctl',$editor);if($editor.attr('readOnly')){return;}$editor.keydown(dw_editor.keyHandler);},initSizeCtl:function(ctlarea,editor){var $ctl=jQuery(ctlarea),$textarea=jQuery(editor);if($ctl.length===0||$textarea.length===0){return;}$textarea.css('height',DokuCookie.getValue('sizeCtl')||'300px');var wrp=DokuCookie.getValue('wrapCtl');if(wrp){dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],wrp);}jQuery.each([['larger',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,100);}],['smaller',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,-100);}],['wrap',function(){dw_editor.toggleWrap(editor);}]],function(_,img){jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+img[0]+'.gif').attr('alt','').on('click',img[1]).appendTo($ctl);});},sizeCtl:function(editor,val){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),height=parseInt($textarea.css('height'))+val;$textarea.css('height',height+'px');DokuCookie.setValue('sizeCtl',$textarea.css('height'));},toggleWrap:function(editor){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),wrap=$textarea.attr('wrap');dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],(wrap&&wrap.toLowerCase()=='off')?'soft':'off');DokuCookie.setValue('wrapCtl',$textarea.attr('wrap'));},setWrap:function(textarea,wrapAttrValue){textarea.setAttribute('wrap',wrapAttrValue);var parNod=textarea.parentNode;var nxtSib=textarea.nextSibling;parNod.removeChild(textarea);parNod.insertBefore(textarea,nxtSib);},keyHandler:function(e){if(jQuery.inArray(e.keyCode,[8,10,13,32])===-1){return;}var selection=DWgetSelection(this);if(selection.getLength()>0){return;}var search="\n"+this.value.substr(0,selection.start);var linestart=Math.max(search.lastIndexOf("\n"),search.lastIndexOf("\r"));search=search.substr(linestart);if((e.keyCode==13||e.keyCode==10)&&e.ctrlKey){jQuery('#edbtn__save').trigger('click');e.preventDefault();return false;}else if(e.keyCode==13){var match=search.match(/(\n +([\*-] ?)?)/);if(match){var scroll=this.scrollHeight;var match2=search.match(/^\n +[\*-]\s*$/);if(match2&&this.value.substr(selection.start).match(/^($|\r?\n)/)){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+"\n"+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart+1;selection.end=linestart+1;DWsetSelection(selection);}else{insertAtCarret(this.id,match[1]);}this.scrollTop+=(this.scrollHeight-scroll);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==8){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] ?)$/);if(match){var spaces=match[1].length-1;if(spaces>3){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(linestart+2);selection.start=selection.start-2;selection.end=selection.start;}else{this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart;selection.end=linestart;}DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==32){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] )$/);if(match){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+' '+this.value.substr(linestart);selection.start=selection.start+2;selection.end=selection.start;DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}}};jQuery(dw_editor.init);var dw_locktimer={timeout:0,draft:false,timerID:null,lasttime:null,msg:LANG.willexpire,pageid:'',fieldsToSaveAsDraft:['input[name=prefix]','textarea[name=wikitext]','input[name=suffix]','input[name=date]',],callbacks:[],init:function(timeout,draft,edid){var $edit;edid=edid||'wiki__text';$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($edit.length===0||$edit.attr('readonly')){return;}dw_locktimer.timeout=timeout*1000;dw_locktimer.draft=draft;dw_locktimer.lasttime=new Date();dw_locktimer.pageid=jQuery('#dw__editform').find('input[name=id]').val();if(!dw_locktimer.pageid){return;}$edit.keypress(dw_locktimer.refresh);dw_locktimer.reset();},addField:function(selector){dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.push(selector);},addRefreshCallback:function(callback){dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(callback);},reset:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();dw_locktimer.timerID=window.setTimeout(dw_locktimer.warning,dw_locktimer.timeout);},warning:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();alert(fixtxt(dw_locktimer.msg));},clear:function(){if(dw_locktimer.timerID!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_locktimer.timerID);dw_locktimer.timerID=null;}},refresh:function(){var now=new Date(),params='call=lock&id='+dw_locktimer.pageid+'&';if(now.getTime()-dw_locktimer.lasttime.getTime()<=30*1000){return;}if(dw_locktimer.draft&&jQuery('#dw__editform').find('textarea[name=wikitext]').length>0){params+=jQuery('#dw__editform').find(dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.join(', ')).serialize();}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,null,'json').done(function dwLocktimerRefreshDoneHandler(data){dw_locktimer.callbacks.forEach(function(callback){callback(data);});});dw_locktimer.lasttime=now;},refreshed:function(data){if(data.errors.length){data.errors.forEach(function(error){jQuery('#draft__status').after(jQuery('<div class="error"></div>').text(error));})}jQuery('#draft__status').html(data.draft);if(data.lock!=='1'){return;}dw_locktimer.reset();}};dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(dw_locktimer.refreshed);var dw_linkwiz={$wiz:null,$entry:null,result:null,timer:null,textArea:null,selected:null,selection:null,init:function($editor){var pos=$editor.position();if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz)return;dw_linkwiz.$wiz=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).dialog({autoOpen:false,draggable:true,title:LANG.linkwiz,resizable:false}).html('<div>'+LANG.linkto+' <input type="text" class="edit" id="link__wiz_entry" autocomplete="off" /></div>'+'<div id="link__wiz_result"></div>').parent().attr('id','link__wiz').css({'position':'absolute','top':(pos.top+20)+'px','left':(pos.left+80)+'px'}).hide().appendTo('.dokuwiki:first');dw_linkwiz.textArea=$editor[0];dw_linkwiz.result=jQuery('#link__wiz_result')[0];jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).css('position','relative');dw_linkwiz.$entry=jQuery('#link__wiz_entry');if(JSINFO.namespace){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(JSINFO.namespace+':');}jQuery('#link__wiz .ui-dialog-titlebar-close').on('click',dw_linkwiz.hide);dw_linkwiz.$entry.keyup(dw_linkwiz.onEntry);jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).on('click','a',dw_linkwiz.onResultClick);},onEntry:function(e){if(e.keyCode==37||e.keyCode==39){return true;}if(e.keyCode==27){dw_linkwiz.hide();e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==38){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected-1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==40){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected+1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==13){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected);if($obj.length>0){dw_linkwiz.resultClick($obj.find('a')[0]);}}else if(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val());}e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();},getResult:function(num){DEPRECATED('use dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0] instead');return dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0]||null;},$getResult:function(num){return jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).find('div').eq(num);},select:function(num){if(num<0){dw_linkwiz.deselect();return;}var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(num);if($obj.length===0){return;}dw_linkwiz.deselect();$obj.addClass('selected');var childPos=$obj.position().top;var yDiff=childPos+$obj.outerHeight()-jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).innerHeight();if(childPos<0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=childPos;}else if(yDiff>0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=yDiff;}dw_linkwiz.selected=num;},deselect:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected).removeClass('selected');}dw_linkwiz.selected=-1;},onResultClick:function(e){if(!jQuery(this).is('a')){return;}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();dw_linkwiz.resultClick(this);return false;},resultClick:function(a){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(a.title);if(a.title==''||a.title.substr(a.title.length-1)==':'){dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec();}else{if(jQuery(a.nextSibling).is('span')){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(a.nextSibling.innerHTML);}else{dw_linkwiz.insertLink('');}}},insertLink:function(title){var link=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(),sel,stxt;if(!link){return;}sel=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);if(sel.start==0&&sel.end==0){sel=dw_linkwiz.selection;}stxt=sel.getText();if(stxt.charAt(stxt.length-1)==' '){sel.end--;stxt=sel.getText();}if(!stxt&&!DOKU_UHC){stxt=title;}if(dw_linkwiz.textArea.form.id.value.indexOf(':')!=-1&&link.indexOf(':')==-1){link=':'+link;}var so=link.length;var eo=0;if(dw_linkwiz.val){if(dw_linkwiz.val.open){so+=dw_linkwiz.val.open.length;link=dw_linkwiz.val.open+link;}link+='|';so+=1;if(stxt){link+=stxt;}if(dw_linkwiz.val.close){link+=dw_linkwiz.val.close;eo=dw_linkwiz.val.close.length;}}pasteText(sel,link,{startofs:so,endofs:eo});dw_linkwiz.hide();var externallinkpattern=new RegExp('^((f|ht)tps?:)?//','i'),entry_value;if(externallinkpattern.test(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val())){if(JSINFO.namespace){entry_value=JSINFO.namespace+':';}else{entry_value='';}}else{entry_value=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val().replace(/[^:]*$/,'')}dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(entry_value);},autocomplete:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_linkwiz.timer);dw_linkwiz.timer=null;}dw_linkwiz.timer=window.setTimeout(dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec,350);},autocomplete_exec:function(){var $res=jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result);dw_linkwiz.deselect();$res.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="" width="16" height="16" />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'linkwiz',q:dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()});},show:function(){dw_linkwiz.selection=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);dw_linkwiz.$wiz.show();dw_linkwiz.$entry.focus();dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();var temp=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val();dw_linkwiz.$entry.val('');dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(temp);},hide:function(){dw_linkwiz.$wiz.hide();dw_linkwiz.textArea.focus();},toggle:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz.css('display')=='none'){dw_linkwiz.show();}else{dw_linkwiz.hide();}}};var dw_mediamanager={keepopen:false,hide:false,popup:false,display:false,ext:false,$popup:null,align:false,link:false,size:false,forbidden_opts:{},view_opts:{list:false,sort:false},layout_width:0,minHeights:{thumbs:200,rows:100},init:function(){var $content,$tree;$content=jQuery('#media__content');$tree=jQuery('#media__tree');if(!$tree.length)return;dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.attachoptions();dw_mediamanager.initpopup();$content .on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','a.select',dw_mediamanager.select).on('click','#media__content a.btn_media_delete',dw_mediamanager.confirmattach).on('submit','#mediamanager__done_form',dw_mediamanager.list);$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $link=$clicky.parent().find('div.li a.idx_dir');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$link[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=medians',show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.on('click','a',dw_mediamanager.list);dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();dw_mediamanager.init_options();dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');$page.find('div.filelist').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.list).on('click','div.panelContent a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#dw__mediasearch',dw_mediamanager.list).on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','.qq-upload-file a',dw_mediamanager.details);$page.find('div.file').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_update',dw_mediamanager.list).on('submit','#page__revisions',dw_mediamanager.details).on('click','#page__revisions a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__save_meta',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_delete',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_restore',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','.btn_newer, .btn_older',dw_mediamanager.details);dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_mediamanager.layout_width=$page.width();jQuery(window).on('resize',dw_mediamanager.window_resize);},init_options:function(){var $options=jQuery('div.filelist div.panelHeader form.options'),$listType,$sortBy,$both;if($options.length===0){return;}$listType=$options.find('li.listType');$sortBy=$options.find('li.sortBy');$both=$listType.add($sortBy);$options.find('button[type=submit]').parent().hide();$both.find('label').each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.children('input').appendTo($this.parent());});$both.find("input[type='radio']").checkboxradio({icon:false});$both.controlgroup();$listType.children('input').change(function(){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();});$sortBy.children('input').change(function(event){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_sort();dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#dw__mediasearch')[0]||this,event);});},initpopup:function(){var opts,$insp,$insbtn;dw_mediamanager.$popup=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id','media__popup_content').dialog({autoOpen:false,width:280,modal:true,draggable:true,title:LANG.mediatitle,resizable:false});opts=[{id:'link',label:LANG.mediatarget,btns:['lnk','direct','nolnk','displaylnk']},{id:'align',label:LANG.mediaalign,btns:['noalign','left','center','right']},{id:'size',label:LANG.mediasize,btns:['small','medium','large','original']}];jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $p,$l;$p=jQuery(document.createElement('p')).attr('id','media__'+opt.id);if(dw_mediamanager.display==="2"){$p.hide();}$l=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).text(opt.label);$p.append($l);jQuery.each(opt.btns,function(i,text){var $btn,$img;$btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('button').attr('id',"media__"+opt.id+"btn"+(i+1)).attr('title',LANG['media'+text]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.setOpt,opt.id));$img=jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/media_'+opt.id+'_'+text+'.png');$btn.append($img);$p.append($btn);});dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($p);});$insp=jQuery(document.createElement('p'));dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($insp);$insbtn=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('id','media__sendbtn').attr('type','button').addClass('button').val(LANG.mediainsert);$insp.append($insbtn);},insert:function(id){var opts,cb,edid,s;dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('close');opts='';if({img:1,swf:1}[dw_mediamanager.ext]===1){if(dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){opts='?linkonly';}else{if(dw_mediamanager.link==="3"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?nolink';}else if(dw_mediamanager.link==="2"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?direct';}s=parseInt(dw_mediamanager.size,10);var size=s*200;if(s&&s>=1&&s<4){opts+=(opts.length)?'&':'?';opts+=size;if(dw_mediamanager.ext==='swf'){switch(s){case 1:opts+='x62';break;case 2:opts+='x123';break;case 3:opts+='x185';break;}}}}}edid=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&edid=([^&]+)/);edid=edid?edid[1]:'wiki__text';cb=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&onselect=([^&]+)/);cb=cb?cb[1].replace(/[^\w]+/,''):'dw_mediamanager_item_select';opener[cb](edid,id,opts,dw_mediamanager.align,dw_mediamanager.keepopen);if(!dw_mediamanager.keepopen){window.close();}opener.focus();return false;},suggest:function(){var $file,$name,text;$file=jQuery(this);$name=jQuery('#upload__name');if($name.val()!='')return;if(!$file.length||!$name.length){return;}text=$file.val();text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('/')+1);text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('\\')+1);$name.val(text);},list:function(event){var $link,$content,params;if(event){event.preventDefault();}jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();$link=jQuery(this);$content=jQuery('#media__content');if($content.length===0){$content=jQuery('div.filelist');if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){jQuery('div.file').empty();jQuery('div.namespaces .selected').removeClass('selected');$link.addClass('selected');}}params='call=medialist&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params);},form_params:function($form){if(!$form.length)return;var action='';var i=$form[0].action.indexOf('?');if(i>=0){action=$form[0].action.substr(i+1);}return action+'&'+$form.serialize();},set_fileview_list:function(new_type){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['list','listType',function(new_type){jQuery('div.filelist div.panelContent ul').toggleClass('rows',new_type==='rows').toggleClass('thumbs',new_type==='thumbs');}],new_type);dw_mediamanager.resize();},set_fileview_sort:function(new_sort){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['sort','sortBy',function(new_sort){}],new_sort);},set_fileview_opt:function(opt,new_val){if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val=jQuery('form.options li.'+opt[1]+' input').filter(':checked').val();if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val='thumbs';}}if(new_val!==dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]){opt[2](new_val);DokuCookie.setValue(opt[0],new_val);dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]=new_val;}},details:function(event){var $link,$content,params,update_list;$link=jQuery(this);event.preventDefault();jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'&&!confirm(LANG.del_confirm)){return false;}if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore'&&!confirm(LANG.restore_confirm)){return false;}$content=jQuery('div.file');params='call=mediadetails&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}update_list=($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'||$link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore');dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params,update_list);},update_content:function($content,params,update_list){var $container;jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){dw_mediamanager.$resizables().resizable('destroy');if(update_list){dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('form.options button[type="submit"]')[0]);}$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.updatehide();dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list(dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list);dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();dw_mediamanager.init_options();},'html');$container=$content.find('div.panelContent');if($container.length===0){$container=$content;}$container.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." class="load" />');},window_resize:function(){dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();},$resizables:function(){return jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.namespaces, div.filelist');},update_resizable:function(){var $resizables=dw_mediamanager.$resizables();$resizables.resizable({handles:(jQuery('html[dir=rtl]').length?'w':'e'),resize:function(event,ui){var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');var widthFull=$page.width();var widthResizables=0;$resizables.each(function(){widthResizables+=jQuery(this).width();});var $filePanel=$page.find('div.panel.file');var widthOtherResizable=widthResizables-jQuery(this).width();var minWidthNonResizable=parseFloat($filePanel.css("min-width"));var maxWidth=widthFull-(widthOtherResizable+minWidthNonResizable)-1;$resizables.resizable("option","maxWidth",maxWidth);var relWidthNonResizable=99.9-(100*widthResizables/widthFull);$filePanel.width(relWidthNonResizable+'%');dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();}});dw_mediamanager.resize();},resize:function(){var $contents=jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.panelContent'),height=jQuery(window).height()-jQuery(document.body).height()+Math.max.apply(null,jQuery.map($contents,function(v){return jQuery(v).height();}));if(height<dw_mediamanager.minHeights[dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list]){$contents.add(dw_mediamanager.$resizables()).height('auto');}else{$contents.height(height);dw_mediamanager.$resizables().each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.height(height+$this.find('div.panelContent').offset().top-$this.offset().top);});}},image_diff:function(){if(jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype').length)return;var $form=jQuery('#mediamanager__form_diffview');if(!$form.length)return;var $label=jQuery(document.createElement('label'));$label.append('<span>'+LANG.media_diff+'</span> ');var $select=jQuery(document.createElement('select')).attr('id','mediamanager__difftype').attr('name','difftype').change(dw_mediamanager.change_diff_type);$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_both,"both"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_opacity,"opacity"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_portions,"portions"));$label.append($select);$form.append($label);var 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img');if(!$image.length)return;$slider.width($image.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",0.999);$slider.slider("option","step",0.001);$slider.slider("option","value",0.5);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image2 img').css({opacity:$slider.slider("option","value")});});},portions_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");if(!$diff.length)return;var $image1=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image1 img');var $image2=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2 img');if(!$image1.length||!$image2.length)return;$diff.width('100%');$image2.parent().width('97%');$image1.width('100%');$image2.width('100%');if($image1.width()<$diff.width()){$diff.width($image1.width());}$image2.parent().width('50%');$image2.width($image1.width());$image1.width($image1.width());var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;$slider.width($image1.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",97);$slider.slider("option","step",1);$slider.slider("option","value",50);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2').css({width:$slider.slider("option","value")+'%'});});},params_toarray:function(str){var vars=[],hash;var hashes=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<hashes.length;i++){hash=hashes[i].split('=');vars[decodeURIComponent(hash[0])]=decodeURIComponent(hash[1]);}return vars;},init_ajax_uploader:function(){if(!jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').length)return;if(jQuery('.qq-upload-list').length)return;var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params(jQuery('#dw__upload'))+'&call=mediaupload';params=dw_mediamanager.params_toarray(params);var uploader=new qq.FileUploaderExtended({element:document.getElementById('mediamanager__uploader'),action:DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params:params});},prepare_content:function($content){$content.find('div.example:visible').hide();$content.find('a.allowedmime').on('click',function(event){event.preventDefault();$toggle=jQuery(this);$list=$toggle.next('span');$list.toggle();}).next('span').hide();},select:function(event){var $link,id,dot,ext;event.preventDefault();$link=jQuery(this);id=$link.attr('id').substr(2);if(!opener){jQuery(document.getElementById('ex_'+id.replace(/:/g,'_').replace(/^_/,''))).dw_toggle();return;}dw_mediamanager.ext=false;dot=id.lastIndexOf(".");if(-1===dot){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}ext=id.substr(dot);if({'.jpg':1,'.jpeg':1,'.png':1,'.gif':1,'.swf':1}[ext]!==1){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}var $sendbtn=jQuery('#media__sendbtn');$sendbtn.off().on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.insert,id));dw_mediamanager.unforbid('ext');if(ext==='.swf'){dw_mediamanager.ext='swf';dw_mediamanager.forbid('ext',{link:['1','2'],size:['4']});}else{dw_mediamanager.ext='img';}dw_mediamanager.setOpt('link');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');jQuery('#media__linkbtn1, #media__linkbtn2, #media__sizebtn4').toggle(dw_mediamanager.ext==='img');dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('open');$sendbtn.focus();},confirmattach:function(e){if(!confirm(LANG.del_confirm+"\n"+jQuery(this).attr('title'))){e.preventDefault();}},attachoptions:function(){var $obj,opts;$obj=jQuery('#media__opts');if($obj.length===0){return;}opts=[];if(opener){opts.push(['keepopen','keepopen']);}opts.push(['hide','hidedetails']);jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $box,$lbl;$box=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('type','checkbox').attr('id','media__'+opt[0]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.toggleOption,opt[0]));if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt[0])){$box.prop('checked',true);dw_mediamanager[opt[0]]=true;}$lbl=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).attr('for','media__'+opt[0]).text(LANG[opt[1]]);$obj.append($box,$lbl,document.createElement('br'));});dw_mediamanager.updatehide();},toggleOption:function(variable){if(jQuery(this).prop('checked')){DokuCookie.setValue(variable,1);dw_mediamanager[variable]=true;}else{DokuCookie.setValue(variable,'');dw_mediamanager[variable]=false;}if(variable==='hide'){dw_mediamanager.updatehide();}},updatehide:function(){jQuery('#media__content').find('div.detail').dw_toggle(!dw_mediamanager.hide);},setOpt:function(opt,e){var val,i;if(typeof e!=='undefined'){val=this.id.substring(this.id.length-1);}else{val=dw_mediamanager.getOpt(opt);}if(val===false){DokuCookie.setValue(opt,'');dw_mediamanager[opt]=false;return;}if(opt==='link'){if(val!=='4'&&dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){dw_mediamanager.unforbid('linkonly');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');}else if(val==='4'){dw_mediamanager.forbid('linkonly',{align:false,size:false});}jQuery("#media__size, #media__align").dw_toggle(val!=='4');}DokuCookie.setValue(opt,val);dw_mediamanager[opt]=val;for(i=1;i<=4;i++){jQuery("#media__"+opt+"btn"+i).removeClass('selected');}jQuery('#media__'+opt+'btn'+val).addClass('selected');},unforbid:function(group){delete dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group];},forbid:function(group,forbids){dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group]=forbids;},allowedOpt:function(opt,val){var ret=true;jQuery.each(dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts,function(_,forbids){ret=forbids[opt]!==false&&jQuery.inArray(val,forbids[opt])===-1;return ret;});return ret;},getOpt:function(opt){var allowed=bind(dw_mediamanager.allowedOpt,opt);if(dw_mediamanager[opt]!==false&&allowed(dw_mediamanager[opt])){return dw_mediamanager[opt];}if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt)&&allowed(DokuCookie.getValue(opt))){return DokuCookie.getValue(opt);}if(opt==='size'&&allowed('2')){return'2';}return jQuery.grep(['1','2','3','4'],allowed)[0]||false;}};function dw_mediamanager_item_select(edid,mediaid,opts,align,keepopen){var alignleft='';var alignright='';var cursorInImageTag=false;var textArea=jQuery('#'+edid)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(textArea);selection.end=selection.end+2;var charsAfterCursor=selection.getText();if(charsAfterCursor==='}}'){cursorInImageTag=true;}if(align!=='1'){alignleft=align==='2'?'':' ';alignright=align==='4'?'':' ';}if(keepopen&&cursorInImageTag){selection.start=selection.start+2;DWsetSelection(selection);}insertTags(edid,'{{'+alignleft+mediaid+opts+alignright+'|','}}','');}jQuery(dw_mediamanager.init);function DEPRECATED(msg){if(!window.console)return;if(!msg)msg='';var func;if(arguments.callee)func=arguments.callee.caller.name;if(func)func=' '+func+'()';var line='DEPRECATED function call'+func+'. 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center',of:target}).hide();return $fndiv;},footnoteDisplay:function(){var $content=jQuery(jQuery(this).attr('href')).parent().siblings('.content').clone();if(!$content.length){return;}jQuery('[id]',$content).each(function(){var id=jQuery(this).attr('id');jQuery(this).attr('id','insitu__'+id);});var content=$content.html().trim();dw_page.insituPopup(this,'insitu__fn').html(content).show().attr('aria-hidden','false');},makeToggle:function(handle,content,state){var $handle,$content,$clicky,$child,setClicky;$handle=jQuery(handle);if(!$handle.length)return;$content=jQuery(content);if(!$content.length)return;$child=$content.children();setClicky=function(hiding){if(hiding){$clicky.html('<span>+</span>');$handle.addClass('closed');$handle.removeClass('open');}else{$clicky.html('<span>−</span>');$handle.addClass('open');$handle.removeClass('closed');}};$handle[0].setState=function(state){var hidden;if(!state)state=1;$content.css('min-height',$content.height()).show();$child.stop(true,true);if(state===-1){hidden=false;}else if(state===1){hidden=true;}else{hidden=$child.is(':hidden');}setClicky(!hidden);$child.dw_toggle(hidden,function(){$content.toggle(hidden);$content.attr('aria-expanded',hidden);$content.css('min-height','');},true);};$clicky=jQuery(document.createElement('strong'));$handle.css('cursor','pointer').on('click',$handle[0].setState).prepend($clicky);$handle[0].setState(state);}};jQuery(dw_page.init);(function($){var fadeOption={duration:150};function toggleLeft(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').show();}function toggleRight(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__tools').show();}function preventParentWheel(e){var curScrollPos=$(this).scrollTop();var scrollableDist=$(this).prop('scrollHeight')-$(this).outerHeight();var wheelEvent=e.originalEvent;var dY=wheelEvent.deltaY;if(dY<0&&curScrollPos<=0){return false;}if(dY>0&&curScrollPos>=scrollableDist){return false;}}function showSearch(){$('div.search').toggle();$('div.search').find('input.edit').select();}function bindEvents(){$('.sidebar').on('wheel scroll',preventParentWheel);$('.btn_left').click(function(){toggleLeft();});$('.btn_right').click(function(){toggleRight();});$('#sidebar_bg').click(function(){$(this).hide('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').hide();$('#dokuwiki__tools').hide();});$('.btn_search').click(function(){showSearch();});$(document).keydown(function(e){if(e.which==70&&e.altKey){showSearch();e.preventDefault();}});}function initUI(){if($('.page h2').length>0){$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertBefore($('.page h2:first'));}else{$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first').next('.level1'));}if($('.page > .level1 > blockquote').length>0){$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page > .level1 > blockquote'));}else{$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first'));}$(window).on("hashchange",function(){window.scrollTo(window.scrollX,window.scrollY-48);});}$(function(){initUI();bindEvents();});})(jQuery);var dw_acl={init:function(){var $tree;if(jQuery('#acl_manager').length===0){return;}jQuery('#acl__user select').on('change',dw_acl.userselhandler);jQuery('#acl__user button').on('click',dw_acl.loadinfo);$tree=jQuery('#acl__tree');$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery.extend(dw_acl.parseatt($clicky.parent().find('a')[0].search),{call:'plugin_acl',ajax:'tree',current_ns:$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(),current_id:$frm.find('input[name=id]').val()}),show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.delegate('a','click',dw_acl.treehandler);},userselhandler:function(){jQuery('#acl__user input').toggle(this.value==='__g__'||this.value==='__u__');dw_acl.loadinfo();},loadinfo:function(){jQuery('#acl__info').attr('role','alert').html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery('#acl__detail form').serialize()+'&call=plugin_acl&ajax=info');return false;},parseatt:function(str){if(str[0]==='?'){str=str.substr(1);}var attributes={};var all=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<all.length;i++){var att=all[i].split('=');attributes[att[0]]=decodeURIComponent(att[1]);}return attributes;},treehandler:function(){var $link,$frm;$link=jQuery(this);jQuery('#acl__tree a.cur').removeClass('cur');$link.addClass('cur');$frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');if($link.hasClass('wikilink1')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val('');$frm.find('input[name=id]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).id);}else if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).ns);$frm.find('input[name=id]').val('');}dw_acl.loadinfo();return false;}};jQuery(dw_acl.init);(function(){var $,AbstractChosen,Chosen,SelectParser,_ref,__hasProp={}.hasOwnProperty,__extends=function(child,parent){for(var key in parent){if(__hasProp.call(parent,key))child[key]=parent[key];}function ctor(){this.constructor=child;}ctor.prototype=parent.prototype;child.prototype=new ctor();child.__super__=parent.prototype;return child;};SelectParser=(function(){function SelectParser(){this.options_index=0;this.parsed=[];}SelectParser.prototype.add_node=function(child){if(child.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTGROUP"){return this.add_group(child);}else{return this.add_option(child);}};SelectParser.prototype.add_group=function(group){var group_position,option,_i,_len,_ref,_results;group_position=this.parsed.length;this.parsed.push({array_index:group_position,group:true,label:this.escapeExpression(group.label),title:group.title?group.title:void 0,children:0,disabled:group.disabled,classes:group.className});_ref=group.childNodes;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];_results.push(this.add_option(option,group_position,group.disabled));}return _results;};SelectParser.prototype.add_option=function(option,group_position,group_disabled){if(option.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTION"){if(option.text!==""){if(group_position!=null){this.parsed[group_position].children+=1;}this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,value:option.value,text:option.text,html:option.innerHTML,title:option.title?option.title:void 0,selected:option.selected,disabled:group_disabled===true?group_disabled:option.disabled,group_array_index:group_position,group_label:group_position!=null?this.parsed[group_position].label:null,classes:option.className,style:option.style.cssText});}else{this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,empty:true});}return this.options_index+=1;}};SelectParser.prototype.escapeExpression=function(text){var map,unsafe_chars;if((text==null)||text===false){return"";}if(!/[\&\<\>\"\'\`]/.test(text)){return text;}map={"<":"<",">":">",'"':""","'":"'","`":"`"};unsafe_chars=/&(?!\w+;)|[\<\>\"\'\`]/g;return text.replace(unsafe_chars,function(chr){return map[chr]||"&";});};return SelectParser;})();SelectParser.select_to_array=function(select){var child,parser,_i,_len,_ref;parser=new SelectParser();_ref=select.childNodes;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){child=_ref[_i];parser.add_node(child);}return parser.parsed;};AbstractChosen=(function(){function AbstractChosen(form_field,options){this.form_field=form_field;this.options=options!=null?options:{};if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return;}this.is_multiple=this.form_field.multiple;this.set_default_text();this.set_default_values();this.setup();this.set_up_html();this.register_observers();this.on_ready();}AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_values=function(){var _this=this;this.click_test_action=function(evt){return _this.test_active_click(evt);};this.activate_action=function(evt){return _this.activate_field(evt);};this.active_field=false;this.mouse_on_container=false;this.results_showing=false;this.result_highlighted=null;this.allow_single_deselect=(this.options.allow_single_deselect!=null)&&(this.form_field.options[0]!=null)&&this.form_field.options[0].text===""?this.options.allow_single_deselect:false;this.disable_search_threshold=this.options.disable_search_threshold||0;this.disable_search=this.options.disable_search||false;this.enable_split_word_search=this.options.enable_split_word_search!=null?this.options.enable_split_word_search:true;this.group_search=this.options.group_search!=null?this.options.group_search:true;this.search_contains=this.options.search_contains||false;this.single_backstroke_delete=this.options.single_backstroke_delete!=null?this.options.single_backstroke_delete:true;this.max_selected_options=this.options.max_selected_options||Infinity;this.inherit_select_classes=this.options.inherit_select_classes||false;this.display_selected_options=this.options.display_selected_options!=null?this.options.display_selected_options:true;this.display_disabled_options=this.options.display_disabled_options!=null?this.options.display_disabled_options:true;return this.include_group_label_in_selected=this.options.include_group_label_in_selected||false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_text=function(){if(this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder")){this.default_text=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder");}else if(this.is_multiple){this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_multiple||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text;}else{this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_single||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_single_text;}return this.results_none_found=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-no_results_text")||this.options.no_results_text||AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choice_label=function(item){if(this.include_group_label_in_selected&&(item.group_label!=null)){return"<b class='group-name'>"+item.group_label+"</b>"+item.html;}else{return item.html;}};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_enter=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_leave=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_focus=function(evt){var _this=this;if(this.is_multiple){if(!this.active_field){return setTimeout((function(){return _this.container_mousedown();}),50);}}else{if(!this.active_field){return this.activate_field();}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_blur=function(evt){var _this=this;if(!this.mouse_on_container){this.active_field=false;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.blur_test();}),100);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_option_build=function(options){var content,data,_i,_len,_ref;content='';_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){data=_ref[_i];if(data.group){content+=this.result_add_group(data);}else{content+=this.result_add_option(data);}if(options!=null?options.first:void 0){if(data.selected&&this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(data);}else if(data.selected&&!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(data));}}}return content;};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_option=function(option){var classes,option_el;if(!option.search_match){return'';}if(!this.include_option_in_results(option)){return'';}classes=[];if(!option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("active-result");}if(option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("disabled-result");}if(option.selected){classes.push("result-selected");}if(option.group_array_index!=null){classes.push("group-option");}if(option.classes!==""){classes.push(option.classes);}option_el=document.createElement("li");option_el.className=classes.join(" ");option_el.style.cssText=option.style;option_el.setAttribute("data-option-array-index",option.array_index);option_el.innerHTML=option.search_text;if(option.title){option_el.title=option.title;}return this.outerHTML(option_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_group=function(group){var classes,group_el;if(!(group.search_match||group.group_match)){return'';}if(!(group.active_options>0)){return'';}classes=[];classes.push("group-result");if(group.classes){classes.push(group.classes);}group_el=document.createElement("li");group_el.className=classes.join(" ");group_el.innerHTML=group.search_text;if(group.title){group_el.title=group.title;}return this.outerHTML(group_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_update_field=function(){this.set_default_text();if(!this.is_multiple){this.results_reset_cleanup();}this.result_clear_highlight();this.results_build();if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.reset_single_select_options=function(){var result,_i,_len,_ref,_results;_ref=this.results_data;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){result=_ref[_i];if(result.selected){_results.push(result.selected=false);}else{_results.push(void 0);}}return _results;};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_toggle=function(){if(this.results_showing){return this.results_hide();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_search=function(evt){if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.winnow_results=function(){var escapedSearchText,option,regex,results,results_group,searchText,startpos,text,zregex,_i,_len,_ref;this.no_results_clear();results=0;searchText=this.get_search_text();escapedSearchText=searchText.replace(/[-[\]{}()*+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&");zregex=new RegExp(escapedSearchText,'i');regex=this.get_search_regex(escapedSearchText);_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];option.search_match=false;results_group=null;if(this.include_option_in_results(option)){if(option.group){option.group_match=false;option.active_options=0;}if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index]){results_group=this.results_data[option.group_array_index];if(results_group.active_options===0&&results_group.search_match){results+=1;}results_group.active_options+=1;}option.search_text=option.group?option.label:option.html;if(!(option.group&&!this.group_search)){option.search_match=this.search_string_match(option.search_text,regex);if(option.search_match&&!option.group){results+=1;}if(option.search_match){if(searchText.length){startpos=option.search_text.search(zregex);text=option.search_text.substr(0,startpos+searchText.length)+'</em>'+option.search_text.substr(startpos+searchText.length);option.search_text=text.substr(0,startpos)+'<em>'+text.substr(startpos);}if(results_group!=null){results_group.group_match=true;}}else if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index].search_match){option.search_match=true;}}}}this.result_clear_highlight();if(results<1&&searchText.length){this.update_results_content("");return this.no_results(searchText);}else{this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build());return this.winnow_results_set_highlight();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.get_search_regex=function(escaped_search_string){var regex_anchor;regex_anchor=this.search_contains?"":"^";return new RegExp(regex_anchor+escaped_search_string,'i');};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_string_match=function(search_string,regex){var part,parts,_i,_len;if(regex.test(search_string)){return true;}else if(this.enable_split_word_search&&(search_string.indexOf(" ")>=0||search_string.indexOf("[")===0)){parts=search_string.replace(/\[|\]/g,"").split(" ");if(parts.length){for(_i=0,_len=parts.length;_i<_len;_i++){part=parts[_i];if(regex.test(part)){return true;}}}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_count=function(){var option,_i,_len,_ref;if(this.selected_option_count!=null){return this.selected_option_count;}this.selected_option_count=0;_ref=this.form_field.options;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];if(option.selected){this.selected_option_count+=1;}}return this.selected_option_count;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();if(!(this.results_showing||this.is_disabled)){return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.keyup_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref;stroke=(_ref=evt.which)!=null?_ref:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();switch(stroke){case 8:if(this.is_multiple&&this.backstroke_length<1&&this.choices_count()>0){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else if(!this.pending_backstroke){this.result_clear_highlight();return this.results_search();}break;case 13:evt.preventDefault();if(this.results_showing){return this.result_select(evt);}break;case 27:if(this.results_showing){this.results_hide();}return true;case 9:case 38:case 40:case 16:case 91:case 17:break;default:return this.results_search();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.clipboard_event_checker=function(evt){var _this=this;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.results_search();}),50);};AbstractChosen.prototype.container_width=function(){if(this.options.width!=null){return this.options.width;}else{return""+this.form_field.offsetWidth+"px";}};AbstractChosen.prototype.include_option_in_results=function(option){if(this.is_multiple&&(!this.display_selected_options&&option.selected)){return false;}if(!this.display_disabled_options&&option.disabled){return false;}if(option.empty){return false;}return true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchstart=function(evt){this.touch_started=true;return this.search_results_mouseover(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchmove=function(evt){this.touch_started=false;return this.search_results_mouseout(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchend=function(evt){if(this.touch_started){return this.search_results_mouseup(evt);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.outerHTML=function(element){var tmp;if(element.outerHTML){return element.outerHTML;}tmp=document.createElement("div");tmp.appendChild(element);return tmp.innerHTML;};AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported=function(){if(window.navigator.appName==="Microsoft Internet Explorer"){return document.documentMode>=8;}if(/iP(od|hone)/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}if(/Android/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){if(/Mobile/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}}return true;};AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text="Select Some Options";AbstractChosen.default_single_text="Select an Option";AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text="No results match";return AbstractChosen;})();$=jQuery;$.fn.extend({chosen:function(options){if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return this;}return this.each(function(input_field){var $this,chosen;$this=$(this);chosen=$this.data('chosen');if(options==='destroy'&&chosen instanceof Chosen){chosen.destroy();}else if(!(chosen instanceof Chosen)){$this.data('chosen',new Chosen(this,options));}});}});Chosen=(function(_super){__extends(Chosen,_super);function Chosen(){_ref=Chosen.__super__.constructor.apply(this,arguments);return _ref;}Chosen.prototype.setup=function(){this.form_field_jq=$(this.form_field);this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.is_rtl=this.form_field_jq.hasClass("chosen-rtl");};Chosen.prototype.set_up_html=function(){var container_classes,container_props;container_classes=["chosen-container"];container_classes.push("chosen-container-"+(this.is_multiple?"multi":"single"));if(this.inherit_select_classes&&this.form_field.className){container_classes.push(this.form_field.className);}if(this.is_rtl){container_classes.push("chosen-rtl");}container_props={'class':container_classes.join(' '),'style':"width: "+(this.container_width())+";",'title':this.form_field.title};if(this.form_field.id.length){container_props.id=this.form_field.id.replace(/[^\w]/g,'_')+"_chosen";}this.container=$("<div />",container_props);if(this.is_multiple){this.container.html('<ul class="chosen-choices"><li class="search-field"><input type="text" value="'+this.default_text+'" class="default" autocomplete="off" style="width:25px;" /></li></ul><div class="chosen-drop"><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}else{this.container.html('<a class="chosen-single chosen-default" tabindex="-1"><span>'+this.default_text+'</span><div><b></b></div></a><div class="chosen-drop"><div class="chosen-search"><input type="text" autocomplete="off" /></div><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}this.form_field_jq.hide().after(this.container);this.dropdown=this.container.find('div.chosen-drop').first();this.search_field=this.container.find('input').first();this.search_results=this.container.find('ul.chosen-results').first();this.search_field_scale();this.search_no_results=this.container.find('li.no-results').first();if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices=this.container.find('ul.chosen-choices').first();this.search_container=this.container.find('li.search-field').first();}else{this.search_container=this.container.find('div.chosen-search').first();this.selected_item=this.container.find('.chosen-single').first();}this.results_build();this.set_tab_index();return this.set_label_behavior();};Chosen.prototype.on_ready=function(){return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:ready",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.register_observers=function(){var _this=this;this.container.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('mousedown.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseenter.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_enter(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseleave.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_leave(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseup(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseover.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseover(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseout.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseout(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mousewheel.chosen DOMMouseScroll.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mousewheel(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchstart(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchmove.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchmove(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchend(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:updated.chosen",function(evt){_this.results_update_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:activate.chosen",function(evt){_this.activate_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:open.chosen",function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:close.chosen",function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('blur.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keyup.chosen',function(evt){_this.keyup_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keydown.chosen',function(evt){_this.keydown_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('focus.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_focus(evt);});this.search_field.bind('cut.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('paste.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});if(this.is_multiple){return this.search_choices.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){_this.choices_click(evt);});}else{return this.container.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){evt.preventDefault();});}};Chosen.prototype.destroy=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);if(this.search_field[0].tabIndex){this.form_field_jq[0].tabIndex=this.search_field[0].tabIndex;}this.container.remove();this.form_field_jq.removeData('chosen');return this.form_field_jq.show();};Chosen.prototype.search_field_disabled=function(){this.is_disabled=this.form_field_jq[0].disabled;if(this.is_disabled){this.container.addClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=true;if(!this.is_multiple){this.selected_item.unbind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}return this.close_field();}else{this.container.removeClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=false;if(!this.is_multiple){return this.selected_item.bind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mousedown=function(evt){if(!this.is_disabled){if(evt&&evt.type==="mousedown"&&!this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}if(!((evt!=null)&&($(evt.target)).hasClass("search-choice-close"))){if(!this.active_field){if(this.is_multiple){this.search_field.val("");}$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).bind('click.chosen',this.click_test_action);this.results_show();}else if(!this.is_multiple&&evt&&(($(evt.target)[0]===this.selected_item[0])||$(evt.target).parents("a.chosen-single").length)){evt.preventDefault();this.results_toggle();}return this.activate_field();}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mouseup=function(evt){if(evt.target.nodeName==="ABBR"&&!this.is_disabled){return this.results_reset(evt);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mousewheel=function(evt){var delta;if(evt.originalEvent){delta=evt.originalEvent.deltaY||-evt.originalEvent.wheelDelta||evt.originalEvent.detail;}if(delta!=null){evt.preventDefault();if(evt.type==='DOMMouseScroll'){delta=delta*40;}return this.search_results.scrollTop(delta+this.search_results.scrollTop());}};Chosen.prototype.blur_test=function(evt){if(!this.active_field&&this.container.hasClass("chosen-container-active")){return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.close_field=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);this.active_field=false;this.results_hide();this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-active");this.clear_backstroke();this.show_search_field_default();return this.search_field_scale();};Chosen.prototype.activate_field=function(){this.container.addClass("chosen-container-active");this.active_field=true;this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());return this.search_field.focus();};Chosen.prototype.test_active_click=function(evt){var active_container;active_container=$(evt.target).closest('.chosen-container');if(active_container.length&&this.container[0]===active_container[0]){return this.active_field=true;}else{return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.results_build=function(){this.parsing=true;this.selected_option_count=null;this.results_data=SelectParser.select_to_array(this.form_field);if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices.find("li.search-choice").remove();}else if(!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text();if(this.disable_search||this.form_field.options.length<=this.disable_search_threshold){this.search_field[0].readOnly=true;this.container.addClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}else{this.search_field[0].readOnly=false;this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}}this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build({first:true}));this.search_field_disabled();this.show_search_field_default();this.search_field_scale();return this.parsing=false;};Chosen.prototype.result_do_highlight=function(el){var high_bottom,high_top,maxHeight,visible_bottom,visible_top;if(el.length){this.result_clear_highlight();this.result_highlight=el;this.result_highlight.addClass("highlighted");maxHeight=parseInt(this.search_results.css("maxHeight"),10);visible_top=this.search_results.scrollTop();visible_bottom=maxHeight+visible_top;high_top=this.result_highlight.position().top+this.search_results.scrollTop();high_bottom=high_top+this.result_highlight.outerHeight();if(high_bottom>=visible_bottom){return this.search_results.scrollTop((high_bottom-maxHeight)>0?high_bottom-maxHeight:0);}else if(high_top<visible_top){return this.search_results.scrollTop(high_top);}}};Chosen.prototype.result_clear_highlight=function(){if(this.result_highlight){this.result_highlight.removeClass("highlighted");}return this.result_highlight=null;};Chosen.prototype.results_show=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}this.container.addClass("chosen-with-drop");this.results_showing=true;this.search_field.focus();this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());this.winnow_results();return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:showing_dropdown",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.update_results_content=function(content){return this.search_results.html(content);};Chosen.prototype.results_hide=function(){if(this.results_showing){this.result_clear_highlight();this.container.removeClass("chosen-with-drop");this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:hiding_dropdown",{chosen:this});}return this.results_showing=false;};Chosen.prototype.set_tab_index=function(el){var ti;if(this.form_field.tabIndex){ti=this.form_field.tabIndex;this.form_field.tabIndex=-1;return this.search_field[0].tabIndex=ti;}};Chosen.prototype.set_label_behavior=function(){var _this=this;this.form_field_label=this.form_field_jq.parents("label");if(!this.form_field_label.length&&this.form_field.id.length){this.form_field_label=$("label[for='"+this.form_field.id+"']");}if(this.form_field_label.length>0){return this.form_field_label.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){if(_this.is_multiple){return _this.container_mousedown(evt);}else{return _this.activate_field();}});}};Chosen.prototype.show_search_field_default=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()<1&&!this.active_field){this.search_field.val(this.default_text);return this.search_field.addClass("default");}else{this.search_field.val("");return this.search_field.removeClass("default");}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseup=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target.length){this.result_highlight=target;this.result_select(evt);return this.search_field.focus();}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseover=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target){return this.result_do_highlight(target);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseout=function(evt){if($(evt.target).hasClass("active-result"||$(evt.target).parents('.active-result').first())){return this.result_clear_highlight();}};Chosen.prototype.choice_build=function(item){var choice,close_link,_this=this;choice=$('<li />',{"class":"search-choice"}).html("<span>"+(this.choice_label(item))+"</span>");if(item.disabled){choice.addClass('search-choice-disabled');}else{close_link=$('<a />',{"class":'search-choice-close','data-option-array-index':item.array_index});close_link.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){return _this.choice_destroy_link_click(evt);});choice.append(close_link);}return this.search_container.before(choice);};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy_link_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();evt.stopPropagation();if(!this.is_disabled){return this.choice_destroy($(evt.target));}};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy=function(link){if(this.result_deselect(link[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index"))){this.show_search_field_default();if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()>0&&this.search_field.val().length<1){this.results_hide();}link.parents('li').first().remove();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset=function(){this.reset_single_select_options();this.form_field.options[0].selected=true;this.single_set_selected_text();this.show_search_field_default();this.results_reset_cleanup();this.form_field_jq.trigger("change");if(this.active_field){return this.results_hide();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset_cleanup=function(){this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.selected_item.find("abbr").remove();};Chosen.prototype.result_select=function(evt){var high,item;if(this.result_highlight){high=this.result_highlight;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}if(this.is_multiple){high.removeClass("active-result");}else{this.reset_single_select_options();}high.addClass("result-selected");item=this.results_data[high[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index")];item.selected=true;this.form_field.options[item.options_index].selected=true;this.selected_option_count=null;if(this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(item);}else{this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(item));}if(!((evt.metaKey||evt.ctrlKey)&&this.is_multiple)){this.results_hide();}this.search_field.val("");if(this.is_multiple||this.form_field.selectedIndex!==this.current_selectedIndex){this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{'selected':this.form_field.options[item.options_index].value});}this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;evt.preventDefault();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.single_set_selected_text=function(text){if(text==null){text=this.default_text;}if(text===this.default_text){this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-default");}else{this.single_deselect_control_build();this.selected_item.removeClass("chosen-default");}return this.selected_item.find("span").html(text);};Chosen.prototype.result_deselect=function(pos){var result_data;result_data=this.results_data[pos];if(!this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].disabled){result_data.selected=false;this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].selected=false;this.selected_option_count=null;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.results_showing){this.winnow_results();}this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{deselected:this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].value});this.search_field_scale();return true;}else{return false;}};Chosen.prototype.single_deselect_control_build=function(){if(!this.allow_single_deselect){return;}if(!this.selected_item.find("abbr").length){this.selected_item.find("span").first().after("<abbr class=\"search-choice-close\"></abbr>");}return this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-single-with-deselect");};Chosen.prototype.get_search_text=function(){return $('<div/>').text($.trim(this.search_field.val())).html();};Chosen.prototype.winnow_results_set_highlight=function(){var do_high,selected_results;selected_results=!this.is_multiple?this.search_results.find(".result-selected.active-result"):[];do_high=selected_results.length?selected_results.first():this.search_results.find(".active-result").first();if(do_high!=null){return this.result_do_highlight(do_high);}};Chosen.prototype.no_results=function(terms){var no_results_html;no_results_html=$('<li class="no-results">'+this.results_none_found+' "<span></span>"</li>');no_results_html.find("span").first().html(terms);this.search_results.append(no_results_html);return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:no_results",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.no_results_clear=function(){return this.search_results.find(".no-results").remove();};Chosen.prototype.keydown_arrow=function(){var next_sib;if(this.results_showing&&this.result_highlight){next_sib=this.result_highlight.nextAll("li.active-result").first();if(next_sib){return this.result_do_highlight(next_sib);}}else{return this.results_show();}};Chosen.prototype.keyup_arrow=function(){var prev_sibs;if(!this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){return this.results_show();}else if(this.result_highlight){prev_sibs=this.result_highlight.prevAll("li.active-result");if(prev_sibs.length){return this.result_do_highlight(prev_sibs.first());}else{if(this.choices_count()>0){this.results_hide();}return this.result_clear_highlight();}}};Chosen.prototype.keydown_backstroke=function(){var next_available_destroy;if(this.pending_backstroke){this.choice_destroy(this.pending_backstroke.find("a").first());return this.clear_backstroke();}else{next_available_destroy=this.search_container.siblings("li.search-choice").last();if(next_available_destroy.length&&!next_available_destroy.hasClass("search-choice-disabled")){this.pending_backstroke=next_available_destroy;if(this.single_backstroke_delete){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else{return this.pending_backstroke.addClass("search-choice-focus");}}}};Chosen.prototype.clear_backstroke=function(){if(this.pending_backstroke){this.pending_backstroke.removeClass("search-choice-focus");}return this.pending_backstroke=null;};Chosen.prototype.keydown_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref1;stroke=(_ref1=evt.which)!=null?_ref1:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();if(stroke!==8&&this.pending_backstroke){this.clear_backstroke();}switch(stroke){case 8:this.backstroke_length=this.search_field.val().length;break;case 9:if(this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){this.result_select(evt);}this.mouse_on_container=false;break;case 13:if(this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 32:if(this.disable_search){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 38:evt.preventDefault();this.keyup_arrow();break;case 40:evt.preventDefault();this.keydown_arrow();break;}};Chosen.prototype.search_field_scale=function(){var div,f_width,h,style,style_block,styles,w,_i,_len;if(this.is_multiple){h=0;w=0;style_block="position:absolute; left: -1000px; top: -1000px; display:none;";styles=['font-size','font-style','font-weight','font-family','line-height','text-transform','letter-spacing'];for(_i=0,_len=styles.length;_i<_len;_i++){style=styles[_i];style_block+=style+":"+this.search_field.css(style)+";";}div=$('<div />',{'style':style_block});div.text(this.search_field.val());$('body').append(div);w=div.width()+25;div.remove();f_width=this.container.outerWidth();if(w>f_width-10){w=f_width-10;}return this.search_field.css({'width':w+'px'});}};return Chosen;})(AbstractChosen);}).call(this);(function(){'use strict';jQuery(function(){var $animalSelect=jQuery('select.farmer_chosen_animals');$animalSelect.chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,allow_single_deselect:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});jQuery('select.acl_chosen').chosen({disable_search:true,width:'100%'});var $formAllAnimals=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforall');$formAllAnimals.find('select').change(function(){$formAllAnimals.find('button').prop('disabled',false);}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.pluginSelect});var $formSingleAnimal=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforone');$formSingleAnimal.find('select').change(function(){var animal=jQuery(this).val();$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',true);jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPlugins_'+animal},function(data){$formSingleAnimal.find('div.output').html(data);$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',false);},'html')}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});var $formPluginMatrix=jQuery('#farmer__pluginmatrix').hide();$formPluginMatrix.on('click','td',function(){var $td=jQuery(this);$td.html('⌛').css('background-color','transparent');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_modPlugin',plugin:$td.data('plugin'),ani:$td.data('animal')},function(data){$td.replaceWith(data);},'html');});function showMatrix(){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPluginMatrix'},function(data){$formPluginMatrix.html(data);$formPluginMatrix.show();},'html')}$animalSelect.on('chosen:showing_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'20em'},400);}).on('chosen:hiding_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'7px'},400);});var $aclPolicyFieldset=jQuery('#aclPolicyFieldset');if($aclPolicyFieldset.length){$animalSelect.on('change',function(evt,params){var $this=jQuery(this);if($this.val()===''){$aclPolicyFieldset.slideDown();}else{$aclPolicyFieldset.slideUp();}});}jQuery("input[name=bulkSingleSwitch]:radio").change(function(){if(jQuery('#farmer__bulk').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.show();$formSingleAnimal.hide();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else if(jQuery('#farmer__single').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.show();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else{$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.hide();showMatrix();}});jQuery('#farmer__bulk').click();});})();var plugin_fastwiki=(function($){var m_viewMode,m_origViewMode,m_prevView;var m_isSecedit,m_wasSecedit;var m_hasDraft;var m_pageObjs={};var m_content;var m_initialId;var m_debug=document.location.host=='localhost';var m_cache=new CPageCache(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_per_page,JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_batchsize,m_debug);var m_supportedActions={'':1,edit:1,draft:1,history:1,recent:1,revisions:1,show:1,subscribe:1,backlink:1,index:1,profile:1,media:1,diff:1,save:1};var m_modeClassElt;var m_browserHistory=new CBrowserHistory();$(function(){if(document.location.href.indexOf("detail.php")>=0)m_viewMode='unsupported';else{var urlParams=_urlToObj(document.location.href);m_viewMode=urlParams['do']||'show';if(!m_supportedActions[m_viewMode])m_viewMode='unsupported';else if(window.tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support&&!(m_viewMode in tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support))m_viewMode='unsupported';}m_origViewMode=m_viewMode;m_content=$('.plugin_fastwiki_marker').parent();m_content.addClass('content_initial');m_initialId=m_content.attr('id');m_modeClassElt=m_content.hasClass('dokuwiki')?m_content:$(m_content.parents('.dokuwiki')[0]||document.body);$(window).trigger('fastwiki:init',[m_viewMode]);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastpages)fixActionLinks(document.body);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow&&(m_origViewMode!='show'||!window.history||!history.pushState))JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow)m_browserHistory.init(load);});function fixActionLinks(elt){if(m_origViewMode=='unsupported')return;var formActions={search:1};var supportedFields={'do':1,rev:1,id:1};$('a[href *= "?do="]',elt).click(function(e){var curPathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');var aPathId=this.href.replace(/\?.*$/,'').replace(/:/g,'/');if(aPathId.substr(-curPathId.length)==curPathId){var params=_urlToObj(this.href);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';if(params['do']in m_supportedActions){e.preventDefault();load(params['do'],null,params);}}});$('input[type="submit"], input[type="button"], button',elt).click(function(e){var form=$(this).parents('form');if(form.length>0&&form[0]['do']&&form[0]['do'].value in m_supportedActions){var supported=true;$('input[type != "submit"]',form).each(function(idx,elt){if(elt.type!='button'&&(elt.type!='hidden'||!(elt.name in supportedFields)))supported=false;});if(supported){e.preventDefault();var params=_formToObj(form[0]);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';load(params['do'],null,params);}}});if(m_origViewMode=='show'&&window.JSINFO){var pathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');$('a',elt).click(function(e){var href=this.getAttribute('href');if(href&&href.indexOf('://')<0){if(href.match(m_browserHistory.getSelfRefRegex())){load('show');e.preventDefault();}else if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow){var numParams=href.split('=').length;if(href.indexOf('id=')>=0)numParams--;if(numParams==1){if(m_browserHistory.switchBasePath(href)){m_viewMode=null;e.preventDefault();}}}}});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.secedit){$('.editbutton_section .btn_secedit input[type=submit], .editbutton_section .btn_secedit button',elt).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var form=$(this).parents('form');load('edit',form,_formToObj(form));});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload)m_cache.load(elt,m_browserHistory);}function _preview(sectionForm){var body=$(document.body);var params=_formToObj($('#dw__editform'));params['do']='preview';_sendPartial(params,$('.dokuwiki .editBox'),function(data){var preview=$('<div id="preview_container">'+data+'</div>');var pvEditor=preview.find('#dw__editform');var editor=$('#dw__editform')[0];pvEditor.find('input[type=hidden]').each(function(idx,elt){editor[elt.name].value=elt.value;});preview.find('#scroll__here').prevAll().remove();var oldpreview=$('#preview_container');if(oldpreview.length>0)oldpreview.replaceWith(preview);else $('.content_partial').append(preview);setTimeout(function(){$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:$('#scroll__here').offset().top+'px'},300);},1);},'text');}function _getSection(sectionForm){var pieces=$();var target=sectionForm.parent();var nr=target.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2];while(target.length>0&&!(target.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||target.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){target=target.prev();if(target.hasClass('section_highlight'))pieces=pieces.add(target.children());pieces=pieces.add(target);}return pieces;}function _focusEdit(){var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0&&!$edit_text.attr('readOnly')){var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){setTimeout(function(){try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){}},500);}$edit_text.focus();}}function 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keyup",doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);$('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');$('#edbtn__save').click(function(e){textChanged=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.save&&m_origViewMode=='show'&&$edit_text.val().length>0&&m_pageObjs.content.length>0){e.preventDefault();load('save',null,_formToObj($('#dw__editform')));}else m_cache.remove(JSINFO.id);window.onbeforeunload='';dw_locktimer.clear();});$('input[name="do[draftdel]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var id=$editform.find('input[name=id]').val();load('show');if(!window.keepDraft){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:id,success:function(data,textStatus,jqXHR){m_hasDraft=false;}});}});$('input[name="do[show]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();load('show');});$('.picker.pk_hl').addClass('dokuwiki');}function _setBodyClass(action,target){for(var k in 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/1/1ff608be02a3b9d0f9add91e3e0cc337.xhtml b/data/cache/1/1ff608be02a3b9d0f9add91e3e0cc337.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..66c64dd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/1/1ff608be02a3b9d0f9add91e3e0cc337.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="the_american_parish">The American Parish</h1> +<div class="level1"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Full text:</strong> <a href="/en:article:1955-the_american_parish:text" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1955-the_american_parish:text" data-wiki-id="en:article:1955-the_american_parish:text">Online</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Original title:</strong> <em>The American Parish</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Original publication:</strong> 1955</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Other versions:</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Peter Canon, “The American Parish,” Integrity, June 1955, 5–16.</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Comments:</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Included in the book “The Powerless Church” (2018)</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + + + +</div> diff --git a/data/cache/2/215aab0dfcb042d2f6df48b3bc3faadd.i b/data/cache/2/215aab0dfcb042d2f6df48b3bc3faadd.i new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b0d8ebb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/2/215aab0dfcb042d2f6df48b3bc3faadd.i @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +a:61:{i:0;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"document_start";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:0;}i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:19:"Deschooling society";i:1;i:1;i:2;i:0;}i:2;i:0;}i:2;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:0;}i:3;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:22:" +# Deschooling 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/2/215aab0dfcb042d2f6df48b3bc3faadd.xhtml b/data/cache/2/215aab0dfcb042d2f6df48b3bc3faadd.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..36aa942 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/2/215aab0dfcb042d2f6df48b3bc3faadd.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="deschooling_society">Deschooling society</h1> +<div class="level1"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Full text:</strong> <a href="/en:book:deschooling:es" class="wikilink1" title="en:book:deschooling:es" data-wiki-id="en:book:deschooling:es">Online</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Original title:</strong> <em>Deschooling society</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Original publication:</strong> 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Comments:</strong> …</div> +</li> +</ul> + + + +</div> diff --git a/data/cache/2/2bd9d12014ee17da0b04ce7f40af23e3.i 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";}i:2;i:174;}i:50;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:46:" Traducción directa de la versión francesa, ";}i:2;i:174;}i:51;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:220;}i:52;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteopening";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:221;}i:53;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:16:"La convivialité";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:16:"La 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/2/2bd9d12014ee17da0b04ce7f40af23e3.xhtml b/data/cache/2/2bd9d12014ee17da0b04ce7f40af23e3.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d562926 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/2/2bd9d12014ee17da0b04ce7f40af23e3.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="la_convivencialidad">La convivencialidad</h1> +<div class="level1"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>:</strong> <a href="/es:book:conviviality:es" class="wikilink1" title="es:book:conviviality:es" data-wiki-id="es:book:conviviality:es">Online</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>:</strong> <em>La convivencialidad</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>:</strong> 1973</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>:</strong> Traducción directa de la versión francesa, <em>“La convivialité”</em>.</div> +</li> +</ul> + + + +</div> diff --git a/data/cache/3/37ba7ea44125c591fe82638ab67e46c3.i b/data/cache/3/37ba7ea44125c591fe82638ab67e46c3.i new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8310faa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/3/37ba7ea44125c591fe82638ab67e46c3.i @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +a:12:{i:0;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"document_start";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:0;}i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:29:"This topic does not exist yet";i:1;i:1;i:2;i:1;}i:2;i:1;}i:2;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:1;}i:3;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1;}i:4;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:113:"You've followed a link to a topic that doesn't exist yet. If permissions allow, you may create it by clicking on ";}i:2;i:46;}i:5;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:22:"markdowku_boldasterisk";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:2:"**";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:2:"**";}i:2;i:159;}i:6;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:22:"markdowku_boldasterisk";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:16:"Create this page";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:16:"Create this page";}i:2;i:161;}i:7;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:22:"markdowku_boldasterisk";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:2:"**";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:2:"**";}i:2;i:177;}i:8;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:".";}i:2;i:179;}i:9;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:180;}i:10;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:181;}i:11;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"document_end";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:181;}}
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item=target.parentNode;self._handler.cancel(item.qqFileId);qq.remove(item);}});}});qq.UploadDropZone=function(o){this._options={element:null,onEnter:function(e){},onLeave:function(e){},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){},onDrop:function(e){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._disableDropOutside();this._attachEvents();};qq.UploadDropZone.prototype={_disableDropOutside:function(e){if(!qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled){qq.attach(document,'dragover',function(e){if(e.dataTransfer){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='none';e.preventDefault();}});qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled=true;}},_attachEvents:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(self._element,'dragover',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var 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dt&&dt.effectAllowed!='none'&&(dt.files||(!isWebkit&&dt.types.contains&&dt.types.contains('Files')));}};qq.UploadButton=function(o){this._options={element:null,multiple:false,name:'file',onChange:function(input){},hoverClass:'qq-upload-button-hover',focusClass:'qq-upload-button-focus'};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;qq.css(this._element,{position:'relative',overflow:'hidden',direction:'ltr'});this._input=this._createInput();};qq.UploadButton.prototype={getInput:function(){return this._input;},reset:function(){if(this._input.parentNode){qq.remove(this._input);}qq.removeClass(this._element,this._options.focusClass);this._input=this._createInput();},_createInput:function(){var input=document.createElement("input");if(this._options.multiple){input.setAttribute("multiple","multiple");}input.setAttribute("type","file");input.setAttribute("name",this._options.name);qq.css(input,{position:'absolute',right:0,top:0,fontFamily:'Arial',fontSize:'118px',margin:0,padding:0,cursor:'pointer',opacity:0});this._element.appendChild(input);var self=this;qq.attach(input,'change',function(){self._options.onChange(input);});qq.attach(input,'mouseover',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'mouseout',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'focus',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});qq.attach(input,'blur',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});if(window.attachEvent){input.setAttribute('tabIndex',"-1");}return input;}};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/upload.php',maxConnections:999,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,response){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._queue=[];this._params=[];};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype={log:function(str){if(this._options.debug&&window.console)console.log('[uploader] '+str);},add:function(file){},upload:function(id,params){var len=this._queue.push(id);var copy={};qq.extend(copy,params);this._params[id]=copy;if(len<=this._options.maxConnections){this._upload(id,this._params[id]);}},cancel:function(id){this._cancel(id);this._dequeue(id);},cancelAll:function(){for(var i=0;i<this._queue.length;i++){this._cancel(this._queue[i]);}this._queue=[];},getName:function(id){},getSize:function(id){},getQueue:function(){return this._queue;},_upload:function(id){},_cancel:function(id){},_dequeue:function(id){var i=qq.indexOf(this._queue,id);this._queue.splice(i,1);var max=this._options.maxConnections;if(this._queue.length>=max&&i<max){var nextId=this._queue[max-1];this._upload(nextId,this._params[nextId]);}}};qq.UploadHandlerForm=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._inputs={};};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{add:function(fileInput){fileInput.setAttribute('name','qqfile');var id='qq-upload-handler-iframe'+qq.getUniqueId();this._inputs[id]=fileInput;if(fileInput.parentNode){qq.remove(fileInput);}return id;},getName:function(id){return this._inputs[id].value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));delete this._inputs[id];var iframe=document.getElementById(id);if(iframe){iframe.setAttribute('src','javascript:false;');qq.remove(iframe);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;},_attachLoadEvent:function(iframe,callback){qq.attach(iframe,'load',function(){if(!iframe.parentNode){return;}if(iframe.contentDocument&&iframe.contentDocument.body&&iframe.contentDocument.body.innerHTML=="false"){return;}callback();});},_getIframeContentJSON:function(iframe){var doc=iframe.contentDocument?iframe.contentDocument:iframe.contentWindow.document,response;this.log("converting iframe's innerHTML to JSON");this.log("innerHTML = "+doc.body.innerHTML);try{response=eval("("+doc.body.innerHTML+")");}catch(err){response={};}return response;},_createIframe:function(id){var iframe=qq.toElement('<iframe src="javascript:false;" name="'+id+'" />');iframe.setAttribute('id',id);iframe.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(iframe);return iframe;},_createForm:function(iframe,params){var form=qq.toElement('<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"></form>');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);form.setAttribute('action',queryString);form.setAttribute('target',iframe.name);form.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(form);return form;}});qq.UploadHandlerXhr=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._files=[];this._xhrs=[];this._loaded=[];};qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported=function(){var input=document.createElement('input');input.type='file';return('multiple'in input&&typeof File!="undefined"&&typeof(new XMLHttpRequest()).upload!="undefined");};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{add:function(file){if(!(file instanceof File)){throw new Error('Passed obj in not a File (in qq.UploadHandlerXhr)');}return this._files.push(file)-1;},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},getLoaded:function(id){return this._loaded[id]||0;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_onComplete:function(id,xhr){if(!this._files[id])return;var name=this.getName(id);var size=this.getSize(id);this._options.onProgress(id,name,size,size);if(xhr.status==200){this.log("xhr - server response received");this.log("responseText = "+xhr.responseText);var response;try{response=eval("("+xhr.responseText+")");}catch(err){response={};}this._options.onComplete(id,name,response);}else{this._options.onComplete(id,name,{});}this._files[id]=null;this._xhrs[id]=null;this._dequeue(id);},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));this._files[id]=null;if(this._xhrs[id]){this._xhrs[id].abort();this._xhrs[id]=null;}}});qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);},onUpload:function(){self._onUpload();}});return handler;},_onUpload:function(){this._handler.uploadAll(this._options.params);},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,fileName);this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';var nameElement=this._find(item,'nameInput');fileName=fileName.toLowerCase();fileName=fileName.replace(/([ !"#$%&\'()+,\/;<=>?@[\]^`{|}~:]+)/g,'_');fileName=fileName.replace(/^_+/,'');nameElement.value=fileName;nameElement.id='mediamanager__upload_item'+id;this._listElement.appendChild(item);}});qq.FileUploaderExtended=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>'+LANG.media_drop+'</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">'+LANG.media_select+'</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'<div class="qq-action-container">'+' <button class="qq-upload-action" type="submit" id="mediamanager__upload_button">'+LANG.media_upload_btn+'</button>'+' <label class="qq-overwrite-check"><input type="checkbox" value="1" name="ow" class="dw__ow"> <span>'+LANG.media_overwrt+'</span></label>'+'</div>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file hidden"></span>'+' <input class="qq-upload-name-input edit" type="text" value="" />'+' <span class="qq-upload-spinner hidden"></span>'+' <span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+' <a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">'+LANG.media_cancel+'</a>'+' <span class="qq-upload-failed-text error">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',nameInput:'qq-upload-name-input',overwriteInput:'qq-overwrite-check',uploadButton:'qq-upload-action',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail',failedText:'qq-upload-failed-text'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._bindUploadEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,qq.FileUploader.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,{_bindUploadEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_button'),'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;qq.preventDefault(e);self._handler._options.onUpload();jQuery(".qq-upload-name-input").each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',true);});});},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));var nameInput=this._find(item,'nameInput');var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,nameInput.value);qq.removeClass(fileElement,'hidden');qq.remove(nameInput);jQuery('.qq-upload-button, #mediamanager__upload_button').remove();jQuery('.dw__ow').parent().hide();jQuery('.qq-upload-drop-area').remove();if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);$link='<a href="'+result.link+'" id="h_:'+result.id+'" class="select">'+nameInput.value+'</a>';jQuery(fileElement).html($link);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);var fail=this._find(item,'failedText');if(result.error)qq.setText(fail,result.error);}if(document.getElementById('media__content')&&!document.getElementById('mediamanager__done_form')){var action=document.location.href;var i=action.indexOf('?');if(i)action=action.substr(0,i);var button='<form method="post" action="'+action+'" id="mediamanager__done_form"><div>';button+='<input type="hidden" value="'+result.ns+'" name="ns">';button+='<input type="hidden" value="1" name="recent">';button+='<button type="submit">'+LANG.media_done_btn+'</button></div></form>';jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').append(button);}}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._inputs[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{return null;}}},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._inputs){this.upload(key,params);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var nameInput=qq.toElement('<input name="mediaid" value="'+fileName+'" type="text">');form.appendChild(nameInput);var checked=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var owCheckbox=jQuery('.dw__ow').clone();owCheckbox.attr('checked',checked);jQuery(form).append(owCheckbox);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;}else{return null;}}},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];if(file==null)return null;return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);if(name==null||size==null)return;this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;params['ow']=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._files){this.upload(key,params);}}});function substr_replace(str,replace,start,length){var a2,b1;a2=(start<0?str.length:0)+start;if(typeof length==='undefined'){length=str.length-a2;}else if(length<0&&start<0&&length<=start){length=0;}b1=(length<0?str.length:a2)+length;return str.substring(0,a2)+replace+str.substring(b1);}function bind(fnc){var Aps=Array.prototype.slice,static_args=Aps.call(arguments,1);return function(){return fnc.apply(this,static_args.concat(Aps.call(arguments,0)));};}function logError(e,file){if(window.console&&console.error){console.error('The error "%s: %s" occurred in file "%s". '+'If this is in a plugin try updating or disabling the plugin, '+'if this is in a template try updating the template or switching to the "dokuwiki" template.',e.name,e.message,file);if(e.stack){console.error(e.stack);}}}var timer={_cur_id:0,_handlers:{},execDispatch:function(id){timer._handlers[id]();},add:function(func,timeout){var id=++timer._cur_id;timer._handlers[id]=func;return window.setTimeout('timer.execDispatch('+id+')',timeout);}};function Delay(func,timeout){this.func=func;if(timeout){this.timeout=timeout;}}Delay.prototype={func:null,timeout:500,delTimer:function(){if(this.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(this.timer);this.timer=null;}},start:function(){DEPRECATED('don\'t use the Delay object, use window.timeout with a callback instead');this.delTimer();var _this=this;this.timer=timer.add(function(){_this.exec.call(_this);},this.timeout);this._data={_this:arguments[0],_params:Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments,2)};},exec:function(){this.delTimer();this.func.call(this._data._this,this._data._params);}};var DokuCookie={data:{},name:'DOKU_PREFS',setValue:function(key,val){var text=[],_this=this;this.init();if(val===false){delete this.data[key];}else{val=val+"";this.data[key]=val;}jQuery.each(_this.data,function(key,val){if(_this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)){text.push(encodeURIComponent(key)+'#'+encodeURIComponent(val));}});jQuery.cookie(this.name,text.join('#'),{expires:365,path:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.path,secure:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.secure});},getValue:function(key,def){this.init();return this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)?this.data[key]:def;},init:function(){var text,parts,i;if(!jQuery.isEmptyObject(this.data)){return;}text=jQuery.cookie(this.name);if(text){parts=text.split('#');for(i=0;i<parts.length;i+=2){this.data[decodeURIComponent(parts[i])]=decodeURIComponent(parts[i+1]);}}}};if('function'===typeof jQuery&&'function'===typeof jQuery.noConflict){jQuery.noConflict();}var clientPC=navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase();var is_macos=navigator.appVersion.indexOf('Mac')!=-1;var is_gecko=((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('khtml')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));var is_safari=((clientPC.indexOf('applewebkit')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));var is_khtml=(navigator.vendor=='KDE'||(document.childNodes&&!document.all&&!navigator.taintEnabled));if(clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1){var is_opera=true;var is_opera_preseven=(window.opera&&!document.childNodes);var is_opera_seven=(window.opera&&document.childNodes);}function closePopups(){jQuery('div.JSpopup').hide();}jQuery(function(){jQuery(document).on('click',closePopups);});jQuery.fn.dw_qsearch=function(overrides){var dw_qsearch={output:'#qsearch__out',$inObj:this,$outObj:null,timer:null,curRequest:null,init:function(){var do_qsearch;dw_qsearch.$outObj=jQuery(dw_qsearch.output);if(dw_qsearch.$inObj.length===0||dw_qsearch.$outObj.length===0){return;}do_qsearch=function(){if(dw_qsearch.curRequest!=null){dw_qsearch.curRequest.abort();}var value=dw_qsearch.getSearchterm();if(value===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').addClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'qsearch',q:encodeURI(value)},dw_qsearch.onCompletion,'html');};dw_qsearch.$inObj.on('keyup',function(){if(dw_qsearch.timer){window.clearTimeout(dw_qsearch.timer);dw_qsearch.timer=null;}dw_qsearch.timer=window.setTimeout(do_qsearch,500);});dw_qsearch.$outObj.on('click',dw_qsearch.clear_results);},getSearchterm:function(){return dw_qsearch.$inObj.val();},clear_results:function(){dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.$outObj.hide();dw_qsearch.$outObj.text('');},onCompletion:function(data){var max,$links,too_big;dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=null;if(data===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$outObj .html(data).show().css('white-space','nowrap');dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','visible');$links=dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('a');max=dw_qsearch.$outObj[0].clientWidth;if(document.documentElement.dir==='rtl'){max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-left'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetLeft<0;};}else{max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-right'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetWidth+l.offsetLeft>max;};}$links.each(function(){var start,length,replace,nsL,nsR,eli,runaway;if(!too_big(this)){return;}nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');eli=0;runaway=0;while((nsR-nsL>3)&&too_big(this)&&runaway++<500){if(eli!==0){if((eli-nsL)>(nsR-eli)){start=eli-2;length=2;}else{start=eli+1;length=1;}replace='';}else{start=Math.floor(nsL+((nsR-nsL)/2));length=1;replace='…';}this.textContent=substr_replace(this.textContent,replace,start,length);eli=this.textContent.indexOf('…');nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');}});dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','hidden').css('text-overflow','ellipsis');}};jQuery.extend(dw_qsearch,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_qsearch.init();}return dw_qsearch;};jQuery(function(){jQuery('#qsearch__in').dw_qsearch({output:'#qsearch__out'});});jQuery(function(){'use strict';var $searchForm=jQuery('.search-results-form');if(!$searchForm.length){return;}var $toggleAssistanceButton=jQuery('<button>').addClass('toggleAssistant').attr('type','button').attr('aria-expanded','false').text(LANG.search_toggle_tools).prependTo($searchForm.find('fieldset'));$toggleAssistanceButton.on('click',function(){jQuery('.advancedOptions').toggle(0,function(){var $me=jQuery(this);if($me.attr('aria-hidden')){$me.removeAttr('aria-hidden');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','true');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','on');}else{$me.attr('aria-hidden','true');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','false');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','off');}});});if(DokuCookie.getValue('sa')==='on'){$toggleAssistanceButton.trigger('click');}$searchForm.find('.advancedOptions .toggle div.current').on('click',function(){var $me=jQuery(this);$me.parent().siblings().removeClass('open');$me.parent().siblings().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');$me.parent().toggleClass('open');if($me.parent().hasClass('open')){$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','true');}else{$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');}});});jQuery.fn.dw_tree=function(overrides){var dw_tree={throbber_delay:500,$obj:this,toggle_selector:'a.idx_dir',init:function(){this.$obj.on('click',this.toggle_selector,this,this.toggle);jQuery('ul:first',this.$obj).attr('role','tree');jQuery('ul',this.$obj).not(':first').attr('role','group');jQuery('li',this.$obj).attr('role','treeitem');jQuery('li.open > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','true');jQuery('li.closed > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','false');jQuery('li.closed',this.$obj).attr('aria-live','assertive');},toggle:function(e){var $listitem,$sublist,timeout,$clicky,show_sublist,dw_tree,opening;e.preventDefault();dw_tree=e.data;$clicky=jQuery(this);$listitem=$clicky.closest('li');$sublist=$listitem.find('ul').first();opening=$listitem.hasClass('closed');dw_tree.toggle_display($clicky,opening);if($sublist.is(':visible')){$listitem.removeClass('open').addClass('closed');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','false');}else{$listitem.removeClass('closed').addClass('open');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','true');}if(!opening){$sublist.dw_hide();return;}show_sublist=function(data){$sublist.hide();if(typeof data!=='undefined'){$sublist.html(data);$sublist.parent().attr('aria-busy','false').removeAttr('aria-live');jQuery('li.closed',$sublist).attr('aria-live','assertive');}if($listitem.hasClass('open')){$sublist.dw_show();}};if($sublist.length>0){show_sublist();return;}$sublist=jQuery('<ul class="idx" role="group"/>');$listitem.append($sublist);timeout=window.setTimeout(bind(show_sublist,'<li aria-busy="true"><img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="loading..." title="loading..." /></li>'),dw_tree.throbber_delay);dw_tree.load_data(function(data){window.clearTimeout(timeout);show_sublist(data);},$clicky);},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){},load_data:function(show_data,$clicky){show_data();}};jQuery.extend(dw_tree,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_tree.init();}return dw_tree;};var dw_index=jQuery('#index__tree').dw_tree({deferInit:true,load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$clicky[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=index',show_sublist,'html');}});jQuery(function(){var $tree=jQuery('#index__tree');dw_index.$obj=$tree;dw_index.init();});function selection_class(){this.start=0;this.end=0;this.obj=null;this.scroll=0;this.fix=0;this.getLength=function(){return this.end-this.start;};this.getText=function(){return(!this.obj)?'':this.obj.value.substring(this.start,this.end);};}function DWgetSelection(textArea){var sel=new selection_class();textArea.focus();sel.obj=textArea;sel.start=textArea.selectionStart;sel.end=textArea.selectionEnd;sel.scroll=textArea.scrollTop;return sel;}function DWsetSelection(selection){selection.obj.setSelectionRange(selection.start,selection.end);if(selection.scroll)selection.obj.scrollTop=selection.scroll;}function pasteText(selection,text,opts){if(!opts)opts={};selection.obj.value=selection.obj.value.substring(0,selection.start)+text+selection.obj.value.substring(selection.end,selection.obj.value.length);if(is_opera){selection.end=selection.start+text.replace(/\r?\n/g,'\r\n').length;}else{selection.end=selection.start+text.length;}if(opts.startofs)selection.start+=opts.startofs;if(opts.endofs)selection.end-=opts.endofs;if(opts.nosel)selection.start=selection.end;DWsetSelection(selection);}function insertTags(textAreaID,tagOpen,tagClose,sampleText){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);var text=selection.getText();var opts;if(text.charAt(text.length-1)==' '){selection.end--;text=selection.getText();}if(!text){text=sampleText;opts={startofs:tagOpen.length,endofs:tagClose.length};}else{opts={nosel:true};}text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;pasteText(selection,text,opts);}function insertAtCarret(textAreaID,text){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);pasteText(selection,text,{nosel:true});}var pickercounter=0;function initToolbar(tbid,edid,tb,allowblock){var $toolbar,$edit;if(typeof tbid=='string'){$toolbar=jQuery('#'+tbid);}else{$toolbar=jQuery(tbid);}$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($toolbar.length==0||$edit.length==0||$edit.attr('readOnly')){return;}if(typeof allowblock==='undefined'){allowblock=true;}$toolbar.html('');jQuery.each(tb,function(k,val){if(!tb.hasOwnProperty(k)||(!allowblock&&val.block===true)){return;}var actionFunc,$btn;$btn=jQuery(createToolButton(val.icon,val.title,val.key,val.id,val['class']));actionFunc='tb_'+val.type;if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){$btn.on('click',bind(window[actionFunc],$btn,val,edid));$toolbar.append($btn);return;}actionFunc='addBtnAction'+val.type.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+val.type.substring(1);if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){var pickerid=window[actionFunc]($btn,val,edid);if(pickerid!==''){$toolbar.append($btn);$btn.attr('aria-controls',pickerid);if(actionFunc==='addBtnActionPicker'){$btn.attr('aria-haspopup','true');}}return;}alert('unknown toolbar type: '+val.type+' '+actionFunc);});}function tb_format(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title;insertTags(edid,fixtxt(props.open),fixtxt(props.close),fixtxt(sample));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_formatln(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title,opts,selection=DWgetSelection(jQuery('#'+edid)[0]);sample=fixtxt(sample);props.open=fixtxt(props.open);props.close=fixtxt(props.close);if(selection.getLength()){sample=selection.getText();opts={nosel:true};}else{opts={startofs:props.open.length,endofs:props.close.length};}sample=sample.split("\n").join(props.close+"\n"+props.open);sample=props.open+sample+props.close;pasteText(selection,sample,opts);pickerClose();return false;}function tb_insert(btn,props,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,fixtxt(props.insert));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_mediapopup(btn,props,edid){window.open(DOKU_BASE+props.url+encodeURIComponent(NS)+'&edid='+encodeURIComponent(edid),props.name,props.options);return false;}function tb_autohead(btn,props,edid){var lvl=currentHeadlineLevel(edid),tags;lvl+=props.mod;if(lvl<1)lvl=1;if(lvl>5)lvl=5;tags=(new Array(8-lvl)).join('=');insertTags(edid,tags+' ',' '+tags+"\n",props.text);pickerClose();return false;}function addBtnActionPicker($btn,props,edid){var pickerid='picker'+(pickercounter++);var picker=createPicker(pickerid,props,edid);jQuery(picker).attr('aria-hidden','true');$btn.click(function(e){pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn);e.preventDefault();return'';});return pickerid;}function addBtnActionLinkwiz($btn,props,edid){dw_linkwiz.init(jQuery('#'+edid));jQuery($btn).click(function(e){dw_linkwiz.val=props;dw_linkwiz.toggle();e.preventDefault();return'';});return'link__wiz';}function pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn){var $picker=jQuery('#'+pickerid),pos=$btn.offset();if($picker.hasClass('a11y')){$picker.removeClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','false');}else{$picker.addClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','true');}var picker_left=pos.left+3,picker_width=$picker.width(),window_width=jQuery(window).width();if(picker_width>300){$picker.css("max-width","300");picker_width=300;}if((picker_left+picker_width+40)>window_width){picker_left=window_width-picker_width-40;}if(picker_left<0){picker_left=0;}$picker.offset({left:picker_left,top:pos.top+$btn[0].offsetHeight+3});}function pickerClose(){jQuery('.picker').addClass('a11y');}function fixtxt(str){return str.replace(/\\n/g,"\n");}jQuery(function(){initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);jQuery('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');});function createToolButton(icon,label,key,id,classname){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')),$ico=jQuery(document.createElement('img'));$btn.addClass('toolbutton');if(classname){$btn.addClass(classname);}$btn.attr('title',label).attr('aria-controls','wiki__text');if(key){$btn.attr('title',label+' ['+key.toUpperCase()+']').attr('accessKey',key);}if(id){$btn.attr('id',id);$ico.attr('id',id+'_ico');}if(icon.substr(0,1)!=='/'){icon=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/toolbar/'+icon;}$ico.attr('src',icon);$ico.attr('alt','');$ico.attr('width',16);$ico.attr('height',16);$btn.append($ico);return $btn[0];}function createPicker(id,props,edid){var $picker=jQuery(document.createElement('div'));$picker.addClass('picker a11y');if(props['class']){$picker.addClass(props['class']);}$picker.attr('id',id).css('position','absolute');function $makebutton(title){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('pickerbutton').attr('title',title).attr('aria-controls',edid).on('click',bind(pickerInsert,title,edid)).appendTo($picker);return $btn;}jQuery.each(props.list,function(key,item){if(!props.list.hasOwnProperty(key)){return;}if(isNaN(key)){if(item.substr(0,1)!=='/'){item=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+props.icobase+'/'+item;}jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',item).attr('alt','').appendTo($makebutton(key));}else if(typeof item=='string'){$makebutton(item).text(item);}else{initToolbar($picker,edid,props.list);return false;}});jQuery('body').append($picker);return $picker[0];}function pickerInsert(text,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,text);pickerClose();}function addBtnActionSignature($btn,props,edid){if(typeof SIG!='undefined'&&SIG!=''){$btn.on('click',function(e){insertAtCarret(edid,SIG);e.preventDefault();});return edid;}return'';}function currentHeadlineLevel(textboxId){var field=jQuery('#'+textboxId)[0],s=false,opts=[field.value.substr(0,DWgetSelection(field).start)];if(field.form&&field.form.prefix){opts.push(field.form.prefix.value);}jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var str="\n"+opt,lasthl=str.lastIndexOf("\n==");if(lasthl!==-1){s=str.substr(lasthl+1,6);return false;}});if(s===false){return 0;}return 7-s.match(/^={2,6}/)[0].length;}window.textChanged=false;window.doku_edit_text_content='';function deleteDraft(){if(is_opera||window.keepDraft){return;}var $dwform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($dwform.length===0){return;}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:$dwform.find('input[name=id]').val()});}jQuery(function(){var $editform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0){return;}var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){if($edit_text.attr('readOnly')){return;}var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;DWsetSelection(sel);$edit_text.trigger('focus');doku_edit_text_content=$edit_text.val();}var changeHandler=function(){doku_hasTextBeenModified();doku_summaryCheck();};$editform.change(changeHandler);$editform.keydown(changeHandler);window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged){return LANG.notsavedyet;}};window.onunload=deleteDraft;jQuery('#edbtn__save').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;});jQuery('#edbtn__preview').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;});var $summary=jQuery('#edit__summary');$summary.on('change keyup',doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();});function doku_hasTextBeenModified(){if(!textChanged){var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){textChanged=doku_edit_text_content!=$edit_text.val();}else{textChanged=true;}}}function doku_summaryCheck(){var $sum=jQuery('#edit__summary'),missing=$sum.val()==='';$sum.toggleClass('missing',missing).toggleClass('edit',!missing);}var dw_editor={init:function(){var $editor=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($editor.length===0){return;}dw_editor.initSizeCtl('#size__ctl',$editor);if($editor.attr('readOnly')){return;}$editor.keydown(dw_editor.keyHandler);},initSizeCtl:function(ctlarea,editor){var $ctl=jQuery(ctlarea),$textarea=jQuery(editor);if($ctl.length===0||$textarea.length===0){return;}$textarea.css('height',DokuCookie.getValue('sizeCtl')||'300px');var wrp=DokuCookie.getValue('wrapCtl');if(wrp){dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],wrp);}jQuery.each([['larger',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,100);}],['smaller',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,-100);}],['wrap',function(){dw_editor.toggleWrap(editor);}]],function(_,img){jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+img[0]+'.gif').attr('alt','').on('click',img[1]).appendTo($ctl);});},sizeCtl:function(editor,val){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),height=parseInt($textarea.css('height'))+val;$textarea.css('height',height+'px');DokuCookie.setValue('sizeCtl',$textarea.css('height'));},toggleWrap:function(editor){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),wrap=$textarea.attr('wrap');dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],(wrap&&wrap.toLowerCase()=='off')?'soft':'off');DokuCookie.setValue('wrapCtl',$textarea.attr('wrap'));},setWrap:function(textarea,wrapAttrValue){textarea.setAttribute('wrap',wrapAttrValue);var parNod=textarea.parentNode;var nxtSib=textarea.nextSibling;parNod.removeChild(textarea);parNod.insertBefore(textarea,nxtSib);},keyHandler:function(e){if(jQuery.inArray(e.keyCode,[8,10,13,32])===-1){return;}var selection=DWgetSelection(this);if(selection.getLength()>0){return;}var search="\n"+this.value.substr(0,selection.start);var linestart=Math.max(search.lastIndexOf("\n"),search.lastIndexOf("\r"));search=search.substr(linestart);if((e.keyCode==13||e.keyCode==10)&&e.ctrlKey){jQuery('#edbtn__save').trigger('click');e.preventDefault();return false;}else if(e.keyCode==13){var match=search.match(/(\n +([\*-] ?)?)/);if(match){var scroll=this.scrollHeight;var match2=search.match(/^\n +[\*-]\s*$/);if(match2&&this.value.substr(selection.start).match(/^($|\r?\n)/)){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+"\n"+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart+1;selection.end=linestart+1;DWsetSelection(selection);}else{insertAtCarret(this.id,match[1]);}this.scrollTop+=(this.scrollHeight-scroll);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==8){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] ?)$/);if(match){var spaces=match[1].length-1;if(spaces>3){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(linestart+2);selection.start=selection.start-2;selection.end=selection.start;}else{this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart;selection.end=linestart;}DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==32){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] )$/);if(match){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+' '+this.value.substr(linestart);selection.start=selection.start+2;selection.end=selection.start;DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}}};jQuery(dw_editor.init);var dw_locktimer={timeout:0,draft:false,timerID:null,lasttime:null,msg:LANG.willexpire,pageid:'',fieldsToSaveAsDraft:['input[name=prefix]','textarea[name=wikitext]','input[name=suffix]','input[name=date]',],callbacks:[],init:function(timeout,draft,edid){var $edit;edid=edid||'wiki__text';$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($edit.length===0||$edit.attr('readonly')){return;}dw_locktimer.timeout=timeout*1000;dw_locktimer.draft=draft;dw_locktimer.lasttime=new Date();dw_locktimer.pageid=jQuery('#dw__editform').find('input[name=id]').val();if(!dw_locktimer.pageid){return;}$edit.keypress(dw_locktimer.refresh);dw_locktimer.reset();},addField:function(selector){dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.push(selector);},addRefreshCallback:function(callback){dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(callback);},reset:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();dw_locktimer.timerID=window.setTimeout(dw_locktimer.warning,dw_locktimer.timeout);},warning:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();alert(fixtxt(dw_locktimer.msg));},clear:function(){if(dw_locktimer.timerID!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_locktimer.timerID);dw_locktimer.timerID=null;}},refresh:function(){var now=new Date(),params='call=lock&id='+dw_locktimer.pageid+'&';if(now.getTime()-dw_locktimer.lasttime.getTime()<=30*1000){return;}if(dw_locktimer.draft&&jQuery('#dw__editform').find('textarea[name=wikitext]').length>0){params+=jQuery('#dw__editform').find(dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.join(', ')).serialize();}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,null,'json').done(function dwLocktimerRefreshDoneHandler(data){dw_locktimer.callbacks.forEach(function(callback){callback(data);});});dw_locktimer.lasttime=now;},refreshed:function(data){if(data.errors.length){data.errors.forEach(function(error){jQuery('#draft__status').after(jQuery('<div class="error"></div>').text(error));})}jQuery('#draft__status').html(data.draft);if(data.lock!=='1'){return;}dw_locktimer.reset();}};dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(dw_locktimer.refreshed);var dw_linkwiz={$wiz:null,$entry:null,result:null,timer:null,textArea:null,selected:null,selection:null,init:function($editor){var pos=$editor.position();if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz)return;dw_linkwiz.$wiz=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).dialog({autoOpen:false,draggable:true,title:LANG.linkwiz,resizable:false}).html('<div>'+LANG.linkto+' <input type="text" class="edit" id="link__wiz_entry" autocomplete="off" /></div>'+'<div id="link__wiz_result"></div>').parent().attr('id','link__wiz').css({'position':'absolute','top':(pos.top+20)+'px','left':(pos.left+80)+'px'}).hide().appendTo('.dokuwiki:first');dw_linkwiz.textArea=$editor[0];dw_linkwiz.result=jQuery('#link__wiz_result')[0];jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).css('position','relative');dw_linkwiz.$entry=jQuery('#link__wiz_entry');if(JSINFO.namespace){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(JSINFO.namespace+':');}jQuery('#link__wiz .ui-dialog-titlebar-close').on('click',dw_linkwiz.hide);dw_linkwiz.$entry.keyup(dw_linkwiz.onEntry);jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).on('click','a',dw_linkwiz.onResultClick);},onEntry:function(e){if(e.keyCode==37||e.keyCode==39){return true;}if(e.keyCode==27){dw_linkwiz.hide();e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==38){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected-1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==40){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected+1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==13){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected);if($obj.length>0){dw_linkwiz.resultClick($obj.find('a')[0]);}}else if(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val());}e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();},getResult:function(num){DEPRECATED('use dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0] instead');return dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0]||null;},$getResult:function(num){return jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).find('div').eq(num);},select:function(num){if(num<0){dw_linkwiz.deselect();return;}var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(num);if($obj.length===0){return;}dw_linkwiz.deselect();$obj.addClass('selected');var childPos=$obj.position().top;var yDiff=childPos+$obj.outerHeight()-jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).innerHeight();if(childPos<0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=childPos;}else if(yDiff>0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=yDiff;}dw_linkwiz.selected=num;},deselect:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected).removeClass('selected');}dw_linkwiz.selected=-1;},onResultClick:function(e){if(!jQuery(this).is('a')){return;}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();dw_linkwiz.resultClick(this);return false;},resultClick:function(a){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(a.title);if(a.title==''||a.title.substr(a.title.length-1)==':'){dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec();}else{if(jQuery(a.nextSibling).is('span')){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(a.nextSibling.innerHTML);}else{dw_linkwiz.insertLink('');}}},insertLink:function(title){var link=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(),sel,stxt;if(!link){return;}sel=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);if(sel.start==0&&sel.end==0){sel=dw_linkwiz.selection;}stxt=sel.getText();if(stxt.charAt(stxt.length-1)==' '){sel.end--;stxt=sel.getText();}if(!stxt&&!DOKU_UHC){stxt=title;}if(dw_linkwiz.textArea.form.id.value.indexOf(':')!=-1&&link.indexOf(':')==-1){link=':'+link;}var so=link.length;var eo=0;if(dw_linkwiz.val){if(dw_linkwiz.val.open){so+=dw_linkwiz.val.open.length;link=dw_linkwiz.val.open+link;}link+='|';so+=1;if(stxt){link+=stxt;}if(dw_linkwiz.val.close){link+=dw_linkwiz.val.close;eo=dw_linkwiz.val.close.length;}}pasteText(sel,link,{startofs:so,endofs:eo});dw_linkwiz.hide();var externallinkpattern=new RegExp('^((f|ht)tps?:)?//','i'),entry_value;if(externallinkpattern.test(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val())){if(JSINFO.namespace){entry_value=JSINFO.namespace+':';}else{entry_value='';}}else{entry_value=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val().replace(/[^:]*$/,'')}dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(entry_value);},autocomplete:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_linkwiz.timer);dw_linkwiz.timer=null;}dw_linkwiz.timer=window.setTimeout(dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec,350);},autocomplete_exec:function(){var $res=jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result);dw_linkwiz.deselect();$res.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="" width="16" height="16" />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'linkwiz',q:dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()});},show:function(){dw_linkwiz.selection=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);dw_linkwiz.$wiz.show();dw_linkwiz.$entry.focus();dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();var temp=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val();dw_linkwiz.$entry.val('');dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(temp);},hide:function(){dw_linkwiz.$wiz.hide();dw_linkwiz.textArea.focus();},toggle:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz.css('display')=='none'){dw_linkwiz.show();}else{dw_linkwiz.hide();}}};var dw_mediamanager={keepopen:false,hide:false,popup:false,display:false,ext:false,$popup:null,align:false,link:false,size:false,forbidden_opts:{},view_opts:{list:false,sort:false},layout_width:0,minHeights:{thumbs:200,rows:100},init:function(){var $content,$tree;$content=jQuery('#media__content');$tree=jQuery('#media__tree');if(!$tree.length)return;dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.attachoptions();dw_mediamanager.initpopup();$content .on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','a.select',dw_mediamanager.select).on('click','#media__content a.btn_media_delete',dw_mediamanager.confirmattach).on('submit','#mediamanager__done_form',dw_mediamanager.list);$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $link=$clicky.parent().find('div.li a.idx_dir');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$link[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=medians',show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.on('click','a',dw_mediamanager.list);dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();dw_mediamanager.init_options();dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');$page.find('div.filelist').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.list).on('click','div.panelContent a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#dw__mediasearch',dw_mediamanager.list).on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','.qq-upload-file a',dw_mediamanager.details);$page.find('div.file').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_update',dw_mediamanager.list).on('submit','#page__revisions',dw_mediamanager.details).on('click','#page__revisions a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__save_meta',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_delete',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_restore',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','.btn_newer, .btn_older',dw_mediamanager.details);dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_mediamanager.layout_width=$page.width();jQuery(window).on('resize',dw_mediamanager.window_resize);},init_options:function(){var $options=jQuery('div.filelist div.panelHeader form.options'),$listType,$sortBy,$both;if($options.length===0){return;}$listType=$options.find('li.listType');$sortBy=$options.find('li.sortBy');$both=$listType.add($sortBy);$options.find('button[type=submit]').parent().hide();$both.find('label').each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.children('input').appendTo($this.parent());});$both.find("input[type='radio']").checkboxradio({icon:false});$both.controlgroup();$listType.children('input').change(function(){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();});$sortBy.children('input').change(function(event){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_sort();dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#dw__mediasearch')[0]||this,event);});},initpopup:function(){var opts,$insp,$insbtn;dw_mediamanager.$popup=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id','media__popup_content').dialog({autoOpen:false,width:280,modal:true,draggable:true,title:LANG.mediatitle,resizable:false});opts=[{id:'link',label:LANG.mediatarget,btns:['lnk','direct','nolnk','displaylnk']},{id:'align',label:LANG.mediaalign,btns:['noalign','left','center','right']},{id:'size',label:LANG.mediasize,btns:['small','medium','large','original']}];jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $p,$l;$p=jQuery(document.createElement('p')).attr('id','media__'+opt.id);if(dw_mediamanager.display==="2"){$p.hide();}$l=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).text(opt.label);$p.append($l);jQuery.each(opt.btns,function(i,text){var $btn,$img;$btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('button').attr('id',"media__"+opt.id+"btn"+(i+1)).attr('title',LANG['media'+text]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.setOpt,opt.id));$img=jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/media_'+opt.id+'_'+text+'.png');$btn.append($img);$p.append($btn);});dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($p);});$insp=jQuery(document.createElement('p'));dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($insp);$insbtn=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('id','media__sendbtn').attr('type','button').addClass('button').val(LANG.mediainsert);$insp.append($insbtn);},insert:function(id){var opts,cb,edid,s;dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('close');opts='';if({img:1,swf:1}[dw_mediamanager.ext]===1){if(dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){opts='?linkonly';}else{if(dw_mediamanager.link==="3"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?nolink';}else if(dw_mediamanager.link==="2"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?direct';}s=parseInt(dw_mediamanager.size,10);var size=s*200;if(s&&s>=1&&s<4){opts+=(opts.length)?'&':'?';opts+=size;if(dw_mediamanager.ext==='swf'){switch(s){case 1:opts+='x62';break;case 2:opts+='x123';break;case 3:opts+='x185';break;}}}}}edid=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&edid=([^&]+)/);edid=edid?edid[1]:'wiki__text';cb=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&onselect=([^&]+)/);cb=cb?cb[1].replace(/[^\w]+/,''):'dw_mediamanager_item_select';opener[cb](edid,id,opts,dw_mediamanager.align,dw_mediamanager.keepopen);if(!dw_mediamanager.keepopen){window.close();}opener.focus();return false;},suggest:function(){var $file,$name,text;$file=jQuery(this);$name=jQuery('#upload__name');if($name.val()!='')return;if(!$file.length||!$name.length){return;}text=$file.val();text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('/')+1);text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('\\')+1);$name.val(text);},list:function(event){var $link,$content,params;if(event){event.preventDefault();}jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();$link=jQuery(this);$content=jQuery('#media__content');if($content.length===0){$content=jQuery('div.filelist');if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){jQuery('div.file').empty();jQuery('div.namespaces .selected').removeClass('selected');$link.addClass('selected');}}params='call=medialist&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params);},form_params:function($form){if(!$form.length)return;var action='';var i=$form[0].action.indexOf('?');if(i>=0){action=$form[0].action.substr(i+1);}return action+'&'+$form.serialize();},set_fileview_list:function(new_type){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['list','listType',function(new_type){jQuery('div.filelist div.panelContent ul').toggleClass('rows',new_type==='rows').toggleClass('thumbs',new_type==='thumbs');}],new_type);dw_mediamanager.resize();},set_fileview_sort:function(new_sort){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['sort','sortBy',function(new_sort){}],new_sort);},set_fileview_opt:function(opt,new_val){if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val=jQuery('form.options li.'+opt[1]+' input').filter(':checked').val();if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val='thumbs';}}if(new_val!==dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]){opt[2](new_val);DokuCookie.setValue(opt[0],new_val);dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]=new_val;}},details:function(event){var $link,$content,params,update_list;$link=jQuery(this);event.preventDefault();jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'&&!confirm(LANG.del_confirm)){return false;}if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore'&&!confirm(LANG.restore_confirm)){return false;}$content=jQuery('div.file');params='call=mediadetails&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}update_list=($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'||$link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore');dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params,update_list);},update_content:function($content,params,update_list){var $container;jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){dw_mediamanager.$resizables().resizable('destroy');if(update_list){dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('form.options button[type="submit"]')[0]);}$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.updatehide();dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list(dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list);dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();dw_mediamanager.init_options();},'html');$container=$content.find('div.panelContent');if($container.length===0){$container=$content;}$container.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." class="load" />');},window_resize:function(){dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();},$resizables:function(){return jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.namespaces, div.filelist');},update_resizable:function(){var $resizables=dw_mediamanager.$resizables();$resizables.resizable({handles:(jQuery('html[dir=rtl]').length?'w':'e'),resize:function(event,ui){var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');var widthFull=$page.width();var widthResizables=0;$resizables.each(function(){widthResizables+=jQuery(this).width();});var $filePanel=$page.find('div.panel.file');var widthOtherResizable=widthResizables-jQuery(this).width();var minWidthNonResizable=parseFloat($filePanel.css("min-width"));var maxWidth=widthFull-(widthOtherResizable+minWidthNonResizable)-1;$resizables.resizable("option","maxWidth",maxWidth);var relWidthNonResizable=99.9-(100*widthResizables/widthFull);$filePanel.width(relWidthNonResizable+'%');dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();}});dw_mediamanager.resize();},resize:function(){var $contents=jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.panelContent'),height=jQuery(window).height()-jQuery(document.body).height()+Math.max.apply(null,jQuery.map($contents,function(v){return jQuery(v).height();}));if(height<dw_mediamanager.minHeights[dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list]){$contents.add(dw_mediamanager.$resizables()).height('auto');}else{$contents.height(height);dw_mediamanager.$resizables().each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.height(height+$this.find('div.panelContent').offset().top-$this.offset().top);});}},image_diff:function(){if(jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype').length)return;var $form=jQuery('#mediamanager__form_diffview');if(!$form.length)return;var $label=jQuery(document.createElement('label'));$label.append('<span>'+LANG.media_diff+'</span> ');var $select=jQuery(document.createElement('select')).attr('id','mediamanager__difftype').attr('name','difftype').change(dw_mediamanager.change_diff_type);$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_both,"both"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_opacity,"opacity"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_portions,"portions"));$label.append($select);$form.append($label);var 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img');if(!$image.length)return;$slider.width($image.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",0.999);$slider.slider("option","step",0.001);$slider.slider("option","value",0.5);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image2 img').css({opacity:$slider.slider("option","value")});});},portions_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");if(!$diff.length)return;var $image1=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image1 img');var $image2=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2 img');if(!$image1.length||!$image2.length)return;$diff.width('100%');$image2.parent().width('97%');$image1.width('100%');$image2.width('100%');if($image1.width()<$diff.width()){$diff.width($image1.width());}$image2.parent().width('50%');$image2.width($image1.width());$image1.width($image1.width());var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;$slider.width($image1.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",97);$slider.slider("option","step",1);$slider.slider("option","value",50);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2').css({width:$slider.slider("option","value")+'%'});});},params_toarray:function(str){var vars=[],hash;var hashes=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<hashes.length;i++){hash=hashes[i].split('=');vars[decodeURIComponent(hash[0])]=decodeURIComponent(hash[1]);}return vars;},init_ajax_uploader:function(){if(!jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').length)return;if(jQuery('.qq-upload-list').length)return;var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params(jQuery('#dw__upload'))+'&call=mediaupload';params=dw_mediamanager.params_toarray(params);var uploader=new qq.FileUploaderExtended({element:document.getElementById('mediamanager__uploader'),action:DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params:params});},prepare_content:function($content){$content.find('div.example:visible').hide();$content.find('a.allowedmime').on('click',function(event){event.preventDefault();$toggle=jQuery(this);$list=$toggle.next('span');$list.toggle();}).next('span').hide();},select:function(event){var $link,id,dot,ext;event.preventDefault();$link=jQuery(this);id=$link.attr('id').substr(2);if(!opener){jQuery(document.getElementById('ex_'+id.replace(/:/g,'_').replace(/^_/,''))).dw_toggle();return;}dw_mediamanager.ext=false;dot=id.lastIndexOf(".");if(-1===dot){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}ext=id.substr(dot);if({'.jpg':1,'.jpeg':1,'.png':1,'.gif':1,'.swf':1}[ext]!==1){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}var $sendbtn=jQuery('#media__sendbtn');$sendbtn.off().on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.insert,id));dw_mediamanager.unforbid('ext');if(ext==='.swf'){dw_mediamanager.ext='swf';dw_mediamanager.forbid('ext',{link:['1','2'],size:['4']});}else{dw_mediamanager.ext='img';}dw_mediamanager.setOpt('link');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');jQuery('#media__linkbtn1, #media__linkbtn2, #media__sizebtn4').toggle(dw_mediamanager.ext==='img');dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('open');$sendbtn.focus();},confirmattach:function(e){if(!confirm(LANG.del_confirm+"\n"+jQuery(this).attr('title'))){e.preventDefault();}},attachoptions:function(){var $obj,opts;$obj=jQuery('#media__opts');if($obj.length===0){return;}opts=[];if(opener){opts.push(['keepopen','keepopen']);}opts.push(['hide','hidedetails']);jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $box,$lbl;$box=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('type','checkbox').attr('id','media__'+opt[0]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.toggleOption,opt[0]));if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt[0])){$box.prop('checked',true);dw_mediamanager[opt[0]]=true;}$lbl=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).attr('for','media__'+opt[0]).text(LANG[opt[1]]);$obj.append($box,$lbl,document.createElement('br'));});dw_mediamanager.updatehide();},toggleOption:function(variable){if(jQuery(this).prop('checked')){DokuCookie.setValue(variable,1);dw_mediamanager[variable]=true;}else{DokuCookie.setValue(variable,'');dw_mediamanager[variable]=false;}if(variable==='hide'){dw_mediamanager.updatehide();}},updatehide:function(){jQuery('#media__content').find('div.detail').dw_toggle(!dw_mediamanager.hide);},setOpt:function(opt,e){var val,i;if(typeof e!=='undefined'){val=this.id.substring(this.id.length-1);}else{val=dw_mediamanager.getOpt(opt);}if(val===false){DokuCookie.setValue(opt,'');dw_mediamanager[opt]=false;return;}if(opt==='link'){if(val!=='4'&&dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){dw_mediamanager.unforbid('linkonly');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');}else if(val==='4'){dw_mediamanager.forbid('linkonly',{align:false,size:false});}jQuery("#media__size, #media__align").dw_toggle(val!=='4');}DokuCookie.setValue(opt,val);dw_mediamanager[opt]=val;for(i=1;i<=4;i++){jQuery("#media__"+opt+"btn"+i).removeClass('selected');}jQuery('#media__'+opt+'btn'+val).addClass('selected');},unforbid:function(group){delete dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group];},forbid:function(group,forbids){dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group]=forbids;},allowedOpt:function(opt,val){var ret=true;jQuery.each(dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts,function(_,forbids){ret=forbids[opt]!==false&&jQuery.inArray(val,forbids[opt])===-1;return ret;});return ret;},getOpt:function(opt){var allowed=bind(dw_mediamanager.allowedOpt,opt);if(dw_mediamanager[opt]!==false&&allowed(dw_mediamanager[opt])){return dw_mediamanager[opt];}if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt)&&allowed(DokuCookie.getValue(opt))){return DokuCookie.getValue(opt);}if(opt==='size'&&allowed('2')){return'2';}return jQuery.grep(['1','2','3','4'],allowed)[0]||false;}};function dw_mediamanager_item_select(edid,mediaid,opts,align,keepopen){var alignleft='';var alignright='';var cursorInImageTag=false;var textArea=jQuery('#'+edid)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(textArea);selection.end=selection.end+2;var charsAfterCursor=selection.getText();if(charsAfterCursor==='}}'){cursorInImageTag=true;}if(align!=='1'){alignleft=align==='2'?'':' ';alignright=align==='4'?'':' ';}if(keepopen&&cursorInImageTag){selection.start=selection.start+2;DWsetSelection(selection);}insertTags(edid,'{{'+alignleft+mediaid+opts+alignright+'|','}}','');}jQuery(dw_mediamanager.init);function DEPRECATED(msg){if(!window.console)return;if(!msg)msg='';var func;if(arguments.callee)func=arguments.callee.caller.name;if(func)func=' '+func+'()';var line='DEPRECATED function call'+func+'. 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center',of:target}).hide();return $fndiv;},footnoteDisplay:function(){var $content=jQuery(jQuery(this).attr('href')).parent().siblings('.content').clone();if(!$content.length){return;}jQuery('[id]',$content).each(function(){var id=jQuery(this).attr('id');jQuery(this).attr('id','insitu__'+id);});var content=$content.html().trim();dw_page.insituPopup(this,'insitu__fn').html(content).show().attr('aria-hidden','false');},makeToggle:function(handle,content,state){var $handle,$content,$clicky,$child,setClicky;$handle=jQuery(handle);if(!$handle.length)return;$content=jQuery(content);if(!$content.length)return;$child=$content.children();setClicky=function(hiding){if(hiding){$clicky.html('<span>+</span>');$handle.addClass('closed');$handle.removeClass('open');}else{$clicky.html('<span>−</span>');$handle.addClass('open');$handle.removeClass('closed');}};$handle[0].setState=function(state){var hidden;if(!state)state=1;$content.css('min-height',$content.height()).show();$child.stop(true,true);if(state===-1){hidden=false;}else if(state===1){hidden=true;}else{hidden=$child.is(':hidden');}setClicky(!hidden);$child.dw_toggle(hidden,function(){$content.toggle(hidden);$content.attr('aria-expanded',hidden);$content.css('min-height','');},true);};$clicky=jQuery(document.createElement('strong'));$handle.css('cursor','pointer').on('click',$handle[0].setState).prepend($clicky);$handle[0].setState(state);}};jQuery(dw_page.init);(function($){var fadeOption={duration:150};function toggleLeft(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').show();}function toggleRight(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__tools').show();}function preventParentWheel(e){var curScrollPos=$(this).scrollTop();var scrollableDist=$(this).prop('scrollHeight')-$(this).outerHeight();var wheelEvent=e.originalEvent;var dY=wheelEvent.deltaY;if(dY<0&&curScrollPos<=0){return false;}if(dY>0&&curScrollPos>=scrollableDist){return false;}}function showSearch(){$('div.search').toggle();$('div.search').find('input.edit').select();}function bindEvents(){$('.sidebar').on('wheel scroll',preventParentWheel);$('.btn_left').click(function(){toggleLeft();});$('.btn_right').click(function(){toggleRight();});$('#sidebar_bg').click(function(){$(this).hide('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').hide();$('#dokuwiki__tools').hide();});$('.btn_search').click(function(){showSearch();});$(document).keydown(function(e){if(e.which==70&&e.altKey){showSearch();e.preventDefault();}});}function initUI(){if($('.page h2').length>0){$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertBefore($('.page h2:first'));}else{$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first').next('.level1'));}if($('.page > .level1 > blockquote').length>0){$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page > .level1 > blockquote'));}else{$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first'));}$(window).on("hashchange",function(){window.scrollTo(window.scrollX,window.scrollY-48);});}$(function(){initUI();bindEvents();});})(jQuery);var dw_acl={init:function(){var $tree;if(jQuery('#acl_manager').length===0){return;}jQuery('#acl__user select').on('change',dw_acl.userselhandler);jQuery('#acl__user button').on('click',dw_acl.loadinfo);$tree=jQuery('#acl__tree');$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery.extend(dw_acl.parseatt($clicky.parent().find('a')[0].search),{call:'plugin_acl',ajax:'tree',current_ns:$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(),current_id:$frm.find('input[name=id]').val()}),show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.delegate('a','click',dw_acl.treehandler);},userselhandler:function(){jQuery('#acl__user input').toggle(this.value==='__g__'||this.value==='__u__');dw_acl.loadinfo();},loadinfo:function(){jQuery('#acl__info').attr('role','alert').html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery('#acl__detail form').serialize()+'&call=plugin_acl&ajax=info');return false;},parseatt:function(str){if(str[0]==='?'){str=str.substr(1);}var attributes={};var all=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<all.length;i++){var att=all[i].split('=');attributes[att[0]]=decodeURIComponent(att[1]);}return attributes;},treehandler:function(){var $link,$frm;$link=jQuery(this);jQuery('#acl__tree a.cur').removeClass('cur');$link.addClass('cur');$frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');if($link.hasClass('wikilink1')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val('');$frm.find('input[name=id]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).id);}else if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).ns);$frm.find('input[name=id]').val('');}dw_acl.loadinfo();return false;}};jQuery(dw_acl.init);(function(){var $,AbstractChosen,Chosen,SelectParser,_ref,__hasProp={}.hasOwnProperty,__extends=function(child,parent){for(var key in parent){if(__hasProp.call(parent,key))child[key]=parent[key];}function ctor(){this.constructor=child;}ctor.prototype=parent.prototype;child.prototype=new ctor();child.__super__=parent.prototype;return child;};SelectParser=(function(){function SelectParser(){this.options_index=0;this.parsed=[];}SelectParser.prototype.add_node=function(child){if(child.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTGROUP"){return this.add_group(child);}else{return this.add_option(child);}};SelectParser.prototype.add_group=function(group){var group_position,option,_i,_len,_ref,_results;group_position=this.parsed.length;this.parsed.push({array_index:group_position,group:true,label:this.escapeExpression(group.label),title:group.title?group.title:void 0,children:0,disabled:group.disabled,classes:group.className});_ref=group.childNodes;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];_results.push(this.add_option(option,group_position,group.disabled));}return _results;};SelectParser.prototype.add_option=function(option,group_position,group_disabled){if(option.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTION"){if(option.text!==""){if(group_position!=null){this.parsed[group_position].children+=1;}this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,value:option.value,text:option.text,html:option.innerHTML,title:option.title?option.title:void 0,selected:option.selected,disabled:group_disabled===true?group_disabled:option.disabled,group_array_index:group_position,group_label:group_position!=null?this.parsed[group_position].label:null,classes:option.className,style:option.style.cssText});}else{this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,empty:true});}return this.options_index+=1;}};SelectParser.prototype.escapeExpression=function(text){var map,unsafe_chars;if((text==null)||text===false){return"";}if(!/[\&\<\>\"\'\`]/.test(text)){return text;}map={"<":"<",">":">",'"':""","'":"'","`":"`"};unsafe_chars=/&(?!\w+;)|[\<\>\"\'\`]/g;return text.replace(unsafe_chars,function(chr){return map[chr]||"&";});};return SelectParser;})();SelectParser.select_to_array=function(select){var child,parser,_i,_len,_ref;parser=new SelectParser();_ref=select.childNodes;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){child=_ref[_i];parser.add_node(child);}return parser.parsed;};AbstractChosen=(function(){function AbstractChosen(form_field,options){this.form_field=form_field;this.options=options!=null?options:{};if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return;}this.is_multiple=this.form_field.multiple;this.set_default_text();this.set_default_values();this.setup();this.set_up_html();this.register_observers();this.on_ready();}AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_values=function(){var _this=this;this.click_test_action=function(evt){return _this.test_active_click(evt);};this.activate_action=function(evt){return _this.activate_field(evt);};this.active_field=false;this.mouse_on_container=false;this.results_showing=false;this.result_highlighted=null;this.allow_single_deselect=(this.options.allow_single_deselect!=null)&&(this.form_field.options[0]!=null)&&this.form_field.options[0].text===""?this.options.allow_single_deselect:false;this.disable_search_threshold=this.options.disable_search_threshold||0;this.disable_search=this.options.disable_search||false;this.enable_split_word_search=this.options.enable_split_word_search!=null?this.options.enable_split_word_search:true;this.group_search=this.options.group_search!=null?this.options.group_search:true;this.search_contains=this.options.search_contains||false;this.single_backstroke_delete=this.options.single_backstroke_delete!=null?this.options.single_backstroke_delete:true;this.max_selected_options=this.options.max_selected_options||Infinity;this.inherit_select_classes=this.options.inherit_select_classes||false;this.display_selected_options=this.options.display_selected_options!=null?this.options.display_selected_options:true;this.display_disabled_options=this.options.display_disabled_options!=null?this.options.display_disabled_options:true;return this.include_group_label_in_selected=this.options.include_group_label_in_selected||false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_text=function(){if(this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder")){this.default_text=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder");}else if(this.is_multiple){this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_multiple||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text;}else{this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_single||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_single_text;}return this.results_none_found=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-no_results_text")||this.options.no_results_text||AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choice_label=function(item){if(this.include_group_label_in_selected&&(item.group_label!=null)){return"<b class='group-name'>"+item.group_label+"</b>"+item.html;}else{return item.html;}};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_enter=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_leave=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_focus=function(evt){var _this=this;if(this.is_multiple){if(!this.active_field){return setTimeout((function(){return _this.container_mousedown();}),50);}}else{if(!this.active_field){return this.activate_field();}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_blur=function(evt){var _this=this;if(!this.mouse_on_container){this.active_field=false;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.blur_test();}),100);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_option_build=function(options){var content,data,_i,_len,_ref;content='';_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){data=_ref[_i];if(data.group){content+=this.result_add_group(data);}else{content+=this.result_add_option(data);}if(options!=null?options.first:void 0){if(data.selected&&this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(data);}else if(data.selected&&!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(data));}}}return content;};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_option=function(option){var classes,option_el;if(!option.search_match){return'';}if(!this.include_option_in_results(option)){return'';}classes=[];if(!option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("active-result");}if(option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("disabled-result");}if(option.selected){classes.push("result-selected");}if(option.group_array_index!=null){classes.push("group-option");}if(option.classes!==""){classes.push(option.classes);}option_el=document.createElement("li");option_el.className=classes.join(" ");option_el.style.cssText=option.style;option_el.setAttribute("data-option-array-index",option.array_index);option_el.innerHTML=option.search_text;if(option.title){option_el.title=option.title;}return this.outerHTML(option_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_group=function(group){var classes,group_el;if(!(group.search_match||group.group_match)){return'';}if(!(group.active_options>0)){return'';}classes=[];classes.push("group-result");if(group.classes){classes.push(group.classes);}group_el=document.createElement("li");group_el.className=classes.join(" ");group_el.innerHTML=group.search_text;if(group.title){group_el.title=group.title;}return this.outerHTML(group_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_update_field=function(){this.set_default_text();if(!this.is_multiple){this.results_reset_cleanup();}this.result_clear_highlight();this.results_build();if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.reset_single_select_options=function(){var result,_i,_len,_ref,_results;_ref=this.results_data;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){result=_ref[_i];if(result.selected){_results.push(result.selected=false);}else{_results.push(void 0);}}return _results;};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_toggle=function(){if(this.results_showing){return this.results_hide();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_search=function(evt){if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.winnow_results=function(){var escapedSearchText,option,regex,results,results_group,searchText,startpos,text,zregex,_i,_len,_ref;this.no_results_clear();results=0;searchText=this.get_search_text();escapedSearchText=searchText.replace(/[-[\]{}()*+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&");zregex=new RegExp(escapedSearchText,'i');regex=this.get_search_regex(escapedSearchText);_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];option.search_match=false;results_group=null;if(this.include_option_in_results(option)){if(option.group){option.group_match=false;option.active_options=0;}if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index]){results_group=this.results_data[option.group_array_index];if(results_group.active_options===0&&results_group.search_match){results+=1;}results_group.active_options+=1;}option.search_text=option.group?option.label:option.html;if(!(option.group&&!this.group_search)){option.search_match=this.search_string_match(option.search_text,regex);if(option.search_match&&!option.group){results+=1;}if(option.search_match){if(searchText.length){startpos=option.search_text.search(zregex);text=option.search_text.substr(0,startpos+searchText.length)+'</em>'+option.search_text.substr(startpos+searchText.length);option.search_text=text.substr(0,startpos)+'<em>'+text.substr(startpos);}if(results_group!=null){results_group.group_match=true;}}else if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index].search_match){option.search_match=true;}}}}this.result_clear_highlight();if(results<1&&searchText.length){this.update_results_content("");return this.no_results(searchText);}else{this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build());return this.winnow_results_set_highlight();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.get_search_regex=function(escaped_search_string){var regex_anchor;regex_anchor=this.search_contains?"":"^";return new RegExp(regex_anchor+escaped_search_string,'i');};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_string_match=function(search_string,regex){var part,parts,_i,_len;if(regex.test(search_string)){return true;}else if(this.enable_split_word_search&&(search_string.indexOf(" ")>=0||search_string.indexOf("[")===0)){parts=search_string.replace(/\[|\]/g,"").split(" ");if(parts.length){for(_i=0,_len=parts.length;_i<_len;_i++){part=parts[_i];if(regex.test(part)){return true;}}}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_count=function(){var option,_i,_len,_ref;if(this.selected_option_count!=null){return this.selected_option_count;}this.selected_option_count=0;_ref=this.form_field.options;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];if(option.selected){this.selected_option_count+=1;}}return this.selected_option_count;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();if(!(this.results_showing||this.is_disabled)){return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.keyup_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref;stroke=(_ref=evt.which)!=null?_ref:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();switch(stroke){case 8:if(this.is_multiple&&this.backstroke_length<1&&this.choices_count()>0){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else if(!this.pending_backstroke){this.result_clear_highlight();return this.results_search();}break;case 13:evt.preventDefault();if(this.results_showing){return this.result_select(evt);}break;case 27:if(this.results_showing){this.results_hide();}return true;case 9:case 38:case 40:case 16:case 91:case 17:break;default:return this.results_search();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.clipboard_event_checker=function(evt){var _this=this;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.results_search();}),50);};AbstractChosen.prototype.container_width=function(){if(this.options.width!=null){return this.options.width;}else{return""+this.form_field.offsetWidth+"px";}};AbstractChosen.prototype.include_option_in_results=function(option){if(this.is_multiple&&(!this.display_selected_options&&option.selected)){return false;}if(!this.display_disabled_options&&option.disabled){return false;}if(option.empty){return false;}return true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchstart=function(evt){this.touch_started=true;return this.search_results_mouseover(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchmove=function(evt){this.touch_started=false;return this.search_results_mouseout(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchend=function(evt){if(this.touch_started){return this.search_results_mouseup(evt);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.outerHTML=function(element){var tmp;if(element.outerHTML){return element.outerHTML;}tmp=document.createElement("div");tmp.appendChild(element);return tmp.innerHTML;};AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported=function(){if(window.navigator.appName==="Microsoft Internet Explorer"){return document.documentMode>=8;}if(/iP(od|hone)/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}if(/Android/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){if(/Mobile/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}}return true;};AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text="Select Some Options";AbstractChosen.default_single_text="Select an Option";AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text="No results match";return AbstractChosen;})();$=jQuery;$.fn.extend({chosen:function(options){if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return this;}return this.each(function(input_field){var $this,chosen;$this=$(this);chosen=$this.data('chosen');if(options==='destroy'&&chosen instanceof Chosen){chosen.destroy();}else if(!(chosen instanceof Chosen)){$this.data('chosen',new Chosen(this,options));}});}});Chosen=(function(_super){__extends(Chosen,_super);function Chosen(){_ref=Chosen.__super__.constructor.apply(this,arguments);return _ref;}Chosen.prototype.setup=function(){this.form_field_jq=$(this.form_field);this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.is_rtl=this.form_field_jq.hasClass("chosen-rtl");};Chosen.prototype.set_up_html=function(){var container_classes,container_props;container_classes=["chosen-container"];container_classes.push("chosen-container-"+(this.is_multiple?"multi":"single"));if(this.inherit_select_classes&&this.form_field.className){container_classes.push(this.form_field.className);}if(this.is_rtl){container_classes.push("chosen-rtl");}container_props={'class':container_classes.join(' '),'style':"width: "+(this.container_width())+";",'title':this.form_field.title};if(this.form_field.id.length){container_props.id=this.form_field.id.replace(/[^\w]/g,'_')+"_chosen";}this.container=$("<div />",container_props);if(this.is_multiple){this.container.html('<ul class="chosen-choices"><li class="search-field"><input type="text" value="'+this.default_text+'" class="default" autocomplete="off" style="width:25px;" /></li></ul><div class="chosen-drop"><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}else{this.container.html('<a class="chosen-single chosen-default" tabindex="-1"><span>'+this.default_text+'</span><div><b></b></div></a><div class="chosen-drop"><div class="chosen-search"><input type="text" autocomplete="off" /></div><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}this.form_field_jq.hide().after(this.container);this.dropdown=this.container.find('div.chosen-drop').first();this.search_field=this.container.find('input').first();this.search_results=this.container.find('ul.chosen-results').first();this.search_field_scale();this.search_no_results=this.container.find('li.no-results').first();if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices=this.container.find('ul.chosen-choices').first();this.search_container=this.container.find('li.search-field').first();}else{this.search_container=this.container.find('div.chosen-search').first();this.selected_item=this.container.find('.chosen-single').first();}this.results_build();this.set_tab_index();return this.set_label_behavior();};Chosen.prototype.on_ready=function(){return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:ready",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.register_observers=function(){var _this=this;this.container.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('mousedown.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseenter.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_enter(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseleave.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_leave(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseup(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseover.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseover(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseout.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseout(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mousewheel.chosen DOMMouseScroll.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mousewheel(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchstart(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchmove.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchmove(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchend(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:updated.chosen",function(evt){_this.results_update_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:activate.chosen",function(evt){_this.activate_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:open.chosen",function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:close.chosen",function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('blur.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keyup.chosen',function(evt){_this.keyup_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keydown.chosen',function(evt){_this.keydown_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('focus.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_focus(evt);});this.search_field.bind('cut.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('paste.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});if(this.is_multiple){return this.search_choices.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){_this.choices_click(evt);});}else{return this.container.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){evt.preventDefault();});}};Chosen.prototype.destroy=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);if(this.search_field[0].tabIndex){this.form_field_jq[0].tabIndex=this.search_field[0].tabIndex;}this.container.remove();this.form_field_jq.removeData('chosen');return this.form_field_jq.show();};Chosen.prototype.search_field_disabled=function(){this.is_disabled=this.form_field_jq[0].disabled;if(this.is_disabled){this.container.addClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=true;if(!this.is_multiple){this.selected_item.unbind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}return this.close_field();}else{this.container.removeClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=false;if(!this.is_multiple){return this.selected_item.bind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mousedown=function(evt){if(!this.is_disabled){if(evt&&evt.type==="mousedown"&&!this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}if(!((evt!=null)&&($(evt.target)).hasClass("search-choice-close"))){if(!this.active_field){if(this.is_multiple){this.search_field.val("");}$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).bind('click.chosen',this.click_test_action);this.results_show();}else if(!this.is_multiple&&evt&&(($(evt.target)[0]===this.selected_item[0])||$(evt.target).parents("a.chosen-single").length)){evt.preventDefault();this.results_toggle();}return this.activate_field();}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mouseup=function(evt){if(evt.target.nodeName==="ABBR"&&!this.is_disabled){return this.results_reset(evt);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mousewheel=function(evt){var delta;if(evt.originalEvent){delta=evt.originalEvent.deltaY||-evt.originalEvent.wheelDelta||evt.originalEvent.detail;}if(delta!=null){evt.preventDefault();if(evt.type==='DOMMouseScroll'){delta=delta*40;}return this.search_results.scrollTop(delta+this.search_results.scrollTop());}};Chosen.prototype.blur_test=function(evt){if(!this.active_field&&this.container.hasClass("chosen-container-active")){return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.close_field=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);this.active_field=false;this.results_hide();this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-active");this.clear_backstroke();this.show_search_field_default();return this.search_field_scale();};Chosen.prototype.activate_field=function(){this.container.addClass("chosen-container-active");this.active_field=true;this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());return this.search_field.focus();};Chosen.prototype.test_active_click=function(evt){var active_container;active_container=$(evt.target).closest('.chosen-container');if(active_container.length&&this.container[0]===active_container[0]){return this.active_field=true;}else{return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.results_build=function(){this.parsing=true;this.selected_option_count=null;this.results_data=SelectParser.select_to_array(this.form_field);if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices.find("li.search-choice").remove();}else if(!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text();if(this.disable_search||this.form_field.options.length<=this.disable_search_threshold){this.search_field[0].readOnly=true;this.container.addClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}else{this.search_field[0].readOnly=false;this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}}this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build({first:true}));this.search_field_disabled();this.show_search_field_default();this.search_field_scale();return this.parsing=false;};Chosen.prototype.result_do_highlight=function(el){var high_bottom,high_top,maxHeight,visible_bottom,visible_top;if(el.length){this.result_clear_highlight();this.result_highlight=el;this.result_highlight.addClass("highlighted");maxHeight=parseInt(this.search_results.css("maxHeight"),10);visible_top=this.search_results.scrollTop();visible_bottom=maxHeight+visible_top;high_top=this.result_highlight.position().top+this.search_results.scrollTop();high_bottom=high_top+this.result_highlight.outerHeight();if(high_bottom>=visible_bottom){return this.search_results.scrollTop((high_bottom-maxHeight)>0?high_bottom-maxHeight:0);}else if(high_top<visible_top){return this.search_results.scrollTop(high_top);}}};Chosen.prototype.result_clear_highlight=function(){if(this.result_highlight){this.result_highlight.removeClass("highlighted");}return this.result_highlight=null;};Chosen.prototype.results_show=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}this.container.addClass("chosen-with-drop");this.results_showing=true;this.search_field.focus();this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());this.winnow_results();return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:showing_dropdown",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.update_results_content=function(content){return this.search_results.html(content);};Chosen.prototype.results_hide=function(){if(this.results_showing){this.result_clear_highlight();this.container.removeClass("chosen-with-drop");this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:hiding_dropdown",{chosen:this});}return this.results_showing=false;};Chosen.prototype.set_tab_index=function(el){var ti;if(this.form_field.tabIndex){ti=this.form_field.tabIndex;this.form_field.tabIndex=-1;return this.search_field[0].tabIndex=ti;}};Chosen.prototype.set_label_behavior=function(){var _this=this;this.form_field_label=this.form_field_jq.parents("label");if(!this.form_field_label.length&&this.form_field.id.length){this.form_field_label=$("label[for='"+this.form_field.id+"']");}if(this.form_field_label.length>0){return this.form_field_label.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){if(_this.is_multiple){return _this.container_mousedown(evt);}else{return _this.activate_field();}});}};Chosen.prototype.show_search_field_default=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()<1&&!this.active_field){this.search_field.val(this.default_text);return this.search_field.addClass("default");}else{this.search_field.val("");return this.search_field.removeClass("default");}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseup=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target.length){this.result_highlight=target;this.result_select(evt);return this.search_field.focus();}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseover=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target){return this.result_do_highlight(target);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseout=function(evt){if($(evt.target).hasClass("active-result"||$(evt.target).parents('.active-result').first())){return this.result_clear_highlight();}};Chosen.prototype.choice_build=function(item){var choice,close_link,_this=this;choice=$('<li />',{"class":"search-choice"}).html("<span>"+(this.choice_label(item))+"</span>");if(item.disabled){choice.addClass('search-choice-disabled');}else{close_link=$('<a />',{"class":'search-choice-close','data-option-array-index':item.array_index});close_link.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){return _this.choice_destroy_link_click(evt);});choice.append(close_link);}return this.search_container.before(choice);};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy_link_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();evt.stopPropagation();if(!this.is_disabled){return this.choice_destroy($(evt.target));}};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy=function(link){if(this.result_deselect(link[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index"))){this.show_search_field_default();if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()>0&&this.search_field.val().length<1){this.results_hide();}link.parents('li').first().remove();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset=function(){this.reset_single_select_options();this.form_field.options[0].selected=true;this.single_set_selected_text();this.show_search_field_default();this.results_reset_cleanup();this.form_field_jq.trigger("change");if(this.active_field){return this.results_hide();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset_cleanup=function(){this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.selected_item.find("abbr").remove();};Chosen.prototype.result_select=function(evt){var high,item;if(this.result_highlight){high=this.result_highlight;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}if(this.is_multiple){high.removeClass("active-result");}else{this.reset_single_select_options();}high.addClass("result-selected");item=this.results_data[high[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index")];item.selected=true;this.form_field.options[item.options_index].selected=true;this.selected_option_count=null;if(this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(item);}else{this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(item));}if(!((evt.metaKey||evt.ctrlKey)&&this.is_multiple)){this.results_hide();}this.search_field.val("");if(this.is_multiple||this.form_field.selectedIndex!==this.current_selectedIndex){this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{'selected':this.form_field.options[item.options_index].value});}this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;evt.preventDefault();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.single_set_selected_text=function(text){if(text==null){text=this.default_text;}if(text===this.default_text){this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-default");}else{this.single_deselect_control_build();this.selected_item.removeClass("chosen-default");}return this.selected_item.find("span").html(text);};Chosen.prototype.result_deselect=function(pos){var result_data;result_data=this.results_data[pos];if(!this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].disabled){result_data.selected=false;this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].selected=false;this.selected_option_count=null;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.results_showing){this.winnow_results();}this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{deselected:this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].value});this.search_field_scale();return true;}else{return false;}};Chosen.prototype.single_deselect_control_build=function(){if(!this.allow_single_deselect){return;}if(!this.selected_item.find("abbr").length){this.selected_item.find("span").first().after("<abbr class=\"search-choice-close\"></abbr>");}return this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-single-with-deselect");};Chosen.prototype.get_search_text=function(){return $('<div/>').text($.trim(this.search_field.val())).html();};Chosen.prototype.winnow_results_set_highlight=function(){var do_high,selected_results;selected_results=!this.is_multiple?this.search_results.find(".result-selected.active-result"):[];do_high=selected_results.length?selected_results.first():this.search_results.find(".active-result").first();if(do_high!=null){return this.result_do_highlight(do_high);}};Chosen.prototype.no_results=function(terms){var no_results_html;no_results_html=$('<li class="no-results">'+this.results_none_found+' "<span></span>"</li>');no_results_html.find("span").first().html(terms);this.search_results.append(no_results_html);return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:no_results",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.no_results_clear=function(){return this.search_results.find(".no-results").remove();};Chosen.prototype.keydown_arrow=function(){var next_sib;if(this.results_showing&&this.result_highlight){next_sib=this.result_highlight.nextAll("li.active-result").first();if(next_sib){return this.result_do_highlight(next_sib);}}else{return this.results_show();}};Chosen.prototype.keyup_arrow=function(){var prev_sibs;if(!this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){return this.results_show();}else if(this.result_highlight){prev_sibs=this.result_highlight.prevAll("li.active-result");if(prev_sibs.length){return this.result_do_highlight(prev_sibs.first());}else{if(this.choices_count()>0){this.results_hide();}return this.result_clear_highlight();}}};Chosen.prototype.keydown_backstroke=function(){var next_available_destroy;if(this.pending_backstroke){this.choice_destroy(this.pending_backstroke.find("a").first());return this.clear_backstroke();}else{next_available_destroy=this.search_container.siblings("li.search-choice").last();if(next_available_destroy.length&&!next_available_destroy.hasClass("search-choice-disabled")){this.pending_backstroke=next_available_destroy;if(this.single_backstroke_delete){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else{return this.pending_backstroke.addClass("search-choice-focus");}}}};Chosen.prototype.clear_backstroke=function(){if(this.pending_backstroke){this.pending_backstroke.removeClass("search-choice-focus");}return this.pending_backstroke=null;};Chosen.prototype.keydown_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref1;stroke=(_ref1=evt.which)!=null?_ref1:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();if(stroke!==8&&this.pending_backstroke){this.clear_backstroke();}switch(stroke){case 8:this.backstroke_length=this.search_field.val().length;break;case 9:if(this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){this.result_select(evt);}this.mouse_on_container=false;break;case 13:if(this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 32:if(this.disable_search){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 38:evt.preventDefault();this.keyup_arrow();break;case 40:evt.preventDefault();this.keydown_arrow();break;}};Chosen.prototype.search_field_scale=function(){var div,f_width,h,style,style_block,styles,w,_i,_len;if(this.is_multiple){h=0;w=0;style_block="position:absolute; left: -1000px; top: -1000px; display:none;";styles=['font-size','font-style','font-weight','font-family','line-height','text-transform','letter-spacing'];for(_i=0,_len=styles.length;_i<_len;_i++){style=styles[_i];style_block+=style+":"+this.search_field.css(style)+";";}div=$('<div />',{'style':style_block});div.text(this.search_field.val());$('body').append(div);w=div.width()+25;div.remove();f_width=this.container.outerWidth();if(w>f_width-10){w=f_width-10;}return this.search_field.css({'width':w+'px'});}};return Chosen;})(AbstractChosen);}).call(this);(function(){'use strict';jQuery(function(){var $animalSelect=jQuery('select.farmer_chosen_animals');$animalSelect.chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,allow_single_deselect:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});jQuery('select.acl_chosen').chosen({disable_search:true,width:'100%'});var $formAllAnimals=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforall');$formAllAnimals.find('select').change(function(){$formAllAnimals.find('button').prop('disabled',false);}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.pluginSelect});var $formSingleAnimal=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforone');$formSingleAnimal.find('select').change(function(){var animal=jQuery(this).val();$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',true);jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPlugins_'+animal},function(data){$formSingleAnimal.find('div.output').html(data);$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',false);},'html')}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});var $formPluginMatrix=jQuery('#farmer__pluginmatrix').hide();$formPluginMatrix.on('click','td',function(){var $td=jQuery(this);$td.html('⌛').css('background-color','transparent');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_modPlugin',plugin:$td.data('plugin'),ani:$td.data('animal')},function(data){$td.replaceWith(data);},'html');});function showMatrix(){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPluginMatrix'},function(data){$formPluginMatrix.html(data);$formPluginMatrix.show();},'html')}$animalSelect.on('chosen:showing_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'20em'},400);}).on('chosen:hiding_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'7px'},400);});var $aclPolicyFieldset=jQuery('#aclPolicyFieldset');if($aclPolicyFieldset.length){$animalSelect.on('change',function(evt,params){var $this=jQuery(this);if($this.val()===''){$aclPolicyFieldset.slideDown();}else{$aclPolicyFieldset.slideUp();}});}jQuery("input[name=bulkSingleSwitch]:radio").change(function(){if(jQuery('#farmer__bulk').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.show();$formSingleAnimal.hide();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else if(jQuery('#farmer__single').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.show();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else{$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.hide();showMatrix();}});jQuery('#farmer__bulk').click();});})();var plugin_fastwiki=(function($){var m_viewMode,m_origViewMode,m_prevView;var m_isSecedit,m_wasSecedit;var m_hasDraft;var m_pageObjs={};var m_content;var m_initialId;var m_debug=document.location.host=='localhost';var m_cache=new CPageCache(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_per_page,JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_batchsize,m_debug);var m_supportedActions={'':1,edit:1,draft:1,history:1,recent:1,revisions:1,show:1,subscribe:1,backlink:1,index:1,profile:1,media:1,diff:1,save:1};var m_modeClassElt;var m_browserHistory=new CBrowserHistory();$(function(){if(document.location.href.indexOf("detail.php")>=0)m_viewMode='unsupported';else{var urlParams=_urlToObj(document.location.href);m_viewMode=urlParams['do']||'show';if(!m_supportedActions[m_viewMode])m_viewMode='unsupported';else if(window.tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support&&!(m_viewMode in tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support))m_viewMode='unsupported';}m_origViewMode=m_viewMode;m_content=$('.plugin_fastwiki_marker').parent();m_content.addClass('content_initial');m_initialId=m_content.attr('id');m_modeClassElt=m_content.hasClass('dokuwiki')?m_content:$(m_content.parents('.dokuwiki')[0]||document.body);$(window).trigger('fastwiki:init',[m_viewMode]);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastpages)fixActionLinks(document.body);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow&&(m_origViewMode!='show'||!window.history||!history.pushState))JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow)m_browserHistory.init(load);});function fixActionLinks(elt){if(m_origViewMode=='unsupported')return;var formActions={search:1};var supportedFields={'do':1,rev:1,id:1};$('a[href *= "?do="]',elt).click(function(e){var curPathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');var aPathId=this.href.replace(/\?.*$/,'').replace(/:/g,'/');if(aPathId.substr(-curPathId.length)==curPathId){var params=_urlToObj(this.href);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';if(params['do']in m_supportedActions){e.preventDefault();load(params['do'],null,params);}}});$('input[type="submit"], input[type="button"], button',elt).click(function(e){var form=$(this).parents('form');if(form.length>0&&form[0]['do']&&form[0]['do'].value in m_supportedActions){var supported=true;$('input[type != "submit"]',form).each(function(idx,elt){if(elt.type!='button'&&(elt.type!='hidden'||!(elt.name in supportedFields)))supported=false;});if(supported){e.preventDefault();var params=_formToObj(form[0]);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';load(params['do'],null,params);}}});if(m_origViewMode=='show'&&window.JSINFO){var pathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');$('a',elt).click(function(e){var href=this.getAttribute('href');if(href&&href.indexOf('://')<0){if(href.match(m_browserHistory.getSelfRefRegex())){load('show');e.preventDefault();}else if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow){var numParams=href.split('=').length;if(href.indexOf('id=')>=0)numParams--;if(numParams==1){if(m_browserHistory.switchBasePath(href)){m_viewMode=null;e.preventDefault();}}}}});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.secedit){$('.editbutton_section .btn_secedit input[type=submit], .editbutton_section .btn_secedit button',elt).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var form=$(this).parents('form');load('edit',form,_formToObj(form));});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload)m_cache.load(elt,m_browserHistory);}function _preview(sectionForm){var body=$(document.body);var params=_formToObj($('#dw__editform'));params['do']='preview';_sendPartial(params,$('.dokuwiki .editBox'),function(data){var preview=$('<div id="preview_container">'+data+'</div>');var pvEditor=preview.find('#dw__editform');var editor=$('#dw__editform')[0];pvEditor.find('input[type=hidden]').each(function(idx,elt){editor[elt.name].value=elt.value;});preview.find('#scroll__here').prevAll().remove();var oldpreview=$('#preview_container');if(oldpreview.length>0)oldpreview.replaceWith(preview);else $('.content_partial').append(preview);setTimeout(function(){$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:$('#scroll__here').offset().top+'px'},300);},1);},'text');}function _getSection(sectionForm){var pieces=$();var target=sectionForm.parent();var nr=target.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2];while(target.length>0&&!(target.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||target.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){target=target.prev();if(target.hasClass('section_highlight'))pieces=pieces.add(target.children());pieces=pieces.add(target);}return pieces;}function _focusEdit(){var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0&&!$edit_text.attr('readOnly')){var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){setTimeout(function(){try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){}},500);}$edit_text.focus();}}function _initEdit(){if(!window.doku_summaryCheck){window.doku_summaryCheck=window.summaryCheck;}dw_editor.init();dw_locktimer.init(JSINFO.fastwiki.locktime,JSINFO.fastwiki.usedraft);var $editform=$('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0)return;var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');$editform.on("change keydown",function(e){window.textChanged=true;doku_summaryCheck();});m_pageObjs.content=$edit_text.val();window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged&&m_pageObjs.content!=$edit_text.val())return LANG.notsavedyet;};window.onunload=deleteDraft;$('#edbtn__preview').click(function(e){if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preview){e.preventDefault();_preview(m_pageObjs.sectionForm);m_hasDraft=true;dw_locktimer.reset();}else{window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;}});$('#edit__summary').on("change keyup",doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);$('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');$('#edbtn__save').click(function(e){textChanged=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.save&&m_origViewMode=='show'&&$edit_text.val().length>0&&m_pageObjs.content.length>0){e.preventDefault();load('save',null,_formToObj($('#dw__editform')));}else m_cache.remove(JSINFO.id);window.onbeforeunload='';dw_locktimer.clear();});$('input[name="do[draftdel]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var id=$editform.find('input[name=id]').val();load('show');if(!window.keepDraft){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:id,success:function(data,textStatus,jqXHR){m_hasDraft=false;}});}});$('input[name="do[show]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();load('show');});$('.picker.pk_hl').addClass('dokuwiki');}function _setBodyClass(action,target){for(var k in 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null;};jQuery(':button').click(function(e){doreload=false;});if(window.opener)applyPreview(window.opener);DokuCookie.setValue('styling_plugin',1);});jQuery(function(){var $frm=jQuery('#translation__dropdown');if(!$frm.length)return;$frm.find('input[name=go]').hide();$frm.find('select[name=id]').change(function(){var id=jQuery(this).val();var action=$frm.attr('action');if(action.substr(action.length-1)=='/'){var link=action+id;}else{var link=action+'?id='+id;}window.location.href=link;});});jQuery(function(){jQuery('#usrmgr__del').on('click',function(){return confirm(LANG.del_confirm);});});jQuery(function(){dw_locktimer.init(840,1);}); diff --git a/data/cache/5/5e43d2fadf1aed1099c85e8eb636b5c4.js.gz b/data/cache/5/5e43d2fadf1aed1099c85e8eb636b5c4.js.gz Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c724e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/5/5e43d2fadf1aed1099c85e8eb636b5c4.js.gz diff --git a/data/cache/5/5efc9f55c4035c888c7b0bdaeeb389de.js 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relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(!relatedTarget||relatedTarget.nodeName=="HTML"){dropArea.style.display='none';}});},_onSubmit:function(id,fileName){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onSubmit.apply(this,arguments);this._addToList(id,fileName);},_onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onProgress.apply(this,arguments);var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);var size=this._find(item,'size');size.style.display='inline';var text;if(loaded!=total){text=Math.round(loaded/total*100)+'% from '+this._formatSize(total);}else{text=this._formatSize(total);}qq.setText(size,text);},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onComplete.apply(this,arguments);var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,this._formatFileName(fileName));this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';this._listElement.appendChild(item);},_getItemByFileId:function(id){var item=this._listElement.firstChild;while(item){if(item.qqFileId==id)return item;item=item.nextSibling;}},_bindCancelEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(list,'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;if(qq.hasClass(target,self._classes.cancel)){qq.preventDefault(e);var item=target.parentNode;self._handler.cancel(item.qqFileId);qq.remove(item);}});}});qq.UploadDropZone=function(o){this._options={element:null,onEnter:function(e){},onLeave:function(e){},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){},onDrop:function(e){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._disableDropOutside();this._attachEvents();};qq.UploadDropZone.prototype={_disableDropOutside:function(e){if(!qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled){qq.attach(document,'dragover',function(e){if(e.dataTransfer){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='none';e.preventDefault();}});qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled=true;}},_attachEvents:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(self._element,'dragover',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var effect=e.dataTransfer.effectAllowed;if(effect=='move'||effect=='linkMove'){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='move';}else{e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='copy';}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();});qq.attach(self._element,'dragenter',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onEnter(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'dragleave',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onLeave(e);var relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(qq.contains(this,relatedTarget))return;self._options.onLeaveNotDescendants(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'drop',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;e.preventDefault();self._options.onDrop(e);});},_isValidFileDrag:function(e){var dt=e.dataTransfer,isWebkit=navigator.userAgent.indexOf("AppleWebKit")>-1;return dt&&dt.effectAllowed!='none'&&(dt.files||(!isWebkit&&dt.types.contains&&dt.types.contains('Files')));}};qq.UploadButton=function(o){this._options={element:null,multiple:false,name:'file',onChange:function(input){},hoverClass:'qq-upload-button-hover',focusClass:'qq-upload-button-focus'};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;qq.css(this._element,{position:'relative',overflow:'hidden',direction:'ltr'});this._input=this._createInput();};qq.UploadButton.prototype={getInput:function(){return this._input;},reset:function(){if(this._input.parentNode){qq.remove(this._input);}qq.removeClass(this._element,this._options.focusClass);this._input=this._createInput();},_createInput:function(){var input=document.createElement("input");if(this._options.multiple){input.setAttribute("multiple","multiple");}input.setAttribute("type","file");input.setAttribute("name",this._options.name);qq.css(input,{position:'absolute',right:0,top:0,fontFamily:'Arial',fontSize:'118px',margin:0,padding:0,cursor:'pointer',opacity:0});this._element.appendChild(input);var self=this;qq.attach(input,'change',function(){self._options.onChange(input);});qq.attach(input,'mouseover',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'mouseout',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'focus',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});qq.attach(input,'blur',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});if(window.attachEvent){input.setAttribute('tabIndex',"-1");}return input;}};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/upload.php',maxConnections:999,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,response){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._queue=[];this._params=[];};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype={log:function(str){if(this._options.debug&&window.console)console.log('[uploader] '+str);},add:function(file){},upload:function(id,params){var len=this._queue.push(id);var copy={};qq.extend(copy,params);this._params[id]=copy;if(len<=this._options.maxConnections){this._upload(id,this._params[id]);}},cancel:function(id){this._cancel(id);this._dequeue(id);},cancelAll:function(){for(var i=0;i<this._queue.length;i++){this._cancel(this._queue[i]);}this._queue=[];},getName:function(id){},getSize:function(id){},getQueue:function(){return this._queue;},_upload:function(id){},_cancel:function(id){},_dequeue:function(id){var i=qq.indexOf(this._queue,id);this._queue.splice(i,1);var max=this._options.maxConnections;if(this._queue.length>=max&&i<max){var nextId=this._queue[max-1];this._upload(nextId,this._params[nextId]);}}};qq.UploadHandlerForm=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._inputs={};};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{add:function(fileInput){fileInput.setAttribute('name','qqfile');var id='qq-upload-handler-iframe'+qq.getUniqueId();this._inputs[id]=fileInput;if(fileInput.parentNode){qq.remove(fileInput);}return id;},getName:function(id){return this._inputs[id].value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));delete this._inputs[id];var iframe=document.getElementById(id);if(iframe){iframe.setAttribute('src','javascript:false;');qq.remove(iframe);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;},_attachLoadEvent:function(iframe,callback){qq.attach(iframe,'load',function(){if(!iframe.parentNode){return;}if(iframe.contentDocument&&iframe.contentDocument.body&&iframe.contentDocument.body.innerHTML=="false"){return;}callback();});},_getIframeContentJSON:function(iframe){var doc=iframe.contentDocument?iframe.contentDocument:iframe.contentWindow.document,response;this.log("converting iframe's innerHTML to JSON");this.log("innerHTML = "+doc.body.innerHTML);try{response=eval("("+doc.body.innerHTML+")");}catch(err){response={};}return response;},_createIframe:function(id){var iframe=qq.toElement('<iframe src="javascript:false;" name="'+id+'" />');iframe.setAttribute('id',id);iframe.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(iframe);return iframe;},_createForm:function(iframe,params){var form=qq.toElement('<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"></form>');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);form.setAttribute('action',queryString);form.setAttribute('target',iframe.name);form.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(form);return form;}});qq.UploadHandlerXhr=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._files=[];this._xhrs=[];this._loaded=[];};qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported=function(){var input=document.createElement('input');input.type='file';return('multiple'in input&&typeof File!="undefined"&&typeof(new XMLHttpRequest()).upload!="undefined");};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{add:function(file){if(!(file instanceof File)){throw new Error('Passed obj in not a File (in qq.UploadHandlerXhr)');}return this._files.push(file)-1;},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},getLoaded:function(id){return this._loaded[id]||0;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_onComplete:function(id,xhr){if(!this._files[id])return;var name=this.getName(id);var size=this.getSize(id);this._options.onProgress(id,name,size,size);if(xhr.status==200){this.log("xhr - server response received");this.log("responseText = "+xhr.responseText);var response;try{response=eval("("+xhr.responseText+")");}catch(err){response={};}this._options.onComplete(id,name,response);}else{this._options.onComplete(id,name,{});}this._files[id]=null;this._xhrs[id]=null;this._dequeue(id);},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));this._files[id]=null;if(this._xhrs[id]){this._xhrs[id].abort();this._xhrs[id]=null;}}});qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);},onUpload:function(){self._onUpload();}});return handler;},_onUpload:function(){this._handler.uploadAll(this._options.params);},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,fileName);this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';var nameElement=this._find(item,'nameInput');fileName=fileName.toLowerCase();fileName=fileName.replace(/([ !"#$%&\'()+,\/;<=>?@[\]^`{|}~:]+)/g,'_');fileName=fileName.replace(/^_+/,'');nameElement.value=fileName;nameElement.id='mediamanager__upload_item'+id;this._listElement.appendChild(item);}});qq.FileUploaderExtended=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>'+LANG.media_drop+'</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">'+LANG.media_select+'</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'<div class="qq-action-container">'+' <button class="qq-upload-action" type="submit" id="mediamanager__upload_button">'+LANG.media_upload_btn+'</button>'+' <label class="qq-overwrite-check"><input type="checkbox" value="1" name="ow" class="dw__ow"> <span>'+LANG.media_overwrt+'</span></label>'+'</div>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file hidden"></span>'+' <input class="qq-upload-name-input edit" type="text" value="" />'+' <span class="qq-upload-spinner hidden"></span>'+' <span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+' <a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">'+LANG.media_cancel+'</a>'+' <span class="qq-upload-failed-text error">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',nameInput:'qq-upload-name-input',overwriteInput:'qq-overwrite-check',uploadButton:'qq-upload-action',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail',failedText:'qq-upload-failed-text'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._bindUploadEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,qq.FileUploader.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,{_bindUploadEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_button'),'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;qq.preventDefault(e);self._handler._options.onUpload();jQuery(".qq-upload-name-input").each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',true);});});},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));var nameInput=this._find(item,'nameInput');var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,nameInput.value);qq.removeClass(fileElement,'hidden');qq.remove(nameInput);jQuery('.qq-upload-button, #mediamanager__upload_button').remove();jQuery('.dw__ow').parent().hide();jQuery('.qq-upload-drop-area').remove();if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);$link='<a href="'+result.link+'" id="h_:'+result.id+'" class="select">'+nameInput.value+'</a>';jQuery(fileElement).html($link);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);var fail=this._find(item,'failedText');if(result.error)qq.setText(fail,result.error);}if(document.getElementById('media__content')&&!document.getElementById('mediamanager__done_form')){var action=document.location.href;var i=action.indexOf('?');if(i)action=action.substr(0,i);var button='<form method="post" action="'+action+'" id="mediamanager__done_form"><div>';button+='<input type="hidden" value="'+result.ns+'" name="ns">';button+='<input type="hidden" value="1" name="recent">';button+='<button type="submit">'+LANG.media_done_btn+'</button></div></form>';jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').append(button);}}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._inputs[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{return null;}}},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._inputs){this.upload(key,params);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var nameInput=qq.toElement('<input name="mediaid" value="'+fileName+'" type="text">');form.appendChild(nameInput);var checked=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var owCheckbox=jQuery('.dw__ow').clone();owCheckbox.attr('checked',checked);jQuery(form).append(owCheckbox);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;}else{return null;}}},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];if(file==null)return null;return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);if(name==null||size==null)return;this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;params['ow']=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._files){this.upload(key,params);}}});function substr_replace(str,replace,start,length){var a2,b1;a2=(start<0?str.length:0)+start;if(typeof length==='undefined'){length=str.length-a2;}else if(length<0&&start<0&&length<=start){length=0;}b1=(length<0?str.length:a2)+length;return str.substring(0,a2)+replace+str.substring(b1);}function bind(fnc){var Aps=Array.prototype.slice,static_args=Aps.call(arguments,1);return function(){return fnc.apply(this,static_args.concat(Aps.call(arguments,0)));};}function logError(e,file){if(window.console&&console.error){console.error('The error "%s: %s" occurred in file "%s". '+'If this is in a plugin try updating or disabling the plugin, '+'if this is in a template try updating the template or switching to the "dokuwiki" template.',e.name,e.message,file);if(e.stack){console.error(e.stack);}}}var timer={_cur_id:0,_handlers:{},execDispatch:function(id){timer._handlers[id]();},add:function(func,timeout){var id=++timer._cur_id;timer._handlers[id]=func;return window.setTimeout('timer.execDispatch('+id+')',timeout);}};function Delay(func,timeout){this.func=func;if(timeout){this.timeout=timeout;}}Delay.prototype={func:null,timeout:500,delTimer:function(){if(this.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(this.timer);this.timer=null;}},start:function(){DEPRECATED('don\'t use the Delay object, use window.timeout with a callback instead');this.delTimer();var 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text,parts,i;if(!jQuery.isEmptyObject(this.data)){return;}text=jQuery.cookie(this.name);if(text){parts=text.split('#');for(i=0;i<parts.length;i+=2){this.data[decodeURIComponent(parts[i])]=decodeURIComponent(parts[i+1]);}}}};if('function'===typeof jQuery&&'function'===typeof jQuery.noConflict){jQuery.noConflict();}var clientPC=navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase();var is_macos=navigator.appVersion.indexOf('Mac')!=-1;var is_gecko=((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('khtml')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));var is_safari=((clientPC.indexOf('applewebkit')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));var is_khtml=(navigator.vendor=='KDE'||(document.childNodes&&!document.all&&!navigator.taintEnabled));if(clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1){var is_opera=true;var is_opera_preseven=(window.opera&&!document.childNodes);var is_opera_seven=(window.opera&&document.childNodes);}function closePopups(){jQuery('div.JSpopup').hide();}jQuery(function(){jQuery(document).on('click',closePopups);});jQuery.fn.dw_qsearch=function(overrides){var dw_qsearch={output:'#qsearch__out',$inObj:this,$outObj:null,timer:null,curRequest:null,init:function(){var do_qsearch;dw_qsearch.$outObj=jQuery(dw_qsearch.output);if(dw_qsearch.$inObj.length===0||dw_qsearch.$outObj.length===0){return;}do_qsearch=function(){if(dw_qsearch.curRequest!=null){dw_qsearch.curRequest.abort();}var value=dw_qsearch.getSearchterm();if(value===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').addClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'qsearch',q:encodeURI(value)},dw_qsearch.onCompletion,'html');};dw_qsearch.$inObj.on('keyup',function(){if(dw_qsearch.timer){window.clearTimeout(dw_qsearch.timer);dw_qsearch.timer=null;}dw_qsearch.timer=window.setTimeout(do_qsearch,500);});dw_qsearch.$outObj.on('click',dw_qsearch.clear_results);},getSearchterm:function(){return dw_qsearch.$inObj.val();},clear_results:function(){dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.$outObj.hide();dw_qsearch.$outObj.text('');},onCompletion:function(data){var max,$links,too_big;dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=null;if(data===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$outObj .html(data).show().css('white-space','nowrap');dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','visible');$links=dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('a');max=dw_qsearch.$outObj[0].clientWidth;if(document.documentElement.dir==='rtl'){max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-left'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetLeft<0;};}else{max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-right'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetWidth+l.offsetLeft>max;};}$links.each(function(){var start,length,replace,nsL,nsR,eli,runaway;if(!too_big(this)){return;}nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');eli=0;runaway=0;while((nsR-nsL>3)&&too_big(this)&&runaway++<500){if(eli!==0){if((eli-nsL)>(nsR-eli)){start=eli-2;length=2;}else{start=eli+1;length=1;}replace='';}else{start=Math.floor(nsL+((nsR-nsL)/2));length=1;replace='…';}this.textContent=substr_replace(this.textContent,replace,start,length);eli=this.textContent.indexOf('…');nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');}});dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','hidden').css('text-overflow','ellipsis');}};jQuery.extend(dw_qsearch,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_qsearch.init();}return dw_qsearch;};jQuery(function(){jQuery('#qsearch__in').dw_qsearch({output:'#qsearch__out'});});jQuery(function(){'use strict';var $searchForm=jQuery('.search-results-form');if(!$searchForm.length){return;}var $toggleAssistanceButton=jQuery('<button>').addClass('toggleAssistant').attr('type','button').attr('aria-expanded','false').text(LANG.search_toggle_tools).prependTo($searchForm.find('fieldset'));$toggleAssistanceButton.on('click',function(){jQuery('.advancedOptions').toggle(0,function(){var $me=jQuery(this);if($me.attr('aria-hidden')){$me.removeAttr('aria-hidden');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','true');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','on');}else{$me.attr('aria-hidden','true');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','false');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','off');}});});if(DokuCookie.getValue('sa')==='on'){$toggleAssistanceButton.trigger('click');}$searchForm.find('.advancedOptions .toggle div.current').on('click',function(){var $me=jQuery(this);$me.parent().siblings().removeClass('open');$me.parent().siblings().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');$me.parent().toggleClass('open');if($me.parent().hasClass('open')){$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','true');}else{$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');}});});jQuery.fn.dw_tree=function(overrides){var dw_tree={throbber_delay:500,$obj:this,toggle_selector:'a.idx_dir',init:function(){this.$obj.on('click',this.toggle_selector,this,this.toggle);jQuery('ul:first',this.$obj).attr('role','tree');jQuery('ul',this.$obj).not(':first').attr('role','group');jQuery('li',this.$obj).attr('role','treeitem');jQuery('li.open > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','true');jQuery('li.closed > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','false');jQuery('li.closed',this.$obj).attr('aria-live','assertive');},toggle:function(e){var $listitem,$sublist,timeout,$clicky,show_sublist,dw_tree,opening;e.preventDefault();dw_tree=e.data;$clicky=jQuery(this);$listitem=$clicky.closest('li');$sublist=$listitem.find('ul').first();opening=$listitem.hasClass('closed');dw_tree.toggle_display($clicky,opening);if($sublist.is(':visible')){$listitem.removeClass('open').addClass('closed');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','false');}else{$listitem.removeClass('closed').addClass('open');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','true');}if(!opening){$sublist.dw_hide();return;}show_sublist=function(data){$sublist.hide();if(typeof data!=='undefined'){$sublist.html(data);$sublist.parent().attr('aria-busy','false').removeAttr('aria-live');jQuery('li.closed',$sublist).attr('aria-live','assertive');}if($listitem.hasClass('open')){$sublist.dw_show();}};if($sublist.length>0){show_sublist();return;}$sublist=jQuery('<ul class="idx" role="group"/>');$listitem.append($sublist);timeout=window.setTimeout(bind(show_sublist,'<li aria-busy="true"><img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="loading..." title="loading..." /></li>'),dw_tree.throbber_delay);dw_tree.load_data(function(data){window.clearTimeout(timeout);show_sublist(data);},$clicky);},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){},load_data:function(show_data,$clicky){show_data();}};jQuery.extend(dw_tree,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_tree.init();}return dw_tree;};var dw_index=jQuery('#index__tree').dw_tree({deferInit:true,load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$clicky[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=index',show_sublist,'html');}});jQuery(function(){var $tree=jQuery('#index__tree');dw_index.$obj=$tree;dw_index.init();});function selection_class(){this.start=0;this.end=0;this.obj=null;this.scroll=0;this.fix=0;this.getLength=function(){return this.end-this.start;};this.getText=function(){return(!this.obj)?'':this.obj.value.substring(this.start,this.end);};}function DWgetSelection(textArea){var sel=new selection_class();textArea.focus();sel.obj=textArea;sel.start=textArea.selectionStart;sel.end=textArea.selectionEnd;sel.scroll=textArea.scrollTop;return sel;}function DWsetSelection(selection){selection.obj.setSelectionRange(selection.start,selection.end);if(selection.scroll)selection.obj.scrollTop=selection.scroll;}function pasteText(selection,text,opts){if(!opts)opts={};selection.obj.value=selection.obj.value.substring(0,selection.start)+text+selection.obj.value.substring(selection.end,selection.obj.value.length);if(is_opera){selection.end=selection.start+text.replace(/\r?\n/g,'\r\n').length;}else{selection.end=selection.start+text.length;}if(opts.startofs)selection.start+=opts.startofs;if(opts.endofs)selection.end-=opts.endofs;if(opts.nosel)selection.start=selection.end;DWsetSelection(selection);}function insertTags(textAreaID,tagOpen,tagClose,sampleText){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);var text=selection.getText();var opts;if(text.charAt(text.length-1)==' '){selection.end--;text=selection.getText();}if(!text){text=sampleText;opts={startofs:tagOpen.length,endofs:tagClose.length};}else{opts={nosel:true};}text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;pasteText(selection,text,opts);}function insertAtCarret(textAreaID,text){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);pasteText(selection,text,{nosel:true});}var pickercounter=0;function initToolbar(tbid,edid,tb,allowblock){var $toolbar,$edit;if(typeof tbid=='string'){$toolbar=jQuery('#'+tbid);}else{$toolbar=jQuery(tbid);}$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($toolbar.length==0||$edit.length==0||$edit.attr('readOnly')){return;}if(typeof allowblock==='undefined'){allowblock=true;}$toolbar.html('');jQuery.each(tb,function(k,val){if(!tb.hasOwnProperty(k)||(!allowblock&&val.block===true)){return;}var actionFunc,$btn;$btn=jQuery(createToolButton(val.icon,val.title,val.key,val.id,val['class']));actionFunc='tb_'+val.type;if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){$btn.on('click',bind(window[actionFunc],$btn,val,edid));$toolbar.append($btn);return;}actionFunc='addBtnAction'+val.type.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+val.type.substring(1);if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){var pickerid=window[actionFunc]($btn,val,edid);if(pickerid!==''){$toolbar.append($btn);$btn.attr('aria-controls',pickerid);if(actionFunc==='addBtnActionPicker'){$btn.attr('aria-haspopup','true');}}return;}alert('unknown toolbar type: '+val.type+' '+actionFunc);});}function tb_format(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title;insertTags(edid,fixtxt(props.open),fixtxt(props.close),fixtxt(sample));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_formatln(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title,opts,selection=DWgetSelection(jQuery('#'+edid)[0]);sample=fixtxt(sample);props.open=fixtxt(props.open);props.close=fixtxt(props.close);if(selection.getLength()){sample=selection.getText();opts={nosel:true};}else{opts={startofs:props.open.length,endofs:props.close.length};}sample=sample.split("\n").join(props.close+"\n"+props.open);sample=props.open+sample+props.close;pasteText(selection,sample,opts);pickerClose();return false;}function tb_insert(btn,props,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,fixtxt(props.insert));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_mediapopup(btn,props,edid){window.open(DOKU_BASE+props.url+encodeURIComponent(NS)+'&edid='+encodeURIComponent(edid),props.name,props.options);return false;}function tb_autohead(btn,props,edid){var lvl=currentHeadlineLevel(edid),tags;lvl+=props.mod;if(lvl<1)lvl=1;if(lvl>5)lvl=5;tags=(new Array(8-lvl)).join('=');insertTags(edid,tags+' ',' '+tags+"\n",props.text);pickerClose();return false;}function addBtnActionPicker($btn,props,edid){var pickerid='picker'+(pickercounter++);var picker=createPicker(pickerid,props,edid);jQuery(picker).attr('aria-hidden','true');$btn.click(function(e){pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn);e.preventDefault();return'';});return pickerid;}function addBtnActionLinkwiz($btn,props,edid){dw_linkwiz.init(jQuery('#'+edid));jQuery($btn).click(function(e){dw_linkwiz.val=props;dw_linkwiz.toggle();e.preventDefault();return'';});return'link__wiz';}function pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn){var $picker=jQuery('#'+pickerid),pos=$btn.offset();if($picker.hasClass('a11y')){$picker.removeClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','false');}else{$picker.addClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','true');}var picker_left=pos.left+3,picker_width=$picker.width(),window_width=jQuery(window).width();if(picker_width>300){$picker.css("max-width","300");picker_width=300;}if((picker_left+picker_width+40)>window_width){picker_left=window_width-picker_width-40;}if(picker_left<0){picker_left=0;}$picker.offset({left:picker_left,top:pos.top+$btn[0].offsetHeight+3});}function pickerClose(){jQuery('.picker').addClass('a11y');}function fixtxt(str){return str.replace(/\\n/g,"\n");}jQuery(function(){initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);jQuery('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');});function createToolButton(icon,label,key,id,classname){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')),$ico=jQuery(document.createElement('img'));$btn.addClass('toolbutton');if(classname){$btn.addClass(classname);}$btn.attr('title',label).attr('aria-controls','wiki__text');if(key){$btn.attr('title',label+' ['+key.toUpperCase()+']').attr('accessKey',key);}if(id){$btn.attr('id',id);$ico.attr('id',id+'_ico');}if(icon.substr(0,1)!=='/'){icon=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/toolbar/'+icon;}$ico.attr('src',icon);$ico.attr('alt','');$ico.attr('width',16);$ico.attr('height',16);$btn.append($ico);return $btn[0];}function createPicker(id,props,edid){var $picker=jQuery(document.createElement('div'));$picker.addClass('picker a11y');if(props['class']){$picker.addClass(props['class']);}$picker.attr('id',id).css('position','absolute');function $makebutton(title){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('pickerbutton').attr('title',title).attr('aria-controls',edid).on('click',bind(pickerInsert,title,edid)).appendTo($picker);return $btn;}jQuery.each(props.list,function(key,item){if(!props.list.hasOwnProperty(key)){return;}if(isNaN(key)){if(item.substr(0,1)!=='/'){item=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+props.icobase+'/'+item;}jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',item).attr('alt','').appendTo($makebutton(key));}else if(typeof item=='string'){$makebutton(item).text(item);}else{initToolbar($picker,edid,props.list);return false;}});jQuery('body').append($picker);return $picker[0];}function pickerInsert(text,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,text);pickerClose();}function addBtnActionSignature($btn,props,edid){if(typeof SIG!='undefined'&&SIG!=''){$btn.on('click',function(e){insertAtCarret(edid,SIG);e.preventDefault();});return edid;}return'';}function currentHeadlineLevel(textboxId){var field=jQuery('#'+textboxId)[0],s=false,opts=[field.value.substr(0,DWgetSelection(field).start)];if(field.form&&field.form.prefix){opts.push(field.form.prefix.value);}jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var str="\n"+opt,lasthl=str.lastIndexOf("\n==");if(lasthl!==-1){s=str.substr(lasthl+1,6);return false;}});if(s===false){return 0;}return 7-s.match(/^={2,6}/)[0].length;}window.textChanged=false;window.doku_edit_text_content='';function deleteDraft(){if(is_opera||window.keepDraft){return;}var $dwform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($dwform.length===0){return;}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:$dwform.find('input[name=id]').val()});}jQuery(function(){var $editform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0){return;}var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){if($edit_text.attr('readOnly')){return;}var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;DWsetSelection(sel);$edit_text.trigger('focus');doku_edit_text_content=$edit_text.val();}var changeHandler=function(){doku_hasTextBeenModified();doku_summaryCheck();};$editform.change(changeHandler);$editform.keydown(changeHandler);window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged){return LANG.notsavedyet;}};window.onunload=deleteDraft;jQuery('#edbtn__save').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;});jQuery('#edbtn__preview').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;});var $summary=jQuery('#edit__summary');$summary.on('change keyup',doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();});function doku_hasTextBeenModified(){if(!textChanged){var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){textChanged=doku_edit_text_content!=$edit_text.val();}else{textChanged=true;}}}function doku_summaryCheck(){var $sum=jQuery('#edit__summary'),missing=$sum.val()==='';$sum.toggleClass('missing',missing).toggleClass('edit',!missing);}var dw_editor={init:function(){var $editor=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($editor.length===0){return;}dw_editor.initSizeCtl('#size__ctl',$editor);if($editor.attr('readOnly')){return;}$editor.keydown(dw_editor.keyHandler);},initSizeCtl:function(ctlarea,editor){var $ctl=jQuery(ctlarea),$textarea=jQuery(editor);if($ctl.length===0||$textarea.length===0){return;}$textarea.css('height',DokuCookie.getValue('sizeCtl')||'300px');var wrp=DokuCookie.getValue('wrapCtl');if(wrp){dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],wrp);}jQuery.each([['larger',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,100);}],['smaller',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,-100);}],['wrap',function(){dw_editor.toggleWrap(editor);}]],function(_,img){jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+img[0]+'.gif').attr('alt','').on('click',img[1]).appendTo($ctl);});},sizeCtl:function(editor,val){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),height=parseInt($textarea.css('height'))+val;$textarea.css('height',height+'px');DokuCookie.setValue('sizeCtl',$textarea.css('height'));},toggleWrap:function(editor){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),wrap=$textarea.attr('wrap');dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],(wrap&&wrap.toLowerCase()=='off')?'soft':'off');DokuCookie.setValue('wrapCtl',$textarea.attr('wrap'));},setWrap:function(textarea,wrapAttrValue){textarea.setAttribute('wrap',wrapAttrValue);var parNod=textarea.parentNode;var nxtSib=textarea.nextSibling;parNod.removeChild(textarea);parNod.insertBefore(textarea,nxtSib);},keyHandler:function(e){if(jQuery.inArray(e.keyCode,[8,10,13,32])===-1){return;}var selection=DWgetSelection(this);if(selection.getLength()>0){return;}var search="\n"+this.value.substr(0,selection.start);var linestart=Math.max(search.lastIndexOf("\n"),search.lastIndexOf("\r"));search=search.substr(linestart);if((e.keyCode==13||e.keyCode==10)&&e.ctrlKey){jQuery('#edbtn__save').trigger('click');e.preventDefault();return false;}else if(e.keyCode==13){var match=search.match(/(\n +([\*-] ?)?)/);if(match){var scroll=this.scrollHeight;var match2=search.match(/^\n +[\*-]\s*$/);if(match2&&this.value.substr(selection.start).match(/^($|\r?\n)/)){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+"\n"+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart+1;selection.end=linestart+1;DWsetSelection(selection);}else{insertAtCarret(this.id,match[1]);}this.scrollTop+=(this.scrollHeight-scroll);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==8){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] ?)$/);if(match){var spaces=match[1].length-1;if(spaces>3){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(linestart+2);selection.start=selection.start-2;selection.end=selection.start;}else{this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart;selection.end=linestart;}DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==32){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] )$/);if(match){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+' '+this.value.substr(linestart);selection.start=selection.start+2;selection.end=selection.start;DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}}};jQuery(dw_editor.init);var dw_locktimer={timeout:0,draft:false,timerID:null,lasttime:null,msg:LANG.willexpire,pageid:'',fieldsToSaveAsDraft:['input[name=prefix]','textarea[name=wikitext]','input[name=suffix]','input[name=date]',],callbacks:[],init:function(timeout,draft,edid){var $edit;edid=edid||'wiki__text';$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($edit.length===0||$edit.attr('readonly')){return;}dw_locktimer.timeout=timeout*1000;dw_locktimer.draft=draft;dw_locktimer.lasttime=new Date();dw_locktimer.pageid=jQuery('#dw__editform').find('input[name=id]').val();if(!dw_locktimer.pageid){return;}$edit.keypress(dw_locktimer.refresh);dw_locktimer.reset();},addField:function(selector){dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.push(selector);},addRefreshCallback:function(callback){dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(callback);},reset:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();dw_locktimer.timerID=window.setTimeout(dw_locktimer.warning,dw_locktimer.timeout);},warning:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();alert(fixtxt(dw_locktimer.msg));},clear:function(){if(dw_locktimer.timerID!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_locktimer.timerID);dw_locktimer.timerID=null;}},refresh:function(){var now=new Date(),params='call=lock&id='+dw_locktimer.pageid+'&';if(now.getTime()-dw_locktimer.lasttime.getTime()<=30*1000){return;}if(dw_locktimer.draft&&jQuery('#dw__editform').find('textarea[name=wikitext]').length>0){params+=jQuery('#dw__editform').find(dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.join(', ')).serialize();}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,null,'json').done(function dwLocktimerRefreshDoneHandler(data){dw_locktimer.callbacks.forEach(function(callback){callback(data);});});dw_locktimer.lasttime=now;},refreshed:function(data){if(data.errors.length){data.errors.forEach(function(error){jQuery('#draft__status').after(jQuery('<div class="error"></div>').text(error));})}jQuery('#draft__status').html(data.draft);if(data.lock!=='1'){return;}dw_locktimer.reset();}};dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(dw_locktimer.refreshed);var dw_linkwiz={$wiz:null,$entry:null,result:null,timer:null,textArea:null,selected:null,selection:null,init:function($editor){var pos=$editor.position();if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz)return;dw_linkwiz.$wiz=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).dialog({autoOpen:false,draggable:true,title:LANG.linkwiz,resizable:false}).html('<div>'+LANG.linkto+' <input type="text" class="edit" id="link__wiz_entry" autocomplete="off" /></div>'+'<div id="link__wiz_result"></div>').parent().attr('id','link__wiz').css({'position':'absolute','top':(pos.top+20)+'px','left':(pos.left+80)+'px'}).hide().appendTo('.dokuwiki:first');dw_linkwiz.textArea=$editor[0];dw_linkwiz.result=jQuery('#link__wiz_result')[0];jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).css('position','relative');dw_linkwiz.$entry=jQuery('#link__wiz_entry');if(JSINFO.namespace){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(JSINFO.namespace+':');}jQuery('#link__wiz .ui-dialog-titlebar-close').on('click',dw_linkwiz.hide);dw_linkwiz.$entry.keyup(dw_linkwiz.onEntry);jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).on('click','a',dw_linkwiz.onResultClick);},onEntry:function(e){if(e.keyCode==37||e.keyCode==39){return true;}if(e.keyCode==27){dw_linkwiz.hide();e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==38){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected-1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==40){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected+1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==13){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected);if($obj.length>0){dw_linkwiz.resultClick($obj.find('a')[0]);}}else if(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val());}e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();},getResult:function(num){DEPRECATED('use dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0] instead');return dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0]||null;},$getResult:function(num){return jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).find('div').eq(num);},select:function(num){if(num<0){dw_linkwiz.deselect();return;}var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(num);if($obj.length===0){return;}dw_linkwiz.deselect();$obj.addClass('selected');var childPos=$obj.position().top;var yDiff=childPos+$obj.outerHeight()-jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).innerHeight();if(childPos<0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=childPos;}else if(yDiff>0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=yDiff;}dw_linkwiz.selected=num;},deselect:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected).removeClass('selected');}dw_linkwiz.selected=-1;},onResultClick:function(e){if(!jQuery(this).is('a')){return;}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();dw_linkwiz.resultClick(this);return false;},resultClick:function(a){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(a.title);if(a.title==''||a.title.substr(a.title.length-1)==':'){dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec();}else{if(jQuery(a.nextSibling).is('span')){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(a.nextSibling.innerHTML);}else{dw_linkwiz.insertLink('');}}},insertLink:function(title){var link=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(),sel,stxt;if(!link){return;}sel=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);if(sel.start==0&&sel.end==0){sel=dw_linkwiz.selection;}stxt=sel.getText();if(stxt.charAt(stxt.length-1)==' '){sel.end--;stxt=sel.getText();}if(!stxt&&!DOKU_UHC){stxt=title;}if(dw_linkwiz.textArea.form.id.value.indexOf(':')!=-1&&link.indexOf(':')==-1){link=':'+link;}var so=link.length;var eo=0;if(dw_linkwiz.val){if(dw_linkwiz.val.open){so+=dw_linkwiz.val.open.length;link=dw_linkwiz.val.open+link;}link+='|';so+=1;if(stxt){link+=stxt;}if(dw_linkwiz.val.close){link+=dw_linkwiz.val.close;eo=dw_linkwiz.val.close.length;}}pasteText(sel,link,{startofs:so,endofs:eo});dw_linkwiz.hide();var externallinkpattern=new RegExp('^((f|ht)tps?:)?//','i'),entry_value;if(externallinkpattern.test(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val())){if(JSINFO.namespace){entry_value=JSINFO.namespace+':';}else{entry_value='';}}else{entry_value=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val().replace(/[^:]*$/,'')}dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(entry_value);},autocomplete:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_linkwiz.timer);dw_linkwiz.timer=null;}dw_linkwiz.timer=window.setTimeout(dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec,350);},autocomplete_exec:function(){var $res=jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result);dw_linkwiz.deselect();$res.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="" width="16" height="16" />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'linkwiz',q:dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()});},show:function(){dw_linkwiz.selection=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);dw_linkwiz.$wiz.show();dw_linkwiz.$entry.focus();dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();var temp=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val();dw_linkwiz.$entry.val('');dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(temp);},hide:function(){dw_linkwiz.$wiz.hide();dw_linkwiz.textArea.focus();},toggle:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz.css('display')=='none'){dw_linkwiz.show();}else{dw_linkwiz.hide();}}};var dw_mediamanager={keepopen:false,hide:false,popup:false,display:false,ext:false,$popup:null,align:false,link:false,size:false,forbidden_opts:{},view_opts:{list:false,sort:false},layout_width:0,minHeights:{thumbs:200,rows:100},init:function(){var $content,$tree;$content=jQuery('#media__content');$tree=jQuery('#media__tree');if(!$tree.length)return;dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.attachoptions();dw_mediamanager.initpopup();$content .on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','a.select',dw_mediamanager.select).on('click','#media__content a.btn_media_delete',dw_mediamanager.confirmattach).on('submit','#mediamanager__done_form',dw_mediamanager.list);$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $link=$clicky.parent().find('div.li a.idx_dir');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$link[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=medians',show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.on('click','a',dw_mediamanager.list);dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();dw_mediamanager.init_options();dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');$page.find('div.filelist').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.list).on('click','div.panelContent a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#dw__mediasearch',dw_mediamanager.list).on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','.qq-upload-file a',dw_mediamanager.details);$page.find('div.file').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_update',dw_mediamanager.list).on('submit','#page__revisions',dw_mediamanager.details).on('click','#page__revisions a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__save_meta',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_delete',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_restore',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','.btn_newer, .btn_older',dw_mediamanager.details);dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_mediamanager.layout_width=$page.width();jQuery(window).on('resize',dw_mediamanager.window_resize);},init_options:function(){var $options=jQuery('div.filelist div.panelHeader form.options'),$listType,$sortBy,$both;if($options.length===0){return;}$listType=$options.find('li.listType');$sortBy=$options.find('li.sortBy');$both=$listType.add($sortBy);$options.find('button[type=submit]').parent().hide();$both.find('label').each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.children('input').appendTo($this.parent());});$both.find("input[type='radio']").checkboxradio({icon:false});$both.controlgroup();$listType.children('input').change(function(){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();});$sortBy.children('input').change(function(event){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_sort();dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#dw__mediasearch')[0]||this,event);});},initpopup:function(){var opts,$insp,$insbtn;dw_mediamanager.$popup=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id','media__popup_content').dialog({autoOpen:false,width:280,modal:true,draggable:true,title:LANG.mediatitle,resizable:false});opts=[{id:'link',label:LANG.mediatarget,btns:['lnk','direct','nolnk','displaylnk']},{id:'align',label:LANG.mediaalign,btns:['noalign','left','center','right']},{id:'size',label:LANG.mediasize,btns:['small','medium','large','original']}];jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $p,$l;$p=jQuery(document.createElement('p')).attr('id','media__'+opt.id);if(dw_mediamanager.display==="2"){$p.hide();}$l=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).text(opt.label);$p.append($l);jQuery.each(opt.btns,function(i,text){var $btn,$img;$btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('button').attr('id',"media__"+opt.id+"btn"+(i+1)).attr('title',LANG['media'+text]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.setOpt,opt.id));$img=jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/media_'+opt.id+'_'+text+'.png');$btn.append($img);$p.append($btn);});dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($p);});$insp=jQuery(document.createElement('p'));dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($insp);$insbtn=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('id','media__sendbtn').attr('type','button').addClass('button').val(LANG.mediainsert);$insp.append($insbtn);},insert:function(id){var opts,cb,edid,s;dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('close');opts='';if({img:1,swf:1}[dw_mediamanager.ext]===1){if(dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){opts='?linkonly';}else{if(dw_mediamanager.link==="3"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?nolink';}else if(dw_mediamanager.link==="2"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?direct';}s=parseInt(dw_mediamanager.size,10);var size=s*200;if(s&&s>=1&&s<4){opts+=(opts.length)?'&':'?';opts+=size;if(dw_mediamanager.ext==='swf'){switch(s){case 1:opts+='x62';break;case 2:opts+='x123';break;case 3:opts+='x185';break;}}}}}edid=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&edid=([^&]+)/);edid=edid?edid[1]:'wiki__text';cb=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&onselect=([^&]+)/);cb=cb?cb[1].replace(/[^\w]+/,''):'dw_mediamanager_item_select';opener[cb](edid,id,opts,dw_mediamanager.align,dw_mediamanager.keepopen);if(!dw_mediamanager.keepopen){window.close();}opener.focus();return false;},suggest:function(){var $file,$name,text;$file=jQuery(this);$name=jQuery('#upload__name');if($name.val()!='')return;if(!$file.length||!$name.length){return;}text=$file.val();text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('/')+1);text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('\\')+1);$name.val(text);},list:function(event){var $link,$content,params;if(event){event.preventDefault();}jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();$link=jQuery(this);$content=jQuery('#media__content');if($content.length===0){$content=jQuery('div.filelist');if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){jQuery('div.file').empty();jQuery('div.namespaces .selected').removeClass('selected');$link.addClass('selected');}}params='call=medialist&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params);},form_params:function($form){if(!$form.length)return;var action='';var i=$form[0].action.indexOf('?');if(i>=0){action=$form[0].action.substr(i+1);}return action+'&'+$form.serialize();},set_fileview_list:function(new_type){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['list','listType',function(new_type){jQuery('div.filelist div.panelContent ul').toggleClass('rows',new_type==='rows').toggleClass('thumbs',new_type==='thumbs');}],new_type);dw_mediamanager.resize();},set_fileview_sort:function(new_sort){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['sort','sortBy',function(new_sort){}],new_sort);},set_fileview_opt:function(opt,new_val){if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val=jQuery('form.options li.'+opt[1]+' input').filter(':checked').val();if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val='thumbs';}}if(new_val!==dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]){opt[2](new_val);DokuCookie.setValue(opt[0],new_val);dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]=new_val;}},details:function(event){var $link,$content,params,update_list;$link=jQuery(this);event.preventDefault();jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'&&!confirm(LANG.del_confirm)){return false;}if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore'&&!confirm(LANG.restore_confirm)){return false;}$content=jQuery('div.file');params='call=mediadetails&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}update_list=($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'||$link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore');dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params,update_list);},update_content:function($content,params,update_list){var $container;jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){dw_mediamanager.$resizables().resizable('destroy');if(update_list){dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('form.options button[type="submit"]')[0]);}$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.updatehide();dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list(dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list);dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();dw_mediamanager.init_options();},'html');$container=$content.find('div.panelContent');if($container.length===0){$container=$content;}$container.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." class="load" />');},window_resize:function(){dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();},$resizables:function(){return jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.namespaces, div.filelist');},update_resizable:function(){var $resizables=dw_mediamanager.$resizables();$resizables.resizable({handles:(jQuery('html[dir=rtl]').length?'w':'e'),resize:function(event,ui){var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');var widthFull=$page.width();var widthResizables=0;$resizables.each(function(){widthResizables+=jQuery(this).width();});var $filePanel=$page.find('div.panel.file');var widthOtherResizable=widthResizables-jQuery(this).width();var minWidthNonResizable=parseFloat($filePanel.css("min-width"));var maxWidth=widthFull-(widthOtherResizable+minWidthNonResizable)-1;$resizables.resizable("option","maxWidth",maxWidth);var relWidthNonResizable=99.9-(100*widthResizables/widthFull);$filePanel.width(relWidthNonResizable+'%');dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();}});dw_mediamanager.resize();},resize:function(){var $contents=jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.panelContent'),height=jQuery(window).height()-jQuery(document.body).height()+Math.max.apply(null,jQuery.map($contents,function(v){return jQuery(v).height();}));if(height<dw_mediamanager.minHeights[dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list]){$contents.add(dw_mediamanager.$resizables()).height('auto');}else{$contents.height(height);dw_mediamanager.$resizables().each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.height(height+$this.find('div.panelContent').offset().top-$this.offset().top);});}},image_diff:function(){if(jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype').length)return;var $form=jQuery('#mediamanager__form_diffview');if(!$form.length)return;var $label=jQuery(document.createElement('label'));$label.append('<span>'+LANG.media_diff+'</span> ');var $select=jQuery(document.createElement('select')).attr('id','mediamanager__difftype').attr('name','difftype').change(dw_mediamanager.change_diff_type);$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_both,"both"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_opacity,"opacity"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_portions,"portions"));$label.append($select);$form.append($label);var select=document.getElementById('mediamanager__difftype');select.options[0].text=LANG.media_diff_both;select.options[1].text=LANG.media_diff_opacity;select.options[2].text=LANG.media_diff_portions;},change_diff_type:function(){var $select=jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype');var $content=jQuery('#mediamanager__diff');var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params($select.closest('form'))+'&call=mediadiff';jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();},'html');},opacity_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;var $image=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image1 img');if(!$image.length)return;$slider.width($image.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",0.999);$slider.slider("option","step",0.001);$slider.slider("option","value",0.5);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image2 img').css({opacity:$slider.slider("option","value")});});},portions_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");if(!$diff.length)return;var $image1=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image1 img');var $image2=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2 img');if(!$image1.length||!$image2.length)return;$diff.width('100%');$image2.parent().width('97%');$image1.width('100%');$image2.width('100%');if($image1.width()<$diff.width()){$diff.width($image1.width());}$image2.parent().width('50%');$image2.width($image1.width());$image1.width($image1.width());var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;$slider.width($image1.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",97);$slider.slider("option","step",1);$slider.slider("option","value",50);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2').css({width:$slider.slider("option","value")+'%'});});},params_toarray:function(str){var vars=[],hash;var hashes=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<hashes.length;i++){hash=hashes[i].split('=');vars[decodeURIComponent(hash[0])]=decodeURIComponent(hash[1]);}return vars;},init_ajax_uploader:function(){if(!jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').length)return;if(jQuery('.qq-upload-list').length)return;var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params(jQuery('#dw__upload'))+'&call=mediaupload';params=dw_mediamanager.params_toarray(params);var uploader=new qq.FileUploaderExtended({element:document.getElementById('mediamanager__uploader'),action:DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params:params});},prepare_content:function($content){$content.find('div.example:visible').hide();$content.find('a.allowedmime').on('click',function(event){event.preventDefault();$toggle=jQuery(this);$list=$toggle.next('span');$list.toggle();}).next('span').hide();},select:function(event){var $link,id,dot,ext;event.preventDefault();$link=jQuery(this);id=$link.attr('id').substr(2);if(!opener){jQuery(document.getElementById('ex_'+id.replace(/:/g,'_').replace(/^_/,''))).dw_toggle();return;}dw_mediamanager.ext=false;dot=id.lastIndexOf(".");if(-1===dot){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}ext=id.substr(dot);if({'.jpg':1,'.jpeg':1,'.png':1,'.gif':1,'.swf':1}[ext]!==1){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}var $sendbtn=jQuery('#media__sendbtn');$sendbtn.off().on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.insert,id));dw_mediamanager.unforbid('ext');if(ext==='.swf'){dw_mediamanager.ext='swf';dw_mediamanager.forbid('ext',{link:['1','2'],size:['4']});}else{dw_mediamanager.ext='img';}dw_mediamanager.setOpt('link');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');jQuery('#media__linkbtn1, #media__linkbtn2, #media__sizebtn4').toggle(dw_mediamanager.ext==='img');dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('open');$sendbtn.focus();},confirmattach:function(e){if(!confirm(LANG.del_confirm+"\n"+jQuery(this).attr('title'))){e.preventDefault();}},attachoptions:function(){var $obj,opts;$obj=jQuery('#media__opts');if($obj.length===0){return;}opts=[];if(opener){opts.push(['keepopen','keepopen']);}opts.push(['hide','hidedetails']);jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $box,$lbl;$box=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('type','checkbox').attr('id','media__'+opt[0]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.toggleOption,opt[0]));if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt[0])){$box.prop('checked',true);dw_mediamanager[opt[0]]=true;}$lbl=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).attr('for','media__'+opt[0]).text(LANG[opt[1]]);$obj.append($box,$lbl,document.createElement('br'));});dw_mediamanager.updatehide();},toggleOption:function(variable){if(jQuery(this).prop('checked')){DokuCookie.setValue(variable,1);dw_mediamanager[variable]=true;}else{DokuCookie.setValue(variable,'');dw_mediamanager[variable]=false;}if(variable==='hide'){dw_mediamanager.updatehide();}},updatehide:function(){jQuery('#media__content').find('div.detail').dw_toggle(!dw_mediamanager.hide);},setOpt:function(opt,e){var val,i;if(typeof e!=='undefined'){val=this.id.substring(this.id.length-1);}else{val=dw_mediamanager.getOpt(opt);}if(val===false){DokuCookie.setValue(opt,'');dw_mediamanager[opt]=false;return;}if(opt==='link'){if(val!=='4'&&dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){dw_mediamanager.unforbid('linkonly');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');}else if(val==='4'){dw_mediamanager.forbid('linkonly',{align:false,size:false});}jQuery("#media__size, #media__align").dw_toggle(val!=='4');}DokuCookie.setValue(opt,val);dw_mediamanager[opt]=val;for(i=1;i<=4;i++){jQuery("#media__"+opt+"btn"+i).removeClass('selected');}jQuery('#media__'+opt+'btn'+val).addClass('selected');},unforbid:function(group){delete dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group];},forbid:function(group,forbids){dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group]=forbids;},allowedOpt:function(opt,val){var ret=true;jQuery.each(dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts,function(_,forbids){ret=forbids[opt]!==false&&jQuery.inArray(val,forbids[opt])===-1;return ret;});return ret;},getOpt:function(opt){var allowed=bind(dw_mediamanager.allowedOpt,opt);if(dw_mediamanager[opt]!==false&&allowed(dw_mediamanager[opt])){return dw_mediamanager[opt];}if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt)&&allowed(DokuCookie.getValue(opt))){return DokuCookie.getValue(opt);}if(opt==='size'&&allowed('2')){return'2';}return jQuery.grep(['1','2','3','4'],allowed)[0]||false;}};function dw_mediamanager_item_select(edid,mediaid,opts,align,keepopen){var alignleft='';var alignright='';var cursorInImageTag=false;var textArea=jQuery('#'+edid)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(textArea);selection.end=selection.end+2;var charsAfterCursor=selection.getText();if(charsAfterCursor==='}}'){cursorInImageTag=true;}if(align!=='1'){alignleft=align==='2'?'':' ';alignright=align==='4'?'':' ';}if(keepopen&&cursorInImageTag){selection.start=selection.start+2;DWsetSelection(selection);}insertTags(edid,'{{'+alignleft+mediaid+opts+alignright+'|','}}','');}jQuery(dw_mediamanager.init);function DEPRECATED(msg){if(!window.console)return;if(!msg)msg='';var func;if(arguments.callee)func=arguments.callee.caller.name;if(func)func=' '+func+'()';var line='DEPRECATED function call'+func+'. '+msg;if(console.warn){console.warn(line);}else{console.log(line);}if(console.trace)console.trace();}function DEPRECATED_WRAP(func,context){return function(){DEPRECATED();return func.apply(context||this,arguments);};}jQuery.fn.dw_hide=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','false');return this.slideUp('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_show=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','true');return this.slideDown('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_toggle=function(state,fn,noaria){return this.each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);if(typeof state==='undefined'){state=$this.is(':hidden');}$this[state?"dw_show":"dw_hide"](fn,noaria);});};var dw_behaviour={init:function(){dw_behaviour.focusMarker();dw_behaviour.scrollToMarker();dw_behaviour.removeHighlightOnClick();dw_behaviour.quickSelect();dw_behaviour.checkWindowsShares();dw_behaviour.subscription();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();jQuery(document).on('click','#page__revisions input[type=checkbox]',dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler);jQuery('.bounce').effect('bounce',{times:10},2000);},scrollToMarker:function(){var $obj=jQuery('#scroll__here');if($obj.length){if($obj.offset().top!=0){jQuery('html, body').animate({scrollTop:$obj.offset().top-100},500);}else{$obj[0].scrollIntoView();}}},focusMarker:function(){jQuery('#focus__this').trigger('focus');},removeHighlightOnClick:function(){jQuery('span.search_hit').on('click',function(e){jQuery(e.target).removeClass('search_hit',1000);});},quickSelect:function(){jQuery('select.quickselect').on('change',function(e){e.target.form.submit();}).closest('form').find(':button').not('.show').hide();},checkWindowsShares:function(){if(!LANG.nosmblinks||navigator.userAgent.match(/(Trident|MSIE|Edge)/)){return;}jQuery('a.windows').on('click',function(){alert(LANG.nosmblinks.replace(/\\n/,"\n"));});},subscription:function(){var $form,$list,$digest;$form=jQuery('#subscribe__form');if(0===$form.length)return;$list=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='list']");$digest=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='digest']");$form.find("input[name='sub_target']").on('click',function(){var $this=jQuery(this),show_list;if(!$this.prop('checked')){return;}show_list=$this.val().match(/:$/);$list.parent().dw_toggle(show_list);if(!show_list&&$list.prop('checked')){$digest.prop('checked','checked');}}).filter(':checked').trigger('click');},revisionBoxHandler:function(){var $revisions=jQuery('#page__revisions');var $all=jQuery('input[type=checkbox]',$revisions);var $checked=$all.filter(':checked');var $button=jQuery('button',$revisions);if($checked.length<2){$all.prop('disabled',false);$button.prop('disabled',true);}else{$all.prop('disabled',true);$button.prop('disabled',false);$checked.each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',false);if(i>1){jQuery(this).prop('checked',false);}});}}};jQuery(dw_behaviour.init);dw_page={init:function(){dw_page.sectionHighlight();dw_page.currentIDHighlight();jQuery('a.fn_top').on('mouseover',dw_page.footnoteDisplay);dw_page.makeToggle('#dw__toc h3','#dw__toc > div');},sectionHighlight:function(){jQuery('form.btn_secedit').on('mouseover',function(){var $tgt=jQuery(this).parent(),nr=$tgt.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2],$highlight=jQuery(),$highlightWrap=jQuery('<div class="section_highlight"></div>');while($tgt.length>0&&!($tgt.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||$tgt.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){$tgt=$tgt.prev();$highlight=$highlight.add($tgt);}$highlight.filter(':last').before($highlightWrap);$highlight.detach().appendTo($highlightWrap);}).on('mouseout',function(){var $highlightWrap=jQuery('.section_highlight');$highlightWrap.before($highlightWrap.children().detach());$highlightWrap.detach();});},currentIDHighlight:function(){jQuery('a.wikilink1, a.wikilink2').filter('[data-wiki-id="'+JSINFO.id+'"]').wrap('<span class="curid"></div>');},insituPopup:function(target,popup_id){var $fndiv=jQuery('#'+popup_id);if($fndiv.length===0){$fndiv=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id',popup_id).addClass('insitu-footnote JSpopup').attr('aria-hidden','true').on('mouseleave',function(){jQuery(this).hide().attr('aria-hidden','true');}).attr('role','tooltip');jQuery('.dokuwiki:first').append($fndiv);}$fndiv.show().position({my:'left top',at:'left center',of:target}).hide();return $fndiv;},footnoteDisplay:function(){var $content=jQuery(jQuery(this).attr('href')).parent().siblings('.content').clone();if(!$content.length){return;}jQuery('[id]',$content).each(function(){var id=jQuery(this).attr('id');jQuery(this).attr('id','insitu__'+id);});var content=$content.html().trim();dw_page.insituPopup(this,'insitu__fn').html(content).show().attr('aria-hidden','false');},makeToggle:function(handle,content,state){var $handle,$content,$clicky,$child,setClicky;$handle=jQuery(handle);if(!$handle.length)return;$content=jQuery(content);if(!$content.length)return;$child=$content.children();setClicky=function(hiding){if(hiding){$clicky.html('<span>+</span>');$handle.addClass('closed');$handle.removeClass('open');}else{$clicky.html('<span>−</span>');$handle.addClass('open');$handle.removeClass('closed');}};$handle[0].setState=function(state){var hidden;if(!state)state=1;$content.css('min-height',$content.height()).show();$child.stop(true,true);if(state===-1){hidden=false;}else if(state===1){hidden=true;}else{hidden=$child.is(':hidden');}setClicky(!hidden);$child.dw_toggle(hidden,function(){$content.toggle(hidden);$content.attr('aria-expanded',hidden);$content.css('min-height','');},true);};$clicky=jQuery(document.createElement('strong'));$handle.css('cursor','pointer').on('click',$handle[0].setState).prepend($clicky);$handle[0].setState(state);}};jQuery(dw_page.init);var device_class='';var device_classes='desktop mobile tablet phone';function tpl_dokuwiki_mobile(){var screen_mode=jQuery('#screen__mode').css('z-index')+'';switch(screen_mode){case'1':if(device_class.match(/tablet/))return;device_class='mobile tablet';break;case'2':if(device_class.match(/phone/))return;device_class='mobile phone';break;default:if(device_class=='desktop')return;device_class='desktop';}jQuery('html').removeClass(device_classes).addClass(device_class);var $handle=jQuery('#dokuwiki__aside h3.toggle');var $toc=jQuery('#dw__toc h3');if(device_class=='desktop'){if($handle.length){$handle[0].setState(1);$handle.hide();}if($toc.length){$toc[0].setState(1);}}if(device_class.match(/mobile/)){if($handle.length){$handle.show();$handle[0].setState(-1);}if($toc.length){$toc[0].setState(-1);}}}jQuery(function(){var resizeTimer;dw_page.makeToggle('#dokuwiki__aside h3.toggle','#dokuwiki__aside div.content');tpl_dokuwiki_mobile();jQuery(window).on('resize',function(){if(resizeTimer)clearTimeout(resizeTimer);resizeTimer=setTimeout(tpl_dokuwiki_mobile,200);});var sidebar_height=jQuery('.desktop #dokuwiki__aside').height();var pagetool_height=jQuery('.desktop #dokuwiki__pagetools ul:first').height();var content_min=Math.max(sidebar_height||0,pagetool_height||0);var content_height=jQuery('#dokuwiki__content div.page').height();if(content_min&&content_min>content_height){var $content=jQuery('#dokuwiki__content div.page');$content.css('min-height',content_min);}jQuery('#dokuwiki__pagetools div.tools>ul>li>a').on('click',function(){this.blur();});});var dw_acl={init:function(){var $tree;if(jQuery('#acl_manager').length===0){return;}jQuery('#acl__user select').on('change',dw_acl.userselhandler);jQuery('#acl__user button').on('click',dw_acl.loadinfo);$tree=jQuery('#acl__tree');$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery.extend(dw_acl.parseatt($clicky.parent().find('a')[0].search),{call:'plugin_acl',ajax:'tree',current_ns:$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(),current_id:$frm.find('input[name=id]').val()}),show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.delegate('a','click',dw_acl.treehandler);},userselhandler:function(){jQuery('#acl__user input').toggle(this.value==='__g__'||this.value==='__u__');dw_acl.loadinfo();},loadinfo:function(){jQuery('#acl__info').attr('role','alert').html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery('#acl__detail form').serialize()+'&call=plugin_acl&ajax=info');return false;},parseatt:function(str){if(str[0]==='?'){str=str.substr(1);}var attributes={};var all=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<all.length;i++){var att=all[i].split('=');attributes[att[0]]=decodeURIComponent(att[1]);}return attributes;},treehandler:function(){var $link,$frm;$link=jQuery(this);jQuery('#acl__tree a.cur').removeClass('cur');$link.addClass('cur');$frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');if($link.hasClass('wikilink1')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val('');$frm.find('input[name=id]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).id);}else if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).ns);$frm.find('input[name=id]').val('');}dw_acl.loadinfo();return false;}};jQuery(dw_acl.init);(function(){var $,AbstractChosen,Chosen,SelectParser,_ref,__hasProp={}.hasOwnProperty,__extends=function(child,parent){for(var key in parent){if(__hasProp.call(parent,key))child[key]=parent[key];}function ctor(){this.constructor=child;}ctor.prototype=parent.prototype;child.prototype=new ctor();child.__super__=parent.prototype;return child;};SelectParser=(function(){function SelectParser(){this.options_index=0;this.parsed=[];}SelectParser.prototype.add_node=function(child){if(child.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTGROUP"){return this.add_group(child);}else{return this.add_option(child);}};SelectParser.prototype.add_group=function(group){var group_position,option,_i,_len,_ref,_results;group_position=this.parsed.length;this.parsed.push({array_index:group_position,group:true,label:this.escapeExpression(group.label),title:group.title?group.title:void 0,children:0,disabled:group.disabled,classes:group.className});_ref=group.childNodes;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];_results.push(this.add_option(option,group_position,group.disabled));}return _results;};SelectParser.prototype.add_option=function(option,group_position,group_disabled){if(option.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTION"){if(option.text!==""){if(group_position!=null){this.parsed[group_position].children+=1;}this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,value:option.value,text:option.text,html:option.innerHTML,title:option.title?option.title:void 0,selected:option.selected,disabled:group_disabled===true?group_disabled:option.disabled,group_array_index:group_position,group_label:group_position!=null?this.parsed[group_position].label:null,classes:option.className,style:option.style.cssText});}else{this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,empty:true});}return this.options_index+=1;}};SelectParser.prototype.escapeExpression=function(text){var map,unsafe_chars;if((text==null)||text===false){return"";}if(!/[\&\<\>\"\'\`]/.test(text)){return text;}map={"<":"<",">":">",'"':""","'":"'","`":"`"};unsafe_chars=/&(?!\w+;)|[\<\>\"\'\`]/g;return text.replace(unsafe_chars,function(chr){return map[chr]||"&";});};return SelectParser;})();SelectParser.select_to_array=function(select){var child,parser,_i,_len,_ref;parser=new SelectParser();_ref=select.childNodes;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){child=_ref[_i];parser.add_node(child);}return parser.parsed;};AbstractChosen=(function(){function AbstractChosen(form_field,options){this.form_field=form_field;this.options=options!=null?options:{};if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return;}this.is_multiple=this.form_field.multiple;this.set_default_text();this.set_default_values();this.setup();this.set_up_html();this.register_observers();this.on_ready();}AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_values=function(){var _this=this;this.click_test_action=function(evt){return _this.test_active_click(evt);};this.activate_action=function(evt){return _this.activate_field(evt);};this.active_field=false;this.mouse_on_container=false;this.results_showing=false;this.result_highlighted=null;this.allow_single_deselect=(this.options.allow_single_deselect!=null)&&(this.form_field.options[0]!=null)&&this.form_field.options[0].text===""?this.options.allow_single_deselect:false;this.disable_search_threshold=this.options.disable_search_threshold||0;this.disable_search=this.options.disable_search||false;this.enable_split_word_search=this.options.enable_split_word_search!=null?this.options.enable_split_word_search:true;this.group_search=this.options.group_search!=null?this.options.group_search:true;this.search_contains=this.options.search_contains||false;this.single_backstroke_delete=this.options.single_backstroke_delete!=null?this.options.single_backstroke_delete:true;this.max_selected_options=this.options.max_selected_options||Infinity;this.inherit_select_classes=this.options.inherit_select_classes||false;this.display_selected_options=this.options.display_selected_options!=null?this.options.display_selected_options:true;this.display_disabled_options=this.options.display_disabled_options!=null?this.options.display_disabled_options:true;return this.include_group_label_in_selected=this.options.include_group_label_in_selected||false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_text=function(){if(this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder")){this.default_text=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder");}else if(this.is_multiple){this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_multiple||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text;}else{this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_single||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_single_text;}return this.results_none_found=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-no_results_text")||this.options.no_results_text||AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choice_label=function(item){if(this.include_group_label_in_selected&&(item.group_label!=null)){return"<b class='group-name'>"+item.group_label+"</b>"+item.html;}else{return item.html;}};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_enter=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_leave=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_focus=function(evt){var _this=this;if(this.is_multiple){if(!this.active_field){return setTimeout((function(){return _this.container_mousedown();}),50);}}else{if(!this.active_field){return this.activate_field();}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_blur=function(evt){var _this=this;if(!this.mouse_on_container){this.active_field=false;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.blur_test();}),100);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_option_build=function(options){var content,data,_i,_len,_ref;content='';_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){data=_ref[_i];if(data.group){content+=this.result_add_group(data);}else{content+=this.result_add_option(data);}if(options!=null?options.first:void 0){if(data.selected&&this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(data);}else if(data.selected&&!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(data));}}}return content;};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_option=function(option){var classes,option_el;if(!option.search_match){return'';}if(!this.include_option_in_results(option)){return'';}classes=[];if(!option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("active-result");}if(option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("disabled-result");}if(option.selected){classes.push("result-selected");}if(option.group_array_index!=null){classes.push("group-option");}if(option.classes!==""){classes.push(option.classes);}option_el=document.createElement("li");option_el.className=classes.join(" ");option_el.style.cssText=option.style;option_el.setAttribute("data-option-array-index",option.array_index);option_el.innerHTML=option.search_text;if(option.title){option_el.title=option.title;}return this.outerHTML(option_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_group=function(group){var classes,group_el;if(!(group.search_match||group.group_match)){return'';}if(!(group.active_options>0)){return'';}classes=[];classes.push("group-result");if(group.classes){classes.push(group.classes);}group_el=document.createElement("li");group_el.className=classes.join(" ");group_el.innerHTML=group.search_text;if(group.title){group_el.title=group.title;}return this.outerHTML(group_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_update_field=function(){this.set_default_text();if(!this.is_multiple){this.results_reset_cleanup();}this.result_clear_highlight();this.results_build();if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.reset_single_select_options=function(){var result,_i,_len,_ref,_results;_ref=this.results_data;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){result=_ref[_i];if(result.selected){_results.push(result.selected=false);}else{_results.push(void 0);}}return _results;};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_toggle=function(){if(this.results_showing){return this.results_hide();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_search=function(evt){if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.winnow_results=function(){var escapedSearchText,option,regex,results,results_group,searchText,startpos,text,zregex,_i,_len,_ref;this.no_results_clear();results=0;searchText=this.get_search_text();escapedSearchText=searchText.replace(/[-[\]{}()*+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&");zregex=new RegExp(escapedSearchText,'i');regex=this.get_search_regex(escapedSearchText);_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];option.search_match=false;results_group=null;if(this.include_option_in_results(option)){if(option.group){option.group_match=false;option.active_options=0;}if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index]){results_group=this.results_data[option.group_array_index];if(results_group.active_options===0&&results_group.search_match){results+=1;}results_group.active_options+=1;}option.search_text=option.group?option.label:option.html;if(!(option.group&&!this.group_search)){option.search_match=this.search_string_match(option.search_text,regex);if(option.search_match&&!option.group){results+=1;}if(option.search_match){if(searchText.length){startpos=option.search_text.search(zregex);text=option.search_text.substr(0,startpos+searchText.length)+'</em>'+option.search_text.substr(startpos+searchText.length);option.search_text=text.substr(0,startpos)+'<em>'+text.substr(startpos);}if(results_group!=null){results_group.group_match=true;}}else if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index].search_match){option.search_match=true;}}}}this.result_clear_highlight();if(results<1&&searchText.length){this.update_results_content("");return this.no_results(searchText);}else{this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build());return this.winnow_results_set_highlight();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.get_search_regex=function(escaped_search_string){var regex_anchor;regex_anchor=this.search_contains?"":"^";return new RegExp(regex_anchor+escaped_search_string,'i');};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_string_match=function(search_string,regex){var part,parts,_i,_len;if(regex.test(search_string)){return true;}else if(this.enable_split_word_search&&(search_string.indexOf(" ")>=0||search_string.indexOf("[")===0)){parts=search_string.replace(/\[|\]/g,"").split(" ");if(parts.length){for(_i=0,_len=parts.length;_i<_len;_i++){part=parts[_i];if(regex.test(part)){return true;}}}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_count=function(){var option,_i,_len,_ref;if(this.selected_option_count!=null){return this.selected_option_count;}this.selected_option_count=0;_ref=this.form_field.options;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];if(option.selected){this.selected_option_count+=1;}}return this.selected_option_count;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();if(!(this.results_showing||this.is_disabled)){return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.keyup_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref;stroke=(_ref=evt.which)!=null?_ref:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();switch(stroke){case 8:if(this.is_multiple&&this.backstroke_length<1&&this.choices_count()>0){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else if(!this.pending_backstroke){this.result_clear_highlight();return this.results_search();}break;case 13:evt.preventDefault();if(this.results_showing){return this.result_select(evt);}break;case 27:if(this.results_showing){this.results_hide();}return true;case 9:case 38:case 40:case 16:case 91:case 17:break;default:return this.results_search();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.clipboard_event_checker=function(evt){var _this=this;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.results_search();}),50);};AbstractChosen.prototype.container_width=function(){if(this.options.width!=null){return this.options.width;}else{return""+this.form_field.offsetWidth+"px";}};AbstractChosen.prototype.include_option_in_results=function(option){if(this.is_multiple&&(!this.display_selected_options&&option.selected)){return false;}if(!this.display_disabled_options&&option.disabled){return false;}if(option.empty){return false;}return true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchstart=function(evt){this.touch_started=true;return this.search_results_mouseover(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchmove=function(evt){this.touch_started=false;return this.search_results_mouseout(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchend=function(evt){if(this.touch_started){return this.search_results_mouseup(evt);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.outerHTML=function(element){var tmp;if(element.outerHTML){return element.outerHTML;}tmp=document.createElement("div");tmp.appendChild(element);return tmp.innerHTML;};AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported=function(){if(window.navigator.appName==="Microsoft Internet Explorer"){return document.documentMode>=8;}if(/iP(od|hone)/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}if(/Android/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){if(/Mobile/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}}return true;};AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text="Select Some Options";AbstractChosen.default_single_text="Select an Option";AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text="No results match";return AbstractChosen;})();$=jQuery;$.fn.extend({chosen:function(options){if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return this;}return this.each(function(input_field){var $this,chosen;$this=$(this);chosen=$this.data('chosen');if(options==='destroy'&&chosen instanceof Chosen){chosen.destroy();}else if(!(chosen instanceof Chosen)){$this.data('chosen',new Chosen(this,options));}});}});Chosen=(function(_super){__extends(Chosen,_super);function Chosen(){_ref=Chosen.__super__.constructor.apply(this,arguments);return _ref;}Chosen.prototype.setup=function(){this.form_field_jq=$(this.form_field);this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.is_rtl=this.form_field_jq.hasClass("chosen-rtl");};Chosen.prototype.set_up_html=function(){var container_classes,container_props;container_classes=["chosen-container"];container_classes.push("chosen-container-"+(this.is_multiple?"multi":"single"));if(this.inherit_select_classes&&this.form_field.className){container_classes.push(this.form_field.className);}if(this.is_rtl){container_classes.push("chosen-rtl");}container_props={'class':container_classes.join(' '),'style':"width: "+(this.container_width())+";",'title':this.form_field.title};if(this.form_field.id.length){container_props.id=this.form_field.id.replace(/[^\w]/g,'_')+"_chosen";}this.container=$("<div />",container_props);if(this.is_multiple){this.container.html('<ul class="chosen-choices"><li class="search-field"><input type="text" value="'+this.default_text+'" class="default" autocomplete="off" style="width:25px;" /></li></ul><div class="chosen-drop"><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}else{this.container.html('<a class="chosen-single chosen-default" tabindex="-1"><span>'+this.default_text+'</span><div><b></b></div></a><div class="chosen-drop"><div class="chosen-search"><input type="text" autocomplete="off" /></div><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}this.form_field_jq.hide().after(this.container);this.dropdown=this.container.find('div.chosen-drop').first();this.search_field=this.container.find('input').first();this.search_results=this.container.find('ul.chosen-results').first();this.search_field_scale();this.search_no_results=this.container.find('li.no-results').first();if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices=this.container.find('ul.chosen-choices').first();this.search_container=this.container.find('li.search-field').first();}else{this.search_container=this.container.find('div.chosen-search').first();this.selected_item=this.container.find('.chosen-single').first();}this.results_build();this.set_tab_index();return this.set_label_behavior();};Chosen.prototype.on_ready=function(){return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:ready",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.register_observers=function(){var _this=this;this.container.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('mousedown.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseenter.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_enter(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseleave.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_leave(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseup(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseover.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseover(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseout.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseout(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mousewheel.chosen DOMMouseScroll.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mousewheel(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchstart(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchmove.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchmove(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchend(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:updated.chosen",function(evt){_this.results_update_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:activate.chosen",function(evt){_this.activate_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:open.chosen",function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:close.chosen",function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('blur.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keyup.chosen',function(evt){_this.keyup_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keydown.chosen',function(evt){_this.keydown_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('focus.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_focus(evt);});this.search_field.bind('cut.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('paste.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});if(this.is_multiple){return this.search_choices.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){_this.choices_click(evt);});}else{return this.container.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){evt.preventDefault();});}};Chosen.prototype.destroy=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);if(this.search_field[0].tabIndex){this.form_field_jq[0].tabIndex=this.search_field[0].tabIndex;}this.container.remove();this.form_field_jq.removeData('chosen');return this.form_field_jq.show();};Chosen.prototype.search_field_disabled=function(){this.is_disabled=this.form_field_jq[0].disabled;if(this.is_disabled){this.container.addClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=true;if(!this.is_multiple){this.selected_item.unbind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}return this.close_field();}else{this.container.removeClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=false;if(!this.is_multiple){return this.selected_item.bind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mousedown=function(evt){if(!this.is_disabled){if(evt&&evt.type==="mousedown"&&!this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}if(!((evt!=null)&&($(evt.target)).hasClass("search-choice-close"))){if(!this.active_field){if(this.is_multiple){this.search_field.val("");}$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).bind('click.chosen',this.click_test_action);this.results_show();}else if(!this.is_multiple&&evt&&(($(evt.target)[0]===this.selected_item[0])||$(evt.target).parents("a.chosen-single").length)){evt.preventDefault();this.results_toggle();}return this.activate_field();}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mouseup=function(evt){if(evt.target.nodeName==="ABBR"&&!this.is_disabled){return this.results_reset(evt);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mousewheel=function(evt){var delta;if(evt.originalEvent){delta=evt.originalEvent.deltaY||-evt.originalEvent.wheelDelta||evt.originalEvent.detail;}if(delta!=null){evt.preventDefault();if(evt.type==='DOMMouseScroll'){delta=delta*40;}return this.search_results.scrollTop(delta+this.search_results.scrollTop());}};Chosen.prototype.blur_test=function(evt){if(!this.active_field&&this.container.hasClass("chosen-container-active")){return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.close_field=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);this.active_field=false;this.results_hide();this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-active");this.clear_backstroke();this.show_search_field_default();return this.search_field_scale();};Chosen.prototype.activate_field=function(){this.container.addClass("chosen-container-active");this.active_field=true;this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());return this.search_field.focus();};Chosen.prototype.test_active_click=function(evt){var active_container;active_container=$(evt.target).closest('.chosen-container');if(active_container.length&&this.container[0]===active_container[0]){return this.active_field=true;}else{return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.results_build=function(){this.parsing=true;this.selected_option_count=null;this.results_data=SelectParser.select_to_array(this.form_field);if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices.find("li.search-choice").remove();}else if(!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text();if(this.disable_search||this.form_field.options.length<=this.disable_search_threshold){this.search_field[0].readOnly=true;this.container.addClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}else{this.search_field[0].readOnly=false;this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}}this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build({first:true}));this.search_field_disabled();this.show_search_field_default();this.search_field_scale();return this.parsing=false;};Chosen.prototype.result_do_highlight=function(el){var high_bottom,high_top,maxHeight,visible_bottom,visible_top;if(el.length){this.result_clear_highlight();this.result_highlight=el;this.result_highlight.addClass("highlighted");maxHeight=parseInt(this.search_results.css("maxHeight"),10);visible_top=this.search_results.scrollTop();visible_bottom=maxHeight+visible_top;high_top=this.result_highlight.position().top+this.search_results.scrollTop();high_bottom=high_top+this.result_highlight.outerHeight();if(high_bottom>=visible_bottom){return this.search_results.scrollTop((high_bottom-maxHeight)>0?high_bottom-maxHeight:0);}else if(high_top<visible_top){return this.search_results.scrollTop(high_top);}}};Chosen.prototype.result_clear_highlight=function(){if(this.result_highlight){this.result_highlight.removeClass("highlighted");}return this.result_highlight=null;};Chosen.prototype.results_show=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}this.container.addClass("chosen-with-drop");this.results_showing=true;this.search_field.focus();this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());this.winnow_results();return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:showing_dropdown",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.update_results_content=function(content){return this.search_results.html(content);};Chosen.prototype.results_hide=function(){if(this.results_showing){this.result_clear_highlight();this.container.removeClass("chosen-with-drop");this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:hiding_dropdown",{chosen:this});}return this.results_showing=false;};Chosen.prototype.set_tab_index=function(el){var ti;if(this.form_field.tabIndex){ti=this.form_field.tabIndex;this.form_field.tabIndex=-1;return this.search_field[0].tabIndex=ti;}};Chosen.prototype.set_label_behavior=function(){var _this=this;this.form_field_label=this.form_field_jq.parents("label");if(!this.form_field_label.length&&this.form_field.id.length){this.form_field_label=$("label[for='"+this.form_field.id+"']");}if(this.form_field_label.length>0){return this.form_field_label.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){if(_this.is_multiple){return _this.container_mousedown(evt);}else{return _this.activate_field();}});}};Chosen.prototype.show_search_field_default=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()<1&&!this.active_field){this.search_field.val(this.default_text);return this.search_field.addClass("default");}else{this.search_field.val("");return this.search_field.removeClass("default");}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseup=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target.length){this.result_highlight=target;this.result_select(evt);return this.search_field.focus();}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseover=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target){return this.result_do_highlight(target);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseout=function(evt){if($(evt.target).hasClass("active-result"||$(evt.target).parents('.active-result').first())){return this.result_clear_highlight();}};Chosen.prototype.choice_build=function(item){var choice,close_link,_this=this;choice=$('<li />',{"class":"search-choice"}).html("<span>"+(this.choice_label(item))+"</span>");if(item.disabled){choice.addClass('search-choice-disabled');}else{close_link=$('<a />',{"class":'search-choice-close','data-option-array-index':item.array_index});close_link.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){return _this.choice_destroy_link_click(evt);});choice.append(close_link);}return this.search_container.before(choice);};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy_link_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();evt.stopPropagation();if(!this.is_disabled){return this.choice_destroy($(evt.target));}};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy=function(link){if(this.result_deselect(link[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index"))){this.show_search_field_default();if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()>0&&this.search_field.val().length<1){this.results_hide();}link.parents('li').first().remove();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset=function(){this.reset_single_select_options();this.form_field.options[0].selected=true;this.single_set_selected_text();this.show_search_field_default();this.results_reset_cleanup();this.form_field_jq.trigger("change");if(this.active_field){return this.results_hide();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset_cleanup=function(){this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.selected_item.find("abbr").remove();};Chosen.prototype.result_select=function(evt){var high,item;if(this.result_highlight){high=this.result_highlight;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}if(this.is_multiple){high.removeClass("active-result");}else{this.reset_single_select_options();}high.addClass("result-selected");item=this.results_data[high[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index")];item.selected=true;this.form_field.options[item.options_index].selected=true;this.selected_option_count=null;if(this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(item);}else{this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(item));}if(!((evt.metaKey||evt.ctrlKey)&&this.is_multiple)){this.results_hide();}this.search_field.val("");if(this.is_multiple||this.form_field.selectedIndex!==this.current_selectedIndex){this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{'selected':this.form_field.options[item.options_index].value});}this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;evt.preventDefault();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.single_set_selected_text=function(text){if(text==null){text=this.default_text;}if(text===this.default_text){this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-default");}else{this.single_deselect_control_build();this.selected_item.removeClass("chosen-default");}return this.selected_item.find("span").html(text);};Chosen.prototype.result_deselect=function(pos){var result_data;result_data=this.results_data[pos];if(!this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].disabled){result_data.selected=false;this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].selected=false;this.selected_option_count=null;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.results_showing){this.winnow_results();}this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{deselected:this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].value});this.search_field_scale();return true;}else{return false;}};Chosen.prototype.single_deselect_control_build=function(){if(!this.allow_single_deselect){return;}if(!this.selected_item.find("abbr").length){this.selected_item.find("span").first().after("<abbr class=\"search-choice-close\"></abbr>");}return this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-single-with-deselect");};Chosen.prototype.get_search_text=function(){return $('<div/>').text($.trim(this.search_field.val())).html();};Chosen.prototype.winnow_results_set_highlight=function(){var do_high,selected_results;selected_results=!this.is_multiple?this.search_results.find(".result-selected.active-result"):[];do_high=selected_results.length?selected_results.first():this.search_results.find(".active-result").first();if(do_high!=null){return this.result_do_highlight(do_high);}};Chosen.prototype.no_results=function(terms){var no_results_html;no_results_html=$('<li class="no-results">'+this.results_none_found+' "<span></span>"</li>');no_results_html.find("span").first().html(terms);this.search_results.append(no_results_html);return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:no_results",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.no_results_clear=function(){return this.search_results.find(".no-results").remove();};Chosen.prototype.keydown_arrow=function(){var next_sib;if(this.results_showing&&this.result_highlight){next_sib=this.result_highlight.nextAll("li.active-result").first();if(next_sib){return this.result_do_highlight(next_sib);}}else{return this.results_show();}};Chosen.prototype.keyup_arrow=function(){var prev_sibs;if(!this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){return this.results_show();}else if(this.result_highlight){prev_sibs=this.result_highlight.prevAll("li.active-result");if(prev_sibs.length){return this.result_do_highlight(prev_sibs.first());}else{if(this.choices_count()>0){this.results_hide();}return this.result_clear_highlight();}}};Chosen.prototype.keydown_backstroke=function(){var next_available_destroy;if(this.pending_backstroke){this.choice_destroy(this.pending_backstroke.find("a").first());return this.clear_backstroke();}else{next_available_destroy=this.search_container.siblings("li.search-choice").last();if(next_available_destroy.length&&!next_available_destroy.hasClass("search-choice-disabled")){this.pending_backstroke=next_available_destroy;if(this.single_backstroke_delete){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else{return this.pending_backstroke.addClass("search-choice-focus");}}}};Chosen.prototype.clear_backstroke=function(){if(this.pending_backstroke){this.pending_backstroke.removeClass("search-choice-focus");}return this.pending_backstroke=null;};Chosen.prototype.keydown_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref1;stroke=(_ref1=evt.which)!=null?_ref1:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();if(stroke!==8&&this.pending_backstroke){this.clear_backstroke();}switch(stroke){case 8:this.backstroke_length=this.search_field.val().length;break;case 9:if(this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){this.result_select(evt);}this.mouse_on_container=false;break;case 13:if(this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 32:if(this.disable_search){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 38:evt.preventDefault();this.keyup_arrow();break;case 40:evt.preventDefault();this.keydown_arrow();break;}};Chosen.prototype.search_field_scale=function(){var div,f_width,h,style,style_block,styles,w,_i,_len;if(this.is_multiple){h=0;w=0;style_block="position:absolute; left: -1000px; top: -1000px; display:none;";styles=['font-size','font-style','font-weight','font-family','line-height','text-transform','letter-spacing'];for(_i=0,_len=styles.length;_i<_len;_i++){style=styles[_i];style_block+=style+":"+this.search_field.css(style)+";";}div=$('<div />',{'style':style_block});div.text(this.search_field.val());$('body').append(div);w=div.width()+25;div.remove();f_width=this.container.outerWidth();if(w>f_width-10){w=f_width-10;}return this.search_field.css({'width':w+'px'});}};return Chosen;})(AbstractChosen);}).call(this);(function(){'use strict';jQuery(function(){var $animalSelect=jQuery('select.farmer_chosen_animals');$animalSelect.chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,allow_single_deselect:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});jQuery('select.acl_chosen').chosen({disable_search:true,width:'100%'});var $formAllAnimals=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforall');$formAllAnimals.find('select').change(function(){$formAllAnimals.find('button').prop('disabled',false);}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.pluginSelect});var $formSingleAnimal=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforone');$formSingleAnimal.find('select').change(function(){var animal=jQuery(this).val();$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',true);jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPlugins_'+animal},function(data){$formSingleAnimal.find('div.output').html(data);$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',false);},'html')}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});var $formPluginMatrix=jQuery('#farmer__pluginmatrix').hide();$formPluginMatrix.on('click','td',function(){var $td=jQuery(this);$td.html('⌛').css('background-color','transparent');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_modPlugin',plugin:$td.data('plugin'),ani:$td.data('animal')},function(data){$td.replaceWith(data);},'html');});function showMatrix(){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPluginMatrix'},function(data){$formPluginMatrix.html(data);$formPluginMatrix.show();},'html')}$animalSelect.on('chosen:showing_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'20em'},400);}).on('chosen:hiding_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'7px'},400);});var $aclPolicyFieldset=jQuery('#aclPolicyFieldset');if($aclPolicyFieldset.length){$animalSelect.on('change',function(evt,params){var $this=jQuery(this);if($this.val()===''){$aclPolicyFieldset.slideDown();}else{$aclPolicyFieldset.slideUp();}});}jQuery("input[name=bulkSingleSwitch]:radio").change(function(){if(jQuery('#farmer__bulk').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.show();$formSingleAnimal.hide();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else if(jQuery('#farmer__single').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.show();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else{$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.hide();showMatrix();}});jQuery('#farmer__bulk').click();});})();jQuery(function(){function applyPreview(target){var $style=target.jQuery('link[rel=stylesheet][href*="lib/exe/css.php"]');$style.attr('href','');var $loader=target.jQuery('#plugin__styling_loader');if(!$loader.length){$loader=target.jQuery('<div id="plugin__styling_loader">'+LANG.plugins.styling.loader+'</div>');$loader.css({'position':'absolute','width':'100%','height':'100%','top':0,'left':0,'z-index':5000,'background-color':'#fff','opacity':'0.7','color':'#000','font-size':'2.5em','text-align':'center','line-height':1.5,'padding-top':'2em'});target.jQuery('body').append($loader);}setTimeout(function(){var now=new Date().getTime();$style.attr('href',DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/css.php?preview=1&tseed='+now);},500);}var doreload=1;var 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/6/608ee87920e8ae8f6109386ec9934e6c.metadata b/data/cache/6/608ee87920e8ae8f6109386ec9934e6c.metadata new file mode 100644 index 0000000..986a905 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/6/608ee87920e8ae8f6109386ec9934e6c.metadata @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +1646606848
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/6/608ee87920e8ae8f6109386ec9934e6c.xhtml b/data/cache/6/608ee87920e8ae8f6109386ec9934e6c.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c2f6df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/6/608ee87920e8ae8f6109386ec9934e6c.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,565 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="cidoc_-_centro_intercultural_de_documentacion">CIDOC - Centro Intercultural de documentación</h1> +<div class="level1"> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"CIDOC - Centro Intercultural de documentaci\u00f3n","hid":"cidoc_-_centro_intercultural_de_documentacion","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":1,"range":"0-49"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit2" id="cidoc_cuadernos">CIDOC Cuadernos</h2> +<div class="level2"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:01:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:01:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:01:index">Cuaderno 01</a> - GODOT, Esperanza, <em>“Center of intercultural formation: first five years”</em>, Cuernavaca, México, Petropolis, Brazil, Centro Intercultural de documentación, Cuaderno No. 1, Cuernavaca, 1966, 59 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:01b:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:01b:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:01b:index">Cuaderno 01b</a> - MANNY PAUL, Catharine, <em>“Amanda Labarca H . Educator to the women in Chile”</em>. 1969, 224p.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:02:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:02:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:02:index">Cuaderno 02</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Items clasificados y catalogados en los archivos CIDOC entre el 15 de junio y el 1 de diciembre de 1966”</em>, Centro Intercultural de documentación, Cuaderno No. 2, Cuernavaca, 1966, 265 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:03:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:03:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:03:index">Cuaderno 03</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Religión: Clase 2 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 3, Cuernavaca, 1967, 126 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:04:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:04:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:04:index">Cuaderno 04</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Ciencias sociales: clase 3 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 4, Cuernavaca, 1967, 152 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:05:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:05:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:05:index">Cuaderno 05</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Bibliografía: clase 0 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 5, Cuernavaca, 1967, 136 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:06:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:06:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:06:index">Cuaderno 06</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Abril-Diciembre 1964”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 6, Volumen 1, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:07:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:07:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:07:index">Cuaderno 07</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Enero-Diciembre 1965”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 7, Volumen 2, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:08:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:08:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:08:index">Cuaderno 08</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Enero-Diciembre 1966”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 8, Volumen 3, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:09:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:09:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:09:index">Cuaderno 09</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Enero-Junio 1967”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 9, Volumen 4, Cuernavaca, 1968. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:10:index" class="wikilink1" title="cidoc:cuaderno:10:index" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:10:index">Cuaderno 10</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Junio-Diciembre”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 10, Volumen 5, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:11:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:11:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:11:index">Cuaderno 11</a> - Cuarta asamblea del Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, <em>“Catalogo de la exposición de libros de Geografía e Historia de Venezuela”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 11, Cuernavaca, 1968, 319 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:12:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:12:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:12:index">Cuaderno 12</a> - LOLLETT C., Carlos Miguel,<em>“ Repertorio de la bibliografía venezolana económica y social”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 12, Cuernavaca, 1968, 46 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:13:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:13:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:13:index">Cuaderno 13</a> - JULIAO, Francisco, <em>“Cambao”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 13, Cuernavaca, 1970.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:14:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:14:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:14:index">Cuaderno 14</a> - FURTER, Pierre, <em>“L’Imaginationcreatrice, laviolence et le changement social. Une interpretration”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 14, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:15:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:15:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:15:index">Cuaderno 15</a> - HARO Barrios, María del Carmen, <em>“Intereses religiosos y éticos en los alumnos de psicología de las universidades: Nacional Autónoma de México e Iberoamericana”</em>, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 15, Cuernavaca, 1968, 88 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:16:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:16:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:16:index">Cuaderno 16</a> - DELOBELLE, André, <em>“Die katholischeuniversitat in lateinamerika”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 16, Cuernavaca, 1968, 98 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:17:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:17:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:17:index">Cuaderno 17</a> - Instituto de Estudios peruanos, <em>“Aspectos sociológicos del desarrollo en América Latina. Serie: documentos teóricos”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 17, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:18:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:18:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:18:index">Cuaderno 18</a> - Instituto de Estudios peruanos, <em>“Aspectos sociológicos del desarrollo en el Perú y América Latina. Serie: mesas redondas y conferencias”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 18, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:19:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:19:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:19:index">Cuaderno 19</a> - Instituto de Estudios peruanos, <em>“aspectos sociológicos del desarrollo en el Perú. Cambios en sociedad peruana (rural)“</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 19, Cuernavaca, 1968.<br /> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:20:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:20:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:20:index">Cuaderno 20</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Enero-Junio 1968”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 20, Volumen 6, Cuernavaca, 1968, 84 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:21:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:21:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:21:index">Cuaderno 21</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Julio-Diciembre 1968”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 21, Volumen 7, Cuernavaca, 1968, 117 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:22:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:22:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:22:index">Cuaderno 22</a> - REIMER, Everett W., <em>“Social Planning. Collectedpapers 1957-68”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 22, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:23:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:23:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:23:index">Cuaderno 23</a> - ROGGERS, William W. y Richard Graham, <em>“Cornell-Brazil Project. Anexperiment in learning”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 23, Cuernavaca, 1969, 151 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:24:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:24:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:24:index">Cuaderno 24</a> - HARRISON Luebke, Benjamín, <em>“Delineation of rural communities in the state of Oaxaca, México”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 24, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:25:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:25:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:25:index">Cuaderno 25</a> - FREIRE, Paulo, Raul Veloso y José Luis Fiori, <em>“Educacao e conscientizacao. Estensionismo rural”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 25, Cuernavaca, 1968, 102 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:26:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:26:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:26:index">Cuaderno 26</a> - GRIMES, Larry M., <em>“Therevolutinonarycycle in theliteraryproduction of Martin Luis Guzmán”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 26, Cuernavaca, 1969, 102 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:27:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:27:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:27:index">Cuaderno 27</a> - JULIAO, Francisco (ed.), <em>“Ligas camponesas, outubro 1962-abril 1964”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 27, Cuernavaca, 1969, 555 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:28:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:28:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:28:index">Cuaderno 28</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Religión: clase 2 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 28, Cuernavaca, 1968, 98 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:29:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:29:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:29:index">Cuaderno 29</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Ciencias Sociales: clase 3 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 29, Cuernavaca, 1968, 195 pp. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:30:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:30:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:30:index">Cuaderno 30</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones,<em>“Bibliografía: clase 0 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 30, Cuernavaca, 1968, 264 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:31:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:31:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:31:index">Cuaderno 31</a> - SNEE, Carole A., <em>“Current types of peasan-agricultural worker coalitions an their historical development in Guatemala”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 31, Cuernavaca, 1969, 129 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:32:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:32:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:32:index">Cuaderno 32</a> - CONN, Stephen, <em>“The squatters rights of favelados”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 32, Cuernavaca, 1969.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:33:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:33:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:33:index">Cuaderno 33</a> - A brazilian factory Study 1966 -JosephFrank Springer</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:34:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:34:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:34:index">Cuaderno 34</a> - 16 Estudios de interpretacion social latinoamericana de roger vekemans e ismael fuenzalida</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:35:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:35:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:35:index">Cuaderno 35</a> - 16 Estudios de interpretación social latinoamericana de Roger Vekemans e Ismael Fuenzalida</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:36:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:36:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:36:index">Cuaderno 36</a> - CIF Reports v.1 April 1962 - March 1963</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:37:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:37:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:37:index">Cuaderno 37</a> - CIF Reports v. 2 april 1963-march 1964</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:38:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:38:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:38:index">Cuaderno 38</a> - CIF reports v. 3 April-December 1964</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:39:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:39:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:39:index">Cuaderno 39</a> - CIF Reports v.4 January-december 1965 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:40:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:40:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:40:index">Cuaderno 40</a> - CIF Reports V.5 January-December 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:41:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:41:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:41:index">Cuaderno 41</a> - CIF reports v. 6 January- June 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:42:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:42:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:42:index">Cuaderno 42</a> - people of the montains</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:43:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:43:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:43:index">Cuaderno 43</a> - Social relations in amatengo del valle - June C. Nash +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:44:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:44:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:44:index">Cuaderno 44</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Enero-Junio 1969”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 44, Volumen 8, Cuernavaca, 1969, 148 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:45:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:45:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:45:index">Cuaderno 45</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Julio-Diciembre 1969”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 45, Volumen 9, Cuernavaca, 1970, 200 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:46:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:46:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:46:index">Cuaderno 46</a> - PONCE G., Jaime, Julián Rojas R., et al, <em>“Perú: Juli-1968. Actitudes y estructuras sociales”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 46, Cuernavaca, 1970. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:47:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:47:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:47:index">Cuaderno 47</a> - Paradise and fall on Rulfo's Pedro Páramo</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:48:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:48:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:48:index">Cuaderno 48</a> - Roman et societe en Equateur (1930-1949) +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:49:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:49:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:49:index">Cuaderno 49</a> - CIDOC Informa, <em>“Enero-Junio 1970”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 49, Volumen 10, Cuernavaca, 1970, 223 pp. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:50:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:50:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:50:index">Cuaderno 50</a> - SPRING, Joel H., <em>“Education and the rise of the corpote state”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 50, Cuernavaca, 1971.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:51:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:51:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:51:index">Cuaderno 51</a> - FISKE, Adele M., <em>“Friends and friendship in themonastictradition”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 51, Cuernavaca, 1970.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:52:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:52:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:52:index">Cuaderno 52</a> - ORTEGA, Benjamín, <em>“Repertorio para el estudio de las iglesias en la sociedad de América Latina: 1960-1969”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 52, Cuernavaca, 1970, 208 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:53:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:53:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:53:index">Cuaderno 53</a> - Unidad y testimonio letras hispanoamericanas -Jose Maria Bulnes</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:54:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:54:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:54:index">Cuaderno 54</a> - The dawn of epimehean man and other essays -Ivan Illich</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:55:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:55:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:55:index">Cuaderno 55</a> - Social Change and social character in mexico and the united states</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:56:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:56:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:56:index">Cuaderno 56</a> - Cidoc documenta ideologias iglesias julio-diciembre 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:57:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:57:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:57:index">Cuaderno 57</a> - Formative Undercurrent</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:58:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:58:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:58:index">Cuaderno 58</a> - Everett Reimer An Essay on alternatives in education</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:59:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:59:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:59:index">Cuaderno 59</a> - The formal expression of meaning in juan carlos onettis´s narrative art -Yvonne Perier Jones +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:60:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:60:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:60:index">Cuaderno 60</a> - Tupamaros</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:61:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:61:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:61:index">Cuaderno 61</a> - La Violencia en Guatemala como fenomeno politico -Gabriel Edgardo Aguilera Peralta</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:62:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:62:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:62:index">Cuaderno 62</a> - The poetic achievement of Xavier Villaurrutia</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:63:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:63:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:63:index">Cuaderno 63</a> - The Economics of scholing and international development -Martin Carnoy</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:64:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:64:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:64:index">Cuaderno 64</a> - El tabú lingüístico</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:65:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:65:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:65:index">Cuaderno 65</a> - ILLICH, Iván, <em>“Hacia el fin de la era escolar”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 65, Cuernavaca, 1971.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:66:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:66:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:66:index">Cuaderno 66</a> - CIDOC. Documenta, <em>“Ideologías/Iglesias. Enero-Junio 1971”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno N°66, Cuernavaca, 1971, 323 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:67:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:67:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:67:index">Cuaderno 67</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Religión: clase 2 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 67, Cuernavaca, 1971, 153 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:68:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:68:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:68:index">Cuaderno 68</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Ciencias Sociales: clase 3 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 68, Cuernavaca, 1971, pp. 154-306.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:69:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:69:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:69:index">Cuaderno 69</a> - Catalogo de adquisiciones, <em>“Bibliografía: clase 0 CDU”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 69, Cuernavaca, 1971, pp. 307-409. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:70:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:70:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:70:index">Cuaderno 70</a> - DALY, Herman E. (ed.), <em>“Essaytoward a steady-stateeconomy”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 70, Cuernavaca, 1971.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:71:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:71:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:71:index">Cuaderno 71</a> - STEGER, Hanns Albert, <em>“Askeseundamourcourtois”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 71, Cuernavaca, 1971.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:72:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:72:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:72:index">Cuaderno 72</a> - CASTILLO Ríos, Carlos, <em>“La educación en China”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 72, Cuernavaca, 1972, 34 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:73:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:73:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:73:index">Cuaderno 73</a> - JOEL, Miriam, <em>“Africantraditions in LatinAmerica”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 73, Cuernavaca, 1972.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:74:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:74:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:74:index">Cuaderno 74</a> - CIDOC. Documenta, <em>“Ideologías/iglesias. Julio-Diciembre 1971”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 74, Cuernavaca, 1972.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:75:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:75:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:75:index">Cuaderno 75</a> - CIDOC. Documenta, <em>“Alternatives in education. July 1970 - June 1971”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 75, Volumen 1, Cuernavaca, 1972.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:76:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:76:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:76:index">Cuaderno 76</a> - CIDOC. Documenta, <em>“Alternatives in education. July 1970 - June 1971”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 76, Volumen 2, Cuernavaca, 1972.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:77:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:77:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:77:index">Cuaderno 77</a> - CIDOC. Documenta, <em>“Alternatives in education. July 1971 - June 1972”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 77, Volumen 1, Cuernavaca, 1972.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:78:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:78:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:78:index">Cuaderno 78</a> - Alternatives in education</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:79:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:79:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:79:index">Cuaderno 79</a> - Cidoc documenta ideología iglesias enero diciembre 1972 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:80:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:80:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:80:index">Cuaderno 80</a> - Retooling Society III Ivan Illich</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:81:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:81:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:81:index">Cuaderno 81</a> - The mayan woman and change - Mary Lindsay Elmendorf</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:82:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:82:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:82:index">Cuaderno 82</a> - CIDOC Documenta I/V Julio 1971 – Agosto 1972. Hipótesis – Sociedad +Convivencial Seminarios 1971 – 1975, Cuernavaca 1973</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:83:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:83:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:83:index">Cuaderno 83</a> - CIDOC Documenta I/V Agosto 1972 – Enero 1973. Hipótesis – Sociedad +Convivencial Seminarios 1971 – 1975, Cuernavaca 1973</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 84 - CIDOC Documenta I/V Febrero – Agosto 1973. Hipótesis – Sociedad Convivencial +Seminarios 1971 – 1975, Cuernavaca 1973</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:85:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:85:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:85:index">Cuaderno 85</a> - CIDOC Documenta Ideologías / Iglesias. Enero – Diciembre 1973, Cuernavaca +1974</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 86 - Hygienic Nemesis. Very first draft</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 87 - Law against Law: Legal Reasoning in Pasagarda Law. De Sousa Santos, Boaventura +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1001 - Alternatives in Education, 1968-69 by REIMER, Everett</strong></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 1002 - Beecher Lectures</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 1003 - ?</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1004 - Cultural Action: A Dialectical Analysis by Paulo Freire</strong></div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1005 - An Essay on Alternative in Education by Reimer, Everett</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma99250420812205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma99250420812205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma99250420812205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1006 - The integer concept among school children in New England by Anderson, Samuel W. (Samuel Wentworth)</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940950312205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940950312205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940950312205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1007:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1007:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1007:index">Cuaderno 1007</a> - Ciclo Lectures Summer 1970 -Ivan Illich</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1008 - Auswahl selbstkritischer Dokumente der latein-amerikanischen Kirche, 1965-1970 / Offener Brief an Paul VI</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932153412205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932153412205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932153412205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1009 - Guidelines for research on neo-colonialism by Nazario, Victor</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931505312205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931505312205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931505312205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1010:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1010:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1010:index">Cuaderno 1010</a> - Catalogo de publicaciones 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 1011 - ?</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1012 - Problematisation du system scolaire by Donabin, Miguel</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9941263112205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9941263112205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9941263112205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1013:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1013:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1013:index">Cuaderno 1013</a> - Ciclo Lectures -Ivan Illich</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 1014 - Interpersonal Relational Networks</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1015 - Schools under fire The success and the failure of an ideology</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1016 - The Breakdown of Schools</strong></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Cuaderno 1017 - Institutional Inversion</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1018:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1018:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1018:index">Cuaderno 1018</a> - Catalogo de publicaciones 1973</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1019 - Law, Growth and Technology by Weisstub, David (1972)</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1020 - Retooling Society II (1972)</strong></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1021 - Hacía una sociedad convivencial</strong></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1022:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1022:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1022:index">Cuaderno 1022</a> - Hacia una sociedad convivencial - Ivan Illich</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1023 - Preparatory Reading Materials A142 by Ivan Illich</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931506112205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931506112205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931506112205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1024:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1024:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1024:index">Cuaderno 1024</a> - Seminario sobre la sociedad convivencial</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1025:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1025:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1025:index">Cuaderno 1025</a> - Seminar on “Tools for conviviality” working papers. January-February 1973</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1026 - The dynamic programming of human systems by Wilkinson, John</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"><a href="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932739912205899" class="urlextern" title="https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932739912205899" rel="ugc nofollow">https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932739912205899</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Cuaderno 1027 - Herramientas para la convivencia</strong></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:1028:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:1028:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:1028:index">Cuaderno 1028</a> - La convivialité -Ivan Illich +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1966:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1966:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1966:index">Cuaderno Antología 1966</a> - CIDOC. The university in Latin America. An Anthology of recent Articles, José M. Bulnes Aldunate y Larry M. Grimes (eds.), Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, 1966, 81 pp.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1973:index" class="wikilink2" title="cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1973:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1973:index">Cuaderno Antologia 1973</a> - CIDOC. Antología: A6<em>”, Alternativas al Médico”</em>, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, 1973, 194 pp.</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"CIDOC Cuadernos","hid":"cidoc_cuadernos","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":2,"range":"50-17435"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit3" id="dossiers">Dossiers</h2> +<div class="level2"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 01 - Puerto Rico Idioma Escolar 62 – 65. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 02 - Brasil o Confronto de Duas Generaçoes de Cristãos 1960. G. De Souza, Luis Alberto (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 03 - Argentina Confederación General del Trabajo 1965. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Roggi, Luis Osvaldo (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 04 - México Huelga de la UNAM Marzo – Mayo, 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 05 - México Huelga de la UNAM Marzo – Mayo, 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 06 - Puerto Rico Reforma Universitaria 1963 – 1965. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 07 - Brasil Control de la Natalidad Agosto 1966 – 67. Algunos documentos clave. Lagge Pessoa, Francisco (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 08 - Valparaíso Crisis de la Universidad Católica Junio – Agosto, 1967. Documentos Oficiales y Reacciones de Prensa. Bulnes A., José M. y Di Girolamo, Vittorio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 09 - Venezuela Reforma Tributaria 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 10 - Argentina Enseñanza Superior 1958. Roggi, Luis O. (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 11 - Puerto Rico Partido Acción Cristina 1960 – 62. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio, (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 + * Dossier 12 - © Josefina Echevarría/ Martina Kaller-Dietrich 2007 Colombia Camilo Torres Un símbolo Controvertido 1962 – 67. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 13 - Venezuela Ley Orgánica de Educación 1966. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 14 - México Movimiento Universitario de Renovadora Orientación 1961 – 66. Reacciones de Prensa. Del Corro, Alejandro y Matar, Myriam A. (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 15 - Argentina Petróleo y Soberanía 1955 – 1964. Roggi, Luis O. (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 16 - Puerto Rico Obispos Nativos 1962 – 65. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 17 - Venezuela “Astronautas” de COPEI 1965 – 67. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 19 - Guatemala La Violencia – I – Posiciones ante el uso de la Violencia en el Cambio Social: Prensa Nacional, 1960 – 65. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 20 - Guatemala La Violencia – II – Posiciones ante el uso de la Violencia en el Cambio Social: Prensa Nacional, 1966 Mayo 1967. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 21 - Guatemala La Violencia – III – Posiciones ante el uso de la Violencia en el Cambio Social: Prensa Nacional. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 22 - Colombia La Jerarquía Católica y los Programas de Control de la Natalidad. Enero – Marzo 1967. Algunos documentos clave. Maldonado, Oscar (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 23 - México Conflicto Estudiantil – I – 1968. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 24 - América Latina Crisis de la Iglesia Católica Junio – Setiembre de 1968. Reacciones de Prensa. Hevia, Patricio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 25 - Venezuela Diques del Delta Amacuro 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V. Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 26 - Perú International Petroleum Company Limited 1968 - 69. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 27 - Puerto Rico – UPR Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC). Bulnes Aldunate, José María y Torres, Julio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 28 - México Reelección de Diputados 1964 – 65. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio y Jurado G., Humberto (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 29 - Puerto Rico – UPR Abrahán Díaz González 1966 - 1969. Bulnes Aldunate, José María y Torres, Julio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 30 - El Ché Guevara. Reacción de la prensa del Continente Americano con motivo de su muerte; octubre – noviembre 1967. Ortega, Benjamín (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 31 - Cuernavaca Fuentes para el Estudio de una Diócesis – II – Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa 1959 – ‘68. López, Baltazar (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 32 - Venezuela La Violencia – I – El Nacional. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 33 - Venezuela La Violencia – II – Disturbios y Represión de mayor trascendencia. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 34 - Venezuela La Violencia – III – PCV. Impresos clandestinos, de tirajes reducidos, Prensa suprimida y marginal. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 35 - Venezuela La Violencia – IV – MIR. Impresos clandestinos, de tirajes reducidos, Prensa suprimida y marginal. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 36 - Venezuela La Violencia – V – FLN – FALN. Impresos clandestinos de tirajes reducidos, Prensa suprimida y marginal. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 37 - México “Entredicho” del Vaticano a CIDOC 1966 - 69. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Dossier 38 - Índice a CIDOC Dossier Nos. 1 – 37. 1966 - 1971. Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Dossiers","hid":"dossiers","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":3,"range":"17436-22858"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit4" id="sondeos">Sondeos</h2> +<div class="level2"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 01 - Catecismos Peruanos en el Siglo XVI. Castillo Arroyo, Javier, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 02 - Etudes sur le Vodou. Montilus, Robert et autres, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 03 - Two Studies of Puerto Rico. Religion data, the Background of Consensual Union. Dohen, Dorothy, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 04 - The Parish of San Miguelito in Panama. History and Pastoral-Theological Evaluation. Bravo, Francisco, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 05 - Camilo Torres. Por el Padre Camilo Torres Restrepo (1956 – 1966), Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 06 - Católicos y Liberales en la Generación del Ochenta. Buenos Aires 1960. Auza, Néstor Tomás, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 07 - Católicos y Liberales en la Generación del Ochenta. Buenos Aires 1960. Auza, Néstor Tomás, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 08 - Concubinato en América Central. Vega, Ramón/ Taylor, Greer, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 09 - Educational Planning and Socio-Economic Development in Latin America. Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. (Editor), Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 10 - L’univers religieux des aymaras de Bolivie. Observations recueillies dans les carangas. Jalons de Pastorale. Monast, Jaques, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 11 - The cuches of the dominican Republic in the light of history. A study of the roat cuases of current problem. Wipfler, William, Cuernacava 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 12 – 13 - Diocese de Ponta Grossa Parana. Deelen, Godofredo, Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 14 - Historia de los Congresos Católicos Argentinos 1884 – 1921. Auza, Néstor Tomás, Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 15 - El Sentimiento Religioso en la Lírica Puertorriqueña. De Sales, María, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 16 - Misa Tepozteca. Desarrollo de la Música Litúrgica en Tepoztlán, México. Leclerc, Jean-Marc, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 17 - Providence Community in Latin America. A Canadian Group of Sisters re-founds itself in Chile. Volkomener, Mary Theophane, Cuernavaca 1966</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 18 - Curanderismo en Venezuela. Chacón, Alfredo y Cardona, Miguel, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 19 - Documentos sobre la Pastoral 1965 – 67. Galilea, Segundo (Editor), Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 20 - El Real Colegio de San Nicolás de Pátzcuaro. Miranda Godinez, Francisco, Cuernavaca 1967</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 21 - The Evangelism in Depth Program of the Latin American Mission. A Description and Evaluation. Rosales, Ray S., Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 22 - The Colombian Concordat. In the light of recent trends in Catholic thought concerning Church-State relations and religious liberty. Castillo Cárdenas, Gonzalo, Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 23 - The Persecution of Protestant Christians in Colombia. 1948 – 1958. With an investigation of its background and causes. Goff, James E., Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 24 - Catálogo de Libros de la Exposición Catequística. Con un estudio histórico y bibliográfico por Lucila L. de Pérez Díaz. Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 25 - The Political Ideology of Fray Servando Teresa de Mier. Propagandist for Independence. Lombardi, John V., Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 26 - Desarrollo Económico y Moral Católica. Introducción de Roger Vekemans. Zañartu, Mario, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 27 - American Catholic Opinions of Mexican Anticlericalism 1910 – 1936. Quigley, Robert E., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 28 - Religión y Magia en Tupe (Yauyos). Delgado de Thays, Carmen, Cuernavaca 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 29 - Castas Pastorales, 1895 – 1949. Bogarín, Juan Sinforiano, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 30 - Castas Pastorales, 1895 – 1949. Bogarín, Juan Sinforiano, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 31 - Fenomenología Religiosa de la Tribu Anti o Campa. Amazonía Peruana. Torre López, Fernando, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 32 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 1. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 33 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 2. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 34 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 3. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 35 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 4. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 36 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 5. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970 + * Sondeos 37 - © Josefina Echevarría/ Martina Kaller-Dietrich 2007 El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 6. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 38 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 7. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 39 - The Christian Democratic Party in Chile. A study of political organization and activity with primary emphasis on the local level. Wayland Smith, Giles, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 40 - The Significance of the Church-State Relationship to an Evangelical Program in Brazil. Lodwick, Robert E., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 41 - Catholic Innovation in a Changing Latin America. Sanders, Thomas G., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 42 - Expresiones Religiosas en el Folklore. Presentación de José Miguel Bonino. Castro, Néstor W., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 43 - Puerto Rico para Cristo. A History of the Progress of the Evangelical Missions on the Island of Puerto Rico. Moore, Ronald T., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 44 - Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en Chile (1593 – 1955). Hanisch Espindola, Walter, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 45 - Brasil: Igreja em Transiçao. Kosinki de Cavalcanti, Jose e Deelen, Godofredo, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 46 - Portrait of Half a Century. Fifty years of Presbyterianism in Brazil (1859 – 1910). Mc Intire, Robert Leonard, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 47 - Diocese de Caravelas. Introduçao de Affonso Gregory. Deelen, Godofredo, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 48 - O Apostolado das Religiosas. Pesquisa realizada nas Cidades de Recife e de Olinda Brasil 1967. Lhoëst, Bernadete, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 49 - Situación Social y Liberación. Interpretación Teológica de un Contexto Social Específico: un área urbana – industrial en el Gran Buenos Aires. De Luca, José N., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 50 - Una Imagen del Hombre Argentino. Presentación de José Míguez Bonino. Clausen, Arne, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 51 - The Significance of Changes in Latin American Catholicism since Chimbote 1953. Vitalis, Hellmut Gnadt, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 52 - Understanding the Religious Background of the Puerto Rican. Fenton, Jerry, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 53 - Comunication of the Gospel in Latin America. Nida, Eugene, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 54 - Documentos sobre la realidad de la iglesia en América Latina. 1968-1969. Rogel, Isaac (ed), Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 55 - Sectarismo Portorriqueño. Búsqueda de Comunidad y Expansión Pentecostal. Poblete, Renato, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 56 - A Presbyterian Church in Central Brazil. A Program for accelerating its development. Read, William R., Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 57 - Religiosidad y actitudes ante el cambio social de los universitarios latinoamericanos en Madrid. Diaz Casanova, Máximo, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 58 - Cuernavaca: Mentalidad Religiosa Popular. Inst. Supérieur de Pastorale Catéchétique, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 59 - El Clero en Bolivia, 1968. Ponce García, Jaime y Uzín Fernández, Oscar, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 60 - Sicuani, 1968: Estudio Socio Religioso. Negre Rigor, Pedro y Bustillos Gálvez, Franklin, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 61 - El Mito en una Comunidad Indígena: Picaflores, Veracruz. Williams García, Roberto, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 62 - The Catholic Church and Elections. A Study of the Catholic Thought on the Moral Obligation of Voting. Aleixo, José Carlos, Cuernavaca 1969</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 63 - Education Catholique et Sécularisation en Colombie. Rodríguez Forero, Jaime, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 64 - The Mennonite Immigrant Communities in Parana, Brazil. Minnich, Reynolds Herbert, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 65 - Protestantism in Guatemala. Its Influence on the Bicultural situation, with reference to the Roman Catholic background. Emery, Gennet Maxon, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 66 - Puerto Rico: Iglesia y Sociedad 1967 – 1969. Conferencias, Discursos, Entrevistas. Parrilla Bonilla, Antulio, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 67 - Las Vocaciones en Chile, 1536 – 1850. Hanisch Espindola, Walter, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 68 - Foreign Missionaries in Argentina 1938 – 1962. A Study of Dependence. Sweeney, Ernest S., Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 69 - Les Documents de l’épiscopat Brésilien sur le développement. De Lima, Danilo, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 70 - Caribbean Papers. Simpson, George Eaton, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 71 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620. Apéndice Documental, Tomo I, Vol. 8. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 72 - El episcopado hispanoamericano. Institución misioneraen defensa del indio, 15041620. Apéndice documental, Tomo II. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 73 - Los Ex–Sacerdotes y Ex–Seminaristas en España. Ruiz Olabuenaga, José Ignacio, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 74 - Spiritual Care of Puerto Rican Migrants. Report on the First Conference, held in San Juan, Puerto Rico, April 11th to 16th 1955. Ferree, William, Illich, Ivan, Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. (Editors), Cuernavaca 1970 74)</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 75 - Sacerdocios y Dominación. Bulnes Aldunate, Juan, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 76 - Vestigios Africanos en la Cultura del Pueblo Venezolano. Pollak-Eltz, Angelina, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 77 - Ensayos sobre la Trascendencia. Illich, Ivan, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 78 - José María Bulnes, Introducción por Giuseppe Alberigo, Facsímil del Textus Emendatus (Reservatum), Apuntes para un Análisis Crítico del Esquema por un grupo de Teólogos. Rogel, Isaac (Editor), Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 79 - Las Informaciones de Cristóbal de Albornoz. Documentos para el estudio del Taki Onqoy. Millones, Luis, Cuernavaca 1970</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 80 - Pénétration Culturelle et Presse Religieuse. Le cas d’une Revue Protestante Argentina. Lalive D’Epinay, Christian, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 81 - Dominación y Catequesis en América Latina (Siglos XVI y XVII). Rivera Pizarro, Jorge, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 82 - Catholicisme et Vaudou. Robert, Paul, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 83 - Participação e Igreja. Estudo dos Movimentos e Associações de Leigos. De Medina, Carlos Alberto y Furtado, Dimas, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 84 - Puerto Rico: Iglesia y Sociedad 1969 – 1971. Conferencias, Discursos, Entrevistas. Parrilla-Bonilla, Antulio, Cuernavaca 1971</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 85 - Faith and ideology in Latin American Perspective. Dehainaut, Raymond K., Cuernavaca 1972</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 86 - El trasondo revolucionario del sincretismio criollo. Steger, Hans-Albert, Cuernavaca 1972</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 87 - Images Messianiques du Brésil. Pereira de Queiroz, Maria Isaura, Cuernavaca 1972</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 88 - Pioneer protestant missionaries in Honduras. A.E. Bishop and J.G. Cassel and the establishment of central American mission in western Honduras, 1896-1901. Winn, Wilkins B., Cuernavaca 1973</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Sondeos 89 - Approche Anthropologique de la Religiosité Populaire au Brésil. Tavares de Andrade, José María, Cuernavaca 1973 +</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Sondeos","hid":"sondeos","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":4,"range":"22859-"} -->
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Function]')?encodeURIComponent(nextTemp)+'='+encodeURIComponent(nextObj()):encodeURIComponent(nextTemp)+'='+encodeURIComponent(nextObj));}};if(!prefixDone&&temp){prefix=(/\?/.test(temp))?(/\?$/.test(temp))?'':'&':'?';uristrings.push(temp);uristrings.push(qq.obj2url(obj));}else if((Object.prototype.toString.call(obj)==='[object Array]')&&(typeof obj!='undefined')){for(var i=0,len=obj.length;i<len;++i){add(obj[i],i);}}else if((typeof obj!='undefined')&&(obj!==null)&&(typeof obj==="object")){for(var i in obj){if(obj.hasOwnProperty(i)&&typeof obj[i]!='function'){add(obj[i],i);}}}else{uristrings.push(encodeURIComponent(temp)+'='+encodeURIComponent(obj));}return uristrings.join(prefix).replace(/^&/,'').replace(/%20/g,'+');};var qq=qq||{};qq.FileUploaderBasic=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/server/upload',params:{},button:null,multiple:true,maxConnections:3,allowedExtensions:[],sizeLimit:0,minSizeLimit:0,onSubmit:function(id,fileName){},onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,responseJSON){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){},messages:{typeError:"{file} has invalid extension. Only {extensions} are allowed.",sizeError:"{file} is too large, maximum file size is {sizeLimit}.",minSizeError:"{file} is too small, minimum file size is {minSizeLimit}.",emptyError:"{file} is empty, please select files again without it.",onLeave:"The files are being uploaded, if you leave now the upload will be cancelled."},showMessage:function(message){alert(message);}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._filesInProgress=0;this._handler=this._createUploadHandler();if(this._options.button){this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._options.button);}this._preventLeaveInProgress();};qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype={setParams:function(params){this._options.params=params;},getInProgress:function(){return this._filesInProgress;},_createUploadButton:function(element){var self=this;return new qq.UploadButton({element:element,multiple:this._options.multiple&&qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported(),onChange:function(input){self._onInputChange(input);}});},_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);}});return handler;},_preventLeaveInProgress:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(window,'beforeunload',function(e){if(!self._filesInProgress){return;}var e=e||window.event;e.returnValue=self._options.messages.onLeave;return self._options.messages.onLeave;});},_onSubmit:function(id,fileName){this._filesInProgress++;},_onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;if(result.error){this._options.showMessage(result.error);}},_onCancel:function(id,fileName){this._filesInProgress--;},_onInputChange:function(input){if(this._handler instanceof qq.UploadHandlerXhr){this._uploadFileList(input.files);}else{if(this._validateFile(input)){this._uploadFile(input);}}this._button.reset();},_uploadFileList:function(files){for(var i=0;i<files.length;i++){if(!this._validateFile(files[i])){return;}}for(var i=0;i<files.length;i++){this._uploadFile(files[i]);}},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);this._handler.upload(id,this._options.params);}},_validateFile:function(file){var name,size;if(file.value){name=file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{name=file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;size=file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;}if(!this._isAllowedExtension(name)){this._error('typeError',name);return false;}else if(size===0){this._error('emptyError',name);return false;}else if(size&&this._options.sizeLimit&&size>this._options.sizeLimit){this._error('sizeError',name);return false;}else if(size&&size<this._options.minSizeLimit){this._error('minSizeError',name);return false;}return true;},_error:function(code,fileName){var message=this._options.messages[code];function r(name,replacement){message=message.replace(name,replacement);}r('{file}',this._formatFileName(fileName));r('{extensions}',this._options.allowedExtensions.join(', '));r('{sizeLimit}',this._formatSize(this._options.sizeLimit));r('{minSizeLimit}',this._formatSize(this._options.minSizeLimit));this._options.showMessage(message);},_formatFileName:function(name){if(name.length>33){name=name.slice(0,19)+'...'+name.slice(-13);}return name;},_isAllowedExtension:function(fileName){var ext=(-1!==fileName.indexOf('.'))?fileName.replace(/.*[.]/,'').toLowerCase():'';var allowed=this._options.allowedExtensions;if(!allowed.length){return true;}for(var i=0;i<allowed.length;i++){if(allowed[i].toLowerCase()==ext){return true;}}return false;},_formatSize:function(bytes){var i=-1;do{bytes=bytes/1024;i++;}while(bytes>99);return Math.max(bytes,0.1).toFixed(1)+['kB','MB','GB','TB','PB','EB'][i];}};qq.FileUploader=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>Drop files here to upload</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">Upload a file</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file"></span>'+'<span class="qq-upload-spinner"></span>'+'<span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+'<a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">Cancel</a>'+'<span class="qq-upload-failed-text">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_find:function(parent,type){var element=qq.getByClass(parent,this._options.classes[type])[0];if(!element){throw new Error('element not found '+type);}return element;},_setupDragDrop:function(){var self=this,dropArea=this._find(this._element,'drop');var dz=new qq.UploadDropZone({element:dropArea,onEnter:function(e){qq.addClass(dropArea,self._classes.dropActive);e.stopPropagation();},onLeave:function(e){e.stopPropagation();},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){qq.removeClass(dropArea,self._classes.dropActive);},onDrop:function(e){dropArea.style.display='none';qq.removeClass(dropArea,self._classes.dropActive);self._uploadFileList(e.dataTransfer.files);}});dropArea.style.display='none';qq.attach(document,'dragenter',function(e){if(!dz._isValidFileDrag(e))return;dropArea.style.display='block';});qq.attach(document,'dragleave',function(e){if(!dz._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(!relatedTarget||relatedTarget.nodeName=="HTML"){dropArea.style.display='none';}});},_onSubmit:function(id,fileName){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onSubmit.apply(this,arguments);this._addToList(id,fileName);},_onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onProgress.apply(this,arguments);var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);var size=this._find(item,'size');size.style.display='inline';var text;if(loaded!=total){text=Math.round(loaded/total*100)+'% from '+this._formatSize(total);}else{text=this._formatSize(total);}qq.setText(size,text);},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onComplete.apply(this,arguments);var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,this._formatFileName(fileName));this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';this._listElement.appendChild(item);},_getItemByFileId:function(id){var item=this._listElement.firstChild;while(item){if(item.qqFileId==id)return item;item=item.nextSibling;}},_bindCancelEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(list,'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;if(qq.hasClass(target,self._classes.cancel)){qq.preventDefault(e);var item=target.parentNode;self._handler.cancel(item.qqFileId);qq.remove(item);}});}});qq.UploadDropZone=function(o){this._options={element:null,onEnter:function(e){},onLeave:function(e){},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){},onDrop:function(e){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._disableDropOutside();this._attachEvents();};qq.UploadDropZone.prototype={_disableDropOutside:function(e){if(!qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled){qq.attach(document,'dragover',function(e){if(e.dataTransfer){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='none';e.preventDefault();}});qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled=true;}},_attachEvents:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(self._element,'dragover',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var effect=e.dataTransfer.effectAllowed;if(effect=='move'||effect=='linkMove'){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='move';}else{e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='copy';}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();});qq.attach(self._element,'dragenter',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onEnter(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'dragleave',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onLeave(e);var relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(qq.contains(this,relatedTarget))return;self._options.onLeaveNotDescendants(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'drop',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;e.preventDefault();self._options.onDrop(e);});},_isValidFileDrag:function(e){var dt=e.dataTransfer,isWebkit=navigator.userAgent.indexOf("AppleWebKit")>-1;return dt&&dt.effectAllowed!='none'&&(dt.files||(!isWebkit&&dt.types.contains&&dt.types.contains('Files')));}};qq.UploadButton=function(o){this._options={element:null,multiple:false,name:'file',onChange:function(input){},hoverClass:'qq-upload-button-hover',focusClass:'qq-upload-button-focus'};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;qq.css(this._element,{position:'relative',overflow:'hidden',direction:'ltr'});this._input=this._createInput();};qq.UploadButton.prototype={getInput:function(){return this._input;},reset:function(){if(this._input.parentNode){qq.remove(this._input);}qq.removeClass(this._element,this._options.focusClass);this._input=this._createInput();},_createInput:function(){var input=document.createElement("input");if(this._options.multiple){input.setAttribute("multiple","multiple");}input.setAttribute("type","file");input.setAttribute("name",this._options.name);qq.css(input,{position:'absolute',right:0,top:0,fontFamily:'Arial',fontSize:'118px',margin:0,padding:0,cursor:'pointer',opacity:0});this._element.appendChild(input);var self=this;qq.attach(input,'change',function(){self._options.onChange(input);});qq.attach(input,'mouseover',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'mouseout',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'focus',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});qq.attach(input,'blur',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});if(window.attachEvent){input.setAttribute('tabIndex',"-1");}return input;}};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/upload.php',maxConnections:999,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,response){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._queue=[];this._params=[];};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype={log:function(str){if(this._options.debug&&window.console)console.log('[uploader] '+str);},add:function(file){},upload:function(id,params){var len=this._queue.push(id);var copy={};qq.extend(copy,params);this._params[id]=copy;if(len<=this._options.maxConnections){this._upload(id,this._params[id]);}},cancel:function(id){this._cancel(id);this._dequeue(id);},cancelAll:function(){for(var i=0;i<this._queue.length;i++){this._cancel(this._queue[i]);}this._queue=[];},getName:function(id){},getSize:function(id){},getQueue:function(){return this._queue;},_upload:function(id){},_cancel:function(id){},_dequeue:function(id){var i=qq.indexOf(this._queue,id);this._queue.splice(i,1);var max=this._options.maxConnections;if(this._queue.length>=max&&i<max){var nextId=this._queue[max-1];this._upload(nextId,this._params[nextId]);}}};qq.UploadHandlerForm=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._inputs={};};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{add:function(fileInput){fileInput.setAttribute('name','qqfile');var id='qq-upload-handler-iframe'+qq.getUniqueId();this._inputs[id]=fileInput;if(fileInput.parentNode){qq.remove(fileInput);}return id;},getName:function(id){return this._inputs[id].value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));delete this._inputs[id];var iframe=document.getElementById(id);if(iframe){iframe.setAttribute('src','javascript:false;');qq.remove(iframe);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;},_attachLoadEvent:function(iframe,callback){qq.attach(iframe,'load',function(){if(!iframe.parentNode){return;}if(iframe.contentDocument&&iframe.contentDocument.body&&iframe.contentDocument.body.innerHTML=="false"){return;}callback();});},_getIframeContentJSON:function(iframe){var doc=iframe.contentDocument?iframe.contentDocument:iframe.contentWindow.document,response;this.log("converting iframe's innerHTML to JSON");this.log("innerHTML = "+doc.body.innerHTML);try{response=eval("("+doc.body.innerHTML+")");}catch(err){response={};}return response;},_createIframe:function(id){var iframe=qq.toElement('<iframe src="javascript:false;" name="'+id+'" />');iframe.setAttribute('id',id);iframe.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(iframe);return iframe;},_createForm:function(iframe,params){var form=qq.toElement('<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"></form>');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);form.setAttribute('action',queryString);form.setAttribute('target',iframe.name);form.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(form);return form;}});qq.UploadHandlerXhr=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._files=[];this._xhrs=[];this._loaded=[];};qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported=function(){var input=document.createElement('input');input.type='file';return('multiple'in input&&typeof File!="undefined"&&typeof(new XMLHttpRequest()).upload!="undefined");};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{add:function(file){if(!(file instanceof File)){throw new Error('Passed obj in not a File (in qq.UploadHandlerXhr)');}return this._files.push(file)-1;},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},getLoaded:function(id){return this._loaded[id]||0;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_onComplete:function(id,xhr){if(!this._files[id])return;var name=this.getName(id);var size=this.getSize(id);this._options.onProgress(id,name,size,size);if(xhr.status==200){this.log("xhr - server response received");this.log("responseText = "+xhr.responseText);var response;try{response=eval("("+xhr.responseText+")");}catch(err){response={};}this._options.onComplete(id,name,response);}else{this._options.onComplete(id,name,{});}this._files[id]=null;this._xhrs[id]=null;this._dequeue(id);},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));this._files[id]=null;if(this._xhrs[id]){this._xhrs[id].abort();this._xhrs[id]=null;}}});qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);},onUpload:function(){self._onUpload();}});return handler;},_onUpload:function(){this._handler.uploadAll(this._options.params);},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,fileName);this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';var nameElement=this._find(item,'nameInput');fileName=fileName.toLowerCase();fileName=fileName.replace(/([ !"#$%&\'()+,\/;<=>?@[\]^`{|}~:]+)/g,'_');fileName=fileName.replace(/^_+/,'');nameElement.value=fileName;nameElement.id='mediamanager__upload_item'+id;this._listElement.appendChild(item);}});qq.FileUploaderExtended=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>'+LANG.media_drop+'</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">'+LANG.media_select+'</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'<div class="qq-action-container">'+' <button class="qq-upload-action" type="submit" id="mediamanager__upload_button">'+LANG.media_upload_btn+'</button>'+' <label class="qq-overwrite-check"><input type="checkbox" value="1" name="ow" class="dw__ow"> <span>'+LANG.media_overwrt+'</span></label>'+'</div>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file hidden"></span>'+' <input class="qq-upload-name-input edit" type="text" value="" />'+' <span class="qq-upload-spinner hidden"></span>'+' <span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+' <a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">'+LANG.media_cancel+'</a>'+' <span class="qq-upload-failed-text error">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',nameInput:'qq-upload-name-input',overwriteInput:'qq-overwrite-check',uploadButton:'qq-upload-action',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail',failedText:'qq-upload-failed-text'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._bindUploadEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,qq.FileUploader.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,{_bindUploadEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_button'),'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;qq.preventDefault(e);self._handler._options.onUpload();jQuery(".qq-upload-name-input").each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',true);});});},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));var nameInput=this._find(item,'nameInput');var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,nameInput.value);qq.removeClass(fileElement,'hidden');qq.remove(nameInput);jQuery('.qq-upload-button, #mediamanager__upload_button').remove();jQuery('.dw__ow').parent().hide();jQuery('.qq-upload-drop-area').remove();if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);$link='<a href="'+result.link+'" id="h_:'+result.id+'" class="select">'+nameInput.value+'</a>';jQuery(fileElement).html($link);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);var fail=this._find(item,'failedText');if(result.error)qq.setText(fail,result.error);}if(document.getElementById('media__content')&&!document.getElementById('mediamanager__done_form')){var action=document.location.href;var i=action.indexOf('?');if(i)action=action.substr(0,i);var button='<form method="post" action="'+action+'" id="mediamanager__done_form"><div>';button+='<input type="hidden" value="'+result.ns+'" name="ns">';button+='<input type="hidden" value="1" name="recent">';button+='<button type="submit">'+LANG.media_done_btn+'</button></div></form>';jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').append(button);}}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._inputs[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{return null;}}},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._inputs){this.upload(key,params);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var nameInput=qq.toElement('<input name="mediaid" value="'+fileName+'" type="text">');form.appendChild(nameInput);var checked=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var owCheckbox=jQuery('.dw__ow').clone();owCheckbox.attr('checked',checked);jQuery(form).append(owCheckbox);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;}else{return null;}}},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];if(file==null)return null;return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);if(name==null||size==null)return;this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;params['ow']=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._files){this.upload(key,params);}}});function substr_replace(str,replace,start,length){var a2,b1;a2=(start<0?str.length:0)+start;if(typeof length==='undefined'){length=str.length-a2;}else 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text,parts,i;if(!jQuery.isEmptyObject(this.data)){return;}text=jQuery.cookie(this.name);if(text){parts=text.split('#');for(i=0;i<parts.length;i+=2){this.data[decodeURIComponent(parts[i])]=decodeURIComponent(parts[i+1]);}}}};if('function'===typeof jQuery&&'function'===typeof jQuery.noConflict){jQuery.noConflict();}var clientPC=navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase();var is_macos=navigator.appVersion.indexOf('Mac')!=-1;var is_gecko=((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('khtml')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));var is_safari=((clientPC.indexOf('applewebkit')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));var is_khtml=(navigator.vendor=='KDE'||(document.childNodes&&!document.all&&!navigator.taintEnabled));if(clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1){var is_opera=true;var is_opera_preseven=(window.opera&&!document.childNodes);var is_opera_seven=(window.opera&&document.childNodes);}function closePopups(){jQuery('div.JSpopup').hide();}jQuery(function(){jQuery(document).on('click',closePopups);});jQuery.fn.dw_qsearch=function(overrides){var dw_qsearch={output:'#qsearch__out',$inObj:this,$outObj:null,timer:null,curRequest:null,init:function(){var do_qsearch;dw_qsearch.$outObj=jQuery(dw_qsearch.output);if(dw_qsearch.$inObj.length===0||dw_qsearch.$outObj.length===0){return;}do_qsearch=function(){if(dw_qsearch.curRequest!=null){dw_qsearch.curRequest.abort();}var value=dw_qsearch.getSearchterm();if(value===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').addClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'qsearch',q:encodeURI(value)},dw_qsearch.onCompletion,'html');};dw_qsearch.$inObj.on('keyup',function(){if(dw_qsearch.timer){window.clearTimeout(dw_qsearch.timer);dw_qsearch.timer=null;}dw_qsearch.timer=window.setTimeout(do_qsearch,500);});dw_qsearch.$outObj.on('click',dw_qsearch.clear_results);},getSearchterm:function(){return dw_qsearch.$inObj.val();},clear_results:function(){dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.$outObj.hide();dw_qsearch.$outObj.text('');},onCompletion:function(data){var max,$links,too_big;dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=null;if(data===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$outObj .html(data).show().css('white-space','nowrap');dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','visible');$links=dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('a');max=dw_qsearch.$outObj[0].clientWidth;if(document.documentElement.dir==='rtl'){max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-left'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetLeft<0;};}else{max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-right'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetWidth+l.offsetLeft>max;};}$links.each(function(){var start,length,replace,nsL,nsR,eli,runaway;if(!too_big(this)){return;}nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');eli=0;runaway=0;while((nsR-nsL>3)&&too_big(this)&&runaway++<500){if(eli!==0){if((eli-nsL)>(nsR-eli)){start=eli-2;length=2;}else{start=eli+1;length=1;}replace='';}else{start=Math.floor(nsL+((nsR-nsL)/2));length=1;replace='…';}this.textContent=substr_replace(this.textContent,replace,start,length);eli=this.textContent.indexOf('…');nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');}});dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','hidden').css('text-overflow','ellipsis');}};jQuery.extend(dw_qsearch,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_qsearch.init();}return dw_qsearch;};jQuery(function(){jQuery('#qsearch__in').dw_qsearch({output:'#qsearch__out'});});jQuery(function(){'use strict';var $searchForm=jQuery('.search-results-form');if(!$searchForm.length){return;}var $toggleAssistanceButton=jQuery('<button>').addClass('toggleAssistant').attr('type','button').attr('aria-expanded','false').text(LANG.search_toggle_tools).prependTo($searchForm.find('fieldset'));$toggleAssistanceButton.on('click',function(){jQuery('.advancedOptions').toggle(0,function(){var $me=jQuery(this);if($me.attr('aria-hidden')){$me.removeAttr('aria-hidden');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','true');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','on');}else{$me.attr('aria-hidden','true');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','false');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','off');}});});if(DokuCookie.getValue('sa')==='on'){$toggleAssistanceButton.trigger('click');}$searchForm.find('.advancedOptions .toggle div.current').on('click',function(){var $me=jQuery(this);$me.parent().siblings().removeClass('open');$me.parent().siblings().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');$me.parent().toggleClass('open');if($me.parent().hasClass('open')){$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','true');}else{$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');}});});jQuery.fn.dw_tree=function(overrides){var dw_tree={throbber_delay:500,$obj:this,toggle_selector:'a.idx_dir',init:function(){this.$obj.on('click',this.toggle_selector,this,this.toggle);jQuery('ul:first',this.$obj).attr('role','tree');jQuery('ul',this.$obj).not(':first').attr('role','group');jQuery('li',this.$obj).attr('role','treeitem');jQuery('li.open > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','true');jQuery('li.closed > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','false');jQuery('li.closed',this.$obj).attr('aria-live','assertive');},toggle:function(e){var $listitem,$sublist,timeout,$clicky,show_sublist,dw_tree,opening;e.preventDefault();dw_tree=e.data;$clicky=jQuery(this);$listitem=$clicky.closest('li');$sublist=$listitem.find('ul').first();opening=$listitem.hasClass('closed');dw_tree.toggle_display($clicky,opening);if($sublist.is(':visible')){$listitem.removeClass('open').addClass('closed');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','false');}else{$listitem.removeClass('closed').addClass('open');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','true');}if(!opening){$sublist.dw_hide();return;}show_sublist=function(data){$sublist.hide();if(typeof data!=='undefined'){$sublist.html(data);$sublist.parent().attr('aria-busy','false').removeAttr('aria-live');jQuery('li.closed',$sublist).attr('aria-live','assertive');}if($listitem.hasClass('open')){$sublist.dw_show();}};if($sublist.length>0){show_sublist();return;}$sublist=jQuery('<ul class="idx" role="group"/>');$listitem.append($sublist);timeout=window.setTimeout(bind(show_sublist,'<li aria-busy="true"><img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="loading..." title="loading..." /></li>'),dw_tree.throbber_delay);dw_tree.load_data(function(data){window.clearTimeout(timeout);show_sublist(data);},$clicky);},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){},load_data:function(show_data,$clicky){show_data();}};jQuery.extend(dw_tree,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_tree.init();}return dw_tree;};var dw_index=jQuery('#index__tree').dw_tree({deferInit:true,load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$clicky[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=index',show_sublist,'html');}});jQuery(function(){var $tree=jQuery('#index__tree');dw_index.$obj=$tree;dw_index.init();});function selection_class(){this.start=0;this.end=0;this.obj=null;this.scroll=0;this.fix=0;this.getLength=function(){return this.end-this.start;};this.getText=function(){return(!this.obj)?'':this.obj.value.substring(this.start,this.end);};}function DWgetSelection(textArea){var sel=new selection_class();textArea.focus();sel.obj=textArea;sel.start=textArea.selectionStart;sel.end=textArea.selectionEnd;sel.scroll=textArea.scrollTop;return sel;}function DWsetSelection(selection){selection.obj.setSelectionRange(selection.start,selection.end);if(selection.scroll)selection.obj.scrollTop=selection.scroll;}function pasteText(selection,text,opts){if(!opts)opts={};selection.obj.value=selection.obj.value.substring(0,selection.start)+text+selection.obj.value.substring(selection.end,selection.obj.value.length);if(is_opera){selection.end=selection.start+text.replace(/\r?\n/g,'\r\n').length;}else{selection.end=selection.start+text.length;}if(opts.startofs)selection.start+=opts.startofs;if(opts.endofs)selection.end-=opts.endofs;if(opts.nosel)selection.start=selection.end;DWsetSelection(selection);}function insertTags(textAreaID,tagOpen,tagClose,sampleText){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);var text=selection.getText();var opts;if(text.charAt(text.length-1)==' '){selection.end--;text=selection.getText();}if(!text){text=sampleText;opts={startofs:tagOpen.length,endofs:tagClose.length};}else{opts={nosel:true};}text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;pasteText(selection,text,opts);}function insertAtCarret(textAreaID,text){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);pasteText(selection,text,{nosel:true});}var pickercounter=0;function initToolbar(tbid,edid,tb,allowblock){var $toolbar,$edit;if(typeof tbid=='string'){$toolbar=jQuery('#'+tbid);}else{$toolbar=jQuery(tbid);}$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($toolbar.length==0||$edit.length==0||$edit.attr('readOnly')){return;}if(typeof allowblock==='undefined'){allowblock=true;}$toolbar.html('');jQuery.each(tb,function(k,val){if(!tb.hasOwnProperty(k)||(!allowblock&&val.block===true)){return;}var actionFunc,$btn;$btn=jQuery(createToolButton(val.icon,val.title,val.key,val.id,val['class']));actionFunc='tb_'+val.type;if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){$btn.on('click',bind(window[actionFunc],$btn,val,edid));$toolbar.append($btn);return;}actionFunc='addBtnAction'+val.type.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+val.type.substring(1);if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){var pickerid=window[actionFunc]($btn,val,edid);if(pickerid!==''){$toolbar.append($btn);$btn.attr('aria-controls',pickerid);if(actionFunc==='addBtnActionPicker'){$btn.attr('aria-haspopup','true');}}return;}alert('unknown toolbar type: '+val.type+' '+actionFunc);});}function tb_format(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title;insertTags(edid,fixtxt(props.open),fixtxt(props.close),fixtxt(sample));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_formatln(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title,opts,selection=DWgetSelection(jQuery('#'+edid)[0]);sample=fixtxt(sample);props.open=fixtxt(props.open);props.close=fixtxt(props.close);if(selection.getLength()){sample=selection.getText();opts={nosel:true};}else{opts={startofs:props.open.length,endofs:props.close.length};}sample=sample.split("\n").join(props.close+"\n"+props.open);sample=props.open+sample+props.close;pasteText(selection,sample,opts);pickerClose();return false;}function tb_insert(btn,props,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,fixtxt(props.insert));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_mediapopup(btn,props,edid){window.open(DOKU_BASE+props.url+encodeURIComponent(NS)+'&edid='+encodeURIComponent(edid),props.name,props.options);return false;}function tb_autohead(btn,props,edid){var lvl=currentHeadlineLevel(edid),tags;lvl+=props.mod;if(lvl<1)lvl=1;if(lvl>5)lvl=5;tags=(new Array(8-lvl)).join('=');insertTags(edid,tags+' ',' '+tags+"\n",props.text);pickerClose();return false;}function addBtnActionPicker($btn,props,edid){var pickerid='picker'+(pickercounter++);var picker=createPicker(pickerid,props,edid);jQuery(picker).attr('aria-hidden','true');$btn.click(function(e){pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn);e.preventDefault();return'';});return pickerid;}function addBtnActionLinkwiz($btn,props,edid){dw_linkwiz.init(jQuery('#'+edid));jQuery($btn).click(function(e){dw_linkwiz.val=props;dw_linkwiz.toggle();e.preventDefault();return'';});return'link__wiz';}function pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn){var $picker=jQuery('#'+pickerid),pos=$btn.offset();if($picker.hasClass('a11y')){$picker.removeClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','false');}else{$picker.addClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','true');}var picker_left=pos.left+3,picker_width=$picker.width(),window_width=jQuery(window).width();if(picker_width>300){$picker.css("max-width","300");picker_width=300;}if((picker_left+picker_width+40)>window_width){picker_left=window_width-picker_width-40;}if(picker_left<0){picker_left=0;}$picker.offset({left:picker_left,top:pos.top+$btn[0].offsetHeight+3});}function pickerClose(){jQuery('.picker').addClass('a11y');}function fixtxt(str){return str.replace(/\\n/g,"\n");}jQuery(function(){initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);jQuery('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');});function createToolButton(icon,label,key,id,classname){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')),$ico=jQuery(document.createElement('img'));$btn.addClass('toolbutton');if(classname){$btn.addClass(classname);}$btn.attr('title',label).attr('aria-controls','wiki__text');if(key){$btn.attr('title',label+' ['+key.toUpperCase()+']').attr('accessKey',key);}if(id){$btn.attr('id',id);$ico.attr('id',id+'_ico');}if(icon.substr(0,1)!=='/'){icon=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/toolbar/'+icon;}$ico.attr('src',icon);$ico.attr('alt','');$ico.attr('width',16);$ico.attr('height',16);$btn.append($ico);return $btn[0];}function createPicker(id,props,edid){var $picker=jQuery(document.createElement('div'));$picker.addClass('picker a11y');if(props['class']){$picker.addClass(props['class']);}$picker.attr('id',id).css('position','absolute');function $makebutton(title){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('pickerbutton').attr('title',title).attr('aria-controls',edid).on('click',bind(pickerInsert,title,edid)).appendTo($picker);return $btn;}jQuery.each(props.list,function(key,item){if(!props.list.hasOwnProperty(key)){return;}if(isNaN(key)){if(item.substr(0,1)!=='/'){item=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+props.icobase+'/'+item;}jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',item).attr('alt','').appendTo($makebutton(key));}else if(typeof item=='string'){$makebutton(item).text(item);}else{initToolbar($picker,edid,props.list);return false;}});jQuery('body').append($picker);return $picker[0];}function pickerInsert(text,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,text);pickerClose();}function addBtnActionSignature($btn,props,edid){if(typeof SIG!='undefined'&&SIG!=''){$btn.on('click',function(e){insertAtCarret(edid,SIG);e.preventDefault();});return edid;}return'';}function currentHeadlineLevel(textboxId){var field=jQuery('#'+textboxId)[0],s=false,opts=[field.value.substr(0,DWgetSelection(field).start)];if(field.form&&field.form.prefix){opts.push(field.form.prefix.value);}jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var str="\n"+opt,lasthl=str.lastIndexOf("\n==");if(lasthl!==-1){s=str.substr(lasthl+1,6);return false;}});if(s===false){return 0;}return 7-s.match(/^={2,6}/)[0].length;}window.textChanged=false;window.doku_edit_text_content='';function deleteDraft(){if(is_opera||window.keepDraft){return;}var $dwform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($dwform.length===0){return;}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:$dwform.find('input[name=id]').val()});}jQuery(function(){var $editform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0){return;}var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){if($edit_text.attr('readOnly')){return;}var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;DWsetSelection(sel);$edit_text.trigger('focus');doku_edit_text_content=$edit_text.val();}var changeHandler=function(){doku_hasTextBeenModified();doku_summaryCheck();};$editform.change(changeHandler);$editform.keydown(changeHandler);window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged){return LANG.notsavedyet;}};window.onunload=deleteDraft;jQuery('#edbtn__save').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;});jQuery('#edbtn__preview').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;});var $summary=jQuery('#edit__summary');$summary.on('change keyup',doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();});function doku_hasTextBeenModified(){if(!textChanged){var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){textChanged=doku_edit_text_content!=$edit_text.val();}else{textChanged=true;}}}function doku_summaryCheck(){var $sum=jQuery('#edit__summary'),missing=$sum.val()==='';$sum.toggleClass('missing',missing).toggleClass('edit',!missing);}var dw_editor={init:function(){var $editor=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($editor.length===0){return;}dw_editor.initSizeCtl('#size__ctl',$editor);if($editor.attr('readOnly')){return;}$editor.keydown(dw_editor.keyHandler);},initSizeCtl:function(ctlarea,editor){var $ctl=jQuery(ctlarea),$textarea=jQuery(editor);if($ctl.length===0||$textarea.length===0){return;}$textarea.css('height',DokuCookie.getValue('sizeCtl')||'300px');var wrp=DokuCookie.getValue('wrapCtl');if(wrp){dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],wrp);}jQuery.each([['larger',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,100);}],['smaller',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,-100);}],['wrap',function(){dw_editor.toggleWrap(editor);}]],function(_,img){jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+img[0]+'.gif').attr('alt','').on('click',img[1]).appendTo($ctl);});},sizeCtl:function(editor,val){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),height=parseInt($textarea.css('height'))+val;$textarea.css('height',height+'px');DokuCookie.setValue('sizeCtl',$textarea.css('height'));},toggleWrap:function(editor){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),wrap=$textarea.attr('wrap');dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],(wrap&&wrap.toLowerCase()=='off')?'soft':'off');DokuCookie.setValue('wrapCtl',$textarea.attr('wrap'));},setWrap:function(textarea,wrapAttrValue){textarea.setAttribute('wrap',wrapAttrValue);var parNod=textarea.parentNode;var nxtSib=textarea.nextSibling;parNod.removeChild(textarea);parNod.insertBefore(textarea,nxtSib);},keyHandler:function(e){if(jQuery.inArray(e.keyCode,[8,10,13,32])===-1){return;}var selection=DWgetSelection(this);if(selection.getLength()>0){return;}var search="\n"+this.value.substr(0,selection.start);var linestart=Math.max(search.lastIndexOf("\n"),search.lastIndexOf("\r"));search=search.substr(linestart);if((e.keyCode==13||e.keyCode==10)&&e.ctrlKey){jQuery('#edbtn__save').trigger('click');e.preventDefault();return false;}else if(e.keyCode==13){var match=search.match(/(\n +([\*-] ?)?)/);if(match){var scroll=this.scrollHeight;var match2=search.match(/^\n 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')).serialize();}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,null,'json').done(function dwLocktimerRefreshDoneHandler(data){dw_locktimer.callbacks.forEach(function(callback){callback(data);});});dw_locktimer.lasttime=now;},refreshed:function(data){if(data.errors.length){data.errors.forEach(function(error){jQuery('#draft__status').after(jQuery('<div class="error"></div>').text(error));})}jQuery('#draft__status').html(data.draft);if(data.lock!=='1'){return;}dw_locktimer.reset();}};dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(dw_locktimer.refreshed);var dw_linkwiz={$wiz:null,$entry:null,result:null,timer:null,textArea:null,selected:null,selection:null,init:function($editor){var pos=$editor.position();if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz)return;dw_linkwiz.$wiz=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).dialog({autoOpen:false,draggable:true,title:LANG.linkwiz,resizable:false}).html('<div>'+LANG.linkto+' <input type="text" class="edit" id="link__wiz_entry" autocomplete="off" /></div>'+'<div id="link__wiz_result"></div>').parent().attr('id','link__wiz').css({'position':'absolute','top':(pos.top+20)+'px','left':(pos.left+80)+'px'}).hide().appendTo('.dokuwiki:first');dw_linkwiz.textArea=$editor[0];dw_linkwiz.result=jQuery('#link__wiz_result')[0];jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).css('position','relative');dw_linkwiz.$entry=jQuery('#link__wiz_entry');if(JSINFO.namespace){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(JSINFO.namespace+':');}jQuery('#link__wiz .ui-dialog-titlebar-close').on('click',dw_linkwiz.hide);dw_linkwiz.$entry.keyup(dw_linkwiz.onEntry);jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).on('click','a',dw_linkwiz.onResultClick);},onEntry:function(e){if(e.keyCode==37||e.keyCode==39){return true;}if(e.keyCode==27){dw_linkwiz.hide();e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==38){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected-1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==40){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected+1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==13){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected);if($obj.length>0){dw_linkwiz.resultClick($obj.find('a')[0]);}}else if(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val());}e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();},getResult:function(num){DEPRECATED('use dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0] instead');return dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0]||null;},$getResult:function(num){return jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).find('div').eq(num);},select:function(num){if(num<0){dw_linkwiz.deselect();return;}var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(num);if($obj.length===0){return;}dw_linkwiz.deselect();$obj.addClass('selected');var childPos=$obj.position().top;var yDiff=childPos+$obj.outerHeight()-jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).innerHeight();if(childPos<0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=childPos;}else 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'){sel.end--;stxt=sel.getText();}if(!stxt&&!DOKU_UHC){stxt=title;}if(dw_linkwiz.textArea.form.id.value.indexOf(':')!=-1&&link.indexOf(':')==-1){link=':'+link;}var so=link.length;var eo=0;if(dw_linkwiz.val){if(dw_linkwiz.val.open){so+=dw_linkwiz.val.open.length;link=dw_linkwiz.val.open+link;}link+='|';so+=1;if(stxt){link+=stxt;}if(dw_linkwiz.val.close){link+=dw_linkwiz.val.close;eo=dw_linkwiz.val.close.length;}}pasteText(sel,link,{startofs:so,endofs:eo});dw_linkwiz.hide();var externallinkpattern=new RegExp('^((f|ht)tps?:)?//','i'),entry_value;if(externallinkpattern.test(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val())){if(JSINFO.namespace){entry_value=JSINFO.namespace+':';}else{entry_value='';}}else{entry_value=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val().replace(/[^:]*$/,'')}dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(entry_value);},autocomplete:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_linkwiz.timer);dw_linkwiz.timer=null;}dw_linkwiz.timer=window.setTimeout(dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec,350);},autocomplete_exec:function(){var $res=jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result);dw_linkwiz.deselect();$res.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="" width="16" height="16" />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'linkwiz',q:dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()});},show:function(){dw_linkwiz.selection=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);dw_linkwiz.$wiz.show();dw_linkwiz.$entry.focus();dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();var temp=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val();dw_linkwiz.$entry.val('');dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(temp);},hide:function(){dw_linkwiz.$wiz.hide();dw_linkwiz.textArea.focus();},toggle:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz.css('display')=='none'){dw_linkwiz.show();}else{dw_linkwiz.hide();}}};var dw_mediamanager={keepopen:false,hide:false,popup:false,display:false,ext:false,$popup:null,align:false,link:false,size:false,forbidden_opts:{},view_opts:{list:false,sort:false},layout_width:0,minHeights:{thumbs:200,rows:100},init:function(){var $content,$tree;$content=jQuery('#media__content');$tree=jQuery('#media__tree');if(!$tree.length)return;dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.attachoptions();dw_mediamanager.initpopup();$content .on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','a.select',dw_mediamanager.select).on('click','#media__content a.btn_media_delete',dw_mediamanager.confirmattach).on('submit','#mediamanager__done_form',dw_mediamanager.list);$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $link=$clicky.parent().find('div.li a.idx_dir');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$link[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=medians',show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.on('click','a',dw_mediamanager.list);dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();dw_mediamanager.init_options();dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');$page.find('div.filelist').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.list).on('click','div.panelContent a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#dw__mediasearch',dw_mediamanager.list).on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','.qq-upload-file a',dw_mediamanager.details);$page.find('div.file').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_update',dw_mediamanager.list).on('submit','#page__revisions',dw_mediamanager.details).on('click','#page__revisions a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__save_meta',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_delete',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_restore',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','.btn_newer, .btn_older',dw_mediamanager.details);dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_mediamanager.layout_width=$page.width();jQuery(window).on('resize',dw_mediamanager.window_resize);},init_options:function(){var $options=jQuery('div.filelist div.panelHeader form.options'),$listType,$sortBy,$both;if($options.length===0){return;}$listType=$options.find('li.listType');$sortBy=$options.find('li.sortBy');$both=$listType.add($sortBy);$options.find('button[type=submit]').parent().hide();$both.find('label').each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.children('input').appendTo($this.parent());});$both.find("input[type='radio']").checkboxradio({icon:false});$both.controlgroup();$listType.children('input').change(function(){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();});$sortBy.children('input').change(function(event){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_sort();dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#dw__mediasearch')[0]||this,event);});},initpopup:function(){var opts,$insp,$insbtn;dw_mediamanager.$popup=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id','media__popup_content').dialog({autoOpen:false,width:280,modal:true,draggable:true,title:LANG.mediatitle,resizable:false});opts=[{id:'link',label:LANG.mediatarget,btns:['lnk','direct','nolnk','displaylnk']},{id:'align',label:LANG.mediaalign,btns:['noalign','left','center','right']},{id:'size',label:LANG.mediasize,btns:['small','medium','large','original']}];jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $p,$l;$p=jQuery(document.createElement('p')).attr('id','media__'+opt.id);if(dw_mediamanager.display==="2"){$p.hide();}$l=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).text(opt.label);$p.append($l);jQuery.each(opt.btns,function(i,text){var $btn,$img;$btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('button').attr('id',"media__"+opt.id+"btn"+(i+1)).attr('title',LANG['media'+text]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.setOpt,opt.id));$img=jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/media_'+opt.id+'_'+text+'.png');$btn.append($img);$p.append($btn);});dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($p);});$insp=jQuery(document.createElement('p'));dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($insp);$insbtn=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('id','media__sendbtn').attr('type','button').addClass('button').val(LANG.mediainsert);$insp.append($insbtn);},insert:function(id){var opts,cb,edid,s;dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('close');opts='';if({img:1,swf:1}[dw_mediamanager.ext]===1){if(dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){opts='?linkonly';}else{if(dw_mediamanager.link==="3"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?nolink';}else if(dw_mediamanager.link==="2"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?direct';}s=parseInt(dw_mediamanager.size,10);var size=s*200;if(s&&s>=1&&s<4){opts+=(opts.length)?'&':'?';opts+=size;if(dw_mediamanager.ext==='swf'){switch(s){case 1:opts+='x62';break;case 2:opts+='x123';break;case 3:opts+='x185';break;}}}}}edid=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&edid=([^&]+)/);edid=edid?edid[1]:'wiki__text';cb=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&onselect=([^&]+)/);cb=cb?cb[1].replace(/[^\w]+/,''):'dw_mediamanager_item_select';opener[cb](edid,id,opts,dw_mediamanager.align,dw_mediamanager.keepopen);if(!dw_mediamanager.keepopen){window.close();}opener.focus();return false;},suggest:function(){var $file,$name,text;$file=jQuery(this);$name=jQuery('#upload__name');if($name.val()!='')return;if(!$file.length||!$name.length){return;}text=$file.val();text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('/')+1);text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('\\')+1);$name.val(text);},list:function(event){var $link,$content,params;if(event){event.preventDefault();}jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();$link=jQuery(this);$content=jQuery('#media__content');if($content.length===0){$content=jQuery('div.filelist');if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){jQuery('div.file').empty();jQuery('div.namespaces .selected').removeClass('selected');$link.addClass('selected');}}params='call=medialist&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params);},form_params:function($form){if(!$form.length)return;var action='';var i=$form[0].action.indexOf('?');if(i>=0){action=$form[0].action.substr(i+1);}return action+'&'+$form.serialize();},set_fileview_list:function(new_type){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['list','listType',function(new_type){jQuery('div.filelist div.panelContent ul').toggleClass('rows',new_type==='rows').toggleClass('thumbs',new_type==='thumbs');}],new_type);dw_mediamanager.resize();},set_fileview_sort:function(new_sort){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['sort','sortBy',function(new_sort){}],new_sort);},set_fileview_opt:function(opt,new_val){if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val=jQuery('form.options li.'+opt[1]+' input').filter(':checked').val();if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val='thumbs';}}if(new_val!==dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]){opt[2](new_val);DokuCookie.setValue(opt[0],new_val);dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]=new_val;}},details:function(event){var $link,$content,params,update_list;$link=jQuery(this);event.preventDefault();jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'&&!confirm(LANG.del_confirm)){return false;}if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore'&&!confirm(LANG.restore_confirm)){return false;}$content=jQuery('div.file');params='call=mediadetails&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}update_list=($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'||$link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore');dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params,update_list);},update_content:function($content,params,update_list){var $container;jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){dw_mediamanager.$resizables().resizable('destroy');if(update_list){dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('form.options button[type="submit"]')[0]);}$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.updatehide();dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list(dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list);dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();dw_mediamanager.init_options();},'html');$container=$content.find('div.panelContent');if($container.length===0){$container=$content;}$container.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." class="load" />');},window_resize:function(){dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();},$resizables:function(){return jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.namespaces, div.filelist');},update_resizable:function(){var $resizables=dw_mediamanager.$resizables();$resizables.resizable({handles:(jQuery('html[dir=rtl]').length?'w':'e'),resize:function(event,ui){var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');var widthFull=$page.width();var widthResizables=0;$resizables.each(function(){widthResizables+=jQuery(this).width();});var $filePanel=$page.find('div.panel.file');var widthOtherResizable=widthResizables-jQuery(this).width();var minWidthNonResizable=parseFloat($filePanel.css("min-width"));var maxWidth=widthFull-(widthOtherResizable+minWidthNonResizable)-1;$resizables.resizable("option","maxWidth",maxWidth);var relWidthNonResizable=99.9-(100*widthResizables/widthFull);$filePanel.width(relWidthNonResizable+'%');dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();}});dw_mediamanager.resize();},resize:function(){var $contents=jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.panelContent'),height=jQuery(window).height()-jQuery(document.body).height()+Math.max.apply(null,jQuery.map($contents,function(v){return jQuery(v).height();}));if(height<dw_mediamanager.minHeights[dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list]){$contents.add(dw_mediamanager.$resizables()).height('auto');}else{$contents.height(height);dw_mediamanager.$resizables().each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.height(height+$this.find('div.panelContent').offset().top-$this.offset().top);});}},image_diff:function(){if(jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype').length)return;var $form=jQuery('#mediamanager__form_diffview');if(!$form.length)return;var $label=jQuery(document.createElement('label'));$label.append('<span>'+LANG.media_diff+'</span> ');var $select=jQuery(document.createElement('select')).attr('id','mediamanager__difftype').attr('name','difftype').change(dw_mediamanager.change_diff_type);$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_both,"both"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_opacity,"opacity"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_portions,"portions"));$label.append($select);$form.append($label);var select=document.getElementById('mediamanager__difftype');select.options[0].text=LANG.media_diff_both;select.options[1].text=LANG.media_diff_opacity;select.options[2].text=LANG.media_diff_portions;},change_diff_type:function(){var $select=jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype');var $content=jQuery('#mediamanager__diff');var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params($select.closest('form'))+'&call=mediadiff';jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();},'html');},opacity_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;var $image=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image1 img');if(!$image.length)return;$slider.width($image.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",0.999);$slider.slider("option","step",0.001);$slider.slider("option","value",0.5);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image2 img').css({opacity:$slider.slider("option","value")});});},portions_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");if(!$diff.length)return;var $image1=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image1 img');var $image2=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2 img');if(!$image1.length||!$image2.length)return;$diff.width('100%');$image2.parent().width('97%');$image1.width('100%');$image2.width('100%');if($image1.width()<$diff.width()){$diff.width($image1.width());}$image2.parent().width('50%');$image2.width($image1.width());$image1.width($image1.width());var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;$slider.width($image1.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",97);$slider.slider("option","step",1);$slider.slider("option","value",50);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2').css({width:$slider.slider("option","value")+'%'});});},params_toarray:function(str){var vars=[],hash;var hashes=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<hashes.length;i++){hash=hashes[i].split('=');vars[decodeURIComponent(hash[0])]=decodeURIComponent(hash[1]);}return vars;},init_ajax_uploader:function(){if(!jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').length)return;if(jQuery('.qq-upload-list').length)return;var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params(jQuery('#dw__upload'))+'&call=mediaupload';params=dw_mediamanager.params_toarray(params);var uploader=new qq.FileUploaderExtended({element:document.getElementById('mediamanager__uploader'),action:DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params:params});},prepare_content:function($content){$content.find('div.example:visible').hide();$content.find('a.allowedmime').on('click',function(event){event.preventDefault();$toggle=jQuery(this);$list=$toggle.next('span');$list.toggle();}).next('span').hide();},select:function(event){var $link,id,dot,ext;event.preventDefault();$link=jQuery(this);id=$link.attr('id').substr(2);if(!opener){jQuery(document.getElementById('ex_'+id.replace(/:/g,'_').replace(/^_/,''))).dw_toggle();return;}dw_mediamanager.ext=false;dot=id.lastIndexOf(".");if(-1===dot){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}ext=id.substr(dot);if({'.jpg':1,'.jpeg':1,'.png':1,'.gif':1,'.swf':1}[ext]!==1){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}var $sendbtn=jQuery('#media__sendbtn');$sendbtn.off().on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.insert,id));dw_mediamanager.unforbid('ext');if(ext==='.swf'){dw_mediamanager.ext='swf';dw_mediamanager.forbid('ext',{link:['1','2'],size:['4']});}else{dw_mediamanager.ext='img';}dw_mediamanager.setOpt('link');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');jQuery('#media__linkbtn1, #media__linkbtn2, #media__sizebtn4').toggle(dw_mediamanager.ext==='img');dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('open');$sendbtn.focus();},confirmattach:function(e){if(!confirm(LANG.del_confirm+"\n"+jQuery(this).attr('title'))){e.preventDefault();}},attachoptions:function(){var $obj,opts;$obj=jQuery('#media__opts');if($obj.length===0){return;}opts=[];if(opener){opts.push(['keepopen','keepopen']);}opts.push(['hide','hidedetails']);jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $box,$lbl;$box=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('type','checkbox').attr('id','media__'+opt[0]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.toggleOption,opt[0]));if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt[0])){$box.prop('checked',true);dw_mediamanager[opt[0]]=true;}$lbl=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).attr('for','media__'+opt[0]).text(LANG[opt[1]]);$obj.append($box,$lbl,document.createElement('br'));});dw_mediamanager.updatehide();},toggleOption:function(variable){if(jQuery(this).prop('checked')){DokuCookie.setValue(variable,1);dw_mediamanager[variable]=true;}else{DokuCookie.setValue(variable,'');dw_mediamanager[variable]=false;}if(variable==='hide'){dw_mediamanager.updatehide();}},updatehide:function(){jQuery('#media__content').find('div.detail').dw_toggle(!dw_mediamanager.hide);},setOpt:function(opt,e){var val,i;if(typeof e!=='undefined'){val=this.id.substring(this.id.length-1);}else{val=dw_mediamanager.getOpt(opt);}if(val===false){DokuCookie.setValue(opt,'');dw_mediamanager[opt]=false;return;}if(opt==='link'){if(val!=='4'&&dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){dw_mediamanager.unforbid('linkonly');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');}else if(val==='4'){dw_mediamanager.forbid('linkonly',{align:false,size:false});}jQuery("#media__size, #media__align").dw_toggle(val!=='4');}DokuCookie.setValue(opt,val);dw_mediamanager[opt]=val;for(i=1;i<=4;i++){jQuery("#media__"+opt+"btn"+i).removeClass('selected');}jQuery('#media__'+opt+'btn'+val).addClass('selected');},unforbid:function(group){delete dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group];},forbid:function(group,forbids){dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group]=forbids;},allowedOpt:function(opt,val){var ret=true;jQuery.each(dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts,function(_,forbids){ret=forbids[opt]!==false&&jQuery.inArray(val,forbids[opt])===-1;return ret;});return ret;},getOpt:function(opt){var allowed=bind(dw_mediamanager.allowedOpt,opt);if(dw_mediamanager[opt]!==false&&allowed(dw_mediamanager[opt])){return dw_mediamanager[opt];}if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt)&&allowed(DokuCookie.getValue(opt))){return DokuCookie.getValue(opt);}if(opt==='size'&&allowed('2')){return'2';}return jQuery.grep(['1','2','3','4'],allowed)[0]||false;}};function dw_mediamanager_item_select(edid,mediaid,opts,align,keepopen){var alignleft='';var alignright='';var cursorInImageTag=false;var textArea=jQuery('#'+edid)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(textArea);selection.end=selection.end+2;var charsAfterCursor=selection.getText();if(charsAfterCursor==='}}'){cursorInImageTag=true;}if(align!=='1'){alignleft=align==='2'?'':' ';alignright=align==='4'?'':' ';}if(keepopen&&cursorInImageTag){selection.start=selection.start+2;DWsetSelection(selection);}insertTags(edid,'{{'+alignleft+mediaid+opts+alignright+'|','}}','');}jQuery(dw_mediamanager.init);function DEPRECATED(msg){if(!window.console)return;if(!msg)msg='';var func;if(arguments.callee)func=arguments.callee.caller.name;if(func)func=' '+func+'()';var line='DEPRECATED function call'+func+'. '+msg;if(console.warn){console.warn(line);}else{console.log(line);}if(console.trace)console.trace();}function DEPRECATED_WRAP(func,context){return function(){DEPRECATED();return func.apply(context||this,arguments);};}jQuery.fn.dw_hide=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','false');return this.slideUp('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_show=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','true');return this.slideDown('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_toggle=function(state,fn,noaria){return this.each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);if(typeof state==='undefined'){state=$this.is(':hidden');}$this[state?"dw_show":"dw_hide"](fn,noaria);});};var dw_behaviour={init:function(){dw_behaviour.focusMarker();dw_behaviour.scrollToMarker();dw_behaviour.removeHighlightOnClick();dw_behaviour.quickSelect();dw_behaviour.checkWindowsShares();dw_behaviour.subscription();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();jQuery(document).on('click','#page__revisions input[type=checkbox]',dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler);jQuery('.bounce').effect('bounce',{times:10},2000);},scrollToMarker:function(){var $obj=jQuery('#scroll__here');if($obj.length){if($obj.offset().top!=0){jQuery('html, body').animate({scrollTop:$obj.offset().top-100},500);}else{$obj[0].scrollIntoView();}}},focusMarker:function(){jQuery('#focus__this').trigger('focus');},removeHighlightOnClick:function(){jQuery('span.search_hit').on('click',function(e){jQuery(e.target).removeClass('search_hit',1000);});},quickSelect:function(){jQuery('select.quickselect').on('change',function(e){e.target.form.submit();}).closest('form').find(':button').not('.show').hide();},checkWindowsShares:function(){if(!LANG.nosmblinks||navigator.userAgent.match(/(Trident|MSIE|Edge)/)){return;}jQuery('a.windows').on('click',function(){alert(LANG.nosmblinks.replace(/\\n/,"\n"));});},subscription:function(){var $form,$list,$digest;$form=jQuery('#subscribe__form');if(0===$form.length)return;$list=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='list']");$digest=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='digest']");$form.find("input[name='sub_target']").on('click',function(){var $this=jQuery(this),show_list;if(!$this.prop('checked')){return;}show_list=$this.val().match(/:$/);$list.parent().dw_toggle(show_list);if(!show_list&&$list.prop('checked')){$digest.prop('checked','checked');}}).filter(':checked').trigger('click');},revisionBoxHandler:function(){var $revisions=jQuery('#page__revisions');var $all=jQuery('input[type=checkbox]',$revisions);var $checked=$all.filter(':checked');var $button=jQuery('button',$revisions);if($checked.length<2){$all.prop('disabled',false);$button.prop('disabled',true);}else{$all.prop('disabled',true);$button.prop('disabled',false);$checked.each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',false);if(i>1){jQuery(this).prop('checked',false);}});}}};jQuery(dw_behaviour.init);dw_page={init:function(){dw_page.sectionHighlight();dw_page.currentIDHighlight();jQuery('a.fn_top').on('mouseover',dw_page.footnoteDisplay);dw_page.makeToggle('#dw__toc h3','#dw__toc > div');},sectionHighlight:function(){jQuery('form.btn_secedit').on('mouseover',function(){var $tgt=jQuery(this).parent(),nr=$tgt.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2],$highlight=jQuery(),$highlightWrap=jQuery('<div class="section_highlight"></div>');while($tgt.length>0&&!($tgt.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||$tgt.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){$tgt=$tgt.prev();$highlight=$highlight.add($tgt);}$highlight.filter(':last').before($highlightWrap);$highlight.detach().appendTo($highlightWrap);}).on('mouseout',function(){var $highlightWrap=jQuery('.section_highlight');$highlightWrap.before($highlightWrap.children().detach());$highlightWrap.detach();});},currentIDHighlight:function(){jQuery('a.wikilink1, a.wikilink2').filter('[data-wiki-id="'+JSINFO.id+'"]').wrap('<span class="curid"></div>');},insituPopup:function(target,popup_id){var $fndiv=jQuery('#'+popup_id);if($fndiv.length===0){$fndiv=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id',popup_id).addClass('insitu-footnote JSpopup').attr('aria-hidden','true').on('mouseleave',function(){jQuery(this).hide().attr('aria-hidden','true');}).attr('role','tooltip');jQuery('.dokuwiki:first').append($fndiv);}$fndiv.show().position({my:'left top',at:'left center',of:target}).hide();return $fndiv;},footnoteDisplay:function(){var $content=jQuery(jQuery(this).attr('href')).parent().siblings('.content').clone();if(!$content.length){return;}jQuery('[id]',$content).each(function(){var id=jQuery(this).attr('id');jQuery(this).attr('id','insitu__'+id);});var content=$content.html().trim();dw_page.insituPopup(this,'insitu__fn').html(content).show().attr('aria-hidden','false');},makeToggle:function(handle,content,state){var $handle,$content,$clicky,$child,setClicky;$handle=jQuery(handle);if(!$handle.length)return;$content=jQuery(content);if(!$content.length)return;$child=$content.children();setClicky=function(hiding){if(hiding){$clicky.html('<span>+</span>');$handle.addClass('closed');$handle.removeClass('open');}else{$clicky.html('<span>−</span>');$handle.addClass('open');$handle.removeClass('closed');}};$handle[0].setState=function(state){var hidden;if(!state)state=1;$content.css('min-height',$content.height()).show();$child.stop(true,true);if(state===-1){hidden=false;}else if(state===1){hidden=true;}else{hidden=$child.is(':hidden');}setClicky(!hidden);$child.dw_toggle(hidden,function(){$content.toggle(hidden);$content.attr('aria-expanded',hidden);$content.css('min-height','');},true);};$clicky=jQuery(document.createElement('strong'));$handle.css('cursor','pointer').on('click',$handle[0].setState).prepend($clicky);$handle[0].setState(state);}};jQuery(dw_page.init);(function($){var fadeOption={duration:150};function toggleLeft(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').show();}function toggleRight(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__tools').show();}function preventParentWheel(e){var curScrollPos=$(this).scrollTop();var scrollableDist=$(this).prop('scrollHeight')-$(this).outerHeight();var wheelEvent=e.originalEvent;var dY=wheelEvent.deltaY;if(dY<0&&curScrollPos<=0){return false;}if(dY>0&&curScrollPos>=scrollableDist){return false;}}function showSearch(){$('div.search').toggle();$('div.search').find('input.edit').select();}function bindEvents(){$('.sidebar').on('wheel scroll',preventParentWheel);$('.btn_left').click(function(){toggleLeft();});$('.btn_right').click(function(){toggleRight();});$('#sidebar_bg').click(function(){$(this).hide('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').hide();$('#dokuwiki__tools').hide();});$('.btn_search').click(function(){showSearch();});$(document).keydown(function(e){if(e.which==70&&e.altKey){showSearch();e.preventDefault();}});}function initUI(){if($('.page h2').length>0){$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertBefore($('.page h2:first'));}else{$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first').next('.level1'));}if($('.page > .level1 > blockquote').length>0){$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page > .level1 > blockquote'));}else{$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first'));}$(window).on("hashchange",function(){window.scrollTo(window.scrollX,window.scrollY-48);});}$(function(){initUI();bindEvents();});})(jQuery);var dw_acl={init:function(){var $tree;if(jQuery('#acl_manager').length===0){return;}jQuery('#acl__user select').on('change',dw_acl.userselhandler);jQuery('#acl__user button').on('click',dw_acl.loadinfo);$tree=jQuery('#acl__tree');$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery.extend(dw_acl.parseatt($clicky.parent().find('a')[0].search),{call:'plugin_acl',ajax:'tree',current_ns:$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(),current_id:$frm.find('input[name=id]').val()}),show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.delegate('a','click',dw_acl.treehandler);},userselhandler:function(){jQuery('#acl__user input').toggle(this.value==='__g__'||this.value==='__u__');dw_acl.loadinfo();},loadinfo:function(){jQuery('#acl__info').attr('role','alert').html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery('#acl__detail form').serialize()+'&call=plugin_acl&ajax=info');return false;},parseatt:function(str){if(str[0]==='?'){str=str.substr(1);}var attributes={};var all=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<all.length;i++){var att=all[i].split('=');attributes[att[0]]=decodeURIComponent(att[1]);}return attributes;},treehandler:function(){var $link,$frm;$link=jQuery(this);jQuery('#acl__tree a.cur').removeClass('cur');$link.addClass('cur');$frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');if($link.hasClass('wikilink1')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val('');$frm.find('input[name=id]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).id);}else if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).ns);$frm.find('input[name=id]').val('');}dw_acl.loadinfo();return false;}};jQuery(dw_acl.init);(function(){var $,AbstractChosen,Chosen,SelectParser,_ref,__hasProp={}.hasOwnProperty,__extends=function(child,parent){for(var key in parent){if(__hasProp.call(parent,key))child[key]=parent[key];}function ctor(){this.constructor=child;}ctor.prototype=parent.prototype;child.prototype=new ctor();child.__super__=parent.prototype;return child;};SelectParser=(function(){function SelectParser(){this.options_index=0;this.parsed=[];}SelectParser.prototype.add_node=function(child){if(child.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTGROUP"){return this.add_group(child);}else{return this.add_option(child);}};SelectParser.prototype.add_group=function(group){var group_position,option,_i,_len,_ref,_results;group_position=this.parsed.length;this.parsed.push({array_index:group_position,group:true,label:this.escapeExpression(group.label),title:group.title?group.title:void 0,children:0,disabled:group.disabled,classes:group.className});_ref=group.childNodes;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];_results.push(this.add_option(option,group_position,group.disabled));}return _results;};SelectParser.prototype.add_option=function(option,group_position,group_disabled){if(option.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTION"){if(option.text!==""){if(group_position!=null){this.parsed[group_position].children+=1;}this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,value:option.value,text:option.text,html:option.innerHTML,title:option.title?option.title:void 0,selected:option.selected,disabled:group_disabled===true?group_disabled:option.disabled,group_array_index:group_position,group_label:group_position!=null?this.parsed[group_position].label:null,classes:option.className,style:option.style.cssText});}else{this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,empty:true});}return this.options_index+=1;}};SelectParser.prototype.escapeExpression=function(text){var map,unsafe_chars;if((text==null)||text===false){return"";}if(!/[\&\<\>\"\'\`]/.test(text)){return text;}map={"<":"<",">":">",'"':""","'":"'","`":"`"};unsafe_chars=/&(?!\w+;)|[\<\>\"\'\`]/g;return text.replace(unsafe_chars,function(chr){return map[chr]||"&";});};return SelectParser;})();SelectParser.select_to_array=function(select){var child,parser,_i,_len,_ref;parser=new SelectParser();_ref=select.childNodes;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){child=_ref[_i];parser.add_node(child);}return parser.parsed;};AbstractChosen=(function(){function AbstractChosen(form_field,options){this.form_field=form_field;this.options=options!=null?options:{};if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return;}this.is_multiple=this.form_field.multiple;this.set_default_text();this.set_default_values();this.setup();this.set_up_html();this.register_observers();this.on_ready();}AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_values=function(){var _this=this;this.click_test_action=function(evt){return _this.test_active_click(evt);};this.activate_action=function(evt){return _this.activate_field(evt);};this.active_field=false;this.mouse_on_container=false;this.results_showing=false;this.result_highlighted=null;this.allow_single_deselect=(this.options.allow_single_deselect!=null)&&(this.form_field.options[0]!=null)&&this.form_field.options[0].text===""?this.options.allow_single_deselect:false;this.disable_search_threshold=this.options.disable_search_threshold||0;this.disable_search=this.options.disable_search||false;this.enable_split_word_search=this.options.enable_split_word_search!=null?this.options.enable_split_word_search:true;this.group_search=this.options.group_search!=null?this.options.group_search:true;this.search_contains=this.options.search_contains||false;this.single_backstroke_delete=this.options.single_backstroke_delete!=null?this.options.single_backstroke_delete:true;this.max_selected_options=this.options.max_selected_options||Infinity;this.inherit_select_classes=this.options.inherit_select_classes||false;this.display_selected_options=this.options.display_selected_options!=null?this.options.display_selected_options:true;this.display_disabled_options=this.options.display_disabled_options!=null?this.options.display_disabled_options:true;return this.include_group_label_in_selected=this.options.include_group_label_in_selected||false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_text=function(){if(this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder")){this.default_text=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder");}else if(this.is_multiple){this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_multiple||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text;}else{this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_single||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_single_text;}return this.results_none_found=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-no_results_text")||this.options.no_results_text||AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choice_label=function(item){if(this.include_group_label_in_selected&&(item.group_label!=null)){return"<b class='group-name'>"+item.group_label+"</b>"+item.html;}else{return item.html;}};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_enter=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_leave=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_focus=function(evt){var _this=this;if(this.is_multiple){if(!this.active_field){return setTimeout((function(){return _this.container_mousedown();}),50);}}else{if(!this.active_field){return this.activate_field();}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_blur=function(evt){var _this=this;if(!this.mouse_on_container){this.active_field=false;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.blur_test();}),100);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_option_build=function(options){var content,data,_i,_len,_ref;content='';_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){data=_ref[_i];if(data.group){content+=this.result_add_group(data);}else{content+=this.result_add_option(data);}if(options!=null?options.first:void 0){if(data.selected&&this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(data);}else if(data.selected&&!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(data));}}}return content;};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_option=function(option){var classes,option_el;if(!option.search_match){return'';}if(!this.include_option_in_results(option)){return'';}classes=[];if(!option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("active-result");}if(option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("disabled-result");}if(option.selected){classes.push("result-selected");}if(option.group_array_index!=null){classes.push("group-option");}if(option.classes!==""){classes.push(option.classes);}option_el=document.createElement("li");option_el.className=classes.join(" ");option_el.style.cssText=option.style;option_el.setAttribute("data-option-array-index",option.array_index);option_el.innerHTML=option.search_text;if(option.title){option_el.title=option.title;}return this.outerHTML(option_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_group=function(group){var classes,group_el;if(!(group.search_match||group.group_match)){return'';}if(!(group.active_options>0)){return'';}classes=[];classes.push("group-result");if(group.classes){classes.push(group.classes);}group_el=document.createElement("li");group_el.className=classes.join(" ");group_el.innerHTML=group.search_text;if(group.title){group_el.title=group.title;}return this.outerHTML(group_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_update_field=function(){this.set_default_text();if(!this.is_multiple){this.results_reset_cleanup();}this.result_clear_highlight();this.results_build();if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.reset_single_select_options=function(){var result,_i,_len,_ref,_results;_ref=this.results_data;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){result=_ref[_i];if(result.selected){_results.push(result.selected=false);}else{_results.push(void 0);}}return _results;};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_toggle=function(){if(this.results_showing){return this.results_hide();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_search=function(evt){if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.winnow_results=function(){var escapedSearchText,option,regex,results,results_group,searchText,startpos,text,zregex,_i,_len,_ref;this.no_results_clear();results=0;searchText=this.get_search_text();escapedSearchText=searchText.replace(/[-[\]{}()*+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&");zregex=new RegExp(escapedSearchText,'i');regex=this.get_search_regex(escapedSearchText);_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];option.search_match=false;results_group=null;if(this.include_option_in_results(option)){if(option.group){option.group_match=false;option.active_options=0;}if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index]){results_group=this.results_data[option.group_array_index];if(results_group.active_options===0&&results_group.search_match){results+=1;}results_group.active_options+=1;}option.search_text=option.group?option.label:option.html;if(!(option.group&&!this.group_search)){option.search_match=this.search_string_match(option.search_text,regex);if(option.search_match&&!option.group){results+=1;}if(option.search_match){if(searchText.length){startpos=option.search_text.search(zregex);text=option.search_text.substr(0,startpos+searchText.length)+'</em>'+option.search_text.substr(startpos+searchText.length);option.search_text=text.substr(0,startpos)+'<em>'+text.substr(startpos);}if(results_group!=null){results_group.group_match=true;}}else if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index].search_match){option.search_match=true;}}}}this.result_clear_highlight();if(results<1&&searchText.length){this.update_results_content("");return this.no_results(searchText);}else{this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build());return this.winnow_results_set_highlight();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.get_search_regex=function(escaped_search_string){var regex_anchor;regex_anchor=this.search_contains?"":"^";return new RegExp(regex_anchor+escaped_search_string,'i');};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_string_match=function(search_string,regex){var part,parts,_i,_len;if(regex.test(search_string)){return true;}else if(this.enable_split_word_search&&(search_string.indexOf(" ")>=0||search_string.indexOf("[")===0)){parts=search_string.replace(/\[|\]/g,"").split(" ");if(parts.length){for(_i=0,_len=parts.length;_i<_len;_i++){part=parts[_i];if(regex.test(part)){return true;}}}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_count=function(){var option,_i,_len,_ref;if(this.selected_option_count!=null){return this.selected_option_count;}this.selected_option_count=0;_ref=this.form_field.options;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];if(option.selected){this.selected_option_count+=1;}}return this.selected_option_count;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();if(!(this.results_showing||this.is_disabled)){return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.keyup_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref;stroke=(_ref=evt.which)!=null?_ref:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();switch(stroke){case 8:if(this.is_multiple&&this.backstroke_length<1&&this.choices_count()>0){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else if(!this.pending_backstroke){this.result_clear_highlight();return this.results_search();}break;case 13:evt.preventDefault();if(this.results_showing){return this.result_select(evt);}break;case 27:if(this.results_showing){this.results_hide();}return true;case 9:case 38:case 40:case 16:case 91:case 17:break;default:return this.results_search();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.clipboard_event_checker=function(evt){var _this=this;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.results_search();}),50);};AbstractChosen.prototype.container_width=function(){if(this.options.width!=null){return this.options.width;}else{return""+this.form_field.offsetWidth+"px";}};AbstractChosen.prototype.include_option_in_results=function(option){if(this.is_multiple&&(!this.display_selected_options&&option.selected)){return false;}if(!this.display_disabled_options&&option.disabled){return false;}if(option.empty){return false;}return true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchstart=function(evt){this.touch_started=true;return this.search_results_mouseover(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchmove=function(evt){this.touch_started=false;return this.search_results_mouseout(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchend=function(evt){if(this.touch_started){return this.search_results_mouseup(evt);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.outerHTML=function(element){var tmp;if(element.outerHTML){return element.outerHTML;}tmp=document.createElement("div");tmp.appendChild(element);return tmp.innerHTML;};AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported=function(){if(window.navigator.appName==="Microsoft Internet Explorer"){return document.documentMode>=8;}if(/iP(od|hone)/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}if(/Android/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){if(/Mobile/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}}return true;};AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text="Select Some Options";AbstractChosen.default_single_text="Select an Option";AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text="No results match";return AbstractChosen;})();$=jQuery;$.fn.extend({chosen:function(options){if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return this;}return this.each(function(input_field){var $this,chosen;$this=$(this);chosen=$this.data('chosen');if(options==='destroy'&&chosen instanceof Chosen){chosen.destroy();}else if(!(chosen instanceof Chosen)){$this.data('chosen',new Chosen(this,options));}});}});Chosen=(function(_super){__extends(Chosen,_super);function Chosen(){_ref=Chosen.__super__.constructor.apply(this,arguments);return _ref;}Chosen.prototype.setup=function(){this.form_field_jq=$(this.form_field);this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.is_rtl=this.form_field_jq.hasClass("chosen-rtl");};Chosen.prototype.set_up_html=function(){var container_classes,container_props;container_classes=["chosen-container"];container_classes.push("chosen-container-"+(this.is_multiple?"multi":"single"));if(this.inherit_select_classes&&this.form_field.className){container_classes.push(this.form_field.className);}if(this.is_rtl){container_classes.push("chosen-rtl");}container_props={'class':container_classes.join(' '),'style':"width: "+(this.container_width())+";",'title':this.form_field.title};if(this.form_field.id.length){container_props.id=this.form_field.id.replace(/[^\w]/g,'_')+"_chosen";}this.container=$("<div />",container_props);if(this.is_multiple){this.container.html('<ul class="chosen-choices"><li class="search-field"><input type="text" value="'+this.default_text+'" class="default" autocomplete="off" style="width:25px;" /></li></ul><div class="chosen-drop"><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}else{this.container.html('<a class="chosen-single chosen-default" tabindex="-1"><span>'+this.default_text+'</span><div><b></b></div></a><div class="chosen-drop"><div class="chosen-search"><input type="text" autocomplete="off" /></div><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}this.form_field_jq.hide().after(this.container);this.dropdown=this.container.find('div.chosen-drop').first();this.search_field=this.container.find('input').first();this.search_results=this.container.find('ul.chosen-results').first();this.search_field_scale();this.search_no_results=this.container.find('li.no-results').first();if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices=this.container.find('ul.chosen-choices').first();this.search_container=this.container.find('li.search-field').first();}else{this.search_container=this.container.find('div.chosen-search').first();this.selected_item=this.container.find('.chosen-single').first();}this.results_build();this.set_tab_index();return this.set_label_behavior();};Chosen.prototype.on_ready=function(){return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:ready",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.register_observers=function(){var _this=this;this.container.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('mousedown.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseenter.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_enter(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseleave.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_leave(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseup(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseover.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseover(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseout.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseout(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mousewheel.chosen DOMMouseScroll.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mousewheel(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchstart(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchmove.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchmove(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchend(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:updated.chosen",function(evt){_this.results_update_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:activate.chosen",function(evt){_this.activate_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:open.chosen",function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:close.chosen",function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('blur.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keyup.chosen',function(evt){_this.keyup_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keydown.chosen',function(evt){_this.keydown_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('focus.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_focus(evt);});this.search_field.bind('cut.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('paste.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});if(this.is_multiple){return this.search_choices.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){_this.choices_click(evt);});}else{return this.container.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){evt.preventDefault();});}};Chosen.prototype.destroy=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);if(this.search_field[0].tabIndex){this.form_field_jq[0].tabIndex=this.search_field[0].tabIndex;}this.container.remove();this.form_field_jq.removeData('chosen');return this.form_field_jq.show();};Chosen.prototype.search_field_disabled=function(){this.is_disabled=this.form_field_jq[0].disabled;if(this.is_disabled){this.container.addClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=true;if(!this.is_multiple){this.selected_item.unbind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}return this.close_field();}else{this.container.removeClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=false;if(!this.is_multiple){return this.selected_item.bind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mousedown=function(evt){if(!this.is_disabled){if(evt&&evt.type==="mousedown"&&!this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}if(!((evt!=null)&&($(evt.target)).hasClass("search-choice-close"))){if(!this.active_field){if(this.is_multiple){this.search_field.val("");}$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).bind('click.chosen',this.click_test_action);this.results_show();}else if(!this.is_multiple&&evt&&(($(evt.target)[0]===this.selected_item[0])||$(evt.target).parents("a.chosen-single").length)){evt.preventDefault();this.results_toggle();}return this.activate_field();}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mouseup=function(evt){if(evt.target.nodeName==="ABBR"&&!this.is_disabled){return this.results_reset(evt);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mousewheel=function(evt){var delta;if(evt.originalEvent){delta=evt.originalEvent.deltaY||-evt.originalEvent.wheelDelta||evt.originalEvent.detail;}if(delta!=null){evt.preventDefault();if(evt.type==='DOMMouseScroll'){delta=delta*40;}return this.search_results.scrollTop(delta+this.search_results.scrollTop());}};Chosen.prototype.blur_test=function(evt){if(!this.active_field&&this.container.hasClass("chosen-container-active")){return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.close_field=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);this.active_field=false;this.results_hide();this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-active");this.clear_backstroke();this.show_search_field_default();return this.search_field_scale();};Chosen.prototype.activate_field=function(){this.container.addClass("chosen-container-active");this.active_field=true;this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());return this.search_field.focus();};Chosen.prototype.test_active_click=function(evt){var active_container;active_container=$(evt.target).closest('.chosen-container');if(active_container.length&&this.container[0]===active_container[0]){return this.active_field=true;}else{return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.results_build=function(){this.parsing=true;this.selected_option_count=null;this.results_data=SelectParser.select_to_array(this.form_field);if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices.find("li.search-choice").remove();}else if(!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text();if(this.disable_search||this.form_field.options.length<=this.disable_search_threshold){this.search_field[0].readOnly=true;this.container.addClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}else{this.search_field[0].readOnly=false;this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}}this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build({first:true}));this.search_field_disabled();this.show_search_field_default();this.search_field_scale();return this.parsing=false;};Chosen.prototype.result_do_highlight=function(el){var high_bottom,high_top,maxHeight,visible_bottom,visible_top;if(el.length){this.result_clear_highlight();this.result_highlight=el;this.result_highlight.addClass("highlighted");maxHeight=parseInt(this.search_results.css("maxHeight"),10);visible_top=this.search_results.scrollTop();visible_bottom=maxHeight+visible_top;high_top=this.result_highlight.position().top+this.search_results.scrollTop();high_bottom=high_top+this.result_highlight.outerHeight();if(high_bottom>=visible_bottom){return this.search_results.scrollTop((high_bottom-maxHeight)>0?high_bottom-maxHeight:0);}else if(high_top<visible_top){return this.search_results.scrollTop(high_top);}}};Chosen.prototype.result_clear_highlight=function(){if(this.result_highlight){this.result_highlight.removeClass("highlighted");}return this.result_highlight=null;};Chosen.prototype.results_show=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}this.container.addClass("chosen-with-drop");this.results_showing=true;this.search_field.focus();this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());this.winnow_results();return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:showing_dropdown",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.update_results_content=function(content){return this.search_results.html(content);};Chosen.prototype.results_hide=function(){if(this.results_showing){this.result_clear_highlight();this.container.removeClass("chosen-with-drop");this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:hiding_dropdown",{chosen:this});}return this.results_showing=false;};Chosen.prototype.set_tab_index=function(el){var ti;if(this.form_field.tabIndex){ti=this.form_field.tabIndex;this.form_field.tabIndex=-1;return this.search_field[0].tabIndex=ti;}};Chosen.prototype.set_label_behavior=function(){var _this=this;this.form_field_label=this.form_field_jq.parents("label");if(!this.form_field_label.length&&this.form_field.id.length){this.form_field_label=$("label[for='"+this.form_field.id+"']");}if(this.form_field_label.length>0){return this.form_field_label.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){if(_this.is_multiple){return _this.container_mousedown(evt);}else{return _this.activate_field();}});}};Chosen.prototype.show_search_field_default=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()<1&&!this.active_field){this.search_field.val(this.default_text);return this.search_field.addClass("default");}else{this.search_field.val("");return this.search_field.removeClass("default");}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseup=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target.length){this.result_highlight=target;this.result_select(evt);return this.search_field.focus();}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseover=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target){return this.result_do_highlight(target);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseout=function(evt){if($(evt.target).hasClass("active-result"||$(evt.target).parents('.active-result').first())){return this.result_clear_highlight();}};Chosen.prototype.choice_build=function(item){var choice,close_link,_this=this;choice=$('<li />',{"class":"search-choice"}).html("<span>"+(this.choice_label(item))+"</span>");if(item.disabled){choice.addClass('search-choice-disabled');}else{close_link=$('<a />',{"class":'search-choice-close','data-option-array-index':item.array_index});close_link.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){return _this.choice_destroy_link_click(evt);});choice.append(close_link);}return this.search_container.before(choice);};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy_link_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();evt.stopPropagation();if(!this.is_disabled){return this.choice_destroy($(evt.target));}};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy=function(link){if(this.result_deselect(link[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index"))){this.show_search_field_default();if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()>0&&this.search_field.val().length<1){this.results_hide();}link.parents('li').first().remove();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset=function(){this.reset_single_select_options();this.form_field.options[0].selected=true;this.single_set_selected_text();this.show_search_field_default();this.results_reset_cleanup();this.form_field_jq.trigger("change");if(this.active_field){return this.results_hide();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset_cleanup=function(){this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.selected_item.find("abbr").remove();};Chosen.prototype.result_select=function(evt){var high,item;if(this.result_highlight){high=this.result_highlight;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}if(this.is_multiple){high.removeClass("active-result");}else{this.reset_single_select_options();}high.addClass("result-selected");item=this.results_data[high[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index")];item.selected=true;this.form_field.options[item.options_index].selected=true;this.selected_option_count=null;if(this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(item);}else{this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(item));}if(!((evt.metaKey||evt.ctrlKey)&&this.is_multiple)){this.results_hide();}this.search_field.val("");if(this.is_multiple||this.form_field.selectedIndex!==this.current_selectedIndex){this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{'selected':this.form_field.options[item.options_index].value});}this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;evt.preventDefault();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.single_set_selected_text=function(text){if(text==null){text=this.default_text;}if(text===this.default_text){this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-default");}else{this.single_deselect_control_build();this.selected_item.removeClass("chosen-default");}return this.selected_item.find("span").html(text);};Chosen.prototype.result_deselect=function(pos){var result_data;result_data=this.results_data[pos];if(!this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].disabled){result_data.selected=false;this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].selected=false;this.selected_option_count=null;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.results_showing){this.winnow_results();}this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{deselected:this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].value});this.search_field_scale();return true;}else{return false;}};Chosen.prototype.single_deselect_control_build=function(){if(!this.allow_single_deselect){return;}if(!this.selected_item.find("abbr").length){this.selected_item.find("span").first().after("<abbr class=\"search-choice-close\"></abbr>");}return this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-single-with-deselect");};Chosen.prototype.get_search_text=function(){return $('<div/>').text($.trim(this.search_field.val())).html();};Chosen.prototype.winnow_results_set_highlight=function(){var do_high,selected_results;selected_results=!this.is_multiple?this.search_results.find(".result-selected.active-result"):[];do_high=selected_results.length?selected_results.first():this.search_results.find(".active-result").first();if(do_high!=null){return this.result_do_highlight(do_high);}};Chosen.prototype.no_results=function(terms){var no_results_html;no_results_html=$('<li class="no-results">'+this.results_none_found+' "<span></span>"</li>');no_results_html.find("span").first().html(terms);this.search_results.append(no_results_html);return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:no_results",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.no_results_clear=function(){return this.search_results.find(".no-results").remove();};Chosen.prototype.keydown_arrow=function(){var next_sib;if(this.results_showing&&this.result_highlight){next_sib=this.result_highlight.nextAll("li.active-result").first();if(next_sib){return this.result_do_highlight(next_sib);}}else{return this.results_show();}};Chosen.prototype.keyup_arrow=function(){var prev_sibs;if(!this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){return this.results_show();}else if(this.result_highlight){prev_sibs=this.result_highlight.prevAll("li.active-result");if(prev_sibs.length){return this.result_do_highlight(prev_sibs.first());}else{if(this.choices_count()>0){this.results_hide();}return this.result_clear_highlight();}}};Chosen.prototype.keydown_backstroke=function(){var next_available_destroy;if(this.pending_backstroke){this.choice_destroy(this.pending_backstroke.find("a").first());return this.clear_backstroke();}else{next_available_destroy=this.search_container.siblings("li.search-choice").last();if(next_available_destroy.length&&!next_available_destroy.hasClass("search-choice-disabled")){this.pending_backstroke=next_available_destroy;if(this.single_backstroke_delete){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else{return this.pending_backstroke.addClass("search-choice-focus");}}}};Chosen.prototype.clear_backstroke=function(){if(this.pending_backstroke){this.pending_backstroke.removeClass("search-choice-focus");}return this.pending_backstroke=null;};Chosen.prototype.keydown_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref1;stroke=(_ref1=evt.which)!=null?_ref1:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();if(stroke!==8&&this.pending_backstroke){this.clear_backstroke();}switch(stroke){case 8:this.backstroke_length=this.search_field.val().length;break;case 9:if(this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){this.result_select(evt);}this.mouse_on_container=false;break;case 13:if(this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 32:if(this.disable_search){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 38:evt.preventDefault();this.keyup_arrow();break;case 40:evt.preventDefault();this.keydown_arrow();break;}};Chosen.prototype.search_field_scale=function(){var div,f_width,h,style,style_block,styles,w,_i,_len;if(this.is_multiple){h=0;w=0;style_block="position:absolute; left: -1000px; top: -1000px; display:none;";styles=['font-size','font-style','font-weight','font-family','line-height','text-transform','letter-spacing'];for(_i=0,_len=styles.length;_i<_len;_i++){style=styles[_i];style_block+=style+":"+this.search_field.css(style)+";";}div=$('<div />',{'style':style_block});div.text(this.search_field.val());$('body').append(div);w=div.width()+25;div.remove();f_width=this.container.outerWidth();if(w>f_width-10){w=f_width-10;}return this.search_field.css({'width':w+'px'});}};return Chosen;})(AbstractChosen);}).call(this);(function(){'use strict';jQuery(function(){var $animalSelect=jQuery('select.farmer_chosen_animals');$animalSelect.chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,allow_single_deselect:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});jQuery('select.acl_chosen').chosen({disable_search:true,width:'100%'});var $formAllAnimals=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforall');$formAllAnimals.find('select').change(function(){$formAllAnimals.find('button').prop('disabled',false);}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.pluginSelect});var $formSingleAnimal=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforone');$formSingleAnimal.find('select').change(function(){var animal=jQuery(this).val();$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',true);jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPlugins_'+animal},function(data){$formSingleAnimal.find('div.output').html(data);$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',false);},'html')}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});var $formPluginMatrix=jQuery('#farmer__pluginmatrix').hide();$formPluginMatrix.on('click','td',function(){var $td=jQuery(this);$td.html('⌛').css('background-color','transparent');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_modPlugin',plugin:$td.data('plugin'),ani:$td.data('animal')},function(data){$td.replaceWith(data);},'html');});function showMatrix(){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPluginMatrix'},function(data){$formPluginMatrix.html(data);$formPluginMatrix.show();},'html')}$animalSelect.on('chosen:showing_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'20em'},400);}).on('chosen:hiding_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'7px'},400);});var $aclPolicyFieldset=jQuery('#aclPolicyFieldset');if($aclPolicyFieldset.length){$animalSelect.on('change',function(evt,params){var $this=jQuery(this);if($this.val()===''){$aclPolicyFieldset.slideDown();}else{$aclPolicyFieldset.slideUp();}});}jQuery("input[name=bulkSingleSwitch]:radio").change(function(){if(jQuery('#farmer__bulk').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.show();$formSingleAnimal.hide();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else if(jQuery('#farmer__single').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.show();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else{$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.hide();showMatrix();}});jQuery('#farmer__bulk').click();});})();var plugin_fastwiki=(function($){var m_viewMode,m_origViewMode,m_prevView;var m_isSecedit,m_wasSecedit;var m_hasDraft;var m_pageObjs={};var m_content;var m_initialId;var m_debug=document.location.host=='localhost';var m_cache=new CPageCache(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_per_page,JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_batchsize,m_debug);var m_supportedActions={'':1,edit:1,draft:1,history:1,recent:1,revisions:1,show:1,subscribe:1,backlink:1,index:1,profile:1,media:1,diff:1,save:1};var m_modeClassElt;var m_browserHistory=new CBrowserHistory();$(function(){if(document.location.href.indexOf("detail.php")>=0)m_viewMode='unsupported';else{var urlParams=_urlToObj(document.location.href);m_viewMode=urlParams['do']||'show';if(!m_supportedActions[m_viewMode])m_viewMode='unsupported';else if(window.tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support&&!(m_viewMode in tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support))m_viewMode='unsupported';}m_origViewMode=m_viewMode;m_content=$('.plugin_fastwiki_marker').parent();m_content.addClass('content_initial');m_initialId=m_content.attr('id');m_modeClassElt=m_content.hasClass('dokuwiki')?m_content:$(m_content.parents('.dokuwiki')[0]||document.body);$(window).trigger('fastwiki:init',[m_viewMode]);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastpages)fixActionLinks(document.body);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow&&(m_origViewMode!='show'||!window.history||!history.pushState))JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow)m_browserHistory.init(load);});function fixActionLinks(elt){if(m_origViewMode=='unsupported')return;var formActions={search:1};var supportedFields={'do':1,rev:1,id:1};$('a[href *= "?do="]',elt).click(function(e){var curPathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');var aPathId=this.href.replace(/\?.*$/,'').replace(/:/g,'/');if(aPathId.substr(-curPathId.length)==curPathId){var params=_urlToObj(this.href);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';if(params['do']in m_supportedActions){e.preventDefault();load(params['do'],null,params);}}});$('input[type="submit"], input[type="button"], button',elt).click(function(e){var form=$(this).parents('form');if(form.length>0&&form[0]['do']&&form[0]['do'].value in m_supportedActions){var supported=true;$('input[type != "submit"]',form).each(function(idx,elt){if(elt.type!='button'&&(elt.type!='hidden'||!(elt.name in supportedFields)))supported=false;});if(supported){e.preventDefault();var params=_formToObj(form[0]);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';load(params['do'],null,params);}}});if(m_origViewMode=='show'&&window.JSINFO){var pathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');$('a',elt).click(function(e){var href=this.getAttribute('href');if(href&&href.indexOf('://')<0){if(href.match(m_browserHistory.getSelfRefRegex())){load('show');e.preventDefault();}else if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow){var numParams=href.split('=').length;if(href.indexOf('id=')>=0)numParams--;if(numParams==1){if(m_browserHistory.switchBasePath(href)){m_viewMode=null;e.preventDefault();}}}}});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.secedit){$('.editbutton_section .btn_secedit input[type=submit], .editbutton_section .btn_secedit button',elt).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var form=$(this).parents('form');load('edit',form,_formToObj(form));});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload)m_cache.load(elt,m_browserHistory);}function _preview(sectionForm){var body=$(document.body);var params=_formToObj($('#dw__editform'));params['do']='preview';_sendPartial(params,$('.dokuwiki .editBox'),function(data){var preview=$('<div id="preview_container">'+data+'</div>');var pvEditor=preview.find('#dw__editform');var editor=$('#dw__editform')[0];pvEditor.find('input[type=hidden]').each(function(idx,elt){editor[elt.name].value=elt.value;});preview.find('#scroll__here').prevAll().remove();var oldpreview=$('#preview_container');if(oldpreview.length>0)oldpreview.replaceWith(preview);else $('.content_partial').append(preview);setTimeout(function(){$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:$('#scroll__here').offset().top+'px'},300);},1);},'text');}function _getSection(sectionForm){var pieces=$();var target=sectionForm.parent();var nr=target.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2];while(target.length>0&&!(target.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||target.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){target=target.prev();if(target.hasClass('section_highlight'))pieces=pieces.add(target.children());pieces=pieces.add(target);}return pieces;}function _focusEdit(){var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0&&!$edit_text.attr('readOnly')){var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){setTimeout(function(){try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){}},500);}$edit_text.focus();}}function _initEdit(){if(!window.doku_summaryCheck){window.doku_summaryCheck=window.summaryCheck;}dw_editor.init();dw_locktimer.init(JSINFO.fastwiki.locktime,JSINFO.fastwiki.usedraft);var $editform=$('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0)return;var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');$editform.on("change keydown",function(e){window.textChanged=true;doku_summaryCheck();});m_pageObjs.content=$edit_text.val();window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged&&m_pageObjs.content!=$edit_text.val())return LANG.notsavedyet;};window.onunload=deleteDraft;$('#edbtn__preview').click(function(e){if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preview){e.preventDefault();_preview(m_pageObjs.sectionForm);m_hasDraft=true;dw_locktimer.reset();}else{window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;}});$('#edit__summary').on("change keyup",doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);$('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');$('#edbtn__save').click(function(e){textChanged=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.save&&m_origViewMode=='show'&&$edit_text.val().length>0&&m_pageObjs.content.length>0){e.preventDefault();load('save',null,_formToObj($('#dw__editform')));}else m_cache.remove(JSINFO.id);window.onbeforeunload='';dw_locktimer.clear();});$('input[name="do[draftdel]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var id=$editform.find('input[name=id]').val();load('show');if(!window.keepDraft){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:id,success:function(data,textStatus,jqXHR){m_hasDraft=false;}});}});$('input[name="do[show]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();load('show');});$('.picker.pk_hl').addClass('dokuwiki');}function _setBodyClass(action,target){for(var k in m_supportedActions)m_modeClassElt.removeClass('mode_'+k);m_modeClassElt.addClass('mode_'+action);if(target=='section')m_modeClassElt.removeClass('mode_edit').addClass('mode_show mode_secedit');$('.content_partial').toggle(m_viewMode!=m_origViewMode);$('.content_initial').toggle(m_viewMode==m_origViewMode||target=='section');}function _updatePageObjsOnSwitch(){if(m_pageObjs.showOnSwitch)m_pageObjs.showOnSwitch.show();delete m_pageObjs.showOnSwitch;delete m_pageObjs.content;delete m_pageObjs.sectionForm;var hasToc={show:1,admin:1};$("#dw__toc, #dw_toc_head, #dw_toc").css('display',m_viewMode in hasToc?'':'none');}function _formToObj(form){var obj={};$(form).serializeArray().map(function(item){obj[item.name]=item.value;});return obj;}function _urlToObj(url){var obj={};var a=url.replace(/.*\?/,'').split('&');for(var x=0;x<a.length;x++){var parts=unescape(a[x]).split('=');var name=parts.shift();obj[name]=parts.join('=');}return obj;}var m_actionEffects={subscribe:function(params,extraData){function subscribeAction(sparams){_sendPartial(sparams,_getVisibleContent(),function(data){load(m_origViewMode);var body=$('<div class="message_partial"></div>').append(data);$('.content_initial').before(body);},'text');}var form=$('#subscribe__form');$('input[name="do[subscribe]"]',form).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();subscribeAction(_formToObj(form));});$('.content_partial .unsubscribe').click(function(e){e.preventDefault();subscribeAction(_urlToObj(this.href));});},index:function(params,extraData){dw_index.$obj=$('#index__tree');dw_index.init();},edit:function(params,extraData){var draft=params['do']=='draft';if(m_hasDraft===true)draft=true;else if(m_hasDraft===false)draft=params.rev=null;if(extraData.sectionForm){m_pageObjs.sectionForm=extraData.sectionForm;extraData.sectionParts=extraData.sectionParts.add('.editbutton_section');m_pageObjs.showOnSwitch=extraData.sectionParts;m_pageObjs.showOnSwitch.hide();_initEdit();_focusEdit();}else _initEdit();setTimeout(function(){_focusEdit();if(document.body.scrollTop>0)$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:Math.max(0,Math.floor($('.content_partial').offset().top)-20)+'px'},300);},1);},revisions:function(params,extraData){$('.content_partial form').each(function(idx,form){$('input[name="do[diff]"]',form).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();load('diff',null,_formToObj(form));});});},save:function(params,extraData){if($('.content_partial #a_newer_version_exists').length>0){m_viewMode='edit';m_actionEffects.edit(params,m_pageObjs.sectionForm?{sectionForm:m_pageObjs.sectionForm,sectionParts:_getSection(m_pageObjs.sectionForm)}:{});var editform=$('#dw__editform');$('input[name="do[save]"]',editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();load('save',null,_formToObj(editform));window.onbeforeunload='';dw_locktimer.clear();});$('input[name="do[cancel]"]',editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var id=editform.find('input[name=id]').val();load('show');if(!window.keepDraft){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:id,success:function(data,textStatus,jqXHR){m_hasDraft=false;}});}});}else if($('.content_partial #dw__editform').length>0){m_viewMode='edit';m_actionEffects.edit(params,m_pageObjs.sectionForm?{sectionForm:m_pageObjs.sectionForm,sectionParts:_getSection(m_pageObjs.sectionForm)}:{});}else if($('.content_partial #preview').length>0){load('show');}else{$('.content_initial').html($('.content_partial').html());$('.content_partial').remove();fixActionLinks($('.content_initial'));m_browserHistory.refreshPageTitle(false);load('show');dw_page.sectionHighlight();jQuery('a.fn_top').mouseover(dw_page.footnoteDisplay);}},show:function(params,extraData){$('.content_initial').html($('.content_partial').html());$('.content_partial').remove();fixActionLinks($('.content_initial'));dw_page.sectionHighlight();jQuery('a.fn_top').mouseover(dw_page.footnoteDisplay);}};m_actionEffects.draft=m_actionEffects.edit;m_actionEffects.diff=m_actionEffects.revisions;function _action(action,params,callback,insertLoc,extraData){params['do']=action;function cb(data){$('.content_partial, .message_partial').remove();$('.content_initial').attr('id',m_initialId);var body=$('<div class="content_partial"></div>').append(data);if(insertLoc&&action=='edit'){var newform=$('#dw__editform',body);if(newform.find('input[name=prefix]').val()=='.'&&newform.find('input[name=suffix]').val()==''){delete m_pageObjs.sectionForm;if(extraData)delete extraData.sectionForm;insertLoc=null;}}if(insertLoc)$(insertLoc[insertLoc.length-1]).after(body);else{var initial=$('.content_initial');body.addClass(initial[0].className.replace(/content_initial/,'')).attr('id',m_initialId);initial.attr('id','').after(body);}var newToc=$('.content_partial #dw__toc').addClass('fwJustincase');var hasNewToc=newToc.length>0;_updatePageObjsOnSwitch();if(callback)callback(data,extraData);if(m_actionEffects[action])m_actionEffects[action](params,extraData||{});newToc=$('.fwJustincase').removeClass('fwJustincase');if(m_viewMode=='show')$(window).trigger('fastwiki:updateToc',[newToc]);if(hasNewToc)dw_page.makeToggle('#dw__toc h3','#dw__toc > div');fixActionLinks($('.content_partial'));_setBodyClass(m_viewMode,m_pageObjs.sectionForm?"section":null);if(m_viewMode=='show')m_cache.add(JSINFO.id,data,true);if(!insertLoc)dw_behaviour.init();$(window).trigger('fastwiki:afterSwitch',[m_pageObjs.sectionForm?'show':m_viewMode,!!m_pageObjs.sectionForm,m_prevView]);if(!m_isSecedit&&!m_wasSecedit){setTimeout(function(){$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:0},300);},1);}}if(action=='show'&&m_cache.get(JSINFO.id)){m_debug&&console.log("Getting from cache: "+JSINFO.id);cb(m_cache.get(JSINFO.id));}else _sendPartial(params,_getVisibleContent(),cb,'text');}function _sendPartial(params,spinnerParent,callback){if($('.partialsLoading').length==0){var spinnerCss=spinnerParent.height()+spinnerParent.offset().top>$(window).height()?{top:$(window).height()/2}:{top:'50%'};spinnerParent.append($('<div class="partialsLoading"></div>').css('display','none').css(spinnerCss));setTimeout(function(){$('.partialsLoading').css('display','');},500);}params.partial=1;jQuery[!params['do']||params['do']=='show'?'get':'post'](m_browserHistory.getBaseUrl(),params,function(data){if(data=='PERMISSION_CHANGE'){delete params.partial;delete params.fastwiki_compareid;var url=m_browserHistory.getBaseUrl()+'?'+$.param(params);document.location.href=url;}else callback(data);$('.partialsLoading').remove();},'text');}function _getVisibleContent(){var parentElt=$('.content_partial');if(parentElt.length==0)parentElt=$('.content_initial');return parentElt;}function load(page,sectionForm,params,force,callback){if((m_viewMode=='edit'||m_viewMode=='draft')&&(page!='save'&&page!='preview')&&m_pageObjs.content!=$('#wiki__text').val()){if(!confirm(LANG.notsavedyet))return;}m_prevView=m_viewMode;m_wasSecedit=m_isSecedit;m_isSecedit=!!sectionForm||(m_wasSecedit&&page=='save');m_viewMode=page;if(!params)params={};window.onbeforeunload='';dw_locktimer.clear();_updatePageObjsOnSwitch();if(page==m_origViewMode&&!force){$('.content_partial, .message_partial').remove();$('.content_initial').attr('id',m_initialId);if(m_prevView!=page){if(!m_isSecedit&&!m_wasSecedit){setTimeout(function(){$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:0},300);},1);}_setBodyClass(page);$(window).trigger('fastwiki:afterSwitch',[m_pageObjs.sectionForm?'show':m_viewMode,!!m_pageObjs.sectionForm]);}if(callback)callback();}else if((page=='draft'||page=='edit')&§ionForm){var sectionParts=_getSection(sectionForm);_action(page,params,callback,sectionParts,{sectionForm:sectionForm,sectionParts:sectionParts});}else _action(page,params,callback);}return{load:load,fixActionLinks:fixActionLinks};function CPageCache(maxSize,batchSize,debug){var m_queue=[];var m_p1Queue=[];var m_pages={},m_p1Ids={};var m_maxSize=maxSize;var m_batchSize=batchSize;var m_maxP1Size=10;if(debug){window.cpagecache_pages=m_pages;window.cpagecache_queue=m_queue;}this.add=function(id,data,p1){if(p1)_addPage(id,m_p1Queue,m_p1Ids,1,m_maxP1Size);_addPage(id,m_queue,m_pages,data,m_maxSize,m_p1Queue);};this.remove=function(id){if(id in m_pages){m_queue.splice(m_queue.indexOf(id),1);delete m_pages[id];var p1Idx=m_p1Queue.indexOf(id);if(p1Idx>=0){m_queue.splice(p1Idx,1);delete m_p1Ids[id];}}};this.get=function(id){if(id in m_pages){_pushToFront(id,m_queue);_pushToFront(id,m_p1Queue);return m_pages[id];}return null;};this.has=function(id){return id in m_pages;};this.load=function(elt,history){var 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qq=qq||{};qq.FileUploaderBasic=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/server/upload',params:{},button:null,multiple:true,maxConnections:3,allowedExtensions:[],sizeLimit:0,minSizeLimit:0,onSubmit:function(id,fileName){},onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,responseJSON){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){},messages:{typeError:"{file} has invalid extension. 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class="qq-upload-failed-text">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_find:function(parent,type){var element=qq.getByClass(parent,this._options.classes[type])[0];if(!element){throw new Error('element not found '+type);}return element;},_setupDragDrop:function(){var self=this,dropArea=this._find(this._element,'drop');var dz=new qq.UploadDropZone({element:dropArea,onEnter:function(e){qq.addClass(dropArea,self._classes.dropActive);e.stopPropagation();},onLeave:function(e){e.stopPropagation();},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){qq.removeClass(dropArea,self._classes.dropActive);},onDrop:function(e){dropArea.style.display='none';qq.removeClass(dropArea,self._classes.dropActive);self._uploadFileList(e.dataTransfer.files);}});dropArea.style.display='none';qq.attach(document,'dragenter',function(e){if(!dz._isValidFileDrag(e))return;dropArea.style.display='block';});qq.attach(document,'dragleave',function(e){if(!dz._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(!relatedTarget||relatedTarget.nodeName=="HTML"){dropArea.style.display='none';}});},_onSubmit:function(id,fileName){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onSubmit.apply(this,arguments);this._addToList(id,fileName);},_onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onProgress.apply(this,arguments);var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);var size=this._find(item,'size');size.style.display='inline';var text;if(loaded!=total){text=Math.round(loaded/total*100)+'% from '+this._formatSize(total);}else{text=this._formatSize(total);}qq.setText(size,text);},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){qq.FileUploaderBasic.prototype._onComplete.apply(this,arguments);var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,this._formatFileName(fileName));this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';this._listElement.appendChild(item);},_getItemByFileId:function(id){var item=this._listElement.firstChild;while(item){if(item.qqFileId==id)return item;item=item.nextSibling;}},_bindCancelEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(list,'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;if(qq.hasClass(target,self._classes.cancel)){qq.preventDefault(e);var item=target.parentNode;self._handler.cancel(item.qqFileId);qq.remove(item);}});}});qq.UploadDropZone=function(o){this._options={element:null,onEnter:function(e){},onLeave:function(e){},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){},onDrop:function(e){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._disableDropOutside();this._attachEvents();};qq.UploadDropZone.prototype={_disableDropOutside:function(e){if(!qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled){qq.attach(document,'dragover',function(e){if(e.dataTransfer){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='none';e.preventDefault();}});qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled=true;}},_attachEvents:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(self._element,'dragover',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var effect=e.dataTransfer.effectAllowed;if(effect=='move'||effect=='linkMove'){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='move';}else{e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='copy';}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();});qq.attach(self._element,'dragenter',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onEnter(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'dragleave',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onLeave(e);var relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(qq.contains(this,relatedTarget))return;self._options.onLeaveNotDescendants(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'drop',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;e.preventDefault();self._options.onDrop(e);});},_isValidFileDrag:function(e){var dt=e.dataTransfer,isWebkit=navigator.userAgent.indexOf("AppleWebKit")>-1;return dt&&dt.effectAllowed!='none'&&(dt.files||(!isWebkit&&dt.types.contains&&dt.types.contains('Files')));}};qq.UploadButton=function(o){this._options={element:null,multiple:false,name:'file',onChange:function(input){},hoverClass:'qq-upload-button-hover',focusClass:'qq-upload-button-focus'};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;qq.css(this._element,{position:'relative',overflow:'hidden',direction:'ltr'});this._input=this._createInput();};qq.UploadButton.prototype={getInput:function(){return this._input;},reset:function(){if(this._input.parentNode){qq.remove(this._input);}qq.removeClass(this._element,this._options.focusClass);this._input=this._createInput();},_createInput:function(){var input=document.createElement("input");if(this._options.multiple){input.setAttribute("multiple","multiple");}input.setAttribute("type","file");input.setAttribute("name",this._options.name);qq.css(input,{position:'absolute',right:0,top:0,fontFamily:'Arial',fontSize:'118px',margin:0,padding:0,cursor:'pointer',opacity:0});this._element.appendChild(input);var self=this;qq.attach(input,'change',function(){self._options.onChange(input);});qq.attach(input,'mouseover',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'mouseout',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'focus',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});qq.attach(input,'blur',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});if(window.attachEvent){input.setAttribute('tabIndex',"-1");}return input;}};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/upload.php',maxConnections:999,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,response){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._queue=[];this._params=[];};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype={log:function(str){if(this._options.debug&&window.console)console.log('[uploader] '+str);},add:function(file){},upload:function(id,params){var len=this._queue.push(id);var copy={};qq.extend(copy,params);this._params[id]=copy;if(len<=this._options.maxConnections){this._upload(id,this._params[id]);}},cancel:function(id){this._cancel(id);this._dequeue(id);},cancelAll:function(){for(var i=0;i<this._queue.length;i++){this._cancel(this._queue[i]);}this._queue=[];},getName:function(id){},getSize:function(id){},getQueue:function(){return this._queue;},_upload:function(id){},_cancel:function(id){},_dequeue:function(id){var i=qq.indexOf(this._queue,id);this._queue.splice(i,1);var max=this._options.maxConnections;if(this._queue.length>=max&&i<max){var nextId=this._queue[max-1];this._upload(nextId,this._params[nextId]);}}};qq.UploadHandlerForm=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._inputs={};};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{add:function(fileInput){fileInput.setAttribute('name','qqfile');var id='qq-upload-handler-iframe'+qq.getUniqueId();this._inputs[id]=fileInput;if(fileInput.parentNode){qq.remove(fileInput);}return id;},getName:function(id){return this._inputs[id].value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));delete this._inputs[id];var iframe=document.getElementById(id);if(iframe){iframe.setAttribute('src','javascript:false;');qq.remove(iframe);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;},_attachLoadEvent:function(iframe,callback){qq.attach(iframe,'load',function(){if(!iframe.parentNode){return;}if(iframe.contentDocument&&iframe.contentDocument.body&&iframe.contentDocument.body.innerHTML=="false"){return;}callback();});},_getIframeContentJSON:function(iframe){var doc=iframe.contentDocument?iframe.contentDocument:iframe.contentWindow.document,response;this.log("converting iframe's innerHTML to JSON");this.log("innerHTML = "+doc.body.innerHTML);try{response=eval("("+doc.body.innerHTML+")");}catch(err){response={};}return response;},_createIframe:function(id){var iframe=qq.toElement('<iframe src="javascript:false;" name="'+id+'" />');iframe.setAttribute('id',id);iframe.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(iframe);return iframe;},_createForm:function(iframe,params){var form=qq.toElement('<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"></form>');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);form.setAttribute('action',queryString);form.setAttribute('target',iframe.name);form.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(form);return form;}});qq.UploadHandlerXhr=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._files=[];this._xhrs=[];this._loaded=[];};qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported=function(){var input=document.createElement('input');input.type='file';return('multiple'in input&&typeof File!="undefined"&&typeof(new XMLHttpRequest()).upload!="undefined");};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{add:function(file){if(!(file instanceof File)){throw new Error('Passed obj in not a File (in qq.UploadHandlerXhr)');}return this._files.push(file)-1;},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},getLoaded:function(id){return this._loaded[id]||0;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_onComplete:function(id,xhr){if(!this._files[id])return;var name=this.getName(id);var size=this.getSize(id);this._options.onProgress(id,name,size,size);if(xhr.status==200){this.log("xhr - server response received");this.log("responseText = "+xhr.responseText);var response;try{response=eval("("+xhr.responseText+")");}catch(err){response={};}this._options.onComplete(id,name,response);}else{this._options.onComplete(id,name,{});}this._files[id]=null;this._xhrs[id]=null;this._dequeue(id);},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));this._files[id]=null;if(this._xhrs[id]){this._xhrs[id].abort();this._xhrs[id]=null;}}});qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);},onUpload:function(){self._onUpload();}});return handler;},_onUpload:function(){this._handler.uploadAll(this._options.params);},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,fileName);this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';var nameElement=this._find(item,'nameInput');fileName=fileName.toLowerCase();fileName=fileName.replace(/([ !"#$%&\'()+,\/;<=>?@[\]^`{|}~:]+)/g,'_');fileName=fileName.replace(/^_+/,'');nameElement.value=fileName;nameElement.id='mediamanager__upload_item'+id;this._listElement.appendChild(item);}});qq.FileUploaderExtended=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>'+LANG.media_drop+'</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">'+LANG.media_select+'</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'<div class="qq-action-container">'+' <button class="qq-upload-action" type="submit" id="mediamanager__upload_button">'+LANG.media_upload_btn+'</button>'+' <label class="qq-overwrite-check"><input type="checkbox" value="1" name="ow" class="dw__ow"> <span>'+LANG.media_overwrt+'</span></label>'+'</div>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file hidden"></span>'+' <input class="qq-upload-name-input edit" type="text" value="" />'+' <span class="qq-upload-spinner hidden"></span>'+' <span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+' <a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">'+LANG.media_cancel+'</a>'+' <span class="qq-upload-failed-text error">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',nameInput:'qq-upload-name-input',overwriteInput:'qq-overwrite-check',uploadButton:'qq-upload-action',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail',failedText:'qq-upload-failed-text'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._bindUploadEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,qq.FileUploader.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,{_bindUploadEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_button'),'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;qq.preventDefault(e);self._handler._options.onUpload();jQuery(".qq-upload-name-input").each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',true);});});},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));var nameInput=this._find(item,'nameInput');var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,nameInput.value);qq.removeClass(fileElement,'hidden');qq.remove(nameInput);jQuery('.qq-upload-button, #mediamanager__upload_button').remove();jQuery('.dw__ow').parent().hide();jQuery('.qq-upload-drop-area').remove();if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);$link='<a href="'+result.link+'" id="h_:'+result.id+'" class="select">'+nameInput.value+'</a>';jQuery(fileElement).html($link);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);var fail=this._find(item,'failedText');if(result.error)qq.setText(fail,result.error);}if(document.getElementById('media__content')&&!document.getElementById('mediamanager__done_form')){var action=document.location.href;var i=action.indexOf('?');if(i)action=action.substr(0,i);var button='<form method="post" action="'+action+'" id="mediamanager__done_form"><div>';button+='<input type="hidden" value="'+result.ns+'" name="ns">';button+='<input type="hidden" value="1" name="recent">';button+='<button type="submit">'+LANG.media_done_btn+'</button></div></form>';jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').append(button);}}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._inputs[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{return null;}}},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._inputs){this.upload(key,params);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var nameInput=qq.toElement('<input name="mediaid" value="'+fileName+'" type="text">');form.appendChild(nameInput);var checked=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var owCheckbox=jQuery('.dw__ow').clone();owCheckbox.attr('checked',checked);jQuery(form).append(owCheckbox);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;}else{return null;}}},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];if(file==null)return null;return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);if(name==null||size==null)return;this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;params['ow']=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._files){this.upload(key,params);}}});function substr_replace(str,replace,start,length){var a2,b1;a2=(start<0?str.length:0)+start;if(typeof length==='undefined'){length=str.length-a2;}else if(length<0&&start<0&&length<=start){length=0;}b1=(length<0?str.length:a2)+length;return str.substring(0,a2)+replace+str.substring(b1);}function bind(fnc){var Aps=Array.prototype.slice,static_args=Aps.call(arguments,1);return function(){return fnc.apply(this,static_args.concat(Aps.call(arguments,0)));};}function logError(e,file){if(window.console&&console.error){console.error('The error "%s: %s" occurred in file "%s". '+'If this is in a plugin try updating or disabling the plugin, '+'if this is in a template try updating the template or switching to the "dokuwiki" template.',e.name,e.message,file);if(e.stack){console.error(e.stack);}}}var timer={_cur_id:0,_handlers:{},execDispatch:function(id){timer._handlers[id]();},add:function(func,timeout){var id=++timer._cur_id;timer._handlers[id]=func;return window.setTimeout('timer.execDispatch('+id+')',timeout);}};function Delay(func,timeout){this.func=func;if(timeout){this.timeout=timeout;}}Delay.prototype={func:null,timeout:500,delTimer:function(){if(this.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(this.timer);this.timer=null;}},start:function(){DEPRECATED('don\'t use the Delay object, use window.timeout with a callback instead');this.delTimer();var _this=this;this.timer=timer.add(function(){_this.exec.call(_this);},this.timeout);this._data={_this:arguments[0],_params:Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments,2)};},exec:function(){this.delTimer();this.func.call(this._data._this,this._data._params);}};var DokuCookie={data:{},name:'DOKU_PREFS',setValue:function(key,val){var text=[],_this=this;this.init();if(val===false){delete this.data[key];}else{val=val+"";this.data[key]=val;}jQuery.each(_this.data,function(key,val){if(_this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)){text.push(encodeURIComponent(key)+'#'+encodeURIComponent(val));}});jQuery.cookie(this.name,text.join('#'),{expires:365,path:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.path,secure:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.secure});},getValue:function(key,def){this.init();return this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)?this.data[key]:def;},init:function(){var text,parts,i;if(!jQuery.isEmptyObject(this.data)){return;}text=jQuery.cookie(this.name);if(text){parts=text.split('#');for(i=0;i<parts.length;i+=2){this.data[decodeURIComponent(parts[i])]=decodeURIComponent(parts[i+1]);}}}};if('function'===typeof jQuery&&'function'===typeof jQuery.noConflict){jQuery.noConflict();}var clientPC=navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase();var is_macos=navigator.appVersion.indexOf('Mac')!=-1;var is_gecko=((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('khtml')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));var is_safari=((clientPC.indexOf('applewebkit')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));var is_khtml=(navigator.vendor=='KDE'||(document.childNodes&&!document.all&&!navigator.taintEnabled));if(clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1){var is_opera=true;var is_opera_preseven=(window.opera&&!document.childNodes);var is_opera_seven=(window.opera&&document.childNodes);}function closePopups(){jQuery('div.JSpopup').hide();}jQuery(function(){jQuery(document).on('click',closePopups);});jQuery.fn.dw_qsearch=function(overrides){var dw_qsearch={output:'#qsearch__out',$inObj:this,$outObj:null,timer:null,curRequest:null,init:function(){var do_qsearch;dw_qsearch.$outObj=jQuery(dw_qsearch.output);if(dw_qsearch.$inObj.length===0||dw_qsearch.$outObj.length===0){return;}do_qsearch=function(){if(dw_qsearch.curRequest!=null){dw_qsearch.curRequest.abort();}var value=dw_qsearch.getSearchterm();if(value===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').addClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'qsearch',q:encodeURI(value)},dw_qsearch.onCompletion,'html');};dw_qsearch.$inObj.on('keyup',function(){if(dw_qsearch.timer){window.clearTimeout(dw_qsearch.timer);dw_qsearch.timer=null;}dw_qsearch.timer=window.setTimeout(do_qsearch,500);});dw_qsearch.$outObj.on('click',dw_qsearch.clear_results);},getSearchterm:function(){return dw_qsearch.$inObj.val();},clear_results:function(){dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.$outObj.hide();dw_qsearch.$outObj.text('');},onCompletion:function(data){var max,$links,too_big;dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=null;if(data===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$outObj .html(data).show().css('white-space','nowrap');dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','visible');$links=dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('a');max=dw_qsearch.$outObj[0].clientWidth;if(document.documentElement.dir==='rtl'){max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-left'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetLeft<0;};}else{max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-right'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetWidth+l.offsetLeft>max;};}$links.each(function(){var start,length,replace,nsL,nsR,eli,runaway;if(!too_big(this)){return;}nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');eli=0;runaway=0;while((nsR-nsL>3)&&too_big(this)&&runaway++<500){if(eli!==0){if((eli-nsL)>(nsR-eli)){start=eli-2;length=2;}else{start=eli+1;length=1;}replace='';}else{start=Math.floor(nsL+((nsR-nsL)/2));length=1;replace='…';}this.textContent=substr_replace(this.textContent,replace,start,length);eli=this.textContent.indexOf('…');nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');}});dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','hidden').css('text-overflow','ellipsis');}};jQuery.extend(dw_qsearch,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_qsearch.init();}return dw_qsearch;};jQuery(function(){jQuery('#qsearch__in').dw_qsearch({output:'#qsearch__out'});});jQuery(function(){'use strict';var $searchForm=jQuery('.search-results-form');if(!$searchForm.length){return;}var $toggleAssistanceButton=jQuery('<button>').addClass('toggleAssistant').attr('type','button').attr('aria-expanded','false').text(LANG.search_toggle_tools).prependTo($searchForm.find('fieldset'));$toggleAssistanceButton.on('click',function(){jQuery('.advancedOptions').toggle(0,function(){var $me=jQuery(this);if($me.attr('aria-hidden')){$me.removeAttr('aria-hidden');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','true');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','on');}else{$me.attr('aria-hidden','true');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','false');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','off');}});});if(DokuCookie.getValue('sa')==='on'){$toggleAssistanceButton.trigger('click');}$searchForm.find('.advancedOptions .toggle div.current').on('click',function(){var $me=jQuery(this);$me.parent().siblings().removeClass('open');$me.parent().siblings().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');$me.parent().toggleClass('open');if($me.parent().hasClass('open')){$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','true');}else{$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');}});});jQuery.fn.dw_tree=function(overrides){var dw_tree={throbber_delay:500,$obj:this,toggle_selector:'a.idx_dir',init:function(){this.$obj.on('click',this.toggle_selector,this,this.toggle);jQuery('ul:first',this.$obj).attr('role','tree');jQuery('ul',this.$obj).not(':first').attr('role','group');jQuery('li',this.$obj).attr('role','treeitem');jQuery('li.open > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','true');jQuery('li.closed > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','false');jQuery('li.closed',this.$obj).attr('aria-live','assertive');},toggle:function(e){var $listitem,$sublist,timeout,$clicky,show_sublist,dw_tree,opening;e.preventDefault();dw_tree=e.data;$clicky=jQuery(this);$listitem=$clicky.closest('li');$sublist=$listitem.find('ul').first();opening=$listitem.hasClass('closed');dw_tree.toggle_display($clicky,opening);if($sublist.is(':visible')){$listitem.removeClass('open').addClass('closed');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','false');}else{$listitem.removeClass('closed').addClass('open');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','true');}if(!opening){$sublist.dw_hide();return;}show_sublist=function(data){$sublist.hide();if(typeof data!=='undefined'){$sublist.html(data);$sublist.parent().attr('aria-busy','false').removeAttr('aria-live');jQuery('li.closed',$sublist).attr('aria-live','assertive');}if($listitem.hasClass('open')){$sublist.dw_show();}};if($sublist.length>0){show_sublist();return;}$sublist=jQuery('<ul class="idx" role="group"/>');$listitem.append($sublist);timeout=window.setTimeout(bind(show_sublist,'<li aria-busy="true"><img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="loading..." title="loading..." /></li>'),dw_tree.throbber_delay);dw_tree.load_data(function(data){window.clearTimeout(timeout);show_sublist(data);},$clicky);},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){},load_data:function(show_data,$clicky){show_data();}};jQuery.extend(dw_tree,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_tree.init();}return dw_tree;};var dw_index=jQuery('#index__tree').dw_tree({deferInit:true,load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$clicky[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=index',show_sublist,'html');}});jQuery(function(){var $tree=jQuery('#index__tree');dw_index.$obj=$tree;dw_index.init();});function selection_class(){this.start=0;this.end=0;this.obj=null;this.scroll=0;this.fix=0;this.getLength=function(){return this.end-this.start;};this.getText=function(){return(!this.obj)?'':this.obj.value.substring(this.start,this.end);};}function DWgetSelection(textArea){var sel=new selection_class();textArea.focus();sel.obj=textArea;sel.start=textArea.selectionStart;sel.end=textArea.selectionEnd;sel.scroll=textArea.scrollTop;return sel;}function DWsetSelection(selection){selection.obj.setSelectionRange(selection.start,selection.end);if(selection.scroll)selection.obj.scrollTop=selection.scroll;}function pasteText(selection,text,opts){if(!opts)opts={};selection.obj.value=selection.obj.value.substring(0,selection.start)+text+selection.obj.value.substring(selection.end,selection.obj.value.length);if(is_opera){selection.end=selection.start+text.replace(/\r?\n/g,'\r\n').length;}else{selection.end=selection.start+text.length;}if(opts.startofs)selection.start+=opts.startofs;if(opts.endofs)selection.end-=opts.endofs;if(opts.nosel)selection.start=selection.end;DWsetSelection(selection);}function insertTags(textAreaID,tagOpen,tagClose,sampleText){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);var text=selection.getText();var opts;if(text.charAt(text.length-1)==' '){selection.end--;text=selection.getText();}if(!text){text=sampleText;opts={startofs:tagOpen.length,endofs:tagClose.length};}else{opts={nosel:true};}text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;pasteText(selection,text,opts);}function insertAtCarret(textAreaID,text){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);pasteText(selection,text,{nosel:true});}var pickercounter=0;function initToolbar(tbid,edid,tb,allowblock){var $toolbar,$edit;if(typeof tbid=='string'){$toolbar=jQuery('#'+tbid);}else{$toolbar=jQuery(tbid);}$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($toolbar.length==0||$edit.length==0||$edit.attr('readOnly')){return;}if(typeof allowblock==='undefined'){allowblock=true;}$toolbar.html('');jQuery.each(tb,function(k,val){if(!tb.hasOwnProperty(k)||(!allowblock&&val.block===true)){return;}var actionFunc,$btn;$btn=jQuery(createToolButton(val.icon,val.title,val.key,val.id,val['class']));actionFunc='tb_'+val.type;if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){$btn.on('click',bind(window[actionFunc],$btn,val,edid));$toolbar.append($btn);return;}actionFunc='addBtnAction'+val.type.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+val.type.substring(1);if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){var pickerid=window[actionFunc]($btn,val,edid);if(pickerid!==''){$toolbar.append($btn);$btn.attr('aria-controls',pickerid);if(actionFunc==='addBtnActionPicker'){$btn.attr('aria-haspopup','true');}}return;}alert('unknown toolbar type: '+val.type+' '+actionFunc);});}function tb_format(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title;insertTags(edid,fixtxt(props.open),fixtxt(props.close),fixtxt(sample));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_formatln(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title,opts,selection=DWgetSelection(jQuery('#'+edid)[0]);sample=fixtxt(sample);props.open=fixtxt(props.open);props.close=fixtxt(props.close);if(selection.getLength()){sample=selection.getText();opts={nosel:true};}else{opts={startofs:props.open.length,endofs:props.close.length};}sample=sample.split("\n").join(props.close+"\n"+props.open);sample=props.open+sample+props.close;pasteText(selection,sample,opts);pickerClose();return false;}function tb_insert(btn,props,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,fixtxt(props.insert));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_mediapopup(btn,props,edid){window.open(DOKU_BASE+props.url+encodeURIComponent(NS)+'&edid='+encodeURIComponent(edid),props.name,props.options);return false;}function tb_autohead(btn,props,edid){var lvl=currentHeadlineLevel(edid),tags;lvl+=props.mod;if(lvl<1)lvl=1;if(lvl>5)lvl=5;tags=(new Array(8-lvl)).join('=');insertTags(edid,tags+' ',' '+tags+"\n",props.text);pickerClose();return false;}function addBtnActionPicker($btn,props,edid){var pickerid='picker'+(pickercounter++);var picker=createPicker(pickerid,props,edid);jQuery(picker).attr('aria-hidden','true');$btn.click(function(e){pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn);e.preventDefault();return'';});return pickerid;}function addBtnActionLinkwiz($btn,props,edid){dw_linkwiz.init(jQuery('#'+edid));jQuery($btn).click(function(e){dw_linkwiz.val=props;dw_linkwiz.toggle();e.preventDefault();return'';});return'link__wiz';}function pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn){var $picker=jQuery('#'+pickerid),pos=$btn.offset();if($picker.hasClass('a11y')){$picker.removeClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','false');}else{$picker.addClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','true');}var picker_left=pos.left+3,picker_width=$picker.width(),window_width=jQuery(window).width();if(picker_width>300){$picker.css("max-width","300");picker_width=300;}if((picker_left+picker_width+40)>window_width){picker_left=window_width-picker_width-40;}if(picker_left<0){picker_left=0;}$picker.offset({left:picker_left,top:pos.top+$btn[0].offsetHeight+3});}function pickerClose(){jQuery('.picker').addClass('a11y');}function fixtxt(str){return str.replace(/\\n/g,"\n");}jQuery(function(){initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);jQuery('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');});function createToolButton(icon,label,key,id,classname){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')),$ico=jQuery(document.createElement('img'));$btn.addClass('toolbutton');if(classname){$btn.addClass(classname);}$btn.attr('title',label).attr('aria-controls','wiki__text');if(key){$btn.attr('title',label+' ['+key.toUpperCase()+']').attr('accessKey',key);}if(id){$btn.attr('id',id);$ico.attr('id',id+'_ico');}if(icon.substr(0,1)!=='/'){icon=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/toolbar/'+icon;}$ico.attr('src',icon);$ico.attr('alt','');$ico.attr('width',16);$ico.attr('height',16);$btn.append($ico);return $btn[0];}function createPicker(id,props,edid){var $picker=jQuery(document.createElement('div'));$picker.addClass('picker a11y');if(props['class']){$picker.addClass(props['class']);}$picker.attr('id',id).css('position','absolute');function $makebutton(title){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('pickerbutton').attr('title',title).attr('aria-controls',edid).on('click',bind(pickerInsert,title,edid)).appendTo($picker);return $btn;}jQuery.each(props.list,function(key,item){if(!props.list.hasOwnProperty(key)){return;}if(isNaN(key)){if(item.substr(0,1)!=='/'){item=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+props.icobase+'/'+item;}jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',item).attr('alt','').appendTo($makebutton(key));}else if(typeof item=='string'){$makebutton(item).text(item);}else{initToolbar($picker,edid,props.list);return false;}});jQuery('body').append($picker);return $picker[0];}function pickerInsert(text,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,text);pickerClose();}function addBtnActionSignature($btn,props,edid){if(typeof SIG!='undefined'&&SIG!=''){$btn.on('click',function(e){insertAtCarret(edid,SIG);e.preventDefault();});return edid;}return'';}function currentHeadlineLevel(textboxId){var field=jQuery('#'+textboxId)[0],s=false,opts=[field.value.substr(0,DWgetSelection(field).start)];if(field.form&&field.form.prefix){opts.push(field.form.prefix.value);}jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var str="\n"+opt,lasthl=str.lastIndexOf("\n==");if(lasthl!==-1){s=str.substr(lasthl+1,6);return false;}});if(s===false){return 0;}return 7-s.match(/^={2,6}/)[0].length;}window.textChanged=false;window.doku_edit_text_content='';function deleteDraft(){if(is_opera||window.keepDraft){return;}var $dwform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($dwform.length===0){return;}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:$dwform.find('input[name=id]').val()});}jQuery(function(){var $editform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0){return;}var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){if($edit_text.attr('readOnly')){return;}var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;DWsetSelection(sel);$edit_text.trigger('focus');doku_edit_text_content=$edit_text.val();}var changeHandler=function(){doku_hasTextBeenModified();doku_summaryCheck();};$editform.change(changeHandler);$editform.keydown(changeHandler);window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged){return LANG.notsavedyet;}};window.onunload=deleteDraft;jQuery('#edbtn__save').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;});jQuery('#edbtn__preview').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;});var $summary=jQuery('#edit__summary');$summary.on('change keyup',doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();});function doku_hasTextBeenModified(){if(!textChanged){var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){textChanged=doku_edit_text_content!=$edit_text.val();}else{textChanged=true;}}}function doku_summaryCheck(){var $sum=jQuery('#edit__summary'),missing=$sum.val()==='';$sum.toggleClass('missing',missing).toggleClass('edit',!missing);}var dw_editor={init:function(){var $editor=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($editor.length===0){return;}dw_editor.initSizeCtl('#size__ctl',$editor);if($editor.attr('readOnly')){return;}$editor.keydown(dw_editor.keyHandler);},initSizeCtl:function(ctlarea,editor){var $ctl=jQuery(ctlarea),$textarea=jQuery(editor);if($ctl.length===0||$textarea.length===0){return;}$textarea.css('height',DokuCookie.getValue('sizeCtl')||'300px');var wrp=DokuCookie.getValue('wrapCtl');if(wrp){dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],wrp);}jQuery.each([['larger',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,100);}],['smaller',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,-100);}],['wrap',function(){dw_editor.toggleWrap(editor);}]],function(_,img){jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+img[0]+'.gif').attr('alt','').on('click',img[1]).appendTo($ctl);});},sizeCtl:function(editor,val){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),height=parseInt($textarea.css('height'))+val;$textarea.css('height',height+'px');DokuCookie.setValue('sizeCtl',$textarea.css('height'));},toggleWrap:function(editor){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),wrap=$textarea.attr('wrap');dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],(wrap&&wrap.toLowerCase()=='off')?'soft':'off');DokuCookie.setValue('wrapCtl',$textarea.attr('wrap'));},setWrap:function(textarea,wrapAttrValue){textarea.setAttribute('wrap',wrapAttrValue);var parNod=textarea.parentNode;var nxtSib=textarea.nextSibling;parNod.removeChild(textarea);parNod.insertBefore(textarea,nxtSib);},keyHandler:function(e){if(jQuery.inArray(e.keyCode,[8,10,13,32])===-1){return;}var selection=DWgetSelection(this);if(selection.getLength()>0){return;}var search="\n"+this.value.substr(0,selection.start);var linestart=Math.max(search.lastIndexOf("\n"),search.lastIndexOf("\r"));search=search.substr(linestart);if((e.keyCode==13||e.keyCode==10)&&e.ctrlKey){jQuery('#edbtn__save').trigger('click');e.preventDefault();return false;}else if(e.keyCode==13){var match=search.match(/(\n +([\*-] ?)?)/);if(match){var scroll=this.scrollHeight;var match2=search.match(/^\n +[\*-]\s*$/);if(match2&&this.value.substr(selection.start).match(/^($|\r?\n)/)){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+"\n"+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart+1;selection.end=linestart+1;DWsetSelection(selection);}else{insertAtCarret(this.id,match[1]);}this.scrollTop+=(this.scrollHeight-scroll);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==8){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] ?)$/);if(match){var spaces=match[1].length-1;if(spaces>3){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(linestart+2);selection.start=selection.start-2;selection.end=selection.start;}else{this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart;selection.end=linestart;}DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==32){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] )$/);if(match){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+' '+this.value.substr(linestart);selection.start=selection.start+2;selection.end=selection.start;DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}}};jQuery(dw_editor.init);var dw_locktimer={timeout:0,draft:false,timerID:null,lasttime:null,msg:LANG.willexpire,pageid:'',fieldsToSaveAsDraft:['input[name=prefix]','textarea[name=wikitext]','input[name=suffix]','input[name=date]',],callbacks:[],init:function(timeout,draft,edid){var $edit;edid=edid||'wiki__text';$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($edit.length===0||$edit.attr('readonly')){return;}dw_locktimer.timeout=timeout*1000;dw_locktimer.draft=draft;dw_locktimer.lasttime=new Date();dw_locktimer.pageid=jQuery('#dw__editform').find('input[name=id]').val();if(!dw_locktimer.pageid){return;}$edit.keypress(dw_locktimer.refresh);dw_locktimer.reset();},addField:function(selector){dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.push(selector);},addRefreshCallback:function(callback){dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(callback);},reset:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();dw_locktimer.timerID=window.setTimeout(dw_locktimer.warning,dw_locktimer.timeout);},warning:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();alert(fixtxt(dw_locktimer.msg));},clear:function(){if(dw_locktimer.timerID!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_locktimer.timerID);dw_locktimer.timerID=null;}},refresh:function(){var now=new Date(),params='call=lock&id='+dw_locktimer.pageid+'&';if(now.getTime()-dw_locktimer.lasttime.getTime()<=30*1000){return;}if(dw_locktimer.draft&&jQuery('#dw__editform').find('textarea[name=wikitext]').length>0){params+=jQuery('#dw__editform').find(dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.join(', ')).serialize();}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,null,'json').done(function dwLocktimerRefreshDoneHandler(data){dw_locktimer.callbacks.forEach(function(callback){callback(data);});});dw_locktimer.lasttime=now;},refreshed:function(data){if(data.errors.length){data.errors.forEach(function(error){jQuery('#draft__status').after(jQuery('<div class="error"></div>').text(error));})}jQuery('#draft__status').html(data.draft);if(data.lock!=='1'){return;}dw_locktimer.reset();}};dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(dw_locktimer.refreshed);var dw_linkwiz={$wiz:null,$entry:null,result:null,timer:null,textArea:null,selected:null,selection:null,init:function($editor){var pos=$editor.position();if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz)return;dw_linkwiz.$wiz=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).dialog({autoOpen:false,draggable:true,title:LANG.linkwiz,resizable:false}).html('<div>'+LANG.linkto+' <input type="text" class="edit" id="link__wiz_entry" autocomplete="off" /></div>'+'<div id="link__wiz_result"></div>').parent().attr('id','link__wiz').css({'position':'absolute','top':(pos.top+20)+'px','left':(pos.left+80)+'px'}).hide().appendTo('.dokuwiki:first');dw_linkwiz.textArea=$editor[0];dw_linkwiz.result=jQuery('#link__wiz_result')[0];jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).css('position','relative');dw_linkwiz.$entry=jQuery('#link__wiz_entry');if(JSINFO.namespace){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(JSINFO.namespace+':');}jQuery('#link__wiz .ui-dialog-titlebar-close').on('click',dw_linkwiz.hide);dw_linkwiz.$entry.keyup(dw_linkwiz.onEntry);jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).on('click','a',dw_linkwiz.onResultClick);},onEntry:function(e){if(e.keyCode==37||e.keyCode==39){return true;}if(e.keyCode==27){dw_linkwiz.hide();e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==38){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected-1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==40){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected+1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==13){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected);if($obj.length>0){dw_linkwiz.resultClick($obj.find('a')[0]);}}else if(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val());}e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();},getResult:function(num){DEPRECATED('use dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0] instead');return dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0]||null;},$getResult:function(num){return jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).find('div').eq(num);},select:function(num){if(num<0){dw_linkwiz.deselect();return;}var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(num);if($obj.length===0){return;}dw_linkwiz.deselect();$obj.addClass('selected');var childPos=$obj.position().top;var yDiff=childPos+$obj.outerHeight()-jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).innerHeight();if(childPos<0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=childPos;}else if(yDiff>0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=yDiff;}dw_linkwiz.selected=num;},deselect:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected).removeClass('selected');}dw_linkwiz.selected=-1;},onResultClick:function(e){if(!jQuery(this).is('a')){return;}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();dw_linkwiz.resultClick(this);return false;},resultClick:function(a){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(a.title);if(a.title==''||a.title.substr(a.title.length-1)==':'){dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec();}else{if(jQuery(a.nextSibling).is('span')){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(a.nextSibling.innerHTML);}else{dw_linkwiz.insertLink('');}}},insertLink:function(title){var link=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(),sel,stxt;if(!link){return;}sel=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);if(sel.start==0&&sel.end==0){sel=dw_linkwiz.selection;}stxt=sel.getText();if(stxt.charAt(stxt.length-1)==' '){sel.end--;stxt=sel.getText();}if(!stxt&&!DOKU_UHC){stxt=title;}if(dw_linkwiz.textArea.form.id.value.indexOf(':')!=-1&&link.indexOf(':')==-1){link=':'+link;}var so=link.length;var eo=0;if(dw_linkwiz.val){if(dw_linkwiz.val.open){so+=dw_linkwiz.val.open.length;link=dw_linkwiz.val.open+link;}link+='|';so+=1;if(stxt){link+=stxt;}if(dw_linkwiz.val.close){link+=dw_linkwiz.val.close;eo=dw_linkwiz.val.close.length;}}pasteText(sel,link,{startofs:so,endofs:eo});dw_linkwiz.hide();var externallinkpattern=new RegExp('^((f|ht)tps?:)?//','i'),entry_value;if(externallinkpattern.test(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val())){if(JSINFO.namespace){entry_value=JSINFO.namespace+':';}else{entry_value='';}}else{entry_value=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val().replace(/[^:]*$/,'')}dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(entry_value);},autocomplete:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_linkwiz.timer);dw_linkwiz.timer=null;}dw_linkwiz.timer=window.setTimeout(dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec,350);},autocomplete_exec:function(){var $res=jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result);dw_linkwiz.deselect();$res.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="" width="16" height="16" />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'linkwiz',q:dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()});},show:function(){dw_linkwiz.selection=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);dw_linkwiz.$wiz.show();dw_linkwiz.$entry.focus();dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();var temp=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val();dw_linkwiz.$entry.val('');dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(temp);},hide:function(){dw_linkwiz.$wiz.hide();dw_linkwiz.textArea.focus();},toggle:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz.css('display')=='none'){dw_linkwiz.show();}else{dw_linkwiz.hide();}}};var dw_mediamanager={keepopen:false,hide:false,popup:false,display:false,ext:false,$popup:null,align:false,link:false,size:false,forbidden_opts:{},view_opts:{list:false,sort:false},layout_width:0,minHeights:{thumbs:200,rows:100},init:function(){var $content,$tree;$content=jQuery('#media__content');$tree=jQuery('#media__tree');if(!$tree.length)return;dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.attachoptions();dw_mediamanager.initpopup();$content .on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','a.select',dw_mediamanager.select).on('click','#media__content a.btn_media_delete',dw_mediamanager.confirmattach).on('submit','#mediamanager__done_form',dw_mediamanager.list);$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $link=$clicky.parent().find('div.li a.idx_dir');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$link[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=medians',show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.on('click','a',dw_mediamanager.list);dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();dw_mediamanager.init_options();dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');$page.find('div.filelist').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.list).on('click','div.panelContent a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#dw__mediasearch',dw_mediamanager.list).on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','.qq-upload-file a',dw_mediamanager.details);$page.find('div.file').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_update',dw_mediamanager.list).on('submit','#page__revisions',dw_mediamanager.details).on('click','#page__revisions a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__save_meta',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_delete',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_restore',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','.btn_newer, .btn_older',dw_mediamanager.details);dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_mediamanager.layout_width=$page.width();jQuery(window).on('resize',dw_mediamanager.window_resize);},init_options:function(){var $options=jQuery('div.filelist div.panelHeader form.options'),$listType,$sortBy,$both;if($options.length===0){return;}$listType=$options.find('li.listType');$sortBy=$options.find('li.sortBy');$both=$listType.add($sortBy);$options.find('button[type=submit]').parent().hide();$both.find('label').each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.children('input').appendTo($this.parent());});$both.find("input[type='radio']").checkboxradio({icon:false});$both.controlgroup();$listType.children('input').change(function(){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();});$sortBy.children('input').change(function(event){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_sort();dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#dw__mediasearch')[0]||this,event);});},initpopup:function(){var opts,$insp,$insbtn;dw_mediamanager.$popup=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id','media__popup_content').dialog({autoOpen:false,width:280,modal:true,draggable:true,title:LANG.mediatitle,resizable:false});opts=[{id:'link',label:LANG.mediatarget,btns:['lnk','direct','nolnk','displaylnk']},{id:'align',label:LANG.mediaalign,btns:['noalign','left','center','right']},{id:'size',label:LANG.mediasize,btns:['small','medium','large','original']}];jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $p,$l;$p=jQuery(document.createElement('p')).attr('id','media__'+opt.id);if(dw_mediamanager.display==="2"){$p.hide();}$l=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).text(opt.label);$p.append($l);jQuery.each(opt.btns,function(i,text){var $btn,$img;$btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('button').attr('id',"media__"+opt.id+"btn"+(i+1)).attr('title',LANG['media'+text]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.setOpt,opt.id));$img=jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/media_'+opt.id+'_'+text+'.png');$btn.append($img);$p.append($btn);});dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($p);});$insp=jQuery(document.createElement('p'));dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($insp);$insbtn=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('id','media__sendbtn').attr('type','button').addClass('button').val(LANG.mediainsert);$insp.append($insbtn);},insert:function(id){var opts,cb,edid,s;dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('close');opts='';if({img:1,swf:1}[dw_mediamanager.ext]===1){if(dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){opts='?linkonly';}else{if(dw_mediamanager.link==="3"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?nolink';}else if(dw_mediamanager.link==="2"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?direct';}s=parseInt(dw_mediamanager.size,10);var size=s*200;if(s&&s>=1&&s<4){opts+=(opts.length)?'&':'?';opts+=size;if(dw_mediamanager.ext==='swf'){switch(s){case 1:opts+='x62';break;case 2:opts+='x123';break;case 3:opts+='x185';break;}}}}}edid=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&edid=([^&]+)/);edid=edid?edid[1]:'wiki__text';cb=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&onselect=([^&]+)/);cb=cb?cb[1].replace(/[^\w]+/,''):'dw_mediamanager_item_select';opener[cb](edid,id,opts,dw_mediamanager.align,dw_mediamanager.keepopen);if(!dw_mediamanager.keepopen){window.close();}opener.focus();return false;},suggest:function(){var $file,$name,text;$file=jQuery(this);$name=jQuery('#upload__name');if($name.val()!='')return;if(!$file.length||!$name.length){return;}text=$file.val();text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('/')+1);text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('\\')+1);$name.val(text);},list:function(event){var $link,$content,params;if(event){event.preventDefault();}jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();$link=jQuery(this);$content=jQuery('#media__content');if($content.length===0){$content=jQuery('div.filelist');if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){jQuery('div.file').empty();jQuery('div.namespaces .selected').removeClass('selected');$link.addClass('selected');}}params='call=medialist&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params);},form_params:function($form){if(!$form.length)return;var action='';var i=$form[0].action.indexOf('?');if(i>=0){action=$form[0].action.substr(i+1);}return action+'&'+$form.serialize();},set_fileview_list:function(new_type){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['list','listType',function(new_type){jQuery('div.filelist div.panelContent ul').toggleClass('rows',new_type==='rows').toggleClass('thumbs',new_type==='thumbs');}],new_type);dw_mediamanager.resize();},set_fileview_sort:function(new_sort){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['sort','sortBy',function(new_sort){}],new_sort);},set_fileview_opt:function(opt,new_val){if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val=jQuery('form.options li.'+opt[1]+' input').filter(':checked').val();if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val='thumbs';}}if(new_val!==dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]){opt[2](new_val);DokuCookie.setValue(opt[0],new_val);dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]=new_val;}},details:function(event){var $link,$content,params,update_list;$link=jQuery(this);event.preventDefault();jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'&&!confirm(LANG.del_confirm)){return false;}if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore'&&!confirm(LANG.restore_confirm)){return false;}$content=jQuery('div.file');params='call=mediadetails&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}update_list=($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'||$link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore');dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params,update_list);},update_content:function($content,params,update_list){var $container;jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){dw_mediamanager.$resizables().resizable('destroy');if(update_list){dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('form.options button[type="submit"]')[0]);}$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.updatehide();dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list(dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list);dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();dw_mediamanager.init_options();},'html');$container=$content.find('div.panelContent');if($container.length===0){$container=$content;}$container.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." class="load" />');},window_resize:function(){dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();},$resizables:function(){return jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.namespaces, div.filelist');},update_resizable:function(){var $resizables=dw_mediamanager.$resizables();$resizables.resizable({handles:(jQuery('html[dir=rtl]').length?'w':'e'),resize:function(event,ui){var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');var widthFull=$page.width();var widthResizables=0;$resizables.each(function(){widthResizables+=jQuery(this).width();});var $filePanel=$page.find('div.panel.file');var widthOtherResizable=widthResizables-jQuery(this).width();var minWidthNonResizable=parseFloat($filePanel.css("min-width"));var maxWidth=widthFull-(widthOtherResizable+minWidthNonResizable)-1;$resizables.resizable("option","maxWidth",maxWidth);var relWidthNonResizable=99.9-(100*widthResizables/widthFull);$filePanel.width(relWidthNonResizable+'%');dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();}});dw_mediamanager.resize();},resize:function(){var $contents=jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.panelContent'),height=jQuery(window).height()-jQuery(document.body).height()+Math.max.apply(null,jQuery.map($contents,function(v){return jQuery(v).height();}));if(height<dw_mediamanager.minHeights[dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list]){$contents.add(dw_mediamanager.$resizables()).height('auto');}else{$contents.height(height);dw_mediamanager.$resizables().each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.height(height+$this.find('div.panelContent').offset().top-$this.offset().top);});}},image_diff:function(){if(jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype').length)return;var $form=jQuery('#mediamanager__form_diffview');if(!$form.length)return;var $label=jQuery(document.createElement('label'));$label.append('<span>'+LANG.media_diff+'</span> ');var $select=jQuery(document.createElement('select')).attr('id','mediamanager__difftype').attr('name','difftype').change(dw_mediamanager.change_diff_type);$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_both,"both"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_opacity,"opacity"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_portions,"portions"));$label.append($select);$form.append($label);var 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img');if(!$image.length)return;$slider.width($image.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",0.999);$slider.slider("option","step",0.001);$slider.slider("option","value",0.5);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image2 img').css({opacity:$slider.slider("option","value")});});},portions_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");if(!$diff.length)return;var $image1=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image1 img');var $image2=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2 img');if(!$image1.length||!$image2.length)return;$diff.width('100%');$image2.parent().width('97%');$image1.width('100%');$image2.width('100%');if($image1.width()<$diff.width()){$diff.width($image1.width());}$image2.parent().width('50%');$image2.width($image1.width());$image1.width($image1.width());var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;$slider.width($image1.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",97);$slider.slider("option","step",1);$slider.slider("option","value",50);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2').css({width:$slider.slider("option","value")+'%'});});},params_toarray:function(str){var vars=[],hash;var hashes=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<hashes.length;i++){hash=hashes[i].split('=');vars[decodeURIComponent(hash[0])]=decodeURIComponent(hash[1]);}return vars;},init_ajax_uploader:function(){if(!jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').length)return;if(jQuery('.qq-upload-list').length)return;var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params(jQuery('#dw__upload'))+'&call=mediaupload';params=dw_mediamanager.params_toarray(params);var uploader=new qq.FileUploaderExtended({element:document.getElementById('mediamanager__uploader'),action:DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params:params});},prepare_content:function($content){$content.find('div.example:visible').hide();$content.find('a.allowedmime').on('click',function(event){event.preventDefault();$toggle=jQuery(this);$list=$toggle.next('span');$list.toggle();}).next('span').hide();},select:function(event){var $link,id,dot,ext;event.preventDefault();$link=jQuery(this);id=$link.attr('id').substr(2);if(!opener){jQuery(document.getElementById('ex_'+id.replace(/:/g,'_').replace(/^_/,''))).dw_toggle();return;}dw_mediamanager.ext=false;dot=id.lastIndexOf(".");if(-1===dot){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}ext=id.substr(dot);if({'.jpg':1,'.jpeg':1,'.png':1,'.gif':1,'.swf':1}[ext]!==1){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}var $sendbtn=jQuery('#media__sendbtn');$sendbtn.off().on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.insert,id));dw_mediamanager.unforbid('ext');if(ext==='.swf'){dw_mediamanager.ext='swf';dw_mediamanager.forbid('ext',{link:['1','2'],size:['4']});}else{dw_mediamanager.ext='img';}dw_mediamanager.setOpt('link');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');jQuery('#media__linkbtn1, #media__linkbtn2, #media__sizebtn4').toggle(dw_mediamanager.ext==='img');dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('open');$sendbtn.focus();},confirmattach:function(e){if(!confirm(LANG.del_confirm+"\n"+jQuery(this).attr('title'))){e.preventDefault();}},attachoptions:function(){var $obj,opts;$obj=jQuery('#media__opts');if($obj.length===0){return;}opts=[];if(opener){opts.push(['keepopen','keepopen']);}opts.push(['hide','hidedetails']);jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $box,$lbl;$box=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('type','checkbox').attr('id','media__'+opt[0]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.toggleOption,opt[0]));if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt[0])){$box.prop('checked',true);dw_mediamanager[opt[0]]=true;}$lbl=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).attr('for','media__'+opt[0]).text(LANG[opt[1]]);$obj.append($box,$lbl,document.createElement('br'));});dw_mediamanager.updatehide();},toggleOption:function(variable){if(jQuery(this).prop('checked')){DokuCookie.setValue(variable,1);dw_mediamanager[variable]=true;}else{DokuCookie.setValue(variable,'');dw_mediamanager[variable]=false;}if(variable==='hide'){dw_mediamanager.updatehide();}},updatehide:function(){jQuery('#media__content').find('div.detail').dw_toggle(!dw_mediamanager.hide);},setOpt:function(opt,e){var val,i;if(typeof e!=='undefined'){val=this.id.substring(this.id.length-1);}else{val=dw_mediamanager.getOpt(opt);}if(val===false){DokuCookie.setValue(opt,'');dw_mediamanager[opt]=false;return;}if(opt==='link'){if(val!=='4'&&dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){dw_mediamanager.unforbid('linkonly');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');}else if(val==='4'){dw_mediamanager.forbid('linkonly',{align:false,size:false});}jQuery("#media__size, #media__align").dw_toggle(val!=='4');}DokuCookie.setValue(opt,val);dw_mediamanager[opt]=val;for(i=1;i<=4;i++){jQuery("#media__"+opt+"btn"+i).removeClass('selected');}jQuery('#media__'+opt+'btn'+val).addClass('selected');},unforbid:function(group){delete dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group];},forbid:function(group,forbids){dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group]=forbids;},allowedOpt:function(opt,val){var ret=true;jQuery.each(dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts,function(_,forbids){ret=forbids[opt]!==false&&jQuery.inArray(val,forbids[opt])===-1;return ret;});return ret;},getOpt:function(opt){var allowed=bind(dw_mediamanager.allowedOpt,opt);if(dw_mediamanager[opt]!==false&&allowed(dw_mediamanager[opt])){return dw_mediamanager[opt];}if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt)&&allowed(DokuCookie.getValue(opt))){return DokuCookie.getValue(opt);}if(opt==='size'&&allowed('2')){return'2';}return jQuery.grep(['1','2','3','4'],allowed)[0]||false;}};function dw_mediamanager_item_select(edid,mediaid,opts,align,keepopen){var alignleft='';var alignright='';var cursorInImageTag=false;var textArea=jQuery('#'+edid)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(textArea);selection.end=selection.end+2;var charsAfterCursor=selection.getText();if(charsAfterCursor==='}}'){cursorInImageTag=true;}if(align!=='1'){alignleft=align==='2'?'':' ';alignright=align==='4'?'':' ';}if(keepopen&&cursorInImageTag){selection.start=selection.start+2;DWsetSelection(selection);}insertTags(edid,'{{'+alignleft+mediaid+opts+alignright+'|','}}','');}jQuery(dw_mediamanager.init);function DEPRECATED(msg){if(!window.console)return;if(!msg)msg='';var func;if(arguments.callee)func=arguments.callee.caller.name;if(func)func=' '+func+'()';var line='DEPRECATED function call'+func+'. '+msg;if(console.warn){console.warn(line);}else{console.log(line);}if(console.trace)console.trace();}function DEPRECATED_WRAP(func,context){return function(){DEPRECATED();return func.apply(context||this,arguments);};}jQuery.fn.dw_hide=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','false');return this.slideUp('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_show=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','true');return this.slideDown('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_toggle=function(state,fn,noaria){return this.each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);if(typeof state==='undefined'){state=$this.is(':hidden');}$this[state?"dw_show":"dw_hide"](fn,noaria);});};var dw_behaviour={init:function(){dw_behaviour.focusMarker();dw_behaviour.scrollToMarker();dw_behaviour.removeHighlightOnClick();dw_behaviour.quickSelect();dw_behaviour.checkWindowsShares();dw_behaviour.subscription();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();jQuery(document).on('click','#page__revisions input[type=checkbox]',dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler);jQuery('.bounce').effect('bounce',{times:10},2000);},scrollToMarker:function(){var $obj=jQuery('#scroll__here');if($obj.length){if($obj.offset().top!=0){jQuery('html, body').animate({scrollTop:$obj.offset().top-100},500);}else{$obj[0].scrollIntoView();}}},focusMarker:function(){jQuery('#focus__this').trigger('focus');},removeHighlightOnClick:function(){jQuery('span.search_hit').on('click',function(e){jQuery(e.target).removeClass('search_hit',1000);});},quickSelect:function(){jQuery('select.quickselect').on('change',function(e){e.target.form.submit();}).closest('form').find(':button').not('.show').hide();},checkWindowsShares:function(){if(!LANG.nosmblinks||navigator.userAgent.match(/(Trident|MSIE|Edge)/)){return;}jQuery('a.windows').on('click',function(){alert(LANG.nosmblinks.replace(/\\n/,"\n"));});},subscription:function(){var $form,$list,$digest;$form=jQuery('#subscribe__form');if(0===$form.length)return;$list=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='list']");$digest=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='digest']");$form.find("input[name='sub_target']").on('click',function(){var $this=jQuery(this),show_list;if(!$this.prop('checked')){return;}show_list=$this.val().match(/:$/);$list.parent().dw_toggle(show_list);if(!show_list&&$list.prop('checked')){$digest.prop('checked','checked');}}).filter(':checked').trigger('click');},revisionBoxHandler:function(){var $revisions=jQuery('#page__revisions');var $all=jQuery('input[type=checkbox]',$revisions);var $checked=$all.filter(':checked');var $button=jQuery('button',$revisions);if($checked.length<2){$all.prop('disabled',false);$button.prop('disabled',true);}else{$all.prop('disabled',true);$button.prop('disabled',false);$checked.each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',false);if(i>1){jQuery(this).prop('checked',false);}});}}};jQuery(dw_behaviour.init);dw_page={init:function(){dw_page.sectionHighlight();dw_page.currentIDHighlight();jQuery('a.fn_top').on('mouseover',dw_page.footnoteDisplay);dw_page.makeToggle('#dw__toc h3','#dw__toc > div');},sectionHighlight:function(){jQuery('form.btn_secedit').on('mouseover',function(){var $tgt=jQuery(this).parent(),nr=$tgt.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2],$highlight=jQuery(),$highlightWrap=jQuery('<div class="section_highlight"></div>');while($tgt.length>0&&!($tgt.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||$tgt.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){$tgt=$tgt.prev();$highlight=$highlight.add($tgt);}$highlight.filter(':last').before($highlightWrap);$highlight.detach().appendTo($highlightWrap);}).on('mouseout',function(){var $highlightWrap=jQuery('.section_highlight');$highlightWrap.before($highlightWrap.children().detach());$highlightWrap.detach();});},currentIDHighlight:function(){jQuery('a.wikilink1, a.wikilink2').filter('[data-wiki-id="'+JSINFO.id+'"]').wrap('<span class="curid"></div>');},insituPopup:function(target,popup_id){var $fndiv=jQuery('#'+popup_id);if($fndiv.length===0){$fndiv=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id',popup_id).addClass('insitu-footnote JSpopup').attr('aria-hidden','true').on('mouseleave',function(){jQuery(this).hide().attr('aria-hidden','true');}).attr('role','tooltip');jQuery('.dokuwiki:first').append($fndiv);}$fndiv.show().position({my:'left top',at:'left 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hidden;if(!state)state=1;$content.css('min-height',$content.height()).show();$child.stop(true,true);if(state===-1){hidden=false;}else if(state===1){hidden=true;}else{hidden=$child.is(':hidden');}setClicky(!hidden);$child.dw_toggle(hidden,function(){$content.toggle(hidden);$content.attr('aria-expanded',hidden);$content.css('min-height','');},true);};$clicky=jQuery(document.createElement('strong'));$handle.css('cursor','pointer').on('click',$handle[0].setState).prepend($clicky);$handle[0].setState(state);}};jQuery(dw_page.init);(function($){var fadeOption={duration:150};function toggleLeft(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').show();}function toggleRight(){$('#sidebar_bg').show('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__tools').show();}function preventParentWheel(e){var curScrollPos=$(this).scrollTop();var scrollableDist=$(this).prop('scrollHeight')-$(this).outerHeight();var wheelEvent=e.originalEvent;var dY=wheelEvent.deltaY;if(dY<0&&curScrollPos<=0){return false;}if(dY>0&&curScrollPos>=scrollableDist){return false;}}function showSearch(){$('div.search').toggle();$('div.search').find('input.edit').select();}function bindEvents(){$('.sidebar').on('wheel scroll',preventParentWheel);$('.btn_left').click(function(){toggleLeft();});$('.btn_right').click(function(){toggleRight();});$('#sidebar_bg').click(function(){$(this).hide('fade',fadeOption);$('#dokuwiki__aside').hide();$('#dokuwiki__tools').hide();});$('.btn_search').click(function(){showSearch();});$(document).keydown(function(e){if(e.which==70&&e.altKey){showSearch();e.preventDefault();}});}function initUI(){if($('.page h2').length>0){$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertBefore($('.page h2:first'));}else{$('.toc_wikipedia').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first').next('.level1'));}if($('.page > .level1 > blockquote').length>0){$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page > .level1 > blockquote'));}else{$('.toc_dokuwiki').find('#dw__toc').insertAfter($('.page h1:first'));}$(window).on("hashchange",function(){window.scrollTo(window.scrollX,window.scrollY-48);});}$(function(){initUI();bindEvents();});})(jQuery);var dw_acl={init:function(){var $tree;if(jQuery('#acl_manager').length===0){return;}jQuery('#acl__user select').on('change',dw_acl.userselhandler);jQuery('#acl__user button').on('click',dw_acl.loadinfo);$tree=jQuery('#acl__tree');$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery.extend(dw_acl.parseatt($clicky.parent().find('a')[0].search),{call:'plugin_acl',ajax:'tree',current_ns:$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(),current_id:$frm.find('input[name=id]').val()}),show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.delegate('a','click',dw_acl.treehandler);},userselhandler:function(){jQuery('#acl__user input').toggle(this.value==='__g__'||this.value==='__u__');dw_acl.loadinfo();},loadinfo:function(){jQuery('#acl__info').attr('role','alert').html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery('#acl__detail form').serialize()+'&call=plugin_acl&ajax=info');return false;},parseatt:function(str){if(str[0]==='?'){str=str.substr(1);}var attributes={};var all=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<all.length;i++){var att=all[i].split('=');attributes[att[0]]=decodeURIComponent(att[1]);}return attributes;},treehandler:function(){var $link,$frm;$link=jQuery(this);jQuery('#acl__tree a.cur').removeClass('cur');$link.addClass('cur');$frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');if($link.hasClass('wikilink1')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val('');$frm.find('input[name=id]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).id);}else if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).ns);$frm.find('input[name=id]').val('');}dw_acl.loadinfo();return false;}};jQuery(dw_acl.init);(function(){var $,AbstractChosen,Chosen,SelectParser,_ref,__hasProp={}.hasOwnProperty,__extends=function(child,parent){for(var key in parent){if(__hasProp.call(parent,key))child[key]=parent[key];}function ctor(){this.constructor=child;}ctor.prototype=parent.prototype;child.prototype=new ctor();child.__super__=parent.prototype;return child;};SelectParser=(function(){function SelectParser(){this.options_index=0;this.parsed=[];}SelectParser.prototype.add_node=function(child){if(child.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTGROUP"){return this.add_group(child);}else{return this.add_option(child);}};SelectParser.prototype.add_group=function(group){var group_position,option,_i,_len,_ref,_results;group_position=this.parsed.length;this.parsed.push({array_index:group_position,group:true,label:this.escapeExpression(group.label),title:group.title?group.title:void 0,children:0,disabled:group.disabled,classes:group.className});_ref=group.childNodes;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];_results.push(this.add_option(option,group_position,group.disabled));}return _results;};SelectParser.prototype.add_option=function(option,group_position,group_disabled){if(option.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTION"){if(option.text!==""){if(group_position!=null){this.parsed[group_position].children+=1;}this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,value:option.value,text:option.text,html:option.innerHTML,title:option.title?option.title:void 0,selected:option.selected,disabled:group_disabled===true?group_disabled:option.disabled,group_array_index:group_position,group_label:group_position!=null?this.parsed[group_position].label:null,classes:option.className,style:option.style.cssText});}else{this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,empty:true});}return this.options_index+=1;}};SelectParser.prototype.escapeExpression=function(text){var map,unsafe_chars;if((text==null)||text===false){return"";}if(!/[\&\<\>\"\'\`]/.test(text)){return text;}map={"<":"<",">":">",'"':""","'":"'","`":"`"};unsafe_chars=/&(?!\w+;)|[\<\>\"\'\`]/g;return text.replace(unsafe_chars,function(chr){return map[chr]||"&";});};return SelectParser;})();SelectParser.select_to_array=function(select){var child,parser,_i,_len,_ref;parser=new SelectParser();_ref=select.childNodes;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){child=_ref[_i];parser.add_node(child);}return parser.parsed;};AbstractChosen=(function(){function AbstractChosen(form_field,options){this.form_field=form_field;this.options=options!=null?options:{};if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return;}this.is_multiple=this.form_field.multiple;this.set_default_text();this.set_default_values();this.setup();this.set_up_html();this.register_observers();this.on_ready();}AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_values=function(){var _this=this;this.click_test_action=function(evt){return _this.test_active_click(evt);};this.activate_action=function(evt){return _this.activate_field(evt);};this.active_field=false;this.mouse_on_container=false;this.results_showing=false;this.result_highlighted=null;this.allow_single_deselect=(this.options.allow_single_deselect!=null)&&(this.form_field.options[0]!=null)&&this.form_field.options[0].text===""?this.options.allow_single_deselect:false;this.disable_search_threshold=this.options.disable_search_threshold||0;this.disable_search=this.options.disable_search||false;this.enable_split_word_search=this.options.enable_split_word_search!=null?this.options.enable_split_word_search:true;this.group_search=this.options.group_search!=null?this.options.group_search:true;this.search_contains=this.options.search_contains||false;this.single_backstroke_delete=this.options.single_backstroke_delete!=null?this.options.single_backstroke_delete:true;this.max_selected_options=this.options.max_selected_options||Infinity;this.inherit_select_classes=this.options.inherit_select_classes||false;this.display_selected_options=this.options.display_selected_options!=null?this.options.display_selected_options:true;this.display_disabled_options=this.options.display_disabled_options!=null?this.options.display_disabled_options:true;return this.include_group_label_in_selected=this.options.include_group_label_in_selected||false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_text=function(){if(this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder")){this.default_text=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder");}else if(this.is_multiple){this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_multiple||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text;}else{this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_single||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_single_text;}return this.results_none_found=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-no_results_text")||this.options.no_results_text||AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choice_label=function(item){if(this.include_group_label_in_selected&&(item.group_label!=null)){return"<b class='group-name'>"+item.group_label+"</b>"+item.html;}else{return item.html;}};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_enter=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_leave=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_focus=function(evt){var _this=this;if(this.is_multiple){if(!this.active_field){return setTimeout((function(){return _this.container_mousedown();}),50);}}else{if(!this.active_field){return this.activate_field();}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_blur=function(evt){var _this=this;if(!this.mouse_on_container){this.active_field=false;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.blur_test();}),100);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_option_build=function(options){var content,data,_i,_len,_ref;content='';_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){data=_ref[_i];if(data.group){content+=this.result_add_group(data);}else{content+=this.result_add_option(data);}if(options!=null?options.first:void 0){if(data.selected&&this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(data);}else if(data.selected&&!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(data));}}}return content;};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_option=function(option){var classes,option_el;if(!option.search_match){return'';}if(!this.include_option_in_results(option)){return'';}classes=[];if(!option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("active-result");}if(option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("disabled-result");}if(option.selected){classes.push("result-selected");}if(option.group_array_index!=null){classes.push("group-option");}if(option.classes!==""){classes.push(option.classes);}option_el=document.createElement("li");option_el.className=classes.join(" ");option_el.style.cssText=option.style;option_el.setAttribute("data-option-array-index",option.array_index);option_el.innerHTML=option.search_text;if(option.title){option_el.title=option.title;}return this.outerHTML(option_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_group=function(group){var classes,group_el;if(!(group.search_match||group.group_match)){return'';}if(!(group.active_options>0)){return'';}classes=[];classes.push("group-result");if(group.classes){classes.push(group.classes);}group_el=document.createElement("li");group_el.className=classes.join(" ");group_el.innerHTML=group.search_text;if(group.title){group_el.title=group.title;}return this.outerHTML(group_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_update_field=function(){this.set_default_text();if(!this.is_multiple){this.results_reset_cleanup();}this.result_clear_highlight();this.results_build();if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.reset_single_select_options=function(){var result,_i,_len,_ref,_results;_ref=this.results_data;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){result=_ref[_i];if(result.selected){_results.push(result.selected=false);}else{_results.push(void 0);}}return _results;};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_toggle=function(){if(this.results_showing){return this.results_hide();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_search=function(evt){if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.winnow_results=function(){var escapedSearchText,option,regex,results,results_group,searchText,startpos,text,zregex,_i,_len,_ref;this.no_results_clear();results=0;searchText=this.get_search_text();escapedSearchText=searchText.replace(/[-[\]{}()*+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&");zregex=new RegExp(escapedSearchText,'i');regex=this.get_search_regex(escapedSearchText);_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];option.search_match=false;results_group=null;if(this.include_option_in_results(option)){if(option.group){option.group_match=false;option.active_options=0;}if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index]){results_group=this.results_data[option.group_array_index];if(results_group.active_options===0&&results_group.search_match){results+=1;}results_group.active_options+=1;}option.search_text=option.group?option.label:option.html;if(!(option.group&&!this.group_search)){option.search_match=this.search_string_match(option.search_text,regex);if(option.search_match&&!option.group){results+=1;}if(option.search_match){if(searchText.length){startpos=option.search_text.search(zregex);text=option.search_text.substr(0,startpos+searchText.length)+'</em>'+option.search_text.substr(startpos+searchText.length);option.search_text=text.substr(0,startpos)+'<em>'+text.substr(startpos);}if(results_group!=null){results_group.group_match=true;}}else if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index].search_match){option.search_match=true;}}}}this.result_clear_highlight();if(results<1&&searchText.length){this.update_results_content("");return this.no_results(searchText);}else{this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build());return this.winnow_results_set_highlight();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.get_search_regex=function(escaped_search_string){var regex_anchor;regex_anchor=this.search_contains?"":"^";return new RegExp(regex_anchor+escaped_search_string,'i');};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_string_match=function(search_string,regex){var part,parts,_i,_len;if(regex.test(search_string)){return true;}else if(this.enable_split_word_search&&(search_string.indexOf(" ")>=0||search_string.indexOf("[")===0)){parts=search_string.replace(/\[|\]/g,"").split(" ");if(parts.length){for(_i=0,_len=parts.length;_i<_len;_i++){part=parts[_i];if(regex.test(part)){return true;}}}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_count=function(){var option,_i,_len,_ref;if(this.selected_option_count!=null){return this.selected_option_count;}this.selected_option_count=0;_ref=this.form_field.options;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];if(option.selected){this.selected_option_count+=1;}}return this.selected_option_count;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();if(!(this.results_showing||this.is_disabled)){return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.keyup_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref;stroke=(_ref=evt.which)!=null?_ref:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();switch(stroke){case 8:if(this.is_multiple&&this.backstroke_length<1&&this.choices_count()>0){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else if(!this.pending_backstroke){this.result_clear_highlight();return this.results_search();}break;case 13:evt.preventDefault();if(this.results_showing){return this.result_select(evt);}break;case 27:if(this.results_showing){this.results_hide();}return true;case 9:case 38:case 40:case 16:case 91:case 17:break;default:return this.results_search();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.clipboard_event_checker=function(evt){var _this=this;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.results_search();}),50);};AbstractChosen.prototype.container_width=function(){if(this.options.width!=null){return this.options.width;}else{return""+this.form_field.offsetWidth+"px";}};AbstractChosen.prototype.include_option_in_results=function(option){if(this.is_multiple&&(!this.display_selected_options&&option.selected)){return false;}if(!this.display_disabled_options&&option.disabled){return false;}if(option.empty){return false;}return true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchstart=function(evt){this.touch_started=true;return this.search_results_mouseover(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchmove=function(evt){this.touch_started=false;return this.search_results_mouseout(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchend=function(evt){if(this.touch_started){return this.search_results_mouseup(evt);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.outerHTML=function(element){var tmp;if(element.outerHTML){return element.outerHTML;}tmp=document.createElement("div");tmp.appendChild(element);return tmp.innerHTML;};AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported=function(){if(window.navigator.appName==="Microsoft Internet Explorer"){return document.documentMode>=8;}if(/iP(od|hone)/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}if(/Android/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){if(/Mobile/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}}return true;};AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text="Select Some Options";AbstractChosen.default_single_text="Select an Option";AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text="No results match";return AbstractChosen;})();$=jQuery;$.fn.extend({chosen:function(options){if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return this;}return this.each(function(input_field){var $this,chosen;$this=$(this);chosen=$this.data('chosen');if(options==='destroy'&&chosen instanceof Chosen){chosen.destroy();}else if(!(chosen instanceof Chosen)){$this.data('chosen',new Chosen(this,options));}});}});Chosen=(function(_super){__extends(Chosen,_super);function Chosen(){_ref=Chosen.__super__.constructor.apply(this,arguments);return _ref;}Chosen.prototype.setup=function(){this.form_field_jq=$(this.form_field);this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.is_rtl=this.form_field_jq.hasClass("chosen-rtl");};Chosen.prototype.set_up_html=function(){var container_classes,container_props;container_classes=["chosen-container"];container_classes.push("chosen-container-"+(this.is_multiple?"multi":"single"));if(this.inherit_select_classes&&this.form_field.className){container_classes.push(this.form_field.className);}if(this.is_rtl){container_classes.push("chosen-rtl");}container_props={'class':container_classes.join(' '),'style':"width: "+(this.container_width())+";",'title':this.form_field.title};if(this.form_field.id.length){container_props.id=this.form_field.id.replace(/[^\w]/g,'_')+"_chosen";}this.container=$("<div />",container_props);if(this.is_multiple){this.container.html('<ul class="chosen-choices"><li class="search-field"><input type="text" value="'+this.default_text+'" class="default" autocomplete="off" style="width:25px;" /></li></ul><div class="chosen-drop"><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}else{this.container.html('<a class="chosen-single chosen-default" tabindex="-1"><span>'+this.default_text+'</span><div><b></b></div></a><div class="chosen-drop"><div class="chosen-search"><input type="text" autocomplete="off" /></div><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}this.form_field_jq.hide().after(this.container);this.dropdown=this.container.find('div.chosen-drop').first();this.search_field=this.container.find('input').first();this.search_results=this.container.find('ul.chosen-results').first();this.search_field_scale();this.search_no_results=this.container.find('li.no-results').first();if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices=this.container.find('ul.chosen-choices').first();this.search_container=this.container.find('li.search-field').first();}else{this.search_container=this.container.find('div.chosen-search').first();this.selected_item=this.container.find('.chosen-single').first();}this.results_build();this.set_tab_index();return this.set_label_behavior();};Chosen.prototype.on_ready=function(){return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:ready",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.register_observers=function(){var _this=this;this.container.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('mousedown.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseenter.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_enter(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseleave.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_leave(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseup(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseover.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseover(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseout.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseout(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mousewheel.chosen DOMMouseScroll.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mousewheel(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchstart(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchmove.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchmove(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchend(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:updated.chosen",function(evt){_this.results_update_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:activate.chosen",function(evt){_this.activate_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:open.chosen",function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:close.chosen",function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('blur.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keyup.chosen',function(evt){_this.keyup_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keydown.chosen',function(evt){_this.keydown_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('focus.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_focus(evt);});this.search_field.bind('cut.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('paste.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});if(this.is_multiple){return this.search_choices.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){_this.choices_click(evt);});}else{return this.container.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){evt.preventDefault();});}};Chosen.prototype.destroy=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);if(this.search_field[0].tabIndex){this.form_field_jq[0].tabIndex=this.search_field[0].tabIndex;}this.container.remove();this.form_field_jq.removeData('chosen');return this.form_field_jq.show();};Chosen.prototype.search_field_disabled=function(){this.is_disabled=this.form_field_jq[0].disabled;if(this.is_disabled){this.container.addClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=true;if(!this.is_multiple){this.selected_item.unbind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}return this.close_field();}else{this.container.removeClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=false;if(!this.is_multiple){return this.selected_item.bind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mousedown=function(evt){if(!this.is_disabled){if(evt&&evt.type==="mousedown"&&!this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}if(!((evt!=null)&&($(evt.target)).hasClass("search-choice-close"))){if(!this.active_field){if(this.is_multiple){this.search_field.val("");}$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).bind('click.chosen',this.click_test_action);this.results_show();}else if(!this.is_multiple&&evt&&(($(evt.target)[0]===this.selected_item[0])||$(evt.target).parents("a.chosen-single").length)){evt.preventDefault();this.results_toggle();}return this.activate_field();}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mouseup=function(evt){if(evt.target.nodeName==="ABBR"&&!this.is_disabled){return this.results_reset(evt);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mousewheel=function(evt){var delta;if(evt.originalEvent){delta=evt.originalEvent.deltaY||-evt.originalEvent.wheelDelta||evt.originalEvent.detail;}if(delta!=null){evt.preventDefault();if(evt.type==='DOMMouseScroll'){delta=delta*40;}return this.search_results.scrollTop(delta+this.search_results.scrollTop());}};Chosen.prototype.blur_test=function(evt){if(!this.active_field&&this.container.hasClass("chosen-container-active")){return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.close_field=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);this.active_field=false;this.results_hide();this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-active");this.clear_backstroke();this.show_search_field_default();return this.search_field_scale();};Chosen.prototype.activate_field=function(){this.container.addClass("chosen-container-active");this.active_field=true;this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());return this.search_field.focus();};Chosen.prototype.test_active_click=function(evt){var active_container;active_container=$(evt.target).closest('.chosen-container');if(active_container.length&&this.container[0]===active_container[0]){return this.active_field=true;}else{return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.results_build=function(){this.parsing=true;this.selected_option_count=null;this.results_data=SelectParser.select_to_array(this.form_field);if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices.find("li.search-choice").remove();}else if(!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text();if(this.disable_search||this.form_field.options.length<=this.disable_search_threshold){this.search_field[0].readOnly=true;this.container.addClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}else{this.search_field[0].readOnly=false;this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}}this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build({first:true}));this.search_field_disabled();this.show_search_field_default();this.search_field_scale();return this.parsing=false;};Chosen.prototype.result_do_highlight=function(el){var high_bottom,high_top,maxHeight,visible_bottom,visible_top;if(el.length){this.result_clear_highlight();this.result_highlight=el;this.result_highlight.addClass("highlighted");maxHeight=parseInt(this.search_results.css("maxHeight"),10);visible_top=this.search_results.scrollTop();visible_bottom=maxHeight+visible_top;high_top=this.result_highlight.position().top+this.search_results.scrollTop();high_bottom=high_top+this.result_highlight.outerHeight();if(high_bottom>=visible_bottom){return this.search_results.scrollTop((high_bottom-maxHeight)>0?high_bottom-maxHeight:0);}else if(high_top<visible_top){return this.search_results.scrollTop(high_top);}}};Chosen.prototype.result_clear_highlight=function(){if(this.result_highlight){this.result_highlight.removeClass("highlighted");}return this.result_highlight=null;};Chosen.prototype.results_show=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}this.container.addClass("chosen-with-drop");this.results_showing=true;this.search_field.focus();this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());this.winnow_results();return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:showing_dropdown",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.update_results_content=function(content){return this.search_results.html(content);};Chosen.prototype.results_hide=function(){if(this.results_showing){this.result_clear_highlight();this.container.removeClass("chosen-with-drop");this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:hiding_dropdown",{chosen:this});}return this.results_showing=false;};Chosen.prototype.set_tab_index=function(el){var ti;if(this.form_field.tabIndex){ti=this.form_field.tabIndex;this.form_field.tabIndex=-1;return this.search_field[0].tabIndex=ti;}};Chosen.prototype.set_label_behavior=function(){var _this=this;this.form_field_label=this.form_field_jq.parents("label");if(!this.form_field_label.length&&this.form_field.id.length){this.form_field_label=$("label[for='"+this.form_field.id+"']");}if(this.form_field_label.length>0){return this.form_field_label.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){if(_this.is_multiple){return _this.container_mousedown(evt);}else{return _this.activate_field();}});}};Chosen.prototype.show_search_field_default=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()<1&&!this.active_field){this.search_field.val(this.default_text);return this.search_field.addClass("default");}else{this.search_field.val("");return this.search_field.removeClass("default");}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseup=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target.length){this.result_highlight=target;this.result_select(evt);return this.search_field.focus();}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseover=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target){return this.result_do_highlight(target);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseout=function(evt){if($(evt.target).hasClass("active-result"||$(evt.target).parents('.active-result').first())){return this.result_clear_highlight();}};Chosen.prototype.choice_build=function(item){var choice,close_link,_this=this;choice=$('<li />',{"class":"search-choice"}).html("<span>"+(this.choice_label(item))+"</span>");if(item.disabled){choice.addClass('search-choice-disabled');}else{close_link=$('<a />',{"class":'search-choice-close','data-option-array-index':item.array_index});close_link.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){return _this.choice_destroy_link_click(evt);});choice.append(close_link);}return this.search_container.before(choice);};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy_link_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();evt.stopPropagation();if(!this.is_disabled){return this.choice_destroy($(evt.target));}};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy=function(link){if(this.result_deselect(link[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index"))){this.show_search_field_default();if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()>0&&this.search_field.val().length<1){this.results_hide();}link.parents('li').first().remove();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset=function(){this.reset_single_select_options();this.form_field.options[0].selected=true;this.single_set_selected_text();this.show_search_field_default();this.results_reset_cleanup();this.form_field_jq.trigger("change");if(this.active_field){return this.results_hide();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset_cleanup=function(){this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.selected_item.find("abbr").remove();};Chosen.prototype.result_select=function(evt){var high,item;if(this.result_highlight){high=this.result_highlight;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}if(this.is_multiple){high.removeClass("active-result");}else{this.reset_single_select_options();}high.addClass("result-selected");item=this.results_data[high[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index")];item.selected=true;this.form_field.options[item.options_index].selected=true;this.selected_option_count=null;if(this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(item);}else{this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(item));}if(!((evt.metaKey||evt.ctrlKey)&&this.is_multiple)){this.results_hide();}this.search_field.val("");if(this.is_multiple||this.form_field.selectedIndex!==this.current_selectedIndex){this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{'selected':this.form_field.options[item.options_index].value});}this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;evt.preventDefault();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.single_set_selected_text=function(text){if(text==null){text=this.default_text;}if(text===this.default_text){this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-default");}else{this.single_deselect_control_build();this.selected_item.removeClass("chosen-default");}return this.selected_item.find("span").html(text);};Chosen.prototype.result_deselect=function(pos){var result_data;result_data=this.results_data[pos];if(!this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].disabled){result_data.selected=false;this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].selected=false;this.selected_option_count=null;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.results_showing){this.winnow_results();}this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{deselected:this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].value});this.search_field_scale();return true;}else{return false;}};Chosen.prototype.single_deselect_control_build=function(){if(!this.allow_single_deselect){return;}if(!this.selected_item.find("abbr").length){this.selected_item.find("span").first().after("<abbr class=\"search-choice-close\"></abbr>");}return this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-single-with-deselect");};Chosen.prototype.get_search_text=function(){return $('<div/>').text($.trim(this.search_field.val())).html();};Chosen.prototype.winnow_results_set_highlight=function(){var do_high,selected_results;selected_results=!this.is_multiple?this.search_results.find(".result-selected.active-result"):[];do_high=selected_results.length?selected_results.first():this.search_results.find(".active-result").first();if(do_high!=null){return this.result_do_highlight(do_high);}};Chosen.prototype.no_results=function(terms){var no_results_html;no_results_html=$('<li class="no-results">'+this.results_none_found+' "<span></span>"</li>');no_results_html.find("span").first().html(terms);this.search_results.append(no_results_html);return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:no_results",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.no_results_clear=function(){return this.search_results.find(".no-results").remove();};Chosen.prototype.keydown_arrow=function(){var next_sib;if(this.results_showing&&this.result_highlight){next_sib=this.result_highlight.nextAll("li.active-result").first();if(next_sib){return this.result_do_highlight(next_sib);}}else{return this.results_show();}};Chosen.prototype.keyup_arrow=function(){var prev_sibs;if(!this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){return this.results_show();}else if(this.result_highlight){prev_sibs=this.result_highlight.prevAll("li.active-result");if(prev_sibs.length){return this.result_do_highlight(prev_sibs.first());}else{if(this.choices_count()>0){this.results_hide();}return this.result_clear_highlight();}}};Chosen.prototype.keydown_backstroke=function(){var next_available_destroy;if(this.pending_backstroke){this.choice_destroy(this.pending_backstroke.find("a").first());return this.clear_backstroke();}else{next_available_destroy=this.search_container.siblings("li.search-choice").last();if(next_available_destroy.length&&!next_available_destroy.hasClass("search-choice-disabled")){this.pending_backstroke=next_available_destroy;if(this.single_backstroke_delete){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else{return this.pending_backstroke.addClass("search-choice-focus");}}}};Chosen.prototype.clear_backstroke=function(){if(this.pending_backstroke){this.pending_backstroke.removeClass("search-choice-focus");}return this.pending_backstroke=null;};Chosen.prototype.keydown_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref1;stroke=(_ref1=evt.which)!=null?_ref1:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();if(stroke!==8&&this.pending_backstroke){this.clear_backstroke();}switch(stroke){case 8:this.backstroke_length=this.search_field.val().length;break;case 9:if(this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){this.result_select(evt);}this.mouse_on_container=false;break;case 13:if(this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 32:if(this.disable_search){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 38:evt.preventDefault();this.keyup_arrow();break;case 40:evt.preventDefault();this.keydown_arrow();break;}};Chosen.prototype.search_field_scale=function(){var div,f_width,h,style,style_block,styles,w,_i,_len;if(this.is_multiple){h=0;w=0;style_block="position:absolute; left: -1000px; top: -1000px; display:none;";styles=['font-size','font-style','font-weight','font-family','line-height','text-transform','letter-spacing'];for(_i=0,_len=styles.length;_i<_len;_i++){style=styles[_i];style_block+=style+":"+this.search_field.css(style)+";";}div=$('<div />',{'style':style_block});div.text(this.search_field.val());$('body').append(div);w=div.width()+25;div.remove();f_width=this.container.outerWidth();if(w>f_width-10){w=f_width-10;}return this.search_field.css({'width':w+'px'});}};return Chosen;})(AbstractChosen);}).call(this);(function(){'use strict';jQuery(function(){var $animalSelect=jQuery('select.farmer_chosen_animals');$animalSelect.chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,allow_single_deselect:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});jQuery('select.acl_chosen').chosen({disable_search:true,width:'100%'});var $formAllAnimals=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforall');$formAllAnimals.find('select').change(function(){$formAllAnimals.find('button').prop('disabled',false);}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.pluginSelect});var $formSingleAnimal=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforone');$formSingleAnimal.find('select').change(function(){var animal=jQuery(this).val();$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',true);jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPlugins_'+animal},function(data){$formSingleAnimal.find('div.output').html(data);$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',false);},'html')}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});var $formPluginMatrix=jQuery('#farmer__pluginmatrix').hide();$formPluginMatrix.on('click','td',function(){var $td=jQuery(this);$td.html('⌛').css('background-color','transparent');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_modPlugin',plugin:$td.data('plugin'),ani:$td.data('animal')},function(data){$td.replaceWith(data);},'html');});function showMatrix(){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPluginMatrix'},function(data){$formPluginMatrix.html(data);$formPluginMatrix.show();},'html')}$animalSelect.on('chosen:showing_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'20em'},400);}).on('chosen:hiding_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'7px'},400);});var $aclPolicyFieldset=jQuery('#aclPolicyFieldset');if($aclPolicyFieldset.length){$animalSelect.on('change',function(evt,params){var $this=jQuery(this);if($this.val()===''){$aclPolicyFieldset.slideDown();}else{$aclPolicyFieldset.slideUp();}});}jQuery("input[name=bulkSingleSwitch]:radio").change(function(){if(jQuery('#farmer__bulk').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.show();$formSingleAnimal.hide();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else if(jQuery('#farmer__single').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.show();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else{$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.hide();showMatrix();}});jQuery('#farmer__bulk').click();});})();var plugin_fastwiki=(function($){var m_viewMode,m_origViewMode,m_prevView;var m_isSecedit,m_wasSecedit;var m_hasDraft;var m_pageObjs={};var m_content;var m_initialId;var m_debug=document.location.host=='localhost';var m_cache=new CPageCache(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_per_page,JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_batchsize,m_debug);var m_supportedActions={'':1,edit:1,draft:1,history:1,recent:1,revisions:1,show:1,subscribe:1,backlink:1,index:1,profile:1,media:1,diff:1,save:1};var m_modeClassElt;var m_browserHistory=new CBrowserHistory();$(function(){if(document.location.href.indexOf("detail.php")>=0)m_viewMode='unsupported';else{var urlParams=_urlToObj(document.location.href);m_viewMode=urlParams['do']||'show';if(!m_supportedActions[m_viewMode])m_viewMode='unsupported';else if(window.tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support&&!(m_viewMode in tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support))m_viewMode='unsupported';}m_origViewMode=m_viewMode;m_content=$('.plugin_fastwiki_marker').parent();m_content.addClass('content_initial');m_initialId=m_content.attr('id');m_modeClassElt=m_content.hasClass('dokuwiki')?m_content:$(m_content.parents('.dokuwiki')[0]||document.body);$(window).trigger('fastwiki:init',[m_viewMode]);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastpages)fixActionLinks(document.body);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow&&(m_origViewMode!='show'||!window.history||!history.pushState))JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow)m_browserHistory.init(load);});function fixActionLinks(elt){if(m_origViewMode=='unsupported')return;var formActions={search:1};var supportedFields={'do':1,rev:1,id:1};$('a[href *= "?do="]',elt).click(function(e){var curPathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');var aPathId=this.href.replace(/\?.*$/,'').replace(/:/g,'/');if(aPathId.substr(-curPathId.length)==curPathId){var params=_urlToObj(this.href);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';if(params['do']in m_supportedActions){e.preventDefault();load(params['do'],null,params);}}});$('input[type="submit"], input[type="button"], button',elt).click(function(e){var form=$(this).parents('form');if(form.length>0&&form[0]['do']&&form[0]['do'].value in m_supportedActions){var supported=true;$('input[type != "submit"]',form).each(function(idx,elt){if(elt.type!='button'&&(elt.type!='hidden'||!(elt.name in supportedFields)))supported=false;});if(supported){e.preventDefault();var params=_formToObj(form[0]);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';load(params['do'],null,params);}}});if(m_origViewMode=='show'&&window.JSINFO){var pathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');$('a',elt).click(function(e){var href=this.getAttribute('href');if(href&&href.indexOf('://')<0){if(href.match(m_browserHistory.getSelfRefRegex())){load('show');e.preventDefault();}else if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow){var numParams=href.split('=').length;if(href.indexOf('id=')>=0)numParams--;if(numParams==1){if(m_browserHistory.switchBasePath(href)){m_viewMode=null;e.preventDefault();}}}}});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.secedit){$('.editbutton_section .btn_secedit input[type=submit], .editbutton_section .btn_secedit button',elt).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var form=$(this).parents('form');load('edit',form,_formToObj(form));});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload)m_cache.load(elt,m_browserHistory);}function _preview(sectionForm){var body=$(document.body);var params=_formToObj($('#dw__editform'));params['do']='preview';_sendPartial(params,$('.dokuwiki .editBox'),function(data){var preview=$('<div id="preview_container">'+data+'</div>');var pvEditor=preview.find('#dw__editform');var editor=$('#dw__editform')[0];pvEditor.find('input[type=hidden]').each(function(idx,elt){editor[elt.name].value=elt.value;});preview.find('#scroll__here').prevAll().remove();var oldpreview=$('#preview_container');if(oldpreview.length>0)oldpreview.replaceWith(preview);else $('.content_partial').append(preview);setTimeout(function(){$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:$('#scroll__here').offset().top+'px'},300);},1);},'text');}function _getSection(sectionForm){var pieces=$();var target=sectionForm.parent();var nr=target.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2];while(target.length>0&&!(target.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||target.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){target=target.prev();if(target.hasClass('section_highlight'))pieces=pieces.add(target.children());pieces=pieces.add(target);}return pieces;}function _focusEdit(){var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0&&!$edit_text.attr('readOnly')){var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){setTimeout(function(){try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){}},500);}$edit_text.focus();}}function _initEdit(){if(!window.doku_summaryCheck){window.doku_summaryCheck=window.summaryCheck;}dw_editor.init();dw_locktimer.init(JSINFO.fastwiki.locktime,JSINFO.fastwiki.usedraft);var $editform=$('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0)return;var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');$editform.on("change keydown",function(e){window.textChanged=true;doku_summaryCheck();});m_pageObjs.content=$edit_text.val();window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged&&m_pageObjs.content!=$edit_text.val())return LANG.notsavedyet;};window.onunload=deleteDraft;$('#edbtn__preview').click(function(e){if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preview){e.preventDefault();_preview(m_pageObjs.sectionForm);m_hasDraft=true;dw_locktimer.reset();}else{window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;}});$('#edit__summary').on("change keyup",doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);$('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');$('#edbtn__save').click(function(e){textChanged=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.save&&m_origViewMode=='show'&&$edit_text.val().length>0&&m_pageObjs.content.length>0){e.preventDefault();load('save',null,_formToObj($('#dw__editform')));}else m_cache.remove(JSINFO.id);window.onbeforeunload='';dw_locktimer.clear();});$('input[name="do[draftdel]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var id=$editform.find('input[name=id]').val();load('show');if(!window.keepDraft){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:id,success:function(data,textStatus,jqXHR){m_hasDraft=false;}});}});$('input[name="do[show]"]',$editform).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();load('show');});$('.picker.pk_hl').addClass('dokuwiki');}function _setBodyClass(action,target){for(var k in 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item=target.parentNode;self._handler.cancel(item.qqFileId);qq.remove(item);}});}});qq.UploadDropZone=function(o){this._options={element:null,onEnter:function(e){},onLeave:function(e){},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){},onDrop:function(e){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._disableDropOutside();this._attachEvents();};qq.UploadDropZone.prototype={_disableDropOutside:function(e){if(!qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled){qq.attach(document,'dragover',function(e){if(e.dataTransfer){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='none';e.preventDefault();}});qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled=true;}},_attachEvents:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(self._element,'dragover',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var effect=e.dataTransfer.effectAllowed;if(effect=='move'||effect=='linkMove'){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='move';}else{e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='copy';}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();});qq.attach(self._element,'dragenter',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onEnter(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'dragleave',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;self._options.onLeave(e);var relatedTarget=document.elementFromPoint(e.clientX,e.clientY);if(qq.contains(this,relatedTarget))return;self._options.onLeaveNotDescendants(e);});qq.attach(self._element,'drop',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;e.preventDefault();self._options.onDrop(e);});},_isValidFileDrag:function(e){var dt=e.dataTransfer,isWebkit=navigator.userAgent.indexOf("AppleWebKit")>-1;return dt&&dt.effectAllowed!='none'&&(dt.files||(!isWebkit&&dt.types.contains&&dt.types.contains('Files')));}};qq.UploadButton=function(o){this._options={element:null,multiple:false,name:'file',onChange:function(input){},hoverClass:'qq-upload-button-hover',focusClass:'qq-upload-button-focus'};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;qq.css(this._element,{position:'relative',overflow:'hidden',direction:'ltr'});this._input=this._createInput();};qq.UploadButton.prototype={getInput:function(){return this._input;},reset:function(){if(this._input.parentNode){qq.remove(this._input);}qq.removeClass(this._element,this._options.focusClass);this._input=this._createInput();},_createInput:function(){var input=document.createElement("input");if(this._options.multiple){input.setAttribute("multiple","multiple");}input.setAttribute("type","file");input.setAttribute("name",this._options.name);qq.css(input,{position:'absolute',right:0,top:0,fontFamily:'Arial',fontSize:'118px',margin:0,padding:0,cursor:'pointer',opacity:0});this._element.appendChild(input);var self=this;qq.attach(input,'change',function(){self._options.onChange(input);});qq.attach(input,'mouseover',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'mouseout',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'focus',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});qq.attach(input,'blur',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});if(window.attachEvent){input.setAttribute('tabIndex',"-1");}return input;}};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/upload.php',maxConnections:999,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,response){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._queue=[];this._params=[];};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype={log:function(str){if(this._options.debug&&window.console)console.log('[uploader] '+str);},add:function(file){},upload:function(id,params){var len=this._queue.push(id);var copy={};qq.extend(copy,params);this._params[id]=copy;if(len<=this._options.maxConnections){this._upload(id,this._params[id]);}},cancel:function(id){this._cancel(id);this._dequeue(id);},cancelAll:function(){for(var i=0;i<this._queue.length;i++){this._cancel(this._queue[i]);}this._queue=[];},getName:function(id){},getSize:function(id){},getQueue:function(){return this._queue;},_upload:function(id){},_cancel:function(id){},_dequeue:function(id){var i=qq.indexOf(this._queue,id);this._queue.splice(i,1);var max=this._options.maxConnections;if(this._queue.length>=max&&i<max){var nextId=this._queue[max-1];this._upload(nextId,this._params[nextId]);}}};qq.UploadHandlerForm=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._inputs={};};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{add:function(fileInput){fileInput.setAttribute('name','qqfile');var id='qq-upload-handler-iframe'+qq.getUniqueId();this._inputs[id]=fileInput;if(fileInput.parentNode){qq.remove(fileInput);}return id;},getName:function(id){return this._inputs[id].value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));delete this._inputs[id];var iframe=document.getElementById(id);if(iframe){iframe.setAttribute('src','javascript:false;');qq.remove(iframe);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;},_attachLoadEvent:function(iframe,callback){qq.attach(iframe,'load',function(){if(!iframe.parentNode){return;}if(iframe.contentDocument&&iframe.contentDocument.body&&iframe.contentDocument.body.innerHTML=="false"){return;}callback();});},_getIframeContentJSON:function(iframe){var doc=iframe.contentDocument?iframe.contentDocument:iframe.contentWindow.document,response;this.log("converting iframe's innerHTML to JSON");this.log("innerHTML = "+doc.body.innerHTML);try{response=eval("("+doc.body.innerHTML+")");}catch(err){response={};}return response;},_createIframe:function(id){var iframe=qq.toElement('<iframe src="javascript:false;" name="'+id+'" />');iframe.setAttribute('id',id);iframe.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(iframe);return iframe;},_createForm:function(iframe,params){var form=qq.toElement('<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"></form>');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);form.setAttribute('action',queryString);form.setAttribute('target',iframe.name);form.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(form);return form;}});qq.UploadHandlerXhr=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._files=[];this._xhrs=[];this._loaded=[];};qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported=function(){var input=document.createElement('input');input.type='file';return('multiple'in input&&typeof File!="undefined"&&typeof(new XMLHttpRequest()).upload!="undefined");};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{add:function(file){if(!(file instanceof File)){throw new Error('Passed obj in not a File (in qq.UploadHandlerXhr)');}return this._files.push(file)-1;},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},getLoaded:function(id){return this._loaded[id]||0;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_onComplete:function(id,xhr){if(!this._files[id])return;var name=this.getName(id);var size=this.getSize(id);this._options.onProgress(id,name,size,size);if(xhr.status==200){this.log("xhr - server response received");this.log("responseText = "+xhr.responseText);var response;try{response=eval("("+xhr.responseText+")");}catch(err){response={};}this._options.onComplete(id,name,response);}else{this._options.onComplete(id,name,{});}this._files[id]=null;this._xhrs[id]=null;this._dequeue(id);},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));this._files[id]=null;if(this._xhrs[id]){this._xhrs[id].abort();this._xhrs[id]=null;}}});qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);},onUpload:function(){self._onUpload();}});return handler;},_onUpload:function(){this._handler.uploadAll(this._options.params);},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,fileName);this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';var nameElement=this._find(item,'nameInput');fileName=fileName.toLowerCase();fileName=fileName.replace(/([ !"#$%&\'()+,\/;<=>?@[\]^`{|}~:]+)/g,'_');fileName=fileName.replace(/^_+/,'');nameElement.value=fileName;nameElement.id='mediamanager__upload_item'+id;this._listElement.appendChild(item);}});qq.FileUploaderExtended=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>'+LANG.media_drop+'</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">'+LANG.media_select+'</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'<div class="qq-action-container">'+' <button class="qq-upload-action" type="submit" id="mediamanager__upload_button">'+LANG.media_upload_btn+'</button>'+' <label class="qq-overwrite-check"><input type="checkbox" value="1" name="ow" class="dw__ow"> <span>'+LANG.media_overwrt+'</span></label>'+'</div>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file hidden"></span>'+' <input class="qq-upload-name-input edit" type="text" value="" />'+' <span class="qq-upload-spinner hidden"></span>'+' <span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+' <a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">'+LANG.media_cancel+'</a>'+' <span class="qq-upload-failed-text error">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',nameInput:'qq-upload-name-input',overwriteInput:'qq-overwrite-check',uploadButton:'qq-upload-action',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail',failedText:'qq-upload-failed-text'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._bindUploadEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,qq.FileUploader.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,{_bindUploadEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_button'),'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;qq.preventDefault(e);self._handler._options.onUpload();jQuery(".qq-upload-name-input").each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',true);});});},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));var nameInput=this._find(item,'nameInput');var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,nameInput.value);qq.removeClass(fileElement,'hidden');qq.remove(nameInput);jQuery('.qq-upload-button, #mediamanager__upload_button').remove();jQuery('.dw__ow').parent().hide();jQuery('.qq-upload-drop-area').remove();if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);$link='<a href="'+result.link+'" id="h_:'+result.id+'" class="select">'+nameInput.value+'</a>';jQuery(fileElement).html($link);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);var fail=this._find(item,'failedText');if(result.error)qq.setText(fail,result.error);}if(document.getElementById('media__content')&&!document.getElementById('mediamanager__done_form')){var action=document.location.href;var i=action.indexOf('?');if(i)action=action.substr(0,i);var button='<form method="post" action="'+action+'" id="mediamanager__done_form"><div>';button+='<input type="hidden" value="'+result.ns+'" name="ns">';button+='<input type="hidden" value="1" name="recent">';button+='<button type="submit">'+LANG.media_done_btn+'</button></div></form>';jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').append(button);}}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._inputs[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{return null;}}},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._inputs){this.upload(key,params);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var nameInput=qq.toElement('<input name="mediaid" value="'+fileName+'" type="text">');form.appendChild(nameInput);var checked=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var owCheckbox=jQuery('.dw__ow').clone();owCheckbox.attr('checked',checked);jQuery(form).append(owCheckbox);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;}else{return null;}}},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];if(file==null)return null;return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);if(name==null||size==null)return;this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;params['ow']=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._files){this.upload(key,params);}}});function substr_replace(str,replace,start,length){var a2,b1;a2=(start<0?str.length:0)+start;if(typeof length==='undefined'){length=str.length-a2;}else if(length<0&&start<0&&length<=start){length=0;}b1=(length<0?str.length:a2)+length;return str.substring(0,a2)+replace+str.substring(b1);}function bind(fnc){var Aps=Array.prototype.slice,static_args=Aps.call(arguments,1);return function(){return fnc.apply(this,static_args.concat(Aps.call(arguments,0)));};}function logError(e,file){if(window.console&&console.error){console.error('The error "%s: %s" occurred in file "%s". '+'If this is in a plugin try updating or disabling the plugin, '+'if this is in a template try updating the template or switching to the "dokuwiki" template.',e.name,e.message,file);if(e.stack){console.error(e.stack);}}}var timer={_cur_id:0,_handlers:{},execDispatch:function(id){timer._handlers[id]();},add:function(func,timeout){var id=++timer._cur_id;timer._handlers[id]=func;return window.setTimeout('timer.execDispatch('+id+')',timeout);}};function Delay(func,timeout){this.func=func;if(timeout){this.timeout=timeout;}}Delay.prototype={func:null,timeout:500,delTimer:function(){if(this.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(this.timer);this.timer=null;}},start:function(){DEPRECATED('don\'t use the Delay object, use window.timeout with a callback instead');this.delTimer();var _this=this;this.timer=timer.add(function(){_this.exec.call(_this);},this.timeout);this._data={_this:arguments[0],_params:Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments,2)};},exec:function(){this.delTimer();this.func.call(this._data._this,this._data._params);}};var DokuCookie={data:{},name:'DOKU_PREFS',setValue:function(key,val){var text=[],_this=this;this.init();if(val===false){delete this.data[key];}else{val=val+"";this.data[key]=val;}jQuery.each(_this.data,function(key,val){if(_this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)){text.push(encodeURIComponent(key)+'#'+encodeURIComponent(val));}});jQuery.cookie(this.name,text.join('#'),{expires:365,path:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.path,secure:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.secure});},getValue:function(key,def){this.init();return this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)?this.data[key]:def;},init:function(){var text,parts,i;if(!jQuery.isEmptyObject(this.data)){return;}text=jQuery.cookie(this.name);if(text){parts=text.split('#');for(i=0;i<parts.length;i+=2){this.data[decodeURIComponent(parts[i])]=decodeURIComponent(parts[i+1]);}}}};if('function'===typeof jQuery&&'function'===typeof jQuery.noConflict){jQuery.noConflict();}var clientPC=navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase();var is_macos=navigator.appVersion.indexOf('Mac')!=-1;var is_gecko=((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('khtml')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));var is_safari=((clientPC.indexOf('applewebkit')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));var is_khtml=(navigator.vendor=='KDE'||(document.childNodes&&!document.all&&!navigator.taintEnabled));if(clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1){var is_opera=true;var is_opera_preseven=(window.opera&&!document.childNodes);var is_opera_seven=(window.opera&&document.childNodes);}function closePopups(){jQuery('div.JSpopup').hide();}jQuery(function(){jQuery(document).on('click',closePopups);});jQuery.fn.dw_qsearch=function(overrides){var dw_qsearch={output:'#qsearch__out',$inObj:this,$outObj:null,timer:null,curRequest:null,init:function(){var do_qsearch;dw_qsearch.$outObj=jQuery(dw_qsearch.output);if(dw_qsearch.$inObj.length===0||dw_qsearch.$outObj.length===0){return;}do_qsearch=function(){if(dw_qsearch.curRequest!=null){dw_qsearch.curRequest.abort();}var value=dw_qsearch.getSearchterm();if(value===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').addClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'qsearch',q:encodeURI(value)},dw_qsearch.onCompletion,'html');};dw_qsearch.$inObj.on('keyup',function(){if(dw_qsearch.timer){window.clearTimeout(dw_qsearch.timer);dw_qsearch.timer=null;}dw_qsearch.timer=window.setTimeout(do_qsearch,500);});dw_qsearch.$outObj.on('click',dw_qsearch.clear_results);},getSearchterm:function(){return dw_qsearch.$inObj.val();},clear_results:function(){dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.$outObj.hide();dw_qsearch.$outObj.text('');},onCompletion:function(data){var max,$links,too_big;dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=null;if(data===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$outObj .html(data).show().css('white-space','nowrap');dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','visible');$links=dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('a');max=dw_qsearch.$outObj[0].clientWidth;if(document.documentElement.dir==='rtl'){max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-left'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetLeft<0;};}else{max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-right'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetWidth+l.offsetLeft>max;};}$links.each(function(){var start,length,replace,nsL,nsR,eli,runaway;if(!too_big(this)){return;}nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');eli=0;runaway=0;while((nsR-nsL>3)&&too_big(this)&&runaway++<500){if(eli!==0){if((eli-nsL)>(nsR-eli)){start=eli-2;length=2;}else{start=eli+1;length=1;}replace='';}else{start=Math.floor(nsL+((nsR-nsL)/2));length=1;replace='…';}this.textContent=substr_replace(this.textContent,replace,start,length);eli=this.textContent.indexOf('…');nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');}});dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','hidden').css('text-overflow','ellipsis');}};jQuery.extend(dw_qsearch,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_qsearch.init();}return dw_qsearch;};jQuery(function(){jQuery('#qsearch__in').dw_qsearch({output:'#qsearch__out'});});jQuery(function(){'use strict';var $searchForm=jQuery('.search-results-form');if(!$searchForm.length){return;}var $toggleAssistanceButton=jQuery('<button>').addClass('toggleAssistant').attr('type','button').attr('aria-expanded','false').text(LANG.search_toggle_tools).prependTo($searchForm.find('fieldset'));$toggleAssistanceButton.on('click',function(){jQuery('.advancedOptions').toggle(0,function(){var $me=jQuery(this);if($me.attr('aria-hidden')){$me.removeAttr('aria-hidden');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','true');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','on');}else{$me.attr('aria-hidden','true');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','false');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','off');}});});if(DokuCookie.getValue('sa')==='on'){$toggleAssistanceButton.trigger('click');}$searchForm.find('.advancedOptions .toggle div.current').on('click',function(){var $me=jQuery(this);$me.parent().siblings().removeClass('open');$me.parent().siblings().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');$me.parent().toggleClass('open');if($me.parent().hasClass('open')){$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','true');}else{$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');}});});jQuery.fn.dw_tree=function(overrides){var dw_tree={throbber_delay:500,$obj:this,toggle_selector:'a.idx_dir',init:function(){this.$obj.on('click',this.toggle_selector,this,this.toggle);jQuery('ul:first',this.$obj).attr('role','tree');jQuery('ul',this.$obj).not(':first').attr('role','group');jQuery('li',this.$obj).attr('role','treeitem');jQuery('li.open > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','true');jQuery('li.closed > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','false');jQuery('li.closed',this.$obj).attr('aria-live','assertive');},toggle:function(e){var $listitem,$sublist,timeout,$clicky,show_sublist,dw_tree,opening;e.preventDefault();dw_tree=e.data;$clicky=jQuery(this);$listitem=$clicky.closest('li');$sublist=$listitem.find('ul').first();opening=$listitem.hasClass('closed');dw_tree.toggle_display($clicky,opening);if($sublist.is(':visible')){$listitem.removeClass('open').addClass('closed');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','false');}else{$listitem.removeClass('closed').addClass('open');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','true');}if(!opening){$sublist.dw_hide();return;}show_sublist=function(data){$sublist.hide();if(typeof data!=='undefined'){$sublist.html(data);$sublist.parent().attr('aria-busy','false').removeAttr('aria-live');jQuery('li.closed',$sublist).attr('aria-live','assertive');}if($listitem.hasClass('open')){$sublist.dw_show();}};if($sublist.length>0){show_sublist();return;}$sublist=jQuery('<ul class="idx" role="group"/>');$listitem.append($sublist);timeout=window.setTimeout(bind(show_sublist,'<li aria-busy="true"><img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="loading..." title="loading..." /></li>'),dw_tree.throbber_delay);dw_tree.load_data(function(data){window.clearTimeout(timeout);show_sublist(data);},$clicky);},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){},load_data:function(show_data,$clicky){show_data();}};jQuery.extend(dw_tree,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_tree.init();}return dw_tree;};var dw_index=jQuery('#index__tree').dw_tree({deferInit:true,load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$clicky[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=index',show_sublist,'html');}});jQuery(function(){var $tree=jQuery('#index__tree');dw_index.$obj=$tree;dw_index.init();});function selection_class(){this.start=0;this.end=0;this.obj=null;this.scroll=0;this.fix=0;this.getLength=function(){return this.end-this.start;};this.getText=function(){return(!this.obj)?'':this.obj.value.substring(this.start,this.end);};}function DWgetSelection(textArea){var sel=new selection_class();textArea.focus();sel.obj=textArea;sel.start=textArea.selectionStart;sel.end=textArea.selectionEnd;sel.scroll=textArea.scrollTop;return sel;}function DWsetSelection(selection){selection.obj.setSelectionRange(selection.start,selection.end);if(selection.scroll)selection.obj.scrollTop=selection.scroll;}function pasteText(selection,text,opts){if(!opts)opts={};selection.obj.value=selection.obj.value.substring(0,selection.start)+text+selection.obj.value.substring(selection.end,selection.obj.value.length);if(is_opera){selection.end=selection.start+text.replace(/\r?\n/g,'\r\n').length;}else{selection.end=selection.start+text.length;}if(opts.startofs)selection.start+=opts.startofs;if(opts.endofs)selection.end-=opts.endofs;if(opts.nosel)selection.start=selection.end;DWsetSelection(selection);}function insertTags(textAreaID,tagOpen,tagClose,sampleText){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);var text=selection.getText();var opts;if(text.charAt(text.length-1)==' '){selection.end--;text=selection.getText();}if(!text){text=sampleText;opts={startofs:tagOpen.length,endofs:tagClose.length};}else{opts={nosel:true};}text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;pasteText(selection,text,opts);}function insertAtCarret(textAreaID,text){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);pasteText(selection,text,{nosel:true});}var pickercounter=0;function initToolbar(tbid,edid,tb,allowblock){var $toolbar,$edit;if(typeof tbid=='string'){$toolbar=jQuery('#'+tbid);}else{$toolbar=jQuery(tbid);}$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($toolbar.length==0||$edit.length==0||$edit.attr('readOnly')){return;}if(typeof allowblock==='undefined'){allowblock=true;}$toolbar.html('');jQuery.each(tb,function(k,val){if(!tb.hasOwnProperty(k)||(!allowblock&&val.block===true)){return;}var actionFunc,$btn;$btn=jQuery(createToolButton(val.icon,val.title,val.key,val.id,val['class']));actionFunc='tb_'+val.type;if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){$btn.on('click',bind(window[actionFunc],$btn,val,edid));$toolbar.append($btn);return;}actionFunc='addBtnAction'+val.type.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+val.type.substring(1);if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){var pickerid=window[actionFunc]($btn,val,edid);if(pickerid!==''){$toolbar.append($btn);$btn.attr('aria-controls',pickerid);if(actionFunc==='addBtnActionPicker'){$btn.attr('aria-haspopup','true');}}return;}alert('unknown toolbar type: '+val.type+' '+actionFunc);});}function tb_format(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title;insertTags(edid,fixtxt(props.open),fixtxt(props.close),fixtxt(sample));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_formatln(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title,opts,selection=DWgetSelection(jQuery('#'+edid)[0]);sample=fixtxt(sample);props.open=fixtxt(props.open);props.close=fixtxt(props.close);if(selection.getLength()){sample=selection.getText();opts={nosel:true};}else{opts={startofs:props.open.length,endofs:props.close.length};}sample=sample.split("\n").join(props.close+"\n"+props.open);sample=props.open+sample+props.close;pasteText(selection,sample,opts);pickerClose();return false;}function tb_insert(btn,props,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,fixtxt(props.insert));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_mediapopup(btn,props,edid){window.open(DOKU_BASE+props.url+encodeURIComponent(NS)+'&edid='+encodeURIComponent(edid),props.name,props.options);return false;}function tb_autohead(btn,props,edid){var lvl=currentHeadlineLevel(edid),tags;lvl+=props.mod;if(lvl<1)lvl=1;if(lvl>5)lvl=5;tags=(new Array(8-lvl)).join('=');insertTags(edid,tags+' ',' '+tags+"\n",props.text);pickerClose();return false;}function addBtnActionPicker($btn,props,edid){var pickerid='picker'+(pickercounter++);var picker=createPicker(pickerid,props,edid);jQuery(picker).attr('aria-hidden','true');$btn.click(function(e){pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn);e.preventDefault();return'';});return pickerid;}function addBtnActionLinkwiz($btn,props,edid){dw_linkwiz.init(jQuery('#'+edid));jQuery($btn).click(function(e){dw_linkwiz.val=props;dw_linkwiz.toggle();e.preventDefault();return'';});return'link__wiz';}function pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn){var $picker=jQuery('#'+pickerid),pos=$btn.offset();if($picker.hasClass('a11y')){$picker.removeClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','false');}else{$picker.addClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','true');}var picker_left=pos.left+3,picker_width=$picker.width(),window_width=jQuery(window).width();if(picker_width>300){$picker.css("max-width","300");picker_width=300;}if((picker_left+picker_width+40)>window_width){picker_left=window_width-picker_width-40;}if(picker_left<0){picker_left=0;}$picker.offset({left:picker_left,top:pos.top+$btn[0].offsetHeight+3});}function pickerClose(){jQuery('.picker').addClass('a11y');}function fixtxt(str){return str.replace(/\\n/g,"\n");}jQuery(function(){initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);jQuery('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');});function createToolButton(icon,label,key,id,classname){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')),$ico=jQuery(document.createElement('img'));$btn.addClass('toolbutton');if(classname){$btn.addClass(classname);}$btn.attr('title',label).attr('aria-controls','wiki__text');if(key){$btn.attr('title',label+' ['+key.toUpperCase()+']').attr('accessKey',key);}if(id){$btn.attr('id',id);$ico.attr('id',id+'_ico');}if(icon.substr(0,1)!=='/'){icon=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/toolbar/'+icon;}$ico.attr('src',icon);$ico.attr('alt','');$ico.attr('width',16);$ico.attr('height',16);$btn.append($ico);return $btn[0];}function createPicker(id,props,edid){var $picker=jQuery(document.createElement('div'));$picker.addClass('picker a11y');if(props['class']){$picker.addClass(props['class']);}$picker.attr('id',id).css('position','absolute');function $makebutton(title){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('pickerbutton').attr('title',title).attr('aria-controls',edid).on('click',bind(pickerInsert,title,edid)).appendTo($picker);return $btn;}jQuery.each(props.list,function(key,item){if(!props.list.hasOwnProperty(key)){return;}if(isNaN(key)){if(item.substr(0,1)!=='/'){item=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+props.icobase+'/'+item;}jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',item).attr('alt','').appendTo($makebutton(key));}else if(typeof item=='string'){$makebutton(item).text(item);}else{initToolbar($picker,edid,props.list);return false;}});jQuery('body').append($picker);return $picker[0];}function pickerInsert(text,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,text);pickerClose();}function addBtnActionSignature($btn,props,edid){if(typeof SIG!='undefined'&&SIG!=''){$btn.on('click',function(e){insertAtCarret(edid,SIG);e.preventDefault();});return edid;}return'';}function currentHeadlineLevel(textboxId){var field=jQuery('#'+textboxId)[0],s=false,opts=[field.value.substr(0,DWgetSelection(field).start)];if(field.form&&field.form.prefix){opts.push(field.form.prefix.value);}jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var str="\n"+opt,lasthl=str.lastIndexOf("\n==");if(lasthl!==-1){s=str.substr(lasthl+1,6);return false;}});if(s===false){return 0;}return 7-s.match(/^={2,6}/)[0].length;}window.textChanged=false;window.doku_edit_text_content='';function deleteDraft(){if(is_opera||window.keepDraft){return;}var $dwform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($dwform.length===0){return;}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:$dwform.find('input[name=id]').val()});}jQuery(function(){var $editform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0){return;}var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){if($edit_text.attr('readOnly')){return;}var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;DWsetSelection(sel);$edit_text.trigger('focus');doku_edit_text_content=$edit_text.val();}var changeHandler=function(){doku_hasTextBeenModified();doku_summaryCheck();};$editform.change(changeHandler);$editform.keydown(changeHandler);window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged){return LANG.notsavedyet;}};window.onunload=deleteDraft;jQuery('#edbtn__save').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;});jQuery('#edbtn__preview').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;});var $summary=jQuery('#edit__summary');$summary.on('change keyup',doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();});function doku_hasTextBeenModified(){if(!textChanged){var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){textChanged=doku_edit_text_content!=$edit_text.val();}else{textChanged=true;}}}function doku_summaryCheck(){var $sum=jQuery('#edit__summary'),missing=$sum.val()==='';$sum.toggleClass('missing',missing).toggleClass('edit',!missing);}var dw_editor={init:function(){var $editor=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($editor.length===0){return;}dw_editor.initSizeCtl('#size__ctl',$editor);if($editor.attr('readOnly')){return;}$editor.keydown(dw_editor.keyHandler);},initSizeCtl:function(ctlarea,editor){var $ctl=jQuery(ctlarea),$textarea=jQuery(editor);if($ctl.length===0||$textarea.length===0){return;}$textarea.css('height',DokuCookie.getValue('sizeCtl')||'300px');var wrp=DokuCookie.getValue('wrapCtl');if(wrp){dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],wrp);}jQuery.each([['larger',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,100);}],['smaller',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,-100);}],['wrap',function(){dw_editor.toggleWrap(editor);}]],function(_,img){jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+img[0]+'.gif').attr('alt','').on('click',img[1]).appendTo($ctl);});},sizeCtl:function(editor,val){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),height=parseInt($textarea.css('height'))+val;$textarea.css('height',height+'px');DokuCookie.setValue('sizeCtl',$textarea.css('height'));},toggleWrap:function(editor){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),wrap=$textarea.attr('wrap');dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],(wrap&&wrap.toLowerCase()=='off')?'soft':'off');DokuCookie.setValue('wrapCtl',$textarea.attr('wrap'));},setWrap:function(textarea,wrapAttrValue){textarea.setAttribute('wrap',wrapAttrValue);var parNod=textarea.parentNode;var nxtSib=textarea.nextSibling;parNod.removeChild(textarea);parNod.insertBefore(textarea,nxtSib);},keyHandler:function(e){if(jQuery.inArray(e.keyCode,[8,10,13,32])===-1){return;}var selection=DWgetSelection(this);if(selection.getLength()>0){return;}var search="\n"+this.value.substr(0,selection.start);var linestart=Math.max(search.lastIndexOf("\n"),search.lastIndexOf("\r"));search=search.substr(linestart);if((e.keyCode==13||e.keyCode==10)&&e.ctrlKey){jQuery('#edbtn__save').trigger('click');e.preventDefault();return false;}else if(e.keyCode==13){var match=search.match(/(\n +([\*-] ?)?)/);if(match){var scroll=this.scrollHeight;var match2=search.match(/^\n +[\*-]\s*$/);if(match2&&this.value.substr(selection.start).match(/^($|\r?\n)/)){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+"\n"+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart+1;selection.end=linestart+1;DWsetSelection(selection);}else{insertAtCarret(this.id,match[1]);}this.scrollTop+=(this.scrollHeight-scroll);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==8){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] ?)$/);if(match){var spaces=match[1].length-1;if(spaces>3){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(linestart+2);selection.start=selection.start-2;selection.end=selection.start;}else{this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart;selection.end=linestart;}DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==32){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] )$/);if(match){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+' '+this.value.substr(linestart);selection.start=selection.start+2;selection.end=selection.start;DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}}};jQuery(dw_editor.init);var dw_locktimer={timeout:0,draft:false,timerID:null,lasttime:null,msg:LANG.willexpire,pageid:'',fieldsToSaveAsDraft:['input[name=prefix]','textarea[name=wikitext]','input[name=suffix]','input[name=date]',],callbacks:[],init:function(timeout,draft,edid){var $edit;edid=edid||'wiki__text';$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($edit.length===0||$edit.attr('readonly')){return;}dw_locktimer.timeout=timeout*1000;dw_locktimer.draft=draft;dw_locktimer.lasttime=new Date();dw_locktimer.pageid=jQuery('#dw__editform').find('input[name=id]').val();if(!dw_locktimer.pageid){return;}$edit.keypress(dw_locktimer.refresh);dw_locktimer.reset();},addField:function(selector){dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.push(selector);},addRefreshCallback:function(callback){dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(callback);},reset:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();dw_locktimer.timerID=window.setTimeout(dw_locktimer.warning,dw_locktimer.timeout);},warning:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();alert(fixtxt(dw_locktimer.msg));},clear:function(){if(dw_locktimer.timerID!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_locktimer.timerID);dw_locktimer.timerID=null;}},refresh:function(){var now=new Date(),params='call=lock&id='+dw_locktimer.pageid+'&';if(now.getTime()-dw_locktimer.lasttime.getTime()<=30*1000){return;}if(dw_locktimer.draft&&jQuery('#dw__editform').find('textarea[name=wikitext]').length>0){params+=jQuery('#dw__editform').find(dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.join(', ')).serialize();}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,null,'json').done(function dwLocktimerRefreshDoneHandler(data){dw_locktimer.callbacks.forEach(function(callback){callback(data);});});dw_locktimer.lasttime=now;},refreshed:function(data){if(data.errors.length){data.errors.forEach(function(error){jQuery('#draft__status').after(jQuery('<div class="error"></div>').text(error));})}jQuery('#draft__status').html(data.draft);if(data.lock!=='1'){return;}dw_locktimer.reset();}};dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(dw_locktimer.refreshed);var dw_linkwiz={$wiz:null,$entry:null,result:null,timer:null,textArea:null,selected:null,selection:null,init:function($editor){var pos=$editor.position();if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz)return;dw_linkwiz.$wiz=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).dialog({autoOpen:false,draggable:true,title:LANG.linkwiz,resizable:false}).html('<div>'+LANG.linkto+' <input type="text" class="edit" id="link__wiz_entry" autocomplete="off" /></div>'+'<div id="link__wiz_result"></div>').parent().attr('id','link__wiz').css({'position':'absolute','top':(pos.top+20)+'px','left':(pos.left+80)+'px'}).hide().appendTo('.dokuwiki:first');dw_linkwiz.textArea=$editor[0];dw_linkwiz.result=jQuery('#link__wiz_result')[0];jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).css('position','relative');dw_linkwiz.$entry=jQuery('#link__wiz_entry');if(JSINFO.namespace){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(JSINFO.namespace+':');}jQuery('#link__wiz .ui-dialog-titlebar-close').on('click',dw_linkwiz.hide);dw_linkwiz.$entry.keyup(dw_linkwiz.onEntry);jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).on('click','a',dw_linkwiz.onResultClick);},onEntry:function(e){if(e.keyCode==37||e.keyCode==39){return true;}if(e.keyCode==27){dw_linkwiz.hide();e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==38){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected-1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==40){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected+1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==13){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected);if($obj.length>0){dw_linkwiz.resultClick($obj.find('a')[0]);}}else if(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val());}e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();},getResult:function(num){DEPRECATED('use dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0] instead');return dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0]||null;},$getResult:function(num){return jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).find('div').eq(num);},select:function(num){if(num<0){dw_linkwiz.deselect();return;}var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(num);if($obj.length===0){return;}dw_linkwiz.deselect();$obj.addClass('selected');var childPos=$obj.position().top;var yDiff=childPos+$obj.outerHeight()-jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).innerHeight();if(childPos<0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=childPos;}else if(yDiff>0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=yDiff;}dw_linkwiz.selected=num;},deselect:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected).removeClass('selected');}dw_linkwiz.selected=-1;},onResultClick:function(e){if(!jQuery(this).is('a')){return;}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();dw_linkwiz.resultClick(this);return false;},resultClick:function(a){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(a.title);if(a.title==''||a.title.substr(a.title.length-1)==':'){dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec();}else{if(jQuery(a.nextSibling).is('span')){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(a.nextSibling.innerHTML);}else{dw_linkwiz.insertLink('');}}},insertLink:function(title){var link=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(),sel,stxt;if(!link){return;}sel=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);if(sel.start==0&&sel.end==0){sel=dw_linkwiz.selection;}stxt=sel.getText();if(stxt.charAt(stxt.length-1)==' '){sel.end--;stxt=sel.getText();}if(!stxt&&!DOKU_UHC){stxt=title;}if(dw_linkwiz.textArea.form.id.value.indexOf(':')!=-1&&link.indexOf(':')==-1){link=':'+link;}var so=link.length;var eo=0;if(dw_linkwiz.val){if(dw_linkwiz.val.open){so+=dw_linkwiz.val.open.length;link=dw_linkwiz.val.open+link;}link+='|';so+=1;if(stxt){link+=stxt;}if(dw_linkwiz.val.close){link+=dw_linkwiz.val.close;eo=dw_linkwiz.val.close.length;}}pasteText(sel,link,{startofs:so,endofs:eo});dw_linkwiz.hide();var externallinkpattern=new RegExp('^((f|ht)tps?:)?//','i'),entry_value;if(externallinkpattern.test(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val())){if(JSINFO.namespace){entry_value=JSINFO.namespace+':';}else{entry_value='';}}else{entry_value=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val().replace(/[^:]*$/,'')}dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(entry_value);},autocomplete:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_linkwiz.timer);dw_linkwiz.timer=null;}dw_linkwiz.timer=window.setTimeout(dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec,350);},autocomplete_exec:function(){var $res=jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result);dw_linkwiz.deselect();$res.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="" width="16" height="16" />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'linkwiz',q:dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()});},show:function(){dw_linkwiz.selection=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);dw_linkwiz.$wiz.show();dw_linkwiz.$entry.focus();dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();var temp=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val();dw_linkwiz.$entry.val('');dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(temp);},hide:function(){dw_linkwiz.$wiz.hide();dw_linkwiz.textArea.focus();},toggle:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz.css('display')=='none'){dw_linkwiz.show();}else{dw_linkwiz.hide();}}};var dw_mediamanager={keepopen:false,hide:false,popup:false,display:false,ext:false,$popup:null,align:false,link:false,size:false,forbidden_opts:{},view_opts:{list:false,sort:false},layout_width:0,minHeights:{thumbs:200,rows:100},init:function(){var $content,$tree;$content=jQuery('#media__content');$tree=jQuery('#media__tree');if(!$tree.length)return;dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.attachoptions();dw_mediamanager.initpopup();$content .on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','a.select',dw_mediamanager.select).on('click','#media__content a.btn_media_delete',dw_mediamanager.confirmattach).on('submit','#mediamanager__done_form',dw_mediamanager.list);$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $link=$clicky.parent().find('div.li a.idx_dir');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$link[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=medians',show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.on('click','a',dw_mediamanager.list);dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();dw_mediamanager.init_options();dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');$page.find('div.filelist').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.list).on('click','div.panelContent a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#dw__mediasearch',dw_mediamanager.list).on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','.qq-upload-file a',dw_mediamanager.details);$page.find('div.file').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_update',dw_mediamanager.list).on('submit','#page__revisions',dw_mediamanager.details).on('click','#page__revisions a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__save_meta',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_delete',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_restore',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','.btn_newer, .btn_older',dw_mediamanager.details);dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_mediamanager.layout_width=$page.width();jQuery(window).on('resize',dw_mediamanager.window_resize);},init_options:function(){var $options=jQuery('div.filelist div.panelHeader form.options'),$listType,$sortBy,$both;if($options.length===0){return;}$listType=$options.find('li.listType');$sortBy=$options.find('li.sortBy');$both=$listType.add($sortBy);$options.find('button[type=submit]').parent().hide();$both.find('label').each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.children('input').appendTo($this.parent());});$both.find("input[type='radio']").checkboxradio({icon:false});$both.controlgroup();$listType.children('input').change(function(){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();});$sortBy.children('input').change(function(event){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_sort();dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#dw__mediasearch')[0]||this,event);});},initpopup:function(){var opts,$insp,$insbtn;dw_mediamanager.$popup=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id','media__popup_content').dialog({autoOpen:false,width:280,modal:true,draggable:true,title:LANG.mediatitle,resizable:false});opts=[{id:'link',label:LANG.mediatarget,btns:['lnk','direct','nolnk','displaylnk']},{id:'align',label:LANG.mediaalign,btns:['noalign','left','center','right']},{id:'size',label:LANG.mediasize,btns:['small','medium','large','original']}];jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $p,$l;$p=jQuery(document.createElement('p')).attr('id','media__'+opt.id);if(dw_mediamanager.display==="2"){$p.hide();}$l=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).text(opt.label);$p.append($l);jQuery.each(opt.btns,function(i,text){var $btn,$img;$btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('button').attr('id',"media__"+opt.id+"btn"+(i+1)).attr('title',LANG['media'+text]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.setOpt,opt.id));$img=jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/media_'+opt.id+'_'+text+'.png');$btn.append($img);$p.append($btn);});dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($p);});$insp=jQuery(document.createElement('p'));dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($insp);$insbtn=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('id','media__sendbtn').attr('type','button').addClass('button').val(LANG.mediainsert);$insp.append($insbtn);},insert:function(id){var opts,cb,edid,s;dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('close');opts='';if({img:1,swf:1}[dw_mediamanager.ext]===1){if(dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){opts='?linkonly';}else{if(dw_mediamanager.link==="3"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?nolink';}else if(dw_mediamanager.link==="2"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?direct';}s=parseInt(dw_mediamanager.size,10);var size=s*200;if(s&&s>=1&&s<4){opts+=(opts.length)?'&':'?';opts+=size;if(dw_mediamanager.ext==='swf'){switch(s){case 1:opts+='x62';break;case 2:opts+='x123';break;case 3:opts+='x185';break;}}}}}edid=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&edid=([^&]+)/);edid=edid?edid[1]:'wiki__text';cb=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&onselect=([^&]+)/);cb=cb?cb[1].replace(/[^\w]+/,''):'dw_mediamanager_item_select';opener[cb](edid,id,opts,dw_mediamanager.align,dw_mediamanager.keepopen);if(!dw_mediamanager.keepopen){window.close();}opener.focus();return false;},suggest:function(){var $file,$name,text;$file=jQuery(this);$name=jQuery('#upload__name');if($name.val()!='')return;if(!$file.length||!$name.length){return;}text=$file.val();text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('/')+1);text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('\\')+1);$name.val(text);},list:function(event){var $link,$content,params;if(event){event.preventDefault();}jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();$link=jQuery(this);$content=jQuery('#media__content');if($content.length===0){$content=jQuery('div.filelist');if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){jQuery('div.file').empty();jQuery('div.namespaces .selected').removeClass('selected');$link.addClass('selected');}}params='call=medialist&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params);},form_params:function($form){if(!$form.length)return;var action='';var i=$form[0].action.indexOf('?');if(i>=0){action=$form[0].action.substr(i+1);}return action+'&'+$form.serialize();},set_fileview_list:function(new_type){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['list','listType',function(new_type){jQuery('div.filelist div.panelContent ul').toggleClass('rows',new_type==='rows').toggleClass('thumbs',new_type==='thumbs');}],new_type);dw_mediamanager.resize();},set_fileview_sort:function(new_sort){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['sort','sortBy',function(new_sort){}],new_sort);},set_fileview_opt:function(opt,new_val){if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val=jQuery('form.options li.'+opt[1]+' input').filter(':checked').val();if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val='thumbs';}}if(new_val!==dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]){opt[2](new_val);DokuCookie.setValue(opt[0],new_val);dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]=new_val;}},details:function(event){var $link,$content,params,update_list;$link=jQuery(this);event.preventDefault();jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'&&!confirm(LANG.del_confirm)){return false;}if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore'&&!confirm(LANG.restore_confirm)){return false;}$content=jQuery('div.file');params='call=mediadetails&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}update_list=($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'||$link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore');dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params,update_list);},update_content:function($content,params,update_list){var $container;jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){dw_mediamanager.$resizables().resizable('destroy');if(update_list){dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('form.options button[type="submit"]')[0]);}$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.updatehide();dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list(dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list);dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();dw_mediamanager.init_options();},'html');$container=$content.find('div.panelContent');if($container.length===0){$container=$content;}$container.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." class="load" />');},window_resize:function(){dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();},$resizables:function(){return jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.namespaces, div.filelist');},update_resizable:function(){var $resizables=dw_mediamanager.$resizables();$resizables.resizable({handles:(jQuery('html[dir=rtl]').length?'w':'e'),resize:function(event,ui){var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');var widthFull=$page.width();var widthResizables=0;$resizables.each(function(){widthResizables+=jQuery(this).width();});var $filePanel=$page.find('div.panel.file');var widthOtherResizable=widthResizables-jQuery(this).width();var minWidthNonResizable=parseFloat($filePanel.css("min-width"));var maxWidth=widthFull-(widthOtherResizable+minWidthNonResizable)-1;$resizables.resizable("option","maxWidth",maxWidth);var relWidthNonResizable=99.9-(100*widthResizables/widthFull);$filePanel.width(relWidthNonResizable+'%');dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();}});dw_mediamanager.resize();},resize:function(){var $contents=jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.panelContent'),height=jQuery(window).height()-jQuery(document.body).height()+Math.max.apply(null,jQuery.map($contents,function(v){return jQuery(v).height();}));if(height<dw_mediamanager.minHeights[dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list]){$contents.add(dw_mediamanager.$resizables()).height('auto');}else{$contents.height(height);dw_mediamanager.$resizables().each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.height(height+$this.find('div.panelContent').offset().top-$this.offset().top);});}},image_diff:function(){if(jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype').length)return;var $form=jQuery('#mediamanager__form_diffview');if(!$form.length)return;var $label=jQuery(document.createElement('label'));$label.append('<span>'+LANG.media_diff+'</span> ');var $select=jQuery(document.createElement('select')).attr('id','mediamanager__difftype').attr('name','difftype').change(dw_mediamanager.change_diff_type);$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_both,"both"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_opacity,"opacity"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_portions,"portions"));$label.append($select);$form.append($label);var select=document.getElementById('mediamanager__difftype');select.options[0].text=LANG.media_diff_both;select.options[1].text=LANG.media_diff_opacity;select.options[2].text=LANG.media_diff_portions;},change_diff_type:function(){var $select=jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype');var $content=jQuery('#mediamanager__diff');var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params($select.closest('form'))+'&call=mediadiff';jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();},'html');},opacity_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;var $image=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image1 img');if(!$image.length)return;$slider.width($image.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",0.999);$slider.slider("option","step",0.001);$slider.slider("option","value",0.5);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image2 img').css({opacity:$slider.slider("option","value")});});},portions_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");if(!$diff.length)return;var $image1=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image1 img');var $image2=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2 img');if(!$image1.length||!$image2.length)return;$diff.width('100%');$image2.parent().width('97%');$image1.width('100%');$image2.width('100%');if($image1.width()<$diff.width()){$diff.width($image1.width());}$image2.parent().width('50%');$image2.width($image1.width());$image1.width($image1.width());var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;$slider.width($image1.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",97);$slider.slider("option","step",1);$slider.slider("option","value",50);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2').css({width:$slider.slider("option","value")+'%'});});},params_toarray:function(str){var vars=[],hash;var hashes=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<hashes.length;i++){hash=hashes[i].split('=');vars[decodeURIComponent(hash[0])]=decodeURIComponent(hash[1]);}return vars;},init_ajax_uploader:function(){if(!jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').length)return;if(jQuery('.qq-upload-list').length)return;var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params(jQuery('#dw__upload'))+'&call=mediaupload';params=dw_mediamanager.params_toarray(params);var uploader=new qq.FileUploaderExtended({element:document.getElementById('mediamanager__uploader'),action:DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params:params});},prepare_content:function($content){$content.find('div.example:visible').hide();$content.find('a.allowedmime').on('click',function(event){event.preventDefault();$toggle=jQuery(this);$list=$toggle.next('span');$list.toggle();}).next('span').hide();},select:function(event){var $link,id,dot,ext;event.preventDefault();$link=jQuery(this);id=$link.attr('id').substr(2);if(!opener){jQuery(document.getElementById('ex_'+id.replace(/:/g,'_').replace(/^_/,''))).dw_toggle();return;}dw_mediamanager.ext=false;dot=id.lastIndexOf(".");if(-1===dot){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}ext=id.substr(dot);if({'.jpg':1,'.jpeg':1,'.png':1,'.gif':1,'.swf':1}[ext]!==1){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}var $sendbtn=jQuery('#media__sendbtn');$sendbtn.off().on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.insert,id));dw_mediamanager.unforbid('ext');if(ext==='.swf'){dw_mediamanager.ext='swf';dw_mediamanager.forbid('ext',{link:['1','2'],size:['4']});}else{dw_mediamanager.ext='img';}dw_mediamanager.setOpt('link');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');jQuery('#media__linkbtn1, #media__linkbtn2, #media__sizebtn4').toggle(dw_mediamanager.ext==='img');dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('open');$sendbtn.focus();},confirmattach:function(e){if(!confirm(LANG.del_confirm+"\n"+jQuery(this).attr('title'))){e.preventDefault();}},attachoptions:function(){var $obj,opts;$obj=jQuery('#media__opts');if($obj.length===0){return;}opts=[];if(opener){opts.push(['keepopen','keepopen']);}opts.push(['hide','hidedetails']);jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $box,$lbl;$box=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('type','checkbox').attr('id','media__'+opt[0]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.toggleOption,opt[0]));if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt[0])){$box.prop('checked',true);dw_mediamanager[opt[0]]=true;}$lbl=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).attr('for','media__'+opt[0]).text(LANG[opt[1]]);$obj.append($box,$lbl,document.createElement('br'));});dw_mediamanager.updatehide();},toggleOption:function(variable){if(jQuery(this).prop('checked')){DokuCookie.setValue(variable,1);dw_mediamanager[variable]=true;}else{DokuCookie.setValue(variable,'');dw_mediamanager[variable]=false;}if(variable==='hide'){dw_mediamanager.updatehide();}},updatehide:function(){jQuery('#media__content').find('div.detail').dw_toggle(!dw_mediamanager.hide);},setOpt:function(opt,e){var val,i;if(typeof e!=='undefined'){val=this.id.substring(this.id.length-1);}else{val=dw_mediamanager.getOpt(opt);}if(val===false){DokuCookie.setValue(opt,'');dw_mediamanager[opt]=false;return;}if(opt==='link'){if(val!=='4'&&dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){dw_mediamanager.unforbid('linkonly');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');}else if(val==='4'){dw_mediamanager.forbid('linkonly',{align:false,size:false});}jQuery("#media__size, #media__align").dw_toggle(val!=='4');}DokuCookie.setValue(opt,val);dw_mediamanager[opt]=val;for(i=1;i<=4;i++){jQuery("#media__"+opt+"btn"+i).removeClass('selected');}jQuery('#media__'+opt+'btn'+val).addClass('selected');},unforbid:function(group){delete dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group];},forbid:function(group,forbids){dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group]=forbids;},allowedOpt:function(opt,val){var ret=true;jQuery.each(dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts,function(_,forbids){ret=forbids[opt]!==false&&jQuery.inArray(val,forbids[opt])===-1;return ret;});return ret;},getOpt:function(opt){var allowed=bind(dw_mediamanager.allowedOpt,opt);if(dw_mediamanager[opt]!==false&&allowed(dw_mediamanager[opt])){return dw_mediamanager[opt];}if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt)&&allowed(DokuCookie.getValue(opt))){return DokuCookie.getValue(opt);}if(opt==='size'&&allowed('2')){return'2';}return jQuery.grep(['1','2','3','4'],allowed)[0]||false;}};function dw_mediamanager_item_select(edid,mediaid,opts,align,keepopen){var alignleft='';var alignright='';var cursorInImageTag=false;var textArea=jQuery('#'+edid)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(textArea);selection.end=selection.end+2;var charsAfterCursor=selection.getText();if(charsAfterCursor==='}}'){cursorInImageTag=true;}if(align!=='1'){alignleft=align==='2'?'':' ';alignright=align==='4'?'':' ';}if(keepopen&&cursorInImageTag){selection.start=selection.start+2;DWsetSelection(selection);}insertTags(edid,'{{'+alignleft+mediaid+opts+alignright+'|','}}','');}jQuery(dw_mediamanager.init);function DEPRECATED(msg){if(!window.console)return;if(!msg)msg='';var func;if(arguments.callee)func=arguments.callee.caller.name;if(func)func=' '+func+'()';var line='DEPRECATED function call'+func+'. '+msg;if(console.warn){console.warn(line);}else{console.log(line);}if(console.trace)console.trace();}function DEPRECATED_WRAP(func,context){return function(){DEPRECATED();return func.apply(context||this,arguments);};}jQuery.fn.dw_hide=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','false');return this.slideUp('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_show=function(fn,noaria){if(!noaria)this.attr('aria-expanded','true');return this.slideDown('fast',fn);};jQuery.fn.dw_toggle=function(state,fn,noaria){return this.each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);if(typeof state==='undefined'){state=$this.is(':hidden');}$this[state?"dw_show":"dw_hide"](fn,noaria);});};var dw_behaviour={init:function(){dw_behaviour.focusMarker();dw_behaviour.scrollToMarker();dw_behaviour.removeHighlightOnClick();dw_behaviour.quickSelect();dw_behaviour.checkWindowsShares();dw_behaviour.subscription();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();jQuery(document).on('click','#page__revisions input[type=checkbox]',dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler);jQuery('.bounce').effect('bounce',{times:10},2000);},scrollToMarker:function(){var $obj=jQuery('#scroll__here');if($obj.length){if($obj.offset().top!=0){jQuery('html, body').animate({scrollTop:$obj.offset().top-100},500);}else{$obj[0].scrollIntoView();}}},focusMarker:function(){jQuery('#focus__this').trigger('focus');},removeHighlightOnClick:function(){jQuery('span.search_hit').on('click',function(e){jQuery(e.target).removeClass('search_hit',1000);});},quickSelect:function(){jQuery('select.quickselect').on('change',function(e){e.target.form.submit();}).closest('form').find(':button').not('.show').hide();},checkWindowsShares:function(){if(!LANG.nosmblinks||navigator.userAgent.match(/(Trident|MSIE|Edge)/)){return;}jQuery('a.windows').on('click',function(){alert(LANG.nosmblinks.replace(/\\n/,"\n"));});},subscription:function(){var $form,$list,$digest;$form=jQuery('#subscribe__form');if(0===$form.length)return;$list=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='list']");$digest=$form.find("input[name='sub_style'][value='digest']");$form.find("input[name='sub_target']").on('click',function(){var $this=jQuery(this),show_list;if(!$this.prop('checked')){return;}show_list=$this.val().match(/:$/);$list.parent().dw_toggle(show_list);if(!show_list&&$list.prop('checked')){$digest.prop('checked','checked');}}).filter(':checked').trigger('click');},revisionBoxHandler:function(){var $revisions=jQuery('#page__revisions');var $all=jQuery('input[type=checkbox]',$revisions);var $checked=$all.filter(':checked');var $button=jQuery('button',$revisions);if($checked.length<2){$all.prop('disabled',false);$button.prop('disabled',true);}else{$all.prop('disabled',true);$button.prop('disabled',false);$checked.each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',false);if(i>1){jQuery(this).prop('checked',false);}});}}};jQuery(dw_behaviour.init);dw_page={init:function(){dw_page.sectionHighlight();dw_page.currentIDHighlight();jQuery('a.fn_top').on('mouseover',dw_page.footnoteDisplay);dw_page.makeToggle('#dw__toc h3','#dw__toc > div');},sectionHighlight:function(){jQuery('form.btn_secedit').on('mouseover',function(){var $tgt=jQuery(this).parent(),nr=$tgt.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2],$highlight=jQuery(),$highlightWrap=jQuery('<div class="section_highlight"></div>');while($tgt.length>0&&!($tgt.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||$tgt.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){$tgt=$tgt.prev();$highlight=$highlight.add($tgt);}$highlight.filter(':last').before($highlightWrap);$highlight.detach().appendTo($highlightWrap);}).on('mouseout',function(){var $highlightWrap=jQuery('.section_highlight');$highlightWrap.before($highlightWrap.children().detach());$highlightWrap.detach();});},currentIDHighlight:function(){jQuery('a.wikilink1, a.wikilink2').filter('[data-wiki-id="'+JSINFO.id+'"]').wrap('<span class="curid"></div>');},insituPopup:function(target,popup_id){var $fndiv=jQuery('#'+popup_id);if($fndiv.length===0){$fndiv=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id',popup_id).addClass('insitu-footnote JSpopup').attr('aria-hidden','true').on('mouseleave',function(){jQuery(this).hide().attr('aria-hidden','true');}).attr('role','tooltip');jQuery('.dokuwiki:first').append($fndiv);}$fndiv.show().position({my:'left top',at:'left center',of:target}).hide();return $fndiv;},footnoteDisplay:function(){var $content=jQuery(jQuery(this).attr('href')).parent().siblings('.content').clone();if(!$content.length){return;}jQuery('[id]',$content).each(function(){var id=jQuery(this).attr('id');jQuery(this).attr('id','insitu__'+id);});var content=$content.html().trim();dw_page.insituPopup(this,'insitu__fn').html(content).show().attr('aria-hidden','false');},makeToggle:function(handle,content,state){var $handle,$content,$clicky,$child,setClicky;$handle=jQuery(handle);if(!$handle.length)return;$content=jQuery(content);if(!$content.length)return;$child=$content.children();setClicky=function(hiding){if(hiding){$clicky.html('<span>+</span>');$handle.addClass('closed');$handle.removeClass('open');}else{$clicky.html('<span>−</span>');$handle.addClass('open');$handle.removeClass('closed');}};$handle[0].setState=function(state){var hidden;if(!state)state=1;$content.css('min-height',$content.height()).show();$child.stop(true,true);if(state===-1){hidden=false;}else if(state===1){hidden=true;}else{hidden=$child.is(':hidden');}setClicky(!hidden);$child.dw_toggle(hidden,function(){$content.toggle(hidden);$content.attr('aria-expanded',hidden);$content.css('min-height','');},true);};$clicky=jQuery(document.createElement('strong'));$handle.css('cursor','pointer').on('click',$handle[0].setState).prepend($clicky);$handle[0].setState(state);}};jQuery(dw_page.init);var device_class='';var device_classes='desktop mobile tablet phone';function tpl_dokuwiki_mobile(){var screen_mode=jQuery('#screen__mode').css('z-index')+'';switch(screen_mode){case'1':if(device_class.match(/tablet/))return;device_class='mobile tablet';break;case'2':if(device_class.match(/phone/))return;device_class='mobile phone';break;default:if(device_class=='desktop')return;device_class='desktop';}jQuery('html').removeClass(device_classes).addClass(device_class);var $handle=jQuery('#dokuwiki__aside h3.toggle');var $toc=jQuery('#dw__toc h3');if(device_class=='desktop'){if($handle.length){$handle[0].setState(1);$handle.hide();}if($toc.length){$toc[0].setState(1);}}if(device_class.match(/mobile/)){if($handle.length){$handle.show();$handle[0].setState(-1);}if($toc.length){$toc[0].setState(-1);}}}jQuery(function(){var resizeTimer;dw_page.makeToggle('#dokuwiki__aside h3.toggle','#dokuwiki__aside div.content');tpl_dokuwiki_mobile();jQuery(window).on('resize',function(){if(resizeTimer)clearTimeout(resizeTimer);resizeTimer=setTimeout(tpl_dokuwiki_mobile,200);});var sidebar_height=jQuery('.desktop #dokuwiki__aside').height();var pagetool_height=jQuery('.desktop #dokuwiki__pagetools ul:first').height();var content_min=Math.max(sidebar_height||0,pagetool_height||0);var content_height=jQuery('#dokuwiki__content div.page').height();if(content_min&&content_min>content_height){var $content=jQuery('#dokuwiki__content div.page');$content.css('min-height',content_min);}jQuery('#dokuwiki__pagetools div.tools>ul>li>a').on('click',function(){this.blur();});});var dw_acl={init:function(){var $tree;if(jQuery('#acl_manager').length===0){return;}jQuery('#acl__user select').on('change',dw_acl.userselhandler);jQuery('#acl__user button').on('click',dw_acl.loadinfo);$tree=jQuery('#acl__tree');$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery.extend(dw_acl.parseatt($clicky.parent().find('a')[0].search),{call:'plugin_acl',ajax:'tree',current_ns:$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(),current_id:$frm.find('input[name=id]').val()}),show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.delegate('a','click',dw_acl.treehandler);},userselhandler:function(){jQuery('#acl__user input').toggle(this.value==='__g__'||this.value==='__u__');dw_acl.loadinfo();},loadinfo:function(){jQuery('#acl__info').attr('role','alert').html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery('#acl__detail form').serialize()+'&call=plugin_acl&ajax=info');return false;},parseatt:function(str){if(str[0]==='?'){str=str.substr(1);}var attributes={};var all=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<all.length;i++){var att=all[i].split('=');attributes[att[0]]=decodeURIComponent(att[1]);}return attributes;},treehandler:function(){var $link,$frm;$link=jQuery(this);jQuery('#acl__tree a.cur').removeClass('cur');$link.addClass('cur');$frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');if($link.hasClass('wikilink1')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val('');$frm.find('input[name=id]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).id);}else if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).ns);$frm.find('input[name=id]').val('');}dw_acl.loadinfo();return false;}};jQuery(dw_acl.init);(function(){var $,AbstractChosen,Chosen,SelectParser,_ref,__hasProp={}.hasOwnProperty,__extends=function(child,parent){for(var key in parent){if(__hasProp.call(parent,key))child[key]=parent[key];}function ctor(){this.constructor=child;}ctor.prototype=parent.prototype;child.prototype=new ctor();child.__super__=parent.prototype;return child;};SelectParser=(function(){function SelectParser(){this.options_index=0;this.parsed=[];}SelectParser.prototype.add_node=function(child){if(child.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTGROUP"){return this.add_group(child);}else{return this.add_option(child);}};SelectParser.prototype.add_group=function(group){var group_position,option,_i,_len,_ref,_results;group_position=this.parsed.length;this.parsed.push({array_index:group_position,group:true,label:this.escapeExpression(group.label),title:group.title?group.title:void 0,children:0,disabled:group.disabled,classes:group.className});_ref=group.childNodes;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];_results.push(this.add_option(option,group_position,group.disabled));}return _results;};SelectParser.prototype.add_option=function(option,group_position,group_disabled){if(option.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTION"){if(option.text!==""){if(group_position!=null){this.parsed[group_position].children+=1;}this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,value:option.value,text:option.text,html:option.innerHTML,title:option.title?option.title:void 0,selected:option.selected,disabled:group_disabled===true?group_disabled:option.disabled,group_array_index:group_position,group_label:group_position!=null?this.parsed[group_position].label:null,classes:option.className,style:option.style.cssText});}else{this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,empty:true});}return this.options_index+=1;}};SelectParser.prototype.escapeExpression=function(text){var map,unsafe_chars;if((text==null)||text===false){return"";}if(!/[\&\<\>\"\'\`]/.test(text)){return text;}map={"<":"<",">":">",'"':""","'":"'","`":"`"};unsafe_chars=/&(?!\w+;)|[\<\>\"\'\`]/g;return text.replace(unsafe_chars,function(chr){return map[chr]||"&";});};return SelectParser;})();SelectParser.select_to_array=function(select){var child,parser,_i,_len,_ref;parser=new SelectParser();_ref=select.childNodes;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){child=_ref[_i];parser.add_node(child);}return parser.parsed;};AbstractChosen=(function(){function AbstractChosen(form_field,options){this.form_field=form_field;this.options=options!=null?options:{};if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return;}this.is_multiple=this.form_field.multiple;this.set_default_text();this.set_default_values();this.setup();this.set_up_html();this.register_observers();this.on_ready();}AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_values=function(){var _this=this;this.click_test_action=function(evt){return _this.test_active_click(evt);};this.activate_action=function(evt){return _this.activate_field(evt);};this.active_field=false;this.mouse_on_container=false;this.results_showing=false;this.result_highlighted=null;this.allow_single_deselect=(this.options.allow_single_deselect!=null)&&(this.form_field.options[0]!=null)&&this.form_field.options[0].text===""?this.options.allow_single_deselect:false;this.disable_search_threshold=this.options.disable_search_threshold||0;this.disable_search=this.options.disable_search||false;this.enable_split_word_search=this.options.enable_split_word_search!=null?this.options.enable_split_word_search:true;this.group_search=this.options.group_search!=null?this.options.group_search:true;this.search_contains=this.options.search_contains||false;this.single_backstroke_delete=this.options.single_backstroke_delete!=null?this.options.single_backstroke_delete:true;this.max_selected_options=this.options.max_selected_options||Infinity;this.inherit_select_classes=this.options.inherit_select_classes||false;this.display_selected_options=this.options.display_selected_options!=null?this.options.display_selected_options:true;this.display_disabled_options=this.options.display_disabled_options!=null?this.options.display_disabled_options:true;return this.include_group_label_in_selected=this.options.include_group_label_in_selected||false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_text=function(){if(this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder")){this.default_text=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder");}else if(this.is_multiple){this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_multiple||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text;}else{this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_single||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_single_text;}return this.results_none_found=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-no_results_text")||this.options.no_results_text||AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choice_label=function(item){if(this.include_group_label_in_selected&&(item.group_label!=null)){return"<b class='group-name'>"+item.group_label+"</b>"+item.html;}else{return item.html;}};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_enter=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_leave=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_focus=function(evt){var _this=this;if(this.is_multiple){if(!this.active_field){return setTimeout((function(){return _this.container_mousedown();}),50);}}else{if(!this.active_field){return this.activate_field();}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_blur=function(evt){var _this=this;if(!this.mouse_on_container){this.active_field=false;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.blur_test();}),100);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_option_build=function(options){var content,data,_i,_len,_ref;content='';_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){data=_ref[_i];if(data.group){content+=this.result_add_group(data);}else{content+=this.result_add_option(data);}if(options!=null?options.first:void 0){if(data.selected&&this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(data);}else if(data.selected&&!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(data));}}}return content;};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_option=function(option){var classes,option_el;if(!option.search_match){return'';}if(!this.include_option_in_results(option)){return'';}classes=[];if(!option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("active-result");}if(option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("disabled-result");}if(option.selected){classes.push("result-selected");}if(option.group_array_index!=null){classes.push("group-option");}if(option.classes!==""){classes.push(option.classes);}option_el=document.createElement("li");option_el.className=classes.join(" ");option_el.style.cssText=option.style;option_el.setAttribute("data-option-array-index",option.array_index);option_el.innerHTML=option.search_text;if(option.title){option_el.title=option.title;}return this.outerHTML(option_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_group=function(group){var classes,group_el;if(!(group.search_match||group.group_match)){return'';}if(!(group.active_options>0)){return'';}classes=[];classes.push("group-result");if(group.classes){classes.push(group.classes);}group_el=document.createElement("li");group_el.className=classes.join(" ");group_el.innerHTML=group.search_text;if(group.title){group_el.title=group.title;}return this.outerHTML(group_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_update_field=function(){this.set_default_text();if(!this.is_multiple){this.results_reset_cleanup();}this.result_clear_highlight();this.results_build();if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.reset_single_select_options=function(){var result,_i,_len,_ref,_results;_ref=this.results_data;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){result=_ref[_i];if(result.selected){_results.push(result.selected=false);}else{_results.push(void 0);}}return _results;};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_toggle=function(){if(this.results_showing){return this.results_hide();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_search=function(evt){if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.winnow_results=function(){var escapedSearchText,option,regex,results,results_group,searchText,startpos,text,zregex,_i,_len,_ref;this.no_results_clear();results=0;searchText=this.get_search_text();escapedSearchText=searchText.replace(/[-[\]{}()*+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&");zregex=new RegExp(escapedSearchText,'i');regex=this.get_search_regex(escapedSearchText);_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];option.search_match=false;results_group=null;if(this.include_option_in_results(option)){if(option.group){option.group_match=false;option.active_options=0;}if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index]){results_group=this.results_data[option.group_array_index];if(results_group.active_options===0&&results_group.search_match){results+=1;}results_group.active_options+=1;}option.search_text=option.group?option.label:option.html;if(!(option.group&&!this.group_search)){option.search_match=this.search_string_match(option.search_text,regex);if(option.search_match&&!option.group){results+=1;}if(option.search_match){if(searchText.length){startpos=option.search_text.search(zregex);text=option.search_text.substr(0,startpos+searchText.length)+'</em>'+option.search_text.substr(startpos+searchText.length);option.search_text=text.substr(0,startpos)+'<em>'+text.substr(startpos);}if(results_group!=null){results_group.group_match=true;}}else if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index].search_match){option.search_match=true;}}}}this.result_clear_highlight();if(results<1&&searchText.length){this.update_results_content("");return this.no_results(searchText);}else{this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build());return this.winnow_results_set_highlight();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.get_search_regex=function(escaped_search_string){var regex_anchor;regex_anchor=this.search_contains?"":"^";return new RegExp(regex_anchor+escaped_search_string,'i');};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_string_match=function(search_string,regex){var part,parts,_i,_len;if(regex.test(search_string)){return true;}else if(this.enable_split_word_search&&(search_string.indexOf(" ")>=0||search_string.indexOf("[")===0)){parts=search_string.replace(/\[|\]/g,"").split(" ");if(parts.length){for(_i=0,_len=parts.length;_i<_len;_i++){part=parts[_i];if(regex.test(part)){return true;}}}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_count=function(){var option,_i,_len,_ref;if(this.selected_option_count!=null){return this.selected_option_count;}this.selected_option_count=0;_ref=this.form_field.options;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];if(option.selected){this.selected_option_count+=1;}}return this.selected_option_count;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();if(!(this.results_showing||this.is_disabled)){return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.keyup_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref;stroke=(_ref=evt.which)!=null?_ref:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();switch(stroke){case 8:if(this.is_multiple&&this.backstroke_length<1&&this.choices_count()>0){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else if(!this.pending_backstroke){this.result_clear_highlight();return this.results_search();}break;case 13:evt.preventDefault();if(this.results_showing){return this.result_select(evt);}break;case 27:if(this.results_showing){this.results_hide();}return true;case 9:case 38:case 40:case 16:case 91:case 17:break;default:return this.results_search();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.clipboard_event_checker=function(evt){var _this=this;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.results_search();}),50);};AbstractChosen.prototype.container_width=function(){if(this.options.width!=null){return this.options.width;}else{return""+this.form_field.offsetWidth+"px";}};AbstractChosen.prototype.include_option_in_results=function(option){if(this.is_multiple&&(!this.display_selected_options&&option.selected)){return false;}if(!this.display_disabled_options&&option.disabled){return false;}if(option.empty){return false;}return true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchstart=function(evt){this.touch_started=true;return this.search_results_mouseover(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchmove=function(evt){this.touch_started=false;return this.search_results_mouseout(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchend=function(evt){if(this.touch_started){return this.search_results_mouseup(evt);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.outerHTML=function(element){var tmp;if(element.outerHTML){return element.outerHTML;}tmp=document.createElement("div");tmp.appendChild(element);return tmp.innerHTML;};AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported=function(){if(window.navigator.appName==="Microsoft Internet Explorer"){return document.documentMode>=8;}if(/iP(od|hone)/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}if(/Android/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){if(/Mobile/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}}return true;};AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text="Select Some Options";AbstractChosen.default_single_text="Select an Option";AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text="No results match";return AbstractChosen;})();$=jQuery;$.fn.extend({chosen:function(options){if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return this;}return this.each(function(input_field){var $this,chosen;$this=$(this);chosen=$this.data('chosen');if(options==='destroy'&&chosen instanceof Chosen){chosen.destroy();}else if(!(chosen instanceof Chosen)){$this.data('chosen',new Chosen(this,options));}});}});Chosen=(function(_super){__extends(Chosen,_super);function Chosen(){_ref=Chosen.__super__.constructor.apply(this,arguments);return _ref;}Chosen.prototype.setup=function(){this.form_field_jq=$(this.form_field);this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.is_rtl=this.form_field_jq.hasClass("chosen-rtl");};Chosen.prototype.set_up_html=function(){var container_classes,container_props;container_classes=["chosen-container"];container_classes.push("chosen-container-"+(this.is_multiple?"multi":"single"));if(this.inherit_select_classes&&this.form_field.className){container_classes.push(this.form_field.className);}if(this.is_rtl){container_classes.push("chosen-rtl");}container_props={'class':container_classes.join(' '),'style':"width: "+(this.container_width())+";",'title':this.form_field.title};if(this.form_field.id.length){container_props.id=this.form_field.id.replace(/[^\w]/g,'_')+"_chosen";}this.container=$("<div />",container_props);if(this.is_multiple){this.container.html('<ul class="chosen-choices"><li class="search-field"><input type="text" value="'+this.default_text+'" class="default" autocomplete="off" style="width:25px;" /></li></ul><div class="chosen-drop"><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}else{this.container.html('<a class="chosen-single chosen-default" tabindex="-1"><span>'+this.default_text+'</span><div><b></b></div></a><div class="chosen-drop"><div class="chosen-search"><input type="text" autocomplete="off" /></div><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}this.form_field_jq.hide().after(this.container);this.dropdown=this.container.find('div.chosen-drop').first();this.search_field=this.container.find('input').first();this.search_results=this.container.find('ul.chosen-results').first();this.search_field_scale();this.search_no_results=this.container.find('li.no-results').first();if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices=this.container.find('ul.chosen-choices').first();this.search_container=this.container.find('li.search-field').first();}else{this.search_container=this.container.find('div.chosen-search').first();this.selected_item=this.container.find('.chosen-single').first();}this.results_build();this.set_tab_index();return this.set_label_behavior();};Chosen.prototype.on_ready=function(){return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:ready",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.register_observers=function(){var _this=this;this.container.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('mousedown.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseenter.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_enter(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseleave.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_leave(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseup(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseover.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseover(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseout.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseout(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mousewheel.chosen DOMMouseScroll.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mousewheel(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchstart(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchmove.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchmove(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchend(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:updated.chosen",function(evt){_this.results_update_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:activate.chosen",function(evt){_this.activate_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:open.chosen",function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:close.chosen",function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('blur.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keyup.chosen',function(evt){_this.keyup_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keydown.chosen',function(evt){_this.keydown_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('focus.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_focus(evt);});this.search_field.bind('cut.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('paste.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});if(this.is_multiple){return this.search_choices.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){_this.choices_click(evt);});}else{return this.container.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){evt.preventDefault();});}};Chosen.prototype.destroy=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);if(this.search_field[0].tabIndex){this.form_field_jq[0].tabIndex=this.search_field[0].tabIndex;}this.container.remove();this.form_field_jq.removeData('chosen');return this.form_field_jq.show();};Chosen.prototype.search_field_disabled=function(){this.is_disabled=this.form_field_jq[0].disabled;if(this.is_disabled){this.container.addClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=true;if(!this.is_multiple){this.selected_item.unbind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}return this.close_field();}else{this.container.removeClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=false;if(!this.is_multiple){return this.selected_item.bind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mousedown=function(evt){if(!this.is_disabled){if(evt&&evt.type==="mousedown"&&!this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}if(!((evt!=null)&&($(evt.target)).hasClass("search-choice-close"))){if(!this.active_field){if(this.is_multiple){this.search_field.val("");}$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).bind('click.chosen',this.click_test_action);this.results_show();}else if(!this.is_multiple&&evt&&(($(evt.target)[0]===this.selected_item[0])||$(evt.target).parents("a.chosen-single").length)){evt.preventDefault();this.results_toggle();}return this.activate_field();}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mouseup=function(evt){if(evt.target.nodeName==="ABBR"&&!this.is_disabled){return this.results_reset(evt);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mousewheel=function(evt){var delta;if(evt.originalEvent){delta=evt.originalEvent.deltaY||-evt.originalEvent.wheelDelta||evt.originalEvent.detail;}if(delta!=null){evt.preventDefault();if(evt.type==='DOMMouseScroll'){delta=delta*40;}return this.search_results.scrollTop(delta+this.search_results.scrollTop());}};Chosen.prototype.blur_test=function(evt){if(!this.active_field&&this.container.hasClass("chosen-container-active")){return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.close_field=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);this.active_field=false;this.results_hide();this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-active");this.clear_backstroke();this.show_search_field_default();return this.search_field_scale();};Chosen.prototype.activate_field=function(){this.container.addClass("chosen-container-active");this.active_field=true;this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());return this.search_field.focus();};Chosen.prototype.test_active_click=function(evt){var active_container;active_container=$(evt.target).closest('.chosen-container');if(active_container.length&&this.container[0]===active_container[0]){return this.active_field=true;}else{return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.results_build=function(){this.parsing=true;this.selected_option_count=null;this.results_data=SelectParser.select_to_array(this.form_field);if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices.find("li.search-choice").remove();}else if(!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text();if(this.disable_search||this.form_field.options.length<=this.disable_search_threshold){this.search_field[0].readOnly=true;this.container.addClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}else{this.search_field[0].readOnly=false;this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}}this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build({first:true}));this.search_field_disabled();this.show_search_field_default();this.search_field_scale();return this.parsing=false;};Chosen.prototype.result_do_highlight=function(el){var high_bottom,high_top,maxHeight,visible_bottom,visible_top;if(el.length){this.result_clear_highlight();this.result_highlight=el;this.result_highlight.addClass("highlighted");maxHeight=parseInt(this.search_results.css("maxHeight"),10);visible_top=this.search_results.scrollTop();visible_bottom=maxHeight+visible_top;high_top=this.result_highlight.position().top+this.search_results.scrollTop();high_bottom=high_top+this.result_highlight.outerHeight();if(high_bottom>=visible_bottom){return this.search_results.scrollTop((high_bottom-maxHeight)>0?high_bottom-maxHeight:0);}else if(high_top<visible_top){return this.search_results.scrollTop(high_top);}}};Chosen.prototype.result_clear_highlight=function(){if(this.result_highlight){this.result_highlight.removeClass("highlighted");}return this.result_highlight=null;};Chosen.prototype.results_show=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}this.container.addClass("chosen-with-drop");this.results_showing=true;this.search_field.focus();this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());this.winnow_results();return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:showing_dropdown",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.update_results_content=function(content){return this.search_results.html(content);};Chosen.prototype.results_hide=function(){if(this.results_showing){this.result_clear_highlight();this.container.removeClass("chosen-with-drop");this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:hiding_dropdown",{chosen:this});}return this.results_showing=false;};Chosen.prototype.set_tab_index=function(el){var ti;if(this.form_field.tabIndex){ti=this.form_field.tabIndex;this.form_field.tabIndex=-1;return this.search_field[0].tabIndex=ti;}};Chosen.prototype.set_label_behavior=function(){var _this=this;this.form_field_label=this.form_field_jq.parents("label");if(!this.form_field_label.length&&this.form_field.id.length){this.form_field_label=$("label[for='"+this.form_field.id+"']");}if(this.form_field_label.length>0){return this.form_field_label.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){if(_this.is_multiple){return _this.container_mousedown(evt);}else{return _this.activate_field();}});}};Chosen.prototype.show_search_field_default=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()<1&&!this.active_field){this.search_field.val(this.default_text);return this.search_field.addClass("default");}else{this.search_field.val("");return this.search_field.removeClass("default");}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseup=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target.length){this.result_highlight=target;this.result_select(evt);return this.search_field.focus();}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseover=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target){return this.result_do_highlight(target);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseout=function(evt){if($(evt.target).hasClass("active-result"||$(evt.target).parents('.active-result').first())){return this.result_clear_highlight();}};Chosen.prototype.choice_build=function(item){var choice,close_link,_this=this;choice=$('<li />',{"class":"search-choice"}).html("<span>"+(this.choice_label(item))+"</span>");if(item.disabled){choice.addClass('search-choice-disabled');}else{close_link=$('<a />',{"class":'search-choice-close','data-option-array-index':item.array_index});close_link.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){return _this.choice_destroy_link_click(evt);});choice.append(close_link);}return this.search_container.before(choice);};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy_link_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();evt.stopPropagation();if(!this.is_disabled){return this.choice_destroy($(evt.target));}};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy=function(link){if(this.result_deselect(link[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index"))){this.show_search_field_default();if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()>0&&this.search_field.val().length<1){this.results_hide();}link.parents('li').first().remove();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset=function(){this.reset_single_select_options();this.form_field.options[0].selected=true;this.single_set_selected_text();this.show_search_field_default();this.results_reset_cleanup();this.form_field_jq.trigger("change");if(this.active_field){return this.results_hide();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset_cleanup=function(){this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.selected_item.find("abbr").remove();};Chosen.prototype.result_select=function(evt){var high,item;if(this.result_highlight){high=this.result_highlight;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}if(this.is_multiple){high.removeClass("active-result");}else{this.reset_single_select_options();}high.addClass("result-selected");item=this.results_data[high[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index")];item.selected=true;this.form_field.options[item.options_index].selected=true;this.selected_option_count=null;if(this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(item);}else{this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(item));}if(!((evt.metaKey||evt.ctrlKey)&&this.is_multiple)){this.results_hide();}this.search_field.val("");if(this.is_multiple||this.form_field.selectedIndex!==this.current_selectedIndex){this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{'selected':this.form_field.options[item.options_index].value});}this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;evt.preventDefault();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.single_set_selected_text=function(text){if(text==null){text=this.default_text;}if(text===this.default_text){this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-default");}else{this.single_deselect_control_build();this.selected_item.removeClass("chosen-default");}return this.selected_item.find("span").html(text);};Chosen.prototype.result_deselect=function(pos){var result_data;result_data=this.results_data[pos];if(!this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].disabled){result_data.selected=false;this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].selected=false;this.selected_option_count=null;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.results_showing){this.winnow_results();}this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{deselected:this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].value});this.search_field_scale();return true;}else{return false;}};Chosen.prototype.single_deselect_control_build=function(){if(!this.allow_single_deselect){return;}if(!this.selected_item.find("abbr").length){this.selected_item.find("span").first().after("<abbr class=\"search-choice-close\"></abbr>");}return this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-single-with-deselect");};Chosen.prototype.get_search_text=function(){return $('<div/>').text($.trim(this.search_field.val())).html();};Chosen.prototype.winnow_results_set_highlight=function(){var do_high,selected_results;selected_results=!this.is_multiple?this.search_results.find(".result-selected.active-result"):[];do_high=selected_results.length?selected_results.first():this.search_results.find(".active-result").first();if(do_high!=null){return this.result_do_highlight(do_high);}};Chosen.prototype.no_results=function(terms){var no_results_html;no_results_html=$('<li class="no-results">'+this.results_none_found+' "<span></span>"</li>');no_results_html.find("span").first().html(terms);this.search_results.append(no_results_html);return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:no_results",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.no_results_clear=function(){return this.search_results.find(".no-results").remove();};Chosen.prototype.keydown_arrow=function(){var next_sib;if(this.results_showing&&this.result_highlight){next_sib=this.result_highlight.nextAll("li.active-result").first();if(next_sib){return this.result_do_highlight(next_sib);}}else{return this.results_show();}};Chosen.prototype.keyup_arrow=function(){var prev_sibs;if(!this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){return this.results_show();}else if(this.result_highlight){prev_sibs=this.result_highlight.prevAll("li.active-result");if(prev_sibs.length){return this.result_do_highlight(prev_sibs.first());}else{if(this.choices_count()>0){this.results_hide();}return this.result_clear_highlight();}}};Chosen.prototype.keydown_backstroke=function(){var next_available_destroy;if(this.pending_backstroke){this.choice_destroy(this.pending_backstroke.find("a").first());return this.clear_backstroke();}else{next_available_destroy=this.search_container.siblings("li.search-choice").last();if(next_available_destroy.length&&!next_available_destroy.hasClass("search-choice-disabled")){this.pending_backstroke=next_available_destroy;if(this.single_backstroke_delete){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else{return this.pending_backstroke.addClass("search-choice-focus");}}}};Chosen.prototype.clear_backstroke=function(){if(this.pending_backstroke){this.pending_backstroke.removeClass("search-choice-focus");}return this.pending_backstroke=null;};Chosen.prototype.keydown_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref1;stroke=(_ref1=evt.which)!=null?_ref1:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();if(stroke!==8&&this.pending_backstroke){this.clear_backstroke();}switch(stroke){case 8:this.backstroke_length=this.search_field.val().length;break;case 9:if(this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){this.result_select(evt);}this.mouse_on_container=false;break;case 13:if(this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 32:if(this.disable_search){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 38:evt.preventDefault();this.keyup_arrow();break;case 40:evt.preventDefault();this.keydown_arrow();break;}};Chosen.prototype.search_field_scale=function(){var div,f_width,h,style,style_block,styles,w,_i,_len;if(this.is_multiple){h=0;w=0;style_block="position:absolute; left: -1000px; top: -1000px; display:none;";styles=['font-size','font-style','font-weight','font-family','line-height','text-transform','letter-spacing'];for(_i=0,_len=styles.length;_i<_len;_i++){style=styles[_i];style_block+=style+":"+this.search_field.css(style)+";";}div=$('<div />',{'style':style_block});div.text(this.search_field.val());$('body').append(div);w=div.width()+25;div.remove();f_width=this.container.outerWidth();if(w>f_width-10){w=f_width-10;}return this.search_field.css({'width':w+'px'});}};return Chosen;})(AbstractChosen);}).call(this);(function(){'use strict';jQuery(function(){var $animalSelect=jQuery('select.farmer_chosen_animals');$animalSelect.chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,allow_single_deselect:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});jQuery('select.acl_chosen').chosen({disable_search:true,width:'100%'});var $formAllAnimals=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforall');$formAllAnimals.find('select').change(function(){$formAllAnimals.find('button').prop('disabled',false);}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.pluginSelect});var $formSingleAnimal=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforone');$formSingleAnimal.find('select').change(function(){var animal=jQuery(this).val();$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',true);jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPlugins_'+animal},function(data){$formSingleAnimal.find('div.output').html(data);$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',false);},'html')}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});var $formPluginMatrix=jQuery('#farmer__pluginmatrix').hide();$formPluginMatrix.on('click','td',function(){var $td=jQuery(this);$td.html('⌛').css('background-color','transparent');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_modPlugin',plugin:$td.data('plugin'),ani:$td.data('animal')},function(data){$td.replaceWith(data);},'html');});function showMatrix(){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPluginMatrix'},function(data){$formPluginMatrix.html(data);$formPluginMatrix.show();},'html')}$animalSelect.on('chosen:showing_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'20em'},400);}).on('chosen:hiding_dropdown',function(evt,params){jQuery(evt.target).parent('fieldset').animate({"padding-bottom":'7px'},400);});var $aclPolicyFieldset=jQuery('#aclPolicyFieldset');if($aclPolicyFieldset.length){$animalSelect.on('change',function(evt,params){var $this=jQuery(this);if($this.val()===''){$aclPolicyFieldset.slideDown();}else{$aclPolicyFieldset.slideUp();}});}jQuery("input[name=bulkSingleSwitch]:radio").change(function(){if(jQuery('#farmer__bulk').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.show();$formSingleAnimal.hide();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else if(jQuery('#farmer__single').prop("checked")){$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.show();$formPluginMatrix.hide();}else{$formAllAnimals.hide();$formSingleAnimal.hide();showMatrix();}});jQuery('#farmer__bulk').click();});})();var plugin_fastwiki=(function($){var m_viewMode,m_origViewMode,m_prevView;var m_isSecedit,m_wasSecedit;var m_hasDraft;var m_pageObjs={};var m_content;var m_initialId;var m_debug=document.location.host=='localhost';var m_cache=new CPageCache(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_per_page,JSINFO.fastwiki.preload_batchsize,m_debug);var m_supportedActions={'':1,edit:1,draft:1,history:1,recent:1,revisions:1,show:1,subscribe:1,backlink:1,index:1,profile:1,media:1,diff:1,save:1};var m_modeClassElt;var m_browserHistory=new CBrowserHistory();$(function(){if(document.location.href.indexOf("detail.php")>=0)m_viewMode='unsupported';else{var urlParams=_urlToObj(document.location.href);m_viewMode=urlParams['do']||'show';if(!m_supportedActions[m_viewMode])m_viewMode='unsupported';else if(window.tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support&&!(m_viewMode in tpl_fastwiki_startmode_support))m_viewMode='unsupported';}m_origViewMode=m_viewMode;m_content=$('.plugin_fastwiki_marker').parent();m_content.addClass('content_initial');m_initialId=m_content.attr('id');m_modeClassElt=m_content.hasClass('dokuwiki')?m_content:$(m_content.parents('.dokuwiki')[0]||document.body);$(window).trigger('fastwiki:init',[m_viewMode]);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastpages)fixActionLinks(document.body);if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow&&(m_origViewMode!='show'||!window.history||!history.pushState))JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow=false;if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow)m_browserHistory.init(load);});function fixActionLinks(elt){if(m_origViewMode=='unsupported')return;var formActions={search:1};var supportedFields={'do':1,rev:1,id:1};$('a[href *= "?do="]',elt).click(function(e){var curPathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');var aPathId=this.href.replace(/\?.*$/,'').replace(/:/g,'/');if(aPathId.substr(-curPathId.length)==curPathId){var params=_urlToObj(this.href);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';if(params['do']in m_supportedActions){e.preventDefault();load(params['do'],null,params);}}});$('input[type="submit"], input[type="button"], button',elt).click(function(e){var form=$(this).parents('form');if(form.length>0&&form[0]['do']&&form[0]['do'].value in m_supportedActions){var supported=true;$('input[type != "submit"]',form).each(function(idx,elt){if(elt.type!='button'&&(elt.type!='hidden'||!(elt.name in supportedFields)))supported=false;});if(supported){e.preventDefault();var params=_formToObj(form[0]);if(!params['do'])params['do']='show';load(params['do'],null,params);}}});if(m_origViewMode=='show'&&window.JSINFO){var pathId=JSINFO.id.replace(/:/g,'/');$('a',elt).click(function(e){var href=this.getAttribute('href');if(href&&href.indexOf('://')<0){if(href.match(m_browserHistory.getSelfRefRegex())){load('show');e.preventDefault();}else if(JSINFO.fastwiki.fastshow){var numParams=href.split('=').length;if(href.indexOf('id=')>=0)numParams--;if(numParams==1){if(m_browserHistory.switchBasePath(href)){m_viewMode=null;e.preventDefault();}}}}});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.secedit){$('.editbutton_section .btn_secedit input[type=submit], .editbutton_section .btn_secedit button',elt).click(function(e){e.preventDefault();var form=$(this).parents('form');load('edit',form,_formToObj(form));});}if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preload)m_cache.load(elt,m_browserHistory);}function _preview(sectionForm){var body=$(document.body);var params=_formToObj($('#dw__editform'));params['do']='preview';_sendPartial(params,$('.dokuwiki .editBox'),function(data){var preview=$('<div id="preview_container">'+data+'</div>');var pvEditor=preview.find('#dw__editform');var editor=$('#dw__editform')[0];pvEditor.find('input[type=hidden]').each(function(idx,elt){editor[elt.name].value=elt.value;});preview.find('#scroll__here').prevAll().remove();var oldpreview=$('#preview_container');if(oldpreview.length>0)oldpreview.replaceWith(preview);else $('.content_partial').append(preview);setTimeout(function(){$('html,body').animate({scrollTop:$('#scroll__here').offset().top+'px'},300);},1);},'text');}function _getSection(sectionForm){var pieces=$();var target=sectionForm.parent();var nr=target.attr('class').match(/(\s+|^)editbutton_(\d+)(\s+|$)/)[2];while(target.length>0&&!(target.hasClass('sectionedit'+nr)||target.find('.sectionedit'+nr).length)){target=target.prev();if(target.hasClass('section_highlight'))pieces=pieces.add(target.children());pieces=pieces.add(target);}return pieces;}function _focusEdit(){var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0&&!$edit_text.attr('readOnly')){var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){setTimeout(function(){try{DWsetSelection(sel);}catch(e){}},500);}$edit_text.focus();}}function _initEdit(){if(!window.doku_summaryCheck){window.doku_summaryCheck=window.summaryCheck;}dw_editor.init();dw_locktimer.init(JSINFO.fastwiki.locktime,JSINFO.fastwiki.usedraft);var $editform=$('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0)return;var $edit_text=$('#wiki__text');$editform.on("change keydown",function(e){window.textChanged=true;doku_summaryCheck();});m_pageObjs.content=$edit_text.val();window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged&&m_pageObjs.content!=$edit_text.val())return LANG.notsavedyet;};window.onunload=deleteDraft;$('#edbtn__preview').click(function(e){if(JSINFO.fastwiki.preview){e.preventDefault();_preview(m_pageObjs.sectionForm);m_hasDraft=true;dw_locktimer.reset();}else{window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;}});$('#edit__summary').on("change 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Etología de la lectura: un comentario al ";}i:2;i:1478;}i:162;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteopening";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1546;}i:163;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:12:"Didascalicon";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:12:"Didascalicon";}i:2;i:1547;}i:164;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteclosing";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1559;}i:165;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:24:" de Hugo de San Víctor)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:24:" de Hugo de San Víctor)";}i:2;i:1560;}i:166;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1584;}i:167;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1585;}i:168;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1585;}i:169;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1585;}i:170;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:1585;}i:171;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1586;}i:172;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"Compilaciones";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:1586;}i:2;i:1586;}i:173;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:1586;}i:174;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:18:" +### Compilaciones";}i:2;i:1586;}i:175;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1586;}i:176;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"entity";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:3:"...";}i:2;i:1606;}i:177;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:0:"";}i:2;i:1609;}i:178;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1610;}i:179;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1610;}i:180;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:10:"Artículos";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:1610;}i:2;i:1610;}i:181;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:1610;}i:182;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:14:" +## Artículos";}i:2;i:1610;}i:183;a:3:{i:0;s:10:"listu_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1624;}i:184;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:1624;}i:185;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1624;}i:186;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:1;i:3;s:4:" + +* ";}i:2;i:1624;}i:187;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"internallink";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:46:"es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index";i:1;s:39:"1978 - El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi";}i:2;i:1628;}i:188;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1718;}i:189;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1718;}i:190;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:1718;}i:191;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1718;}i:192;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:1718;}i:193;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"internallink";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:30:"es:article:1986-disvalue:index";i:1;s:15:"1986 - Desvalor";}i:2;i:1721;}i:194;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1771;}i:195;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1771;}i:196;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:1771;}i:197;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1771;}i:198;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:1771;}i:199;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"internallink";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:46:"es:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives";i:1;s:51:"1995 - Prefacio a "Desescolarizando nuestras vidas"";}i:2;i:1774;}i:200;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1876;}i:201;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1876;}i:202;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:1876;}i:203;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1876;}i:204;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:1876;}i:205;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"internallink";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:32:"es:article:1998-conspiracy:index";i:1;s:37:"1998 - El cultivo de la conspiración";}i:2;i:1879;}i:206;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1953;}i:207;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1953;}i:208;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1953;}i:209;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:4;i:3;s:5:" + + + + +";}i:2;i:1953;}i:210;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1958;}i:211;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"Otros recursos";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:1958;}i:2;i:1958;}i:212;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:1958;}i:213;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:18:" +## Otros recursos";}i:2;i:1958;}i:214;a:3:{i:0;s:10:"listu_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1976;}i:215;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:1976;}i:216;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1976;}i:217;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:1;i:3;s:4:" + +* ";}i:2;i:1976;}i:218;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"internallink";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:14:".:videos:index";i:1;s:6:"Videos";}i:2;i:1980;}i:219;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2008;}i:220;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2008;}i:221;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2008;}i:222;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2008;}i:223;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"document_end";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2008;}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/9/9e98b1d74d0b4d61becdce9beb2d41fc.metadata b/data/cache/9/9e98b1d74d0b4d61becdce9beb2d41fc.metadata new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eb17497 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/9/9e98b1d74d0b4d61becdce9beb2d41fc.metadata @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +1646617071
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/9/9e98b1d74d0b4d61becdce9beb2d41fc.xhtml b/data/cache/9/9e98b1d74d0b4d61becdce9beb2d41fc.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e3637d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/9/9e98b1d74d0b4d61becdce9beb2d41fc.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="espanol">Español</h1> +<div class="level1"> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Espa\u00f1ol","hid":"espanol","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":1,"range":"0-11"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit2" id="serie_de_libros_originales">Serie de libros originales</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Ordenados por el año de su primera aparición en cualquier idioma +</p> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:awareness:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:book:awareness:index" data-wiki-id="es:book:awareness:index">1969 - Celebration Of Awareness</a> <em>(Celebración de la conciencia)</em> / <em>(Alternativas)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:church:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:church:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:church:index">1970 - The Church, Change and Development</a> <em>(La iglesia, cambio y desarrollo)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:deschooling:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:book:deschooling:index" data-wiki-id="es:book:deschooling:index">1970 - Deschooling Society</a> <em>(La sociedad desescolarizada)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:conviviality:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:book:conviviality:index" data-wiki-id="es:book:conviviality:index">1973 - Tools for Conviviality</a> <em>(Herramientas para la convivencialidad)</em> / <em>(La convivencialidad)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:energy:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:book:energy:index" data-wiki-id="es:book:energy:index">1974 - Energy And Equity</a> <em>(Energía y equidad)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:medical:index" class="wikilink2" title="es:book:medical:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:book:medical:index">1975 - Medical Nemesis - The Expropriation Of Health</a> <em>(Némesis médica - La expropiación de la salud)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:unemployment:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:book:unemployment:index" data-wiki-id="es:book:unemployment:index">1978 - The Right To Useful Unemployment</a> <em>(El derecho al desempleo útil)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:shadow:index" class="wikilink2" title="es:book:shadow:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:book:shadow:index">1981 - Shadow Work</a> <em>(Trabajo fantasma)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:gender:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:book:gender:index" data-wiki-id="es:book:gender:index">1982 - Gender </a> <em>(El género vernáculo)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:h20:index" class="wikilink2" title="es:book:h20:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:book:h20:index">1985 - H2O And The Waters Of Forgetfulness</a> <em>(H20 y las aguas del olvido)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:abc:index" class="wikilink2" title="es:book:abc:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:book:abc:index">1988 - ABC - The Alphabetization Of The Popular Mind</a> <em>(ABC - La alfabetización de la mente popular)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:mirror:index" class="wikilink2" title="es:book:mirror:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:book:mirror:index">1992 - In The Mirror Of The Past - Lectures And Addresses, 1978-1990</a> <em>(En el espejo del pasado - Lecturas y conferencias, 1978-1990)</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:book:vineyard:index" class="wikilink2" title="es:book:vineyard:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:book:vineyard:index">1993 - In The Vineyard Of The Text-A Commentary To Hugh's Didascalicon</a> <em>(En el viñedo del texto. Etología de la lectura: un comentario al “Didascalicon” de Hugo de San Víctor)</em></div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Serie de libros originales","hid":"serie_de_libros_originales","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":2,"range":"12-1585"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit3" id="compilaciones">Compilaciones</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +… +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Compilaciones","hid":"compilaciones","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":3,"range":"1586-1609"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit4" id="articulos">Artículos</h2> +<div class="level2"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index" data-wiki-id="es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index">1978 - El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:article:1986-disvalue:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:article:1986-disvalue:index" data-wiki-id="es:article:1986-disvalue:index">1986 - Desvalor</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives" class="wikilink2" title="es:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives">1995 - Prefacio a "Desescolarizando nuestras vidas"</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:article:1998-conspiracy:index" class="wikilink1" title="es:article:1998-conspiracy:index" data-wiki-id="es:article:1998-conspiracy:index">1998 - El cultivo de la conspiración</a></div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Art\u00edculos","hid":"articulos","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":4,"range":"1610-1957"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit5" id="otros_recursos">Otros recursos</h2> +<div class="level2"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/es:videos:index" class="wikilink2" title="es:videos:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="es:videos:index">Videos</a></div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Otros recursos","hid":"otros_recursos","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":5,"range":"1958-"} -->
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/9/9f0286caedc5c3b73337cacf5f843e22.i b/data/cache/9/9f0286caedc5c3b73337cacf5f843e22.i new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e5c2f13 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/9/9f0286caedc5c3b73337cacf5f843e22.i @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +a:2091:{i:0;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"document_start";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:0;}i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:27:"La sociedad desescolarizada";i:1;i:1;i:2;i:0;}i:2;i:0;}i:2;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:0;}i:3;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:30:" +# La sociedad desescolarizada";}i:2;i:0;}i:4;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32;}i:5;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"Introducción";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:32;}i:2;i:32;}i:6;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:32;}i:7;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:17:" +## Introducción";}i:2;i:32;}i:8;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32;}i:9;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:386:"Debo a Everett Reimer el interés que tengo por la educación pública hasta el día de 1958 en que nos conocimos en Puerto Rico jamás había yo puesto en duda el valor de hacer obligatoria la escuela para todos. Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela.";}i:2;i:51;}i:10;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:437;}i:11;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:437;}i:12;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:491:"Desde 1966 en adelante, Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca, organizó anualmente dos seminarios alrededor de mi diálogo con Reimer. Centenares de personas de todo el mundo participaron en estos encuentros. Quiero recordar en este lugar a dos de ellos que contribuyeron particularmente a nuestro análisis y que en el entretiempo murieron: Augusto Salazar Bondy y Paul Goodman. Los ensayos escritos para el boletín ";}i:2;i:439;}i:13;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:930;}i:14;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"Cidoc Informa";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"Cidoc Informa";}i:2;i:931;}i:15;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:944;}i:16;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:215:" y reunidos en este libro se desarrollaron a partir de mis notas de seminario. El último capítulo contiene ideas que me surgieron después de mis conversaciones con Erich Fromm en torno al Mutterrecht de Bachofen.";}i:2;i:945;}i:17;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1160;}i:18;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1160;}i:19;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:241:"Durante estos años Valentina Borremans constantemente me urgía a poner a prueba nuestro pensar enfrentándolo a las realidades de América Latina y de África. Este libro refleja su convencimiento de que no sólo las instituciones sino el ";}i:2;i:1162;}i:20;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1403;}i:21;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:1404;}i:22;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1409;}i:23;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:49:" de la sociedad deben ser “desescolarizados”.";}i:2;i:1410;}i:24;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1459;}i:25;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1459;}i:26;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:565:"La educación universal por medio de la escolarización no es factible. No sería más factible si se intentara mediante instituciones alternativas construidas según el estilo de las escuelas actuales. Ni nuevas actitudes de los maestros hacia sus alumnos, ni la proliferación de nuevas herramientas y métodos físicos o mentales (en el aula o en el dormitorio), ni, finalmente, el intento de ampliar la responsabilidad del pedagogo hasta que englobe las vidas completas de sus alumnos, dará por resultado la educación universal. La búsqueda actual de nuevos ";}i:2;i:1461;}i:27;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2026;}i:28;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"embudos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"embudos";}i:2;i:2027;}i:29;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2034;}i:30;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:81:" educacionales debe revertirse hacia la búsqueda de su antípoda institucional: ";}i:2;i:2035;}i:31;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2116;}i:32;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"tramas";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"tramas";}i:2;i:2117;}i:33;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2123;}i:34;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:372:" educacionales que aumenten la oportunidad para que cada cual transforme cada momento de su vida en un momento de aprendizaje, de compartir, de interesarse. Confiamos en estar aportando conceptos necesarios para aquellos que realizan investigaciones sobre la educación —y asimismo para aquellos que buscan alternativas para otras industrias de servicio establecidas—.";}i:2;i:2124;}i:35;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2496;}i:36;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2496;}i:37;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:372:"Me propongo examinar algunas cuestiones inquietantes que surgen una vez que adoptamos como hipótesis que la sociedad puede desescolarizarse, buscar pautas que puedan ayudarnos a discernir instituciones dignas de desarrollo por cuanto apoyan el aprendizaje en un medio desescolarizado, y esclarecer las metas personales que ampararían el advenimiento de una Edad de Ocio ";}i:2;i:2498;}i:38;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2870;}i:39;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"(schole)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"(schole)";}i:2;i:2871;}i:40;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2879;}i:41;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:74:" opuesta como tal a una economía dominada por las industrias de servicio.";}i:2;i:2880;}i:42;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2954;}i:43;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2954;}i:44;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:12:"IVÁN ILLICH";}i:2;i:2956;}i:45;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2968;}i:46;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2968;}i:47;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2970;}i:48;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:32:"Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:32:"Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978";}i:2;i:2971;}i:49;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:3003;}i:50;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:0:"";}i:2;i:3004;}i:51;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:3005;}i:52;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:3005;}i:53;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:53:"Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:3005;}i:2;i:3005;}i:54;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:3005;}i:55;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:57:" +## Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela";}i:2;i:3005;}i:56;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:3005;}i:57;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1190:"Muchos estudiantes en especial los que son pobres saben intuitivamente qué hacen por ellos las escuelas los adiestran a confundir proceso y sustancia. Una vez que estos dos términos se hacen indistintos, se adopta una nueva lógica: cuanto más tratamiento haya, tanto mejor serán los resultados. Al alumno se le “escolariza” de ese modo para confundir enseñanza con saber, promoción al curso siguiente con educación, diploma con competencia, y fluidez con capacidad para decir algo nuevo. A su imaginación se la “escolariza” para que acepte servicio en vez de valor. Se confunde el tratamiento médico tomándolo por cuidado de la salud, el trabajo social por mejoramiento de la vida comunitaria, la protección policiaca por tranquilidad, el equilibrio militar por seguridad nacional, la mezquina lucha cotidiana por trabajo productivo. La salud, el saber, la dignidad, la independencia y el quehacer creativo quedan definidos como poco más que el desempeño de las instituciones que afirman servir a estos fines, y su mejoramiento se hace dependiente de la asignación de mayores recursos a la administración de hospitales, escuelas y demás organismos correspondientes.";}i:2;i:3064;}i:58;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:4254;}i:59;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:4254;}i:60;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1162:"En estos ensayos mostraré que la institucionalización de los valores conduce inevitablemente a la contaminación física, a la polarización social y a la impotencia psicológica: tres dimensiones en un proceso de degradación global y de miseria modernizada. Explicaré cómo este proceso de degradación se acelera cuando unas necesidades no materiales se transforman en demanda de bienes; cuando a la salud, a la educación, a la movilidad personal, al bienestar o a la cura psicológica se las define como el resultado de servicios o de “tratamientos”. Hago esto porque creo que la mayoría de las investigaciones actualmente en curso acerca del futuro tienden a abogar por incrementos aún mayores en la institucionalización de valores y que debemos definir algunas condiciones que permitieran que ocurriese lo contrario. Precisamos investigaciones sobre el posible uso de la tecnología para crear instituciones que atiendan a la acción recíproca, creativa y autónoma entre personas y a la emergencia de valores que los tecnócratas no puedan controlar sustancialmente. Necesitamos investigación en líneas generales para la futurología actual.";}i:2;i:4256;}i:61;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:5418;}i:62;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:5418;}i:63;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:743:"Quiero suscitar la cuestión general acerca de la mutua definición, de la naturaleza del hombre y de la naturaleza de las instituciones modernas, que caracteriza nuestra visión del mundo y nuestro lenguaje. Para hacerlo, he elegido a la escuela como mi paradigma, y por consiguiente trato sólo indirectamente de otros organismos burocráticos del Estado corporativo: la familia consumidora, el partido, el ejército, la Iglesia, los medios informativos. Mi análisis del currículum oculto de la escuela debería poner en evidencia que la educación pública se beneficiaría con la desescolarización de la sociedad, tal como la vida familiar, la política, la seguridad, la fe y la comunicación se beneficiarían con un proceso análogo.";}i:2;i:5420;}i:64;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6163;}i:65;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6163;}i:66;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:335:"Quiero comenzar este estudio esforzándome en hacer comprender qué es lo que la desescolarización de una sociedad escolarizada podría significar. En este contexto debiera ser más fácil entender mi elección de los cinco aspectos específicos pertinentes respecto de este proceso, los cuales abordaré en los capítulos siguientes.";}i:2;i:6165;}i:67;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6500;}i:68;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6500;}i:69;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:387:"No sólo la educación sino la propia realidad social se han escolarizado. Cuesta más o menos lo mismo escolarizar tanto al rico como al pobre en igual dependencia. El gasto anual por alumno en los arrabales y los suburbios ricos de cualquiera de 20 ciudades de Estados Unidos está comprendido dentro de unos mismos márgenes —y hasta es favorable al pobre en ciertos casos—.[^n01]";}i:2;i:6502;}i:70;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6889;}i:71;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6889;}i:72;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:692:"Tanto el pobre como el rico dependen de escuelas y hospitales que guían sus vidas, forman su visión del mundo y definen para ellos qué es legítimo y qué no. Ambos consideran irresponsable medicarse uno mismo, y ven a la organización comunitaria, cuando no la pagan quienes detentan la autoridad, como una forma de agresión y subversión. Para ambos grupos, apoyarse en el tratamiento institucional hace sospechoso el logro independiente. El subdesarrollo progresivo de la confianza en sí mismo y en la comunidad es incluso más típico en Westchester que en el norte de Brasil. Por doquiera, no tan sólo la educación sino la sociedad en conjunto, necesitan “desescolarización”.";}i:2;i:6891;}i:73;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:7583;}i:74;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:7583;}i:75;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:655:"Las burocracias del bienestar social pretenden un monopolio profesional, político y financiero sobre la imaginación social, fijando normas sobre qué es valedero y qué es factible. Este monopolio está en las raíces de la modernización de la pobreza. Cada necesidad simple para la que se halla una respuesta institucional permite la invención de una nueva clase de pobres y una nueva definición de la pobreza. Hace 10 años, lo normal en México era nacer y morir en su propia casa, y ser enterrado por sus amigos. Sólo las necesidades del alma las atendía la Iglesia institucionalizada. Ahora, comenzar y acabar la vida en casa se convierten en ";}i:2;i:7585;}i:76;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:8240;}i:77;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"signos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"signos";}i:2;i:8241;}i:78;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:8247;}i:79;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:177:" , ya sea de pobreza, ya sea de privilegio especial. El morir y la muerte han quedado bajo la administración institucional del médico y de los empresarios de pompas fúnebres.";}i:2;i:8248;}i:80;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8425;}i:81;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8425;}i:82;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:405:"Una vez que una sociedad ha convertido ciertas necesidades básicas en demandas de bienes producidos científicamente, la pobreza queda definida por normas que los tecnócratas pueden cambiar a voluntad. “Pobre” es quien no llega a satisfacer ciertas normas del consumo obligatorio. En México son pobres aquellos que carecen de tres años de escolaridad, y en Nueva York aquellos que carecen de doce.";}i:2;i:8427;}i:83;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8832;}i:84;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8832;}i:85;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:772:"Los pobres siempre han sido socialmente impotentes. Apoyarse cada vez más en la atención y el cuidado institucionales agrega una nueva dimensión a su indefensión: la impotencia psicológica, la incapacidad de valerse por sí mismos. Los campesinos del altiplano andino son explotados por el terrateniente y el comerciante —una vez que se asientan en Lima llegan a depender, además, de los jefazos políticos y están desarmados por su falta de escolaridad—. La pobreza moderna conjuga la pérdida del poder sobre las circunstancias con una pérdida de la potencia personal. Esta modernización de la pobreza es un fenómeno mundial y está en el origen del subdesarrollo contemporáneo. Adopta aspectos diferentes, por supuesto, en países ricos y países pobres.";}i:2;i:8834;}i:86;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:9606;}i:87;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:9606;}i:88;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:450:"Probablemente se siente más intensamente en las ciudades estadunidenses. En ninguna otra parte se da un tratamiento más costoso a la pobreza. En ninguna otra parte el tratamiento de la pobreza produce tanta dependencia, ira, frustración y nuevos requerimientos. Y en ninguna otra parte es tan evidente que la pobreza —una vez modernizada— ha llegado a hacerse resistente al tratamiento con dólares y requiere de una revolución institucional.";}i:2;i:9608;}i:89;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10058;}i:90;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10058;}i:91;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:798:"Hoy en día, en Estados Unidos, el negro y hasta el vagabundo pueden aspirar a un nivel de tratamiento profesional que habría sido inconcebible hace dos generaciones y que a la mayoría de la gente del Tercer Mundo le parece grotesca. Por ejemplo, los pobres de Estados Unidos pueden contar con un vigilante escolar que lleve a sus hijos de regreso a la escuela hasta que lleguen a los 17 años o con un médico que les remita a una cama de hospital que cuesta 60 dólares diarios —el equivalente al ingreso de tres meses para la mayor parte de la gente en el mundo—. Pero ese cuidado los hace sólo más dependientes de un tratamiento ulterior, y los hace cada vez más incapaces de organizar sus propias vidas en torno a sus propias experiencias y recursos dentro de sus propias comunidades.";}i:2;i:10060;}i:92;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10858;}i:93;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10858;}i:94;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:659:"Los estadunidenses pobres están en una posición singular para hablar sobre el predicamento que amenaza a todos los pobres de un mundo en vías de modernización. Están descubriendo que no hay cantidad alguna de dólares que pueda eliminar la destructividad inherente de las instituciones de bienestar social, una vez que las jerarquías profesionales de estas instituciones han convencido a la sociedad de que sus servicios son moralmente necesarios. Los pobres de los núcleos urbanos centrales de Estados Unidos pueden demostrar con su propia experiencia la falacia sobre la que está construida la legislación social en una sociedad “escolarizada”.";}i:2;i:10860;}i:95;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11519;}i:96;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11519;}i:97;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:451:"William O. Douglas, miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, hizo la observación de que “la única manera de establecer una observación es financiarla”. El corolario es asimismo verdadero. Sólo al desviar los dólares que ahora afluyen a las instituciones que actualmente tratan la salud, la educación y el bienestar social, podrá detenerse el progresivo empobrecimiento que ahora proviene del aspecto paralizante de las mismas instituciones.";}i:2;i:11521;}i:98;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11972;}i:99;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11972;}i:100;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:298:"Debemos tener esto presente al evaluar los programas de ayuda federales. A modo de ejemplo: entre 1965 y 1968, en las escuelas de Estados Unidos se gastaron más de 3 000 millones de dólares para compensar las desventajas de unos seis millones de niños. Al programa se le conoce con el nombre de ";}i:2;i:11974;}i:101;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:12272;}i:102;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"Title One";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"Title One";}i:2;i:12273;}i:103;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:12282;}i:104;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:643:" (Artículo Primero). Es el programa compensatorio más costoso que jamás se haya intentado en parte alguna en materia de educación y, sin embargo, no es posible discernir ningún mejoramiento significativo en el aprendizaje de estos niños “desfavorecidos”. En comparación con sus condiscípulos del mismo curso que provienen de hogares de ingresos medios, han quedado aún más retrasados. Por lo demás, a lo largo de este programa, los profesionales descubrieron otros 10 millones de niños que se esforzaban sometidos a desventajas económicas y educativas. Se dispone ahora de nuevas razones para reclamar nuevos fondos federales.";}i:2;i:12283;}i:105;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:12926;}i:106;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:12926;}i:107;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:144:"Este fracaso total en el intento de mejorar la educación de los pobres a pesar de un tratamiento más costoso puede explicarse de tres maneras:";}i:2;i:12928;}i:108;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13072;}i:109;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13072;}i:110;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13074;}i:111;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"1)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"1)";}i:2;i:13075;}i:112;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13077;}i:113;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:135:" Tres mil millones de dólares son insuficientes para mejorar el aprovechamiento de seis millones de niños de modo apreciable; o bien,";}i:2;i:13078;}i:114;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13213;}i:115;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13213;}i:116;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13215;}i:117;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"2)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"2)";}i:2;i:13216;}i:118;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13218;}i:119;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:243:" el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente: se requieren diferentes planes de estudio, una mejor administración, una concentración aún mayor de fondos sobre el niño pobre, y más investigaciones. Con ello se lograría el objetivo: o bien,";}i:2;i:13219;}i:120;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13462;}i:121;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13462;}i:122;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13464;}i:123;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"3)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"3)";}i:2;i:13465;}i:124;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13467;}i:125;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:93:" la desventaja educativa no puede curarse apoyándose en una educación dentro de la escuela.";}i:2;i:13468;}i:126;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13561;}i:127;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13561;}i:128;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:783:"Lo primero es sin duda cierto en cuanto que el dinero se ha gastado a través del presupuesto escolar. El dinero se destinó efectivamente a las escuelas donde estaban la mayoría de los niños desfavorecidos, pero no se gastó en los niños mismos. Estos niños, a los que estaba destinado el dinero, constituían sólo alrededor de la mitad de los que asistían a las escuelas que añadieron el subsidio federal a sus presupuestos. De modo que el dinero se gastó en inspección y custodia, en indoctrinación y selección de papeles sociales, como también en educación, todo ello inextricablemente mezclado con los edificios e instalaciones, planes de estudio, profesores, administradores y otros componentes básicos de estas escuelas y, por consiguiente, con sus presupuestos.";}i:2;i:13563;}i:129;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14346;}i:130;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14346;}i:131;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:422:"Los fondos adicionales permitieron a las escuelas atender desproporcionadamente a los niños relativamente más ricos que estaban “desfavorecidos” por tener que asistir a la escuela en compañía de los pobres. En el mejor de los casos, una pequeña proporción de cada dólar destinado a remediar las desventajas del niño pobre en su aprendizaje podía llegar hasta ese niño a través del presupuesto de la escuela.";}i:2;i:14348;}i:132;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14770;}i:133;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14770;}i:134;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:437:"Podría ser igualmente cierto que el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente. Pero ni siquiera la incompetencia poco común puede superar la del sistema escolar. Las escuelas resisten, por su estructura misma, la concentración del privilegio en quienes son, por otra parte, desfavorecidos. Los planes especiales de estudio, las clases separadas o más horas de estudio constituyen tan sólo más discriminación a un coste más elevado.";}i:2;i:14772;}i:135;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15209;}i:136;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15209;}i:137;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:994:"Los contribuyentes no se han acostumbrado aún a ver que 3 000 millones de dólares se desvanezcan en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar como si se tratara del Pentágono. El gobierno actual tal vez estime que puede afrontar la ira de los educadores. Los estadunidenses de clase media no tienen nada que perder si se interrumpe el programa. Los padres pobres creen que sí pierden, pero, más todavía, están exigiendo el control de los fondos destinados a sus hijos. Un sistema lógico de recortar el presupuesto y, sería de esperar, de aumentar sus beneficios, consistiría en un sistema de becas escolares como el propuesto por Milton Friedman y otros. Los fondos se canalizarían al beneficiario, permitiéndole comprar su parte de escolaridad que elija. Si dicho crédito se limitara a unas compras que se ajustasen a un plan escolar de estudios, tendería a proporcionar una mayor igualdad de tratamiento, pero no aumentaría por ello la igualdad de las exigencias sociales.";}i:2;i:15211;}i:138;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16205;}i:139;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16205;}i:140;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:797:"Debería ser obvio que incluso con escuelas de igual calidad un niño pobre rara vez se pondrá a la par de uno rico. Incluso si asisten a las mismas escuelas y comienzan a la misma edad, los niños pobres carecen de la mayoría de las oportunidades educativas que, al parecer, dispone el niño de clase media. Estas ventajas van desde la conversación y los libros en el hogar hasta el viaje de vacaciones y un sentido diferente de sí mismo, y actúan, para el niño que goza de ellas, tanto dentro de la escuela como fuera de ella. De modo que el estudiante más pobre se quedará atrás en tanto dependa de la escuela para progresar o aprender. Los pobres necesitan fondos que les permitan aprender y no obtener certificados del tratamiento de sus deficiencias presuntamente desproporcionadas.";}i:2;i:16207;}i:141;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17004;}i:142;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17004;}i:143;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:354:"Todo esto es válido para naciones tanto ricas como pobres, pero aparece con aspecto diferente. En las naciones pobres, la pobreza modernizada afecta a más gente y más visiblemente, pero también —por ahora— más superficialmente. Dos de cada tres del total de niños latinoamericanos dejan la escuela antes de terminar el quinto grado, pero estos ";}i:2;i:17006;}i:144;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:17360;}i:145;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"desertores";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"desertores";}i:2;i:17361;}i:146;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:17371;}i:147;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:62:"[^n02] no están tan mal, como lo estarían en Estados Unidos.";}i:2;i:17372;}i:148;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17434;}i:149;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17434;}i:150;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1096:"Hoy en día son pocos los países víctimas de la pobreza clásica, que era estable y menos paralizante. La mayoría de los países de América Latina han llegado al punto de “despegue” hacia el desarrollo económico y el consumo competitivo y, por lo tanto, hacia la pobreza modernizada: sus ciudadanos aprenden a pensar como ricos y a vivir como pobres. Sus leyes establecen un periodo escolar obligatorio de seis a 10 años. No sólo en Argentina, sino también en México o en Brasil, el ciudadano medio define una educación adecuada según las pautas estadunidenses, aun cuando la posibilidad de lograr esa prolongada escolarización esté restringida a una diminuta minoría. En estos países la mayoría ya está enviciada con la escuela, es decir, ha sido “escolarizada” para sentirse inferior respecto de quienes tienen una mejor escolaridad. Su fanatismo en favor de la escuela hace posible explotarlos por partida doble: permite aumentar la asignación de fondos públicos para la educación de unos pocos y aumentar la aceptación del control social por parte de la mayoría.";}i:2;i:17436;}i:151;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:18532;}i:152;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:18532;}i:153;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:781:"Es paradójico que la creencia en la escolarización universal se mantenga más firme en los países en que el menor número de personas ha sido —y será— servido por las escuelas. Sin embargo, en América Latina la mayoría de los padres y de los hijos podrían seguir aún senderos diferentes hacia la educación. La proporción del ahorro nacional invertido en escuelas y maestros tal vez sea mayor que en los países ricos, pero estas inversiones son totalmente insuficientes para atender a la mayoría haciendo posible siquiera cuatro años de asistencia a la escuela. Fidel Castro habla como si quisiese avanzar directo a la desescolarización, cuando promete que para 1980 Cuba estará en condiciones de disolver su universidad, puesto que toda la vida cubana será una ";}i:2;i:18534;}i:154;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:19315;}i:155;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:21:"experiencia educativa";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:21:"experiencia educativa";}i:2;i:19316;}i:156;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:19337;}i:157;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:289:". Sin embargo, en los niveles de primaria y secundaria, Cuba, al igual que otros países latinoamericanos, actúa como si el paso a través de un periodo definido como “la edad escolar” fuese una meta incuestionable para todos, sólo postergada por una escasez momentánea de recursos.";}i:2;i:19338;}i:158;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:19627;}i:159;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:19627;}i:160;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:920:"Los dos engaños gemelos de un tratamiento más a fondo, tal como de hecho se proporciona en Estados Unidos —y como tan sólo se promete en América Latina— se complementan entre sí. Los pobres del Norte están siendo tullidos por el mismo tratamiento de 12 años cuya carencia marca a los pobres del Sur como irremediablemente retrasados. Ni en Norteamérica ni en América Latina logran los pobres igualdad a partir de escuelas obligatorias. Pero en ambas partes la sola existencia de la escuela desanima al pobre y lo invalida para asir el control de su propio aprendizaje. En todo el mundo la escuela tiene un efecto antieducacional sobre la sociedad: se le reconoce como la institución que se especializa en educación. La mayoría de las personas considera los fracasos de la escuela como una prueba de que la educación es una tarea muy costosa, muy compleja, siempre arcana y frecuentemente casi imposible.";}i:2;i:19629;}i:161;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:20549;}i:162;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:20549;}i:163;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:552:"La escuela se apropia del dinero, de los hombres y de la buena voluntad disponibles para educación, y fuera de eso desalienta a otras instituciones respecto a asumir tareas educativas. El trabajo, el tiempo libre, la política, la vida ciudadana e incluso la vida familiar dependen de las escuelas, en lo concerniente a los hábitos y conocimientos que presuponen, en vez de convertirse ellos mismos en medios de educación. Tanto las escuelas como las otras instituciones que dependen de aquéllas llegan simultáneamente a tener un precio imposible.";}i:2;i:20551;}i:164;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21103;}i:165;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21103;}i:166;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"En Estados Unidos, los costes per cápita de la escolaridad han aumentado casi con igual rapidez que el coste del tratamiento médico. Pero este tratamiento más completo impartido por doctores y maestros ha mostrado resultados en continua declinación. Los gastos médicos concentrados sobre los mayores de 45 años se han duplicado varias veces durante un periodo de 40 años, dando como fruto un aumento de 3% en las probabilidades de vida de los varones. El incremento de los gastos educativos ha producido resultados aún más extraños; de otra manera el presidente Nixon no se habría sentido inclinado a prometer esta primavera que todo niño tendrá pronto el “derecho a leer” antes de dejar la escuela.";}i:2;i:21105;}i:167;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21821;}i:168;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21821;}i:169;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1077:"En Estados Unidos se precisarían 80 000 millones de dólares por año para proporcionar lo que los educadores consideran como tratamiento igualitario para todos en escuelas primaria y secundaria. Esto es bastante más del doble de los 36 000 millones que se están gastando ahora. Las predicciones de costes preparadas de modo independiente en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar y en la Universidad de Florida indican que para 1974 las cifras comparables serán de 107 000 millones contra los 45 000 millones proyectados ahora, y estas cifras omiten totalmente los enormes costes de lo que se denomina “educación superior”, cuya demanda está creciendo de manera más veloz. Estados Unidos, que en 1969 gastó casi 80 000 millones de dólares en “defensa”, incluyendo su despliegue en Vietnam, es obviamente demasiado pobre como para proporcionar igual escolaridad. El comité nombrado por el presidente para el estudio del financiamiento de las escuelas debiera preguntar no cómo mantener o cómo recortar tales costes, crecientes, sino cómo evitarlos.";}i:2;i:21823;}i:170;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:22900;}i:171;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:22900;}i:172;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1119:"La escuela igual y obligatoria para todos debiera reconocerse por lo menos como algo económicamente impracticable. En América Latina, la cantidad de erario que se gasta en cada estudiante graduado oscila entre 350 y 1 500 veces el monto gastado en el ciudadano medio (es decir, el ciudadano que está en un término medio entre el más pobre y el más rico). En Estados Unidos la discrepancia es menor, pero la discriminación más aguda. Los padres más ricos, cerca de 10%, pueden permitirse proporcionar a sus hijos educación privada y ayudarles a beneficiarse de las donaciones de fundaciones. Pero además consiguen 10 veces el monto per cápita de fondos públicos si éste se compara con el gasto per cápita que se efectúa en los hijos de 10% de los más pobres. Las razones principales de que esto ocurra son que los muchachos ricos permanecen más tiempo en la escuela, que un año de universidad es desproporcionadamente más costoso que un año de escuela secundaria, y que la mayoría de las universidades privadas dependen —al menos indirectamente— de un financiamiento derivado de desgravámenes.";}i:2;i:22902;}i:173;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24021;}i:174;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24021;}i:175;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:396:"La escuela obligatoria polariza inevitablemente a una sociedad y califica asimismo a las naciones del mundo según un sistema internacional de castas. A los países se los califica como castas cuya dignidad la determina el promedio de años de escolaridad de sus ciudadanos, tabla de calificación que se relaciona íntimamente con el producto nacional bruto per cápita y es mucho más dolorosa.";}i:2;i:24023;}i:176;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24419;}i:177;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24419;}i:178;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"La paradoja de las escuelas es evidente: el gasto creciente hace aumentar su destructividad en su propio país y en el extranjero. Esta paradoja debe convertirse en tema de debate público. Hoy por hoy se reconoce de manera general que el medio ambiente físico quedará destruido dentro de poco por la contaminación bioquímica a menos que invirtamos las tendencias actuales de producción de bienes físicos. Debería reconocerse asimismo que la vida social y personal está igualmente amenazada por la contaminación del Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar, subproducto inevitable del consumo obligatorio y competitivo del bienestar.";}i:2;i:24421;}i:179;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:25066;}i:180;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:25066;}i:181;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:980:"La escalada de las escuelas es tan destructiva como la de las armas, si bien de manera menos visible. En todo el mundo, los costes de la escuela han aumentado con mayor velocidad que las matrículas y más velozmente por el producto nacional bruto (PNB); en todas partes los gastos en la escuela se quedan cada vez más cortos frente a las expectativas de padres, maestros y alumnos. Por doquiera, esta situación desalienta tanto la motivación como el financiamiento para una planificación en gran escala del aprendizaje no escolar. Estados Unidos está demostrando al mundo que ningún país puede ser lo bastante rico como para permitirse un sistema escolar que satisfaga las demandas que este mismo sistema crea con sólo existir, porque un sistema escolar que logre su meta escolariza a padres y alumnos en el valor supremo de un sistema escolar aún mayor, cuyo coste crece desproporcionadamente conforme se crea una demanda de grados superiores y éstos se hacen escasos.";}i:2;i:25068;}i:182;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26048;}i:183;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26048;}i:184;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:279:"En vez de decir que una escolaridad pareja es impracticable por el momento, debemos reconocer que, en principio, es económicamente absurda, y que intentarla es intelectualmente castrante, socialmente polarizante y destruye la verosimilitud del sistema político que la promueve.";}i:2;i:26050;}i:185;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26329;}i:186;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26329;}i:187;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:812:"La ideología de la escolaridad obligatoria no admite límites lógicos. La Casa Blanca proporcionó hace poco un buen ejemplo. El doctor Hutschnecker, el “psiquiatra” que atendió al señor Nixon antes de que fuese admitido como candidato, recomendó al presidente que todos los niños de seis a ocho años fueran examinados profesionalmente para cazar a aquellos que tuviesen tendencias destructivas, y que se les proporcionase a éstos tratamiento obligatorio. En caso necesario se exigiría su reeducación en instituciones especiales. Este memorándum enviado al presidente por su doctor pasó al Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar para que examinaran su valía. En efecto, unos campos de concentración preventivos para predelincuentes serían un adelanto lógico respecto del sistema escolar.";}i:2;i:26331;}i:188;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:27143;}i:189;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:27143;}i:190;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:867:"El que todos tengan iguales oportunidades de educarse es una meta deseable y factible, pero identificar con ello la escolaridad obligatoria es confundir la salvación con la Iglesia. La escuela ha llegado a ser la religión del proletariado modernizado, y hace promesas huecas a los pobres de la era tecnológica. La nación-Estado la ha adoptado, reclutando a todos los ciudadanos dentro de un currículum graduado que conduce a diplomas consecutivos no distintos a los rituales de iniciación y promociones hieráticas de antaño. El Estado moderno se ha arrogado el deber de hacer cumplir el juicio de sus educadores mediante vigilantes bien intencionados y cualificaciones exigidas para conseguir trabajos, de modo muy semejante al que siguieron los reyes españoles que hicieron cumplir los juicios de sus teólogos mediante los conquistadores y la Inquisición.";}i:2;i:27145;}i:191;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28012;}i:192;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28012;}i:193;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:656:"Hace dos siglos Estados Unidos dio al mundo la pauta en un movimiento para privar de apoyo oficial al monopolio de una sola Iglesia. Ahora necesitamos la separación constitucional respecto del monopolio de la escuela quitando de esa manera el apoyo oficial a un sistema que conjuga legalmente el prejuicio con la discriminación. El primer artículo de una Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre apropiada para una sociedad moderna, humanista, concordaría con la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de Estados Unidos: “El Estado no dictará ley alguna respecto del establecimiento de la educación”. No habrá ningún ritual obligatorio para todos.";}i:2;i:28014;}i:194;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28670;}i:195;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28670;}i:196;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:858:"Para poner en vigencia esta separación entre Estado y escuela, necesitamos una ley que prohíba la discriminación en la contratación de personal, en las votaciones o en la admisión a los centros de enseñanza fundados en la previa asistencia a algún plan de estudios. Esta garantía no excluiría pruebas de competencia para una función o cargo, pero eliminaría la absurda discriminación actual en favor de una persona que aprende una destreza determinada con el mayor de los gastos del erario público o —lo que es igualmente probable— que ha podido obtener un diploma que no tiene relación con ninguna habilidad o trabajo útiles. Una separación constitucional del Estado y la escuela puede llegar a ser psicológicamente eficaz sólo si protege al ciudadano de la posibilidad de ser descalificado por cualquier aspecto de su carrera escolar.";}i:2;i:28672;}i:197;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:29530;}i:198;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:29530;}i:199;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:592:"Con la escolaridad no se fomenta ni el deber ni la justicia porque los educadores insisten en aunar la instrucción y la certificación. El aprendizaje y la asignación de funciones sociales se funden en la escolarización. No obstante que aprender significa adquirir una nueva habilidad o entendimiento, la promoción depende de la opinión que otros se hayan formado de uno. Aprender es con frecuencia el resultado de una instrucción, pero ser elegido para una función o categoría en el mercado del trabajo depende cada vez más del tiempo que se ha asistido a un centro de instrucción.";}i:2;i:29532;}i:200;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30124;}i:201;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30124;}i:202;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:681:"Instrucción es la selección de circunstancias que facilitan el aprendizaje. Las funciones se asignan fijando un currículum de condiciones que el candidato debe satisfacer para pasar la valla. La escuela vincula la instrucción —pero no el aprendizaje— con estas funciones. Esto no es ni razonable ni liberador. No es razonable porque no liga unas cualidades o competencias sobresalientes con las funciones por desempeñar, sino con el proceso mediante el cual se supone que habrán de adquirirse dichas cualidades. No libera ni educa porque la escuela reserva la instrucción para aquellos cuyos pasos en el aprendizaje se ajustan a unas medidas aprobadas de control social.";}i:2;i:30126;}i:203;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30807;}i:204;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30807;}i:205;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:878:"El currículum se ha empleado siempre para asignar el rango social. En ocasiones podía ser prenatal: el karma le adjudica a uno a determinada casta y el linaje a la aristocracia. El currículum podía adoptar la forma de un ritual de ordenaciones sacras y secuenciales, o bien podía consistir en una sucesión de hazañas guerreras o cinegéticas, o bien las promociones ulteriores podían depender de una serie de previos favores regios. La escolaridad universal tenía por objeto separar la adjudicación de las funciones de la historia personal de cada uno: se ideó para dar a todos una oportunidad igual de obtener cualquier cargo. Aún ahora muchos creen erróneamente que la escuela asegura que la confianza pública dependa de unos logros sobresalientes en el saber. Pero en vez de haber igualado las posibilidades, el sistema escolar ha monopolizado su distribución.";}i:2;i:30809;}i:206;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:31687;}i:207;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:31687;}i:208;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:581:"Para separar la competencia del currículum, debe convertirse en tabú toda indagación acera del historial de aprendizaje de cada persona, tal como las indagaciones acerca de su filiación política, su asistencia a la iglesia, linaje, hábitos sexuales o antecedentes raciales. Deben dictarse leyes que prohíban la discriminación basada en una previa escolaridad. Evidentemente, las leyes no pueden impedir el prejuicio contra el no escolarizado —ni se pretende con ellas obligar a nadie a casarse con un autodidacta—, pero pueden desaprobar la discriminación justificada.";}i:2;i:31689;}i:209;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32270;}i:210;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32270;}i:211;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:559:"Otra gran ilusión en la que se apoya el sistema escolar es la creencia de que la mayor parte del saber es el resultado de la enseñanza. La enseñanza puede, en verdad, contribuir a ciertos tipos de aprendizaje en ciertas circunstancias. Pero la mayoría de las personas adquieren la mayor parte de su conocimiento fuera de la escuela, y cuando este conocimiento se da en ella, sólo es en la medida en que, en unos cuantos países ricos, la escuela se ha convertido en el lugar de confinamiento de las personas durante una parte cada vez mayor de sus vidas.";}i:2;i:32272;}i:212;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32831;}i:213;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32831;}i:214;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:783:"Lo principal del aprendizaje sobreviene casualmente, e incluso el aprendizaje más intelectual no es el resultado de una instrucción programada. Los niños normales aprenden su lenguaje de manera informal, aunque con mayor rapidez si sus padres les prestan atención. La mayoría de las personas que aprenden bien un segundo idioma lo hacen a consecuencia de circunstancias aleatorias y no de una enseñanza ordenada. Llegan a vivir con sus abuelos, o viajan o se enamoran de algún extranjero. La lectura fácil proviene con igual frecuencia de la escuela o de actividades extracurriculares de este tipo. La mayoría de quienes leen profusamente y con placer tan sólo creen que aprendieron a hacerlo en la escuela; cuando se les discute esto, descartan fácilmente este espejismo.";}i:2;i:32833;}i:215;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:33616;}i:216;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:33616;}i:217;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1212:"Pero el hecho de que aún ahora gran parte del aprendizaje parece suceder al azar y como subproducto de alguna otra actividad definida como trabajo u ocio no significa que el aprendizaje planificado no beneficie la instrucción planificada. Al estudiante poderosamente motivado que se enfrenta con la tarea de adquirir una habilidad nueva y compleja puede aprovecharle mucho la disciplina que hoy en día se asocia mentalmente con el maestro de viejo cuño que antaño enseñaba lectura, hebreo, catecismo o multiplicación de memoria. La escuela ha hecho que este tipo de enseñanza rutinaria sea escasa y mal reputada; no obstante hay muchas destrezas que un estudiante motivado puede dominar en pocos meses si se le enseña de este modo tradicional. Esto vale tanto para los códigos como para su desciframiento; tanto para los segundos o terceros idiomas como para la lectura y la escritura, e igualmente para lenguajes especiales como el álgebra, la programación de computadoras, el análisis químico, o para destrezas manuales como la mecanografía, la relojería, la fontanería, las instalaciones domésticas de electricidad, la reparación de televisores, o para bailar, conducir vehículos y bucear.";}i:2;i:33618;}i:218;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:34830;}i:219;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:34830;}i:220;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:430:"En algunos casos, ser aceptado en un programa de aprendizaje dirigido a una determinada habilidad podría presuponer competencia en alguna otra habilidad, pero ciertamente no se haría depender del proceso mediante el cual se hubieran adquirido tales habilidades previamente requeridas. La reparación de televisores presupone saber leer y algo de matemáticas; el bucear, ser buen nadador, y el conducir, muy poco de ambas cosas.";}i:2;i:34832;}i:221;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:35262;}i:222;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:35262;}i:223;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:762:"El progreso en el aprendizaje es mensurable. Es fácil calcular los recursos óptimos de tiempo y materiales que un adulto corriente motivado necesita. El coste de enseñar un segundo idioma europeo occidental hasta un elevado nivel de fluidez oscila entre 400 y 600 dólares en Estados Unidos, y para una lengua oriental el tiempo requerido de instrucción podría duplicarse. Esto sería todavía poquísimo en comparación con el coste de 12 años de escolaridad en la ciudad de Nueva York (condición para ingresar en el Departamento de Higiene) —casi 15 000 dólares—. Sin duda no sólo el maestro, sino también el impresor y el farmacéutico protegen sus oficios mediante el espejismo público de que el adiestramiento para aprenderlos es muy costoso.";}i:2;i:35264;}i:224;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36026;}i:225;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36026;}i:226;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:736:"En la actualidad, las escuelas se apropian de antemano de la mayor parte de los fondos para educación. La instrucción rutinaria, que cuesta menos que una escolarización comparable, es ahora un privilegio de quienes son lo bastante ricos como para pasarse por alto las escuelas, y de aquellos a quienes el ejército o las grandes firmas les proporcionan un adiestramiento en el trabajo mismo. En un programa de desescolarización progresiva para Estados Unidos, en un comienzo habría escasez de recursos para el adiestramiento rutinario. Pero finalmente no habría impedimento alguno para cualquiera que en cualquier momento de su vida quisiese elegir una instrucción entre centenares de habilidades definibles y a cargo del Estado.";}i:2;i:36028;}i:227;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36764;}i:228;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36764;}i:229;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:767:"Ahora mismo podrían proporcionarse calificaciones educativas aceptables en cualquier centro de enseñanza de oficios en cantidades limitadas para personas de cualquier edad, y no sólo para pobres. Yo concibo dicha calificación (o crédito) en forma de un pasaporte educativo o de una “tarjeta de educrédito” entregada a cada ciudadano al nacer. A fin de favorecer a los pobres, que probablemente no usarían sus cuotas anuales a temprana edad, podría estipularse que los usuarios tardíos de tales “títulos” acumulados ganasen interés. Dichos créditos permitirían a la mayoría adquirir las habilidades de mayor demanda, cuando les conviene, de manera mejor, más rápida, más barata y con menos efectos subsidiarios desfavorables que en la escuela.";}i:2;i:36766;}i:230;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:37533;}i:231;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:37533;}i:232;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1083:"Se me objetará la falta de profesores, pero esto es plantear mal el problema, pues, por una parte, la demanda de una habilidad crece sólo al ponerse en práctica en una comunidad y, por otra, un hombre que ejerza una habilidad puede también enseñarla. Pero, actualmente, aquellos que usan una habilidad que está en demanda y que precisan un profesor humano tienen estímulos negativos para compartir con otros estas habilidades. Esto lo hacen o maestros que monopolizan las licencias, o sindicatos que protegen sus intereses gremiales. Unos centros de enseñanza de oficios o habilidades a los que los clientes juzgaran por sus resultados, y no por el personal que empleasen o por el proceso que se utilizasen, abrirían oportunidades insospechables de trabajo, frecuentemente incluso para aquellos que hoy se consideran inempleables. Verdaderamente no hay motivo para que tales centros no estuviesen en el lugar mismo de trabajo; el patrono y su personal proporcionarían tanto la instrucción como trabajos a quienes eligiesen utilizar sus créditos educativos de esta manera.";}i:2;i:37535;}i:233;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:38618;}i:234;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:38618;}i:235;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1123:"En 1956 se suscitó la necesidad de enseñar rápidamente español a varios centenares de maestros, trabajadores sociales y curas de la arquidiócesis de Nueva York, de modo que pudiesen comunicarse con los puertorriqueños. Mi amigo Gerry Morris anunció en español por una radioemisora que necesitaba hispanohablantes nativos que viviesen en Harlem. Al día siguiente unos 200 adolescentes se alineaban frente a su oficina; de entre ellos eligió cuatro docenas —muchos de ellos desertores escolares—. Los instruyó en el uso del Manual de Instrucción del Instituto del Servicio Exterior de Estados Unidos, para español, concebido para el uso de lingüistas con licenciatura, y al cabo de una semana sus profesores se manejaban solos —cada uno de ellos a cargo de cuatro neoyorkinos que querían hablar el idioma—. En el plazo de seis meses se había cumplido la misión. El cardenal Spellman podía afirmar que tenía 127 parroquias en cada una de las cuales había por lo menos tres miembros de su personal que podían conversar en español. Ningún programa escolar podría haber logrado iguales resultados.";}i:2;i:38620;}i:236;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:39743;}i:237;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:39743;}i:238;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:950:"Los profesores de habilidades escasean por la creencia en el valor de los títulos. La certificación es una manera de manipular el mercado y es concebible sólo para una mente escolarizada. La mayoría de los profesores de artes y oficios son menos diestros, tienen menor inventiva y son menos comunicativos que los mejores artesanos y maestros. La mayoría de los profesores de español o de francés de bachillerato no hablan esos idiomas con la corrección con que lo harían alumnos después de un semestre de rutinas competentes. Unos experimentos llevados a cabo por Ángel Quintero en Puerto Rico sugieren que muchos adolescentes, si se les dan los adecuados incentivos, programas y acceso a las herramientas, son mejores que la mayoría de los maestros de escuela para iniciar a los de su edad en la exploración científica de las plantas, las estrellas y la materia, y en el descubrimiento de cómo y por qué funciona un motor o un radio.";}i:2;i:39745;}i:239;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40695;}i:240;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40695;}i:241;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:290:"Las oportunidades para el aprendizaje de habilidades pueden multiplicarse enormemente si abrimos el “mercado”. Esto depende de reunir al maestro correcto con el alumno correcto cuando éste está altamente motivado dentro de un programa inteligente, sin la restricción del currículum.";}i:2;i:40697;}i:242;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40987;}i:243;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40987;}i:244;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:305:"La instrucción libre y rutinaria es una blasfemia subversiva para el educador ortodoxo. Ella desliga la adquisición de destrezas de la educación “humana”, que la escuela empaca conjuntamente, y fomenta así el aprendizaje sin título no menos que la enseñanza sin título para fines imprevisibles.";}i:2;i:40989;}i:245;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:41294;}i:246;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:41294;}i:247;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:771:"Hay actualmente una propuesta registrada que a primera vista parece sumamente sensata. La preparó Christopher Jencks, del Center for the Study of Public Policy, y está patrocinada por la Office of Economic Opportunity. Propone poner unos “bonos” o “títulos” educativos o donaciones, para pagar el coste de los estudios, en manos de padres y estudiantes para que los gasten en las escuelas que elijan. Tales bonos individuales podrían ser un importante avance en la dirección correcta. Necesitamos que se garantice a cada ciudadano el derecho a una parte igual de los recursos educativos derivados de los impuestos, el derecho a verificar esa parte, y el derecho a entablar juicio si le es denegada. Es una forma de garantía contra la tributación regresiva.";}i:2;i:41296;}i:248;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42067;}i:249;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42067;}i:250;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:474:"Pero la propuesta de Jencks comienza con la ominosa declaración de que “los conservadores, los liberales y los radicales se han quejado en una u otra ocasión de que el sistema educativo estadunidense da a los educadores profesionales un incentivo demasiado pequeño para que proporcionen una educación de gran calidad a la mayoría de los niños”. La propuesta se condena sola al proponer donaciones para pagar unos estudios que tendrían que gastar en escolarizarse.";}i:2;i:42069;}i:251;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42543;}i:252;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42543;}i:253;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:973:"Esto es como dar a un inválido un par de muletas, advirtiéndole que las use sólo si les amarra los extremos. En su forma actual, la propuesta de estos bonos educativos hace el juego no sólo a los educadores profesionales sino también a los racistas, a los promotores de escuelas religiosas y a otros cuyos intereses son socialmente disociantes. Sobre todo, los bonos educativos, cuyo uso se restrinja a las escuelas, hace el juego de quienes quieren continuar viviendo en una sociedad en la que el progreso social está ligado no al conocimiento comprobado, sino al historial de aprendizaje mediante el cual presuntamente se adquiere. Esta discriminación en favor de las escuelas que domina la exposición de Jencks sobre el refinamiento de la educación podría desacreditar uno de los principios que más perentoriamente se precisan para la reforma educativa: el retorno de la iniciativa y la responsabilidad del aprendizaje al aprendiz o a su tutor más inmediato.";}i:2;i:42545;}i:254;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:43518;}i:255;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:43518;}i:256;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:710:"La desescolarización de la sociedad implica el reconocimiento de la naturaleza ambivalente del aprendizaje. La insistencia en la sola rutina podría ser un desastre; igual énfasis debe hacerse en otros tipos de aprendizaje. Pero si las escuelas son el lugar inapropiado para aprender una destreza, son lugares aún peores para adquirir una educación. La escuela realiza mal ambas tareas, en parte porque no distingue entre ellas. La escuela es ineficiente para instruir en destrezas por ser curricular. En la mayoría de las escuelas, un programa cuyo objetivo es mejorar una habilidad está siempre concatenado con otra tarea no pertinente. La historia está amarrada al derecho de usar el patio de juegos.";}i:2;i:43520;}i:257;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:44230;}i:258;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:44230;}i:259;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:843:"Las escuelas son todavía menos eficientes en la creación de circunstancias que alienten el uso irrestricto, exploratorio, de habilidades adquiridas, para lo cual reservaré el término de “educación liberal”. El principal motivo es que la escuela es obligatoria y llega a convertirse en la escolaridad por la escolaridad: una estadía forzosa en compañía de profesores, que paga con el dudoso privilegio de continuar en dicha compañía. Así como la instrucción de destrezas debe ser liberada de restricciones curriculares, a la educación liberal debe desligársela de la asistencia obligatoria. Mediante dispositivos institucionales puede ayudarse tanto al aprendizaje de habilidades como a la educación encaminada a un comportamiento creativo e inventivo, pero ambas cosas son de naturaleza diferente y frecuentemente contraria.";}i:2;i:44232;}i:260;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45075;}i:261;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45075;}i:262;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:814:"La mayoría de las destrezas pueden adquirirse y perfeccionarse mediante rutinas; porque la destreza o habilidad implica el dominio de una conducta definible y predecible. La instrucción de una destreza puede apoyarse, por consiguiente, en la simulación de las circunstancias en que se utilizará dicha destreza. En cambio, la educación en el empleo exploratorio y creativo de destrezas no puede descansar en sistemas rutinarios. La educación puede ser el resultado de la instrucción, aunque de una instrucción fundamentalmente opuesta a la rutina. Se apoya en la relación entre asociaciones que ya poseen algunas de la llaves que dan acceso a memorias almacenadas en la comunidad y por la comunidad. Se apoya en la sorpresa de la pregunta inesperada que abre nuevas puertas al cuestionario y a su asociado.";}i:2;i:45077;}i:263;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45891;}i:264;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45891;}i:265;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:574:"El instructor de destrezas utiliza un conjunto de condiciones dadas que permiten al aprendiz desarrollar ciertas reacciones o respuestas precisas y definidas. El guía o maestro en educación se ocupa de ayudar a unos asociados a que se reúnan de modo que se dé el aprendizaje. Reúne a personas que parten de sus propias y no resueltas interrogantes. A lo más, ayuda al alumno a formular su perplejidad puesto que sólo un planteamiento claro le dará el poder de encontrar a su pareja, moverse como ella, explorar en ese momento la misma cuestión en el mismo contexto.";}i:2;i:45893;}i:266;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:46467;}i:267;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:46467;}i:268;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:605:"En un comienzo parecería más difícil imaginar unos asociados o compañeros para fines educativos que hallar instructores de destrezas y compañeros para un juego. Una de las razones de que esto ocurra es el profundo temor que la escuela nos ha inculcado, un miedo que nos pone criticones. El intercambio intitulado de destrezas —a menudo destrezas inconvenientes— es más predecible y por tanto parece menos peligroso que las oportunidades ilimitadas de reunión para personas que comparten una cuestión en debate que es, en ese momento, social, intelectual y emocionalmente importante para ellas.";}i:2;i:46469;}i:269;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:47074;}i:270;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:47074;}i:271;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:441:"El profesor brasileño Paulo Freire sabe esto por experiencia. Descubrió que cualquier adulto puede comenzar a leer en cosa de 40 horas si las primeras palabras que descifra están cargadas de significado político. Freire adiestra a sus maestros para trasladarse a una aldea y descubrir las palabras que designan asuntos actuales importantes, tales como el acceso a un pozo, o el interés compuesto de las deudas que han contraído con el ";}i:2;i:47076;}i:272;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:47517;}i:273;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"patrón";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"patrón";}i:2;i:47518;}i:274;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:47525;}i:275;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:540:". Por la tarde, los aldeanos se reúnen para conversar sobre esas palabras clave. Comienzan a percatarse de que cada palabra permanece en el pizarrón incluso después de haberse desvanecido su sonido. Las letras continúan abriendo, como llaves, la realidad y haciéndola manejable como problema. Frecuentemente he presenciado cómo en unos participantes crece la conciencia social y cómo se ven impelidos a actuar políticamente con la misma velocidad con que aprenden a leer. Parecen tomar la realidad en sus manos conforme la escriben.";}i:2;i:47526;}i:276;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48066;}i:277;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48066;}i:278;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:273:"Recuerdo a un hombre que se quejó del peso de los lápices: eran difíciles de manipular porque no pesaban como una pala, y recuerdo a otro que camino al trabajo se detuvo con sus compañeros y escribió con su azadón en el suelo la palabra de la que venía conversando: ";}i:2;i:48068;}i:279;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:48341;}i:280;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"agua";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"agua";}i:2;i:48342;}i:281;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:48346;}i:282;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:280:".[^n03] Desde 1962, mi amigo Freire ha pasado de exilio en exilio, principalmente porque rehúsa llevar a cabo sus sesiones en torno a palabras que hayan sido preseleccionadas por educadores aprobados y prefiere utilizar aquellas que los participantes llevan consigo a las clases.";}i:2;i:48347;}i:283;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48627;}i:284;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48627;}i:285;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1182:"La reunión de personas con fines educativos sólo es posible cuando se han beneficiado de una verdadera escolaridad. Los que no necesitan de esa ayuda son una minoría, incluso entre aquellos que leen revistas serias. La mayoría no puede ni debe ser congregada en torno a una consigna, a una palabra, a una imagen, sino en torno a un problema elegido y definido por iniciativa de los participantes. El aprendizaje creativo, exploratorio, requiere sujetos de igual perplejidad ante los mismos términos o problemas. Las grandes universidades realizan el vano intento de aparejarlos multiplicando sus cursos y por lo general fracasan en la medida en que están ligados al currículum, a la estructura de cursos y a una administración burocrática. En las escuelas, tal como en las universidades, la mayoría de los recursos se gasta en comprar el tiempo y la motivación de un número reducido de personas para encarar problemas predeterminados en un escenario definido de forma ritual. La alternativa más radical para la escuela sería una red o servicio que diera a cada hombre la misma oportunidad de compartir sus intereses actuales con otros motivados por iguales cuestiones.";}i:2;i:48629;}i:286;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:49811;}i:287;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:49811;}i:288;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:724:"Permítaseme dar, como ejemplo de mi planteamiento, una descripción de cómo podría funcionar esta “unión” intelectual en la ciudad de Nueva York. Cada hombre, en cualquier momento y a un precio mínimo, podría identificarse ante una computadora con su dirección y su número de teléfono, indicando libro, artículos, película o grabación acerca de los cuales busca un compañero con el cual conversar. En un plazo de días podría recibir por correo la lista de otros que hubieran tomado recientemente la misma iniciativa. Esta lista le permitiría concertar por teléfono una reunión con personas que inicialmente se conocerían exclusivamente por el hecho de haber solicitado un diálogo sobre el mismo tema.";}i:2;i:49813;}i:289;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:50537;}i:290;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:50537;}i:291;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:671:"Juntar personas de acuerdo con el interés que tengan sobre un título dado es radicalmente simple. Permite la identificación sobre la base de un deseo mutuo de conversar sobre una afirmación registrada por un tercero, y deja al individuo la iniciativa de concertar la reunión. Normalmente se hacen tres objeciones contra esta pureza esquelética. Las recojo no sólo para esclarecer la teoría que quiero ilustrar mediante mi propuesta —pues destacan la acendrada resistencia a desescolarizar la educación, a separar el aprendizaje del control social—, sino también porque pueden ayudar a sugerir unos recursos que no se emplean ahora para fines de aprendizaje.";}i:2;i:50539;}i:292;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:51210;}i:293;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:51210;}i:294;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:789:"La primera objeción es: ¿por qué no podría la identificación de cada uno basarse en una idea o en un tema de debate? Ciertamente dichos términos subjetivos podrían usarse también en un sistema informático. Los partidos políticos, Iglesias, sindicatos, clubes, centros vecinales y sociedades profesionales organizan ya sus actividades educativas de este modo y, en efecto, actúan como escuelas. Todos ellos reúnen personas con el fin de explorar ciertos “temas”, que se abordan en cursos, seminarios y planes de estudio en los que unos presuntos “intereses comunes” están preen-vasados. Dicha “reunión por tema” está, por definición, centrado en el profesor: precisa una presencia autoritaria para definir ante los participantes el punto de partida de su debate.";}i:2;i:51212;}i:295;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:52001;}i:296;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:52001;}i:297;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:691:"Por el contrario, reunirse para hablar de un libro, de una película, etc., sin otra explicación que un título o una referencia, deja al autor definir el lenguaje especial, los términos y el marco de referencia dentro del cual se plantea un determinado problema o hecho, y permite a quienes acepten este punto de partida identificarse uno con otro. Por ejemplo, reunir gente en torno a la idea de “revolución cultural” conduce generalmente o a la confusión o a la demagogia. Por otra parte, reunir a quienes se interesen en ayudarse mutuamente a entender un determinado artículo de Mao, Marcuse, Freud o Goodman se inscribe en la gran tradición del aprendizaje liberal, desde los ";}i:2;i:52003;}i:298;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:52694;}i:299;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"Diálogos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"Diálogos";}i:2;i:52695;}i:300;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:52704;}i:301;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:512:" de Platón, que están construidos en torno a presuntas declaraciones de Sócrates, hasta los comentarios de Tomás de Aquino sobre Pedro Lombardo. La idea de reunir a las personas alrededor de un título es pues radicalmente diferente de la teoría sobre la que se fundaban, por ejemplo, los clubes de los “Grandes Libros”: en vez de apoyarse en la selección realizada por algunos catedráticos de Chicago, cualquier par de personas puede, como compañero de juego, elegir cualquier libro para analizarlo.";}i:2;i:52705;}i:302;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:53217;}i:303;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:53217;}i:304;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1306:"La segunda objeción pregunta: ¿por qué la identificación de quienes buscan compañero no podría incluir información sobre edad, antecedentes, visión del mundo, competencia, experiencia y otras características definitorias? No hay en este caso razón alguna para que tales restricciones discriminatorias no pudiesen (y no debiesen) incorporarse en algunas de las numerosas universidades —con o sin muros— que podrían usar la reunión alrededor de títulos como el dispositivo básico para organizarse. Puedo imaginar un sistema ideal para fomentar las reuniones de personas interesadas en las que el autor del libro elegido podría estar presente o representado, o un sistema que garantice la presencia de un asesor competente, o uno al que tuviesen acceso sólo estudiantes matriculados en una facultad o escuela, o personas capaces de presentar una investigación específica sobre la obra que se discute. Cada una de estas restricciones, se me dirá, serviría a metas específicas de aprendizaje. Pero me temo que, en la mayoría de los casos, el motivo real para proponer tales restricciones es el desdén que proviene de presuponer que la gente es ignorante: los educadores quieren evitar que el ignorante se junte con el ignorante en torno a un texto que podrían no entender y que leen ";}i:2;i:53219;}i:305;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:54525;}i:306;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"sólo";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"sólo";}i:2;i:54526;}i:307;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:54531;}i:308;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:34:" porque están interesados en él.";}i:2;i:54532;}i:309;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:54566;}i:310;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:54566;}i:311;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:666:"La tercera objeción: ¿por qué no proporcionar a quienes buscan compañero una ayuda incidental que facilite sus reuniones —espacio, horarios, selección de participantes, protección—? Esto lo hacen actualmente las escuelas con toda la ineficiencia que caracteriza a las grandes burocracias. Si dejáramos la iniciativa de las reuniones a los interesados en reunirse, unas organizaciones que nadie clasifica hoy como educativas harían mucho mejor este trabajo. Pienso en dueños de restaurantes, editores, servicios de recados telefónicos, directivos de trenes suburbanos que podrían promover sus servicios al hacerlos atractivos para reuniones educativas.";}i:2;i:54568;}i:312;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:55234;}i:313;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:55234;}i:314;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1392:"En una primera reunión en, digamos, un café, los interesados podrían establecer sus identidades colocando el libro en debate junto a sus tazas. Las personas que tomaran la iniciativa de concertar tales reuniones aprenderían pronto qué elementos citar para encontrarse con la gente que buscan. El riesgo de que una conversación que uno mismo ha elegido le lleve a una pérdida de tiempo, a una decepción, e incluso a un desagrado es ciertamente menor que el riesgo que corre quien solicita ingresar en una universidad. Una reunión concertada por computadora para debatir un artículo de una revista de circulación nacional, celebrada en un café de la Cuarta Avenida, no obligaría a ninguno de los participantes a permanecer en compañía de sus nuevos conocidos por más tiempo del necesario para beber una taza de café, ni tendría que encontrarse con ellos de nuevo. La probabilidad de que ello le ayudara a disipar la opacidad de la vida en una ciudad moderna, a fomentar nuevas amistades, a abrir nuevos horizontes y profundizar en un trabajo elegido, es elevada. (El hecho de que de este modo el FBI podría conseguir un registro de las reuniones y lecturas que se hacen es innegable; el que esto pueda aún preocupar a alguien en 1970 es sólo divertido para un hombre libre, quien, quiéralo o no, aporta su cuota para ahogar a los espías en las nimiedades que recolectan.)";}i:2;i:55236;}i:315;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:56628;}i:316;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:56628;}i:317;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:113:"Tanto el intercambio de destrezas como el encuentro con copartícipes se fundan en el supuesto de que educación ";}i:2;i:56630;}i:318;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56743;}i:319;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"para todos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"para todos";}i:2;i:56744;}i:320;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56754;}i:321;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:22:" significa educación ";}i:2;i:56755;}i:322;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56777;}i:323;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:18:"por parte de todos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:18:"por parte de todos";}i:2;i:56778;}i:324;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56796;}i:325;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1029:". No es el reclutamiento en una institución especializada, sino sólo la movilización de toda la población lo que puede conducir a una cultura popular. Los maestros titulados se han apropiado del derecho que todo hombre tiene de ejercer su competencia para aprender e instruir igualmente. La competencia del maestro está a su vez restringida a lo que pueda hacerse en la escuela. Además, el trabajo y el tiempo libre están, a consecuencia de ello, alienados el uno del otro: tanto del trabajador como del espectador se espera que lleguen al lugar de trabajo prestos a encajar en una rutina preparada para ellos. La adaptación en forma de diseño, instrucción y publicidad de un producto los moldea para desempeñar su papel de modo muy semejante a como lo hace la educación mediante la escolaridad. Una alternativa radical para una sociedad escolarizada exige no sólo mecanismos para la adquisición formal de destrezas y el uso educativo de éstas, implica un nuevo modo de encarar la educación informal o incidental.";}i:2;i:56797;}i:326;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:57826;}i:327;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:57826;}i:328;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1047:"La educación incidental ya no puede regresar a las formas que el aprendizaje adoptó en la aldea o en la ciudad medieval. Mientras la sociedad tradicional se asemejaba más a un grupo de círculos concéntricos de estructuras significativas, el hombre moderno debe aprender cómo hallar significación en muchas estructuras con las que está relacionado de manera sólo marginal. En la aldea, el lenguaje, la arquitectura, el trabajo, la religión y las costumbres familiares eran compatibles entre sí, se explicaban y reforzaban mutuamente. Desarrollarse en una implicaba un desarrollo en las otras. Incluso el aprendizaje especializado era el subproducto de actividades especializadas, tales como la fabricación de zapatos o el canto de los salmos. Si un aprendiz no llegaba jamás a ser maestro o erudito, contribuía sin embargo a la fabricación de zapatos o a hacer solemnes los servicios litúrgicos. La educación no competía en tiempo ni con el trabajo ni con el ocio. Casi toda la educación era compleja, vitalicia y no planificada.";}i:2;i:57828;}i:329;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:58875;}i:330;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:58875;}i:331;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:775:"La sociedad contemporánea es el resultado de diseños e intenciones conscientes, y las oportunidades educativas han de ser incorporadas a esos diseños. Ahora disminuirá la confianza que depositamos en la instrucción especializada y de tiempo completo a través de la escuela, y hemos de hallar nuevas maneras de aprender y enseñar: la calidad educativa de todas las instituciones debe aumentar una vez más. Pero ésta es una previsión muy ambigua. Podría significar que los hombres de la ciudad moderna serán cada día más las víctimas de un proceso eficaz de instrucción total y manipulación una vez que estén privados incluso del tenue asomo de independencia crítica que proporcionan hoy en día las escuelas liberales, cuando menos a algunos de sus alumnos.";}i:2;i:58877;}i:332;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:59652;}i:333;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:59652;}i:334;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:576:"Podría significar también que los hombres se escudarán menos tras certificados adquiridos en la escuela y adquirirán así valor para ser “respondones” y controlar e instruir de ese modo a las instituciones en que participen. Para lograr esto último debemos darnos cuenta del valor social del trabajo y del ocio por el intercambio educativo que permiten. La participación efectiva en la política de una calle, de un puesto de trabajo o de un hospital es por lo tanto el mejor patrón para evaluar el valor de las diferentes instituciones en el plan de la educación.";}i:2;i:59654;}i:335;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:60230;}i:336;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:60230;}i:337;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:914:"Hace poco dirigí la palabra a un grupo de estudiantes de los primeros años de bachillerato, empeñados en organizar un movimiento de resistencia a su enrolamiento obligatorio en la clase siguiente. Tenían por consigna “participación-no simulación”. Les decepcionaba que esto se entendiera como una petición de menos educación en vez de lo contrario, y me hicieron recordar la resistencia que opuso Karl Marx a un párrafo en el programa de Gotha que —hace 100 años— quería hacer ilegal el trabajo infantil. Se opuso a la proposición diciendo que la ecuación de los jóvenes solo podía producirse en el trabajo. Si el mayor fruto del trabajo del hombre debiera ser la educación que se deriva de éste y la oportunidad que el trabajo le da para iniciar la educación de otros, entonces la alimentación de la sociedad moderna en un sentido pedagógico es aún peor que su alienación económica.";}i:2;i:60232;}i:338;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61146;}i:339;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61146;}i:340;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:564:"El mayor obstáculo en el camino de una sociedad que educa verdaderamente lo definió muy bien un amigo mío, negro de Chicago, quien me dijo que nuestra imaginación estaba “totalmente escuelada”. Permitimos al Estado verificar las deficiencias educativas universales de sus ciudadanos y establecer un organismo especializado para tratarlos. Compartimos así la ilusión de que podemos distinguir entre qué es educación necesaria para otros y qué no lo es, tal como generaciones anteriores establecieron leyes que definían qué era sagrado y qué profano.";}i:2;i:61148;}i:341;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61712;}i:342;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61712;}i:343;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:493:"Durkheim reconoció que esta capacidad para dividir la realidad social en dos ámbitos era la esencia misma de la religión formal. Existen —razonó— religiones sin lo sobrenatural y religiones sin Dios, pero no hay ninguna que no subdivida el mundo en cosas, tiempo y personas que son sagradas y en otras que por consecuencia son profanas. Este penetrante alcance de Durkheim puede aplicarse a la sociología de la educación, pues la escuela es radicalmente divisoria de manera parecida.";}i:2;i:61714;}i:344;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62207;}i:345;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62207;}i:346;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:369:"La existencia misma de las escuelas obligatorias divide cualquier sociedad en dos ámbitos: ciertos lapsos, procesos, tratamientos y profesiones son “académicos” y “pedagógicos”, y otros no lo son. Así, el poder de la escuela para dividir la realidad social no conoce límites: la educación se hace no terrenal, en tanto que el mundo se hace no educacional.";}i:2;i:62209;}i:347;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62578;}i:348;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62578;}i:349;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:587:"A partir de Bonhoeffer, los teólogos contemporáneos han señalado la confusión que reina hoy en día entre el mensaje bíblico y la religión institucionalizada. Señalan la experiencia que la libertad y la fe cristianas suelen ganar con la secularización. Sus afirmaciones suenan inevitablemente blasfemas para muchos clérigos. En incuestionable que el proceso educativo ganará con la desescolarización de la sociedad aun cuando esta exigencia les suene a muchos escolares como una traición a la cultura. Pero es la cultura misma la que está siendo apagada hoy en las escuelas.";}i:2;i:62580;}i:350;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63167;}i:351;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63167;}i:352;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:507:"La secularización de la fe cristiana depende de la dedicación que pongan en ello los cristianos arraigados en la Iglesia. De manera muy parecida, la desescolarización de la educación depende del liderazgo de quienes se criaron en las escuelas. El currículum que cumplieron no puede servirles como excusa para la tarea: cada uno de nosotros sigue siendo responsable de lo que se ha hecho por él, aun cuando puede que no sea capaz sino de aceptar esta responsabilidad y servir de advertencia para otros.";}i:2;i:63169;}i:353;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63677;}i:354;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63677;}i:355;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:28:"Fenomenología de la escuela";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:63677;}i:2;i:63677;}i:356;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:63677;}i:357;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:32:" +## Fenomenología de la escuela";}i:2;i:63677;}i:358;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63677;}i:359;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:398:"Algunas palabras llegan a ser tan flexibles que pierden cualquier significación precisa y se usan para cualquier cosa entre éstas se cuentan “escuela” y “enseñanza”. Se filtran, como una amiba, por cualquier intersticio del lenguaje. Así, decimos que el ABM[^n04] enseñará a los rusos, la IBM enseñará a los niños negros, y el ejército puede llegar a ser la escuela de la nación.";}i:2;i:63711;}i:360;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:64109;}i:361;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:64109;}i:362;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1080:"Por consiguiente, la búsqueda de alternativas en educación debe comenzar por un acuerdo acerca de lo que entendemos por “escuela”. Esto puede hacerse de varias maneras. Podemos comenzar por anotar las funciones latentes desempeñadas por los sistemas escolares modernos, tales como los de custodia, selección, adoctrinamiento y aprendizaje. Podríamos hacer un análisis de clientela y verificar cuál de estas funciones latentes favorece o desfavorece a maestros, patronos, niños, padres o a las profesiones. Podríamos repasar la historia de la cultura occidental y la información reunida por la antropología a fin de encontrar instituciones que desempeñaron un papel semejante al que hoy cumple la escolarización. Podríamos finalmente recordar los numerosos dictámenes normativos que se han hecho desde el tiempo de Comenius, o incluso desde Quintiliano, y descubrir a cuál de éstos se aproxima más el moderno sistema escolar. Pero cualquiera de estos enfoques nos obligaría a comenzar con ciertos supuestos acerca de una relación entre escuela y educación.";}i:2;i:64111;}i:363;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65191;}i:364;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65191;}i:365;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:368:"Para crear un lenguaje en el que podamos hablar sobre la escuela sin ese incesante recurrir a la educación, he querido comenzar por algo que podría llamarse fenomenología de la escuela pública. Con este objeto definiré “escuela” como el proceso que especifica edad, se relaciona con maestros y exige asistencia de tiempo completo y un currículum obligatorio.";}i:2;i:65193;}i:366;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65561;}i:367;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65561;}i:368;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"1";}i:2;i:65563;}i:369;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:28:"markdowku_escapespecialchars";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:5;i:1;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:5;i:3;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:65564;}i:370;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" ";}i:2;i:65566;}i:371;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:65567;}i:372;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"Edad";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"Edad";}i:2;i:65568;}i:373;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:65572;}i:374;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:346:". La escuela agrupa a las personas según sus edades. Este agrupamiento se funda en tres premisas indiscutidas. A los niños les corresponde estar en la escuela. Los niños aprenden en la escuela. A los niños puede enseñárseles solamente en la escuela. Creo que estas tres premisas no sometidas a examen merecen ser seriamente puestas en duda.";}i:2;i:65573;}i:375;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65919;}i:376;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65919;}i:377;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:647:"Nos hemos ido acostumbrando a los niños. Hemos decidido que deberían ir a la escuela, hacer lo que se les dice y no tener ingresos propios. Esperamos que sepan el lugar que ocupan y se comporten como niños. Recordamos, ya sea con nostalgia o con amargura, el tiempo en que también fuimos niños. Se espera de nosotros que toleremos la conducta infantil de los niños. La humanidad es, para nosotros, una especie simultáneamente atribulada y bendecida con la tarea de cuidar niños. No obstante, olvidamos que nuestro actual concepto de “niñez” sólo se desarrolló recientemente en Europa occidental, y hace aún menos en América.[^n05]";}i:2;i:65921;}i:378;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:66568;}i:379;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:66568;}i:380;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1458:"La niñez como algo diferente de la infancia, la adolescencia o la juventud fue algo desconocido para la mayoría de los periodos históricos. Algunos siglos del cristianismo no tuvieron ni siquiera una idea de sus proporciones corporales. Los artistas pintaban al niño como un adulto en miniatura sentado en el brazo de su madre. Los niños aparecieron en Europa junto con el reloj de bolsillo y los prestamistas cristianos del Renacimiento. Antes de nuestro siglo ni los ricos ni los pobres supieron nada acerca de vestidos para niños, juegos para niños o de la inmunidad del niño ante la ley. Esas ideas comenzaron a desarrollarse en la burguesía. El hijo del obrero, el del campesino y el del noble vestían todos como lo hacían sus padres, jugaban como éstos y eran ahorcados igual que ellos. Después de que la burguesía descubriera la “niñez”, todo esto cambió. Sólo algunas Iglesias continuaron respetando por algún tiempo la dignidad y la madurez de los menores. Hasta el Concilio Vaticano II, se le decía a cada niño que un cristiano llega a tener discernimiento moral y libertad a la edad de siete años y a partir de entonces es capaz de caer en pecados por los cuales podrá ser castigado por toda una eternidad en el infierno. A mediados de este siglo, los padres de clase media comenzaron a tratar de evitar a sus niños el impacto de esta doctrina, y su modo de pensar sobre los niños es el que hoy prevalece en la Iglesia.";}i:2;i:66570;}i:381;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68028;}i:382;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68028;}i:383;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:373:"Hasta el siglo pasado, los “niños” de padres de clase media se fabricaban en casa con la ayuda de preceptores y escuelas privadas. Sólo con el advenimiento de la sociedad industrial la producción en masa de la “niñez” comenzó a ser factible y a ponerse al alcance de la multitud. El sistema escolar es un fenómeno moderno, como lo es la niñez que lo produce.";}i:2;i:68030;}i:384;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68403;}i:385;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68403;}i:386;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:543:"Puesto que hoy en día la mayoría de las personas viven fuera de las ciudades industriales, la mayoría de la gente no experimenta la niñez. En los Andes, uno labra la tierra cuando ha llegado a ser “útil”. Antes de esa edad, uno cuida las ovejas. Si se está bien nutrido, debe llegar a ser útil hacia los 11 años de edad, y de otro modo a los 12. Estaba yo conversando hace poco con Marcos, mi celador nocturno, sobre su hijo de 11 años que trabaja en una barbería. Hice en español la observación de que su hijo era todavía un ";}i:2;i:68405;}i:387;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:68948;}i:388;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"niño";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"niño";}i:2;i:68949;}i:389;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:68954;}i:390;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:724:". Marcos, sorprendido, contestó con inocente sonrisa: “Don Iván, creo que usted tiene razón”. Percatándome de que hasta el momento de mi observación Marcos había pensado en el muchacho en primer lugar como su “hijo”, me sentí culpable de haber hecho surgir el fantasma de la niñez entre dos personas sensatas. Naturalmente que si yo fuese a decir a un habitante de los barrios bajos de Nueva York que su hijo que trabaja es todavía un “niño”, no mostraría ninguna sorpresa. Sabe muy bien que a su hijo de 11 años debería permitírsele su niñez, y se resiente de que no sea así. El hijo de Marcos no ha sido afectado aún por el anhelo de tener niñez, el hijo del neoyorkino se siente desposeído.";}i:2;i:68955;}i:391;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:69679;}i:392;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:69679;}i:393;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:666:"Así pues, la mayoría de la gente en el mundo o no quiere o no puede conceder una niñez moderna a sus críos. Pero también parece que la niñez es una carga para esos pocos a quienes se les concede. A muchos simplemente se les obliga a pasar por ella y no están en absoluto felices de desempeñar el papel de niños. Crecer pasando por la niñez significa estar condenado a un proceso de conflicto inhumano entre la conciencia de sí y el papel que impone una sociedad que está pasando por su propia edad escolar. Ni Stephen Dédalus ni Alexander Portnoy gozaron de la niñez y, según sospecho, tampoco nos gustó a muchos de nosotros ser tratados como niños.";}i:2;i:69681;}i:394;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70347;}i:395;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70347;}i:396;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:539:"Si no existiese una institución de aprendizaje obligatorio y para una edad determinada, la “niñez” dejaría de fabricarse. Los menores de los países ricos se librarían de su destructividad, y los países pobres dejarían de rivalizar con la niñería de los ricos. Para que la sociedad pudiese sobreponerse a su edad de la niñez, tendría que hacerse vivible para los menores. La disyunción actual entre una sociedad adulta que pretende ser humanitaria y un ambiente escolar que remeda la realidad no puede seguir manteniéndose.";}i:2;i:70349;}i:397;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70888;}i:398;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70888;}i:399;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:508:"El hecho de privar de apoyo oficial a las escuelas podría terminar también con la discriminación contra los nenes, los adultos y los ancianos en favor de los niños durante su adolescencia y juventud. Es probable que la decisión social de asignar recursos educativos preferentemente a aquellos ciudadanos que han dejado atrás la extraordinaria capacidad de aprendizaje de sus primeros años y no han llegado a la cúspide de su aprendizaje automotivado parezca grotesca cuando se vea retrospectivamente.";}i:2;i:70890;}i:400;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71398;}i:401;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71398;}i:402;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:456:"La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños necesitan la escuela. La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños aprenden en la escuela. Pero esta sabiduría institucional es en sí el producto de escuelas, porque el sólido sentido común nos dice que sólo a niños se les puede enseñar en la escuela. Sólo segregando a los seres humanos en la categoría de la niñez podremos someterlos alguna vez a la autoridad de un maestro de escuela.";}i:2;i:71400;}i:403;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71856;}i:404;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71856;}i:405;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"2";}i:2;i:71858;}i:406;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:28:"markdowku_escapespecialchars";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:5;i:1;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:5;i:3;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:71859;}i:407;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" ";}i:2;i:71861;}i:408;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:71862;}i:409;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:20:"Profesores y alumnos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:20:"Profesores y alumnos";}i:2;i:71863;}i:410;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:71883;}i:411;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:370:". Por definición, los niños son alumnos. La demanda por el medio ambiente escolar crea un mercado ilimitado para los profesores titulados. La escuela es una institución construida sobre el axioma de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza. Y la sabiduría institucional continúa aceptando este axioma, pese a las pruebas abrumadoras en sentido contrario.";}i:2;i:71884;}i:412;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72254;}i:413;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72254;}i:414;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:313:"Todos hemos aprendido la mayor parte de lo que sabemos fuera de la escuela. Los alumnos hacen la mayor parte de su aprendizaje sin sus maestros y, a menudo, a pesar de éstos. Lo que es más trágico es que a la mayoría de los hombres las escuelas les enseñan su lección, aun cuando nunca vayan _a_ la escuela.";}i:2;i:72256;}i:415;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72569;}i:416;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72569;}i:417;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1264:"Toda persona aprende a vivir fuera de la escuela. Aprendemos a hablar, a pensar, a amar, a sentir, a jugar, a blasfemar, a politiquear y a trabajar sin la interferencia de un profesor. Ni siquiera los niños que están día y noche bajo la tutela de un maestro constituyen excepciones a la regla. Los huérfanos, los cretinos y los hijos de maestros de escuela aprenden la mayor parte de lo que aprenden fuera del proceso “educativo” programado para ellos. Los profesores han quedado mal parados en sus intentos de aumentar el aprendizaje entre los pobres. A los padres pobres que quieren que sus hijos vayan a la escuela no les preocupa tanto lo que aprendan como el certificado y el dinero que obtendrán. Y los padres de clase media confían sus hijos a un profesor para evitar que aprendan aquello que los pobres aprenden en la calle. Las investigaciones sobre educación están demostrando cada día más que los niños aprenden aquello que sus maestros pretenden enseñarles, no de éstos, sino de sus iguales, de las tiras cómicas, de la simple observación al pasar y, sobre todo, del solo hecho de participar en el ritual de la escuela. Las más de las veces los maestros obstruyen el aprendizaje de materias de estudio conforme se dan en la escuela.";}i:2;i:72571;}i:418;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:73835;}i:419;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:73835;}i:420;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:979:"La mitad de la gente en nuestro mundo jamás ha estado en una escuela. No se han topado con profesores y están privados del privilegio de llegar a ser desertores escolares. No obstante, aprenden eficazmente el mensaje que la escuela enseña: que deben tener escuela y más y más escuela. La escuela les instruye acerca de su propia inferioridad mediante el cobrador de impuestos que les hace pagar por ella, mediante el demagogo que les suscita las esperanzas de tenerla, o bien mediante sus niños cuando éstos se ven enviciados por ella. De modo que a los pobres se les quita su respeto por sí mismos al suscribirse a un credo que concede la salvación sólo a través de la escuela. La Iglesia les da al menos la posibilidad de arrepentirse en la hora de su muerte. La escuela les deja con la esperanza (una esperanza falsificada) de que sus nietos la conseguirán. Esa esperanza es, por cierto, otro aprendizaje más que proviene de la escuela, pero no de los profesores.";}i:2;i:73837;}i:421;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:74816;}i:422;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:74816;}i:423;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:269:"Los alumnos jamás han atribuido a sus maestros lo que han aprendido. Tanto los brillantes como los lerdos han confiado siempre en la memorización, la lectura y el ingenio para pasar sus exámenes, movidos por el garrote o por la obtención de una carrera ambicionada.";}i:2;i:74818;}i:424;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75087;}i:425;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75087;}i:426;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:440:"Los adultos tienden a crear fantasías románticas sobre su periodo de escuela. Atribuyen retrospectivamente su aprendizaje al maestro cuya paciencia aprendieron a admirar. Pero esos mismos adultos se preocuparán por la salud mental de un niño que corriera a casa a contarles qué ha aprendido de cada uno de sus profesores. Las escuelas crean trabajos para maestros de escuela, independientemente de lo que aprendan de ellos sus alumnos.";}i:2;i:75089;}i:427;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75529;}i:428;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75529;}i:429;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"3";}i:2;i:75531;}i:430;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:28:"markdowku_escapespecialchars";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:5;i:1;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:5;i:3;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:75532;}i:431;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" ";}i:2;i:75534;}i:432;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:75535;}i:433;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:29:"Asistencia a jornada completa";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:29:"Asistencia a jornada completa";}i:2;i:75536;}i:434;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:75565;}i:435;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:489:". Cada mes veo una nueva lista de propuestas que hace al AID[^n06] alguna industria estadunidense, sugiriéndole reemplazar a los “practicantes del aula” latinoamericanos por unos disciplinados administradores de sistemas o simplemente por la televisión. Pero, aunque el profesor sea una maestra de primaria o un equipo de tipos con delantales blancos, y que logren enseñar la materia indicada en el catálogo o fracasen en el intento, el maestro profesional crea un entorno sagrado.";}i:2;i:75566;}i:436;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76055;}i:437;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76055;}i:438;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:608:"La incertidumbre acerca del futuro de la enseñanza profesional pone al aula en peligro. Si los educadores profesionales se especializan en fomentar el aprendizaje tendrían que abandonar un sistema que exige entre 750 y 1 500 reuniones por año. Pero naturalmente los profesores hacen mucho más que eso. La sabiduría institucional de la escuela dice a los padres, a los alumnos y a los educadores que el profesor, para que pueda enseñar, debe ejercer su autoridad en un recinto sagrado. Esto es válido incluso para profesores cuyos alumnos pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo escolar en un aula sin muros.";}i:2;i:76057;}i:439;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76665;}i:440;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76665;}i:441;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:191:"La escuela, por su naturaleza misma, tiende a reclamar la totalidad del tiempo y las energías de sus participantes. Esto a su vez hace del profesor un custodio, un predicador y un terapeuta.";}i:2;i:76667;}i:442;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76858;}i:443;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76858;}i:444;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:97:"El maestro funda su autoridad sobre una pretensión diferente en cada uno de estos tres papeles. ";}i:2;i:76860;}i:445;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:76957;}i:446;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:25:"El profesor-como-custodio";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:25:"El profesor-como-custodio";}i:2;i:76958;}i:447;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:76983;}i:448;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:457:" actúa como maestro de ceremonias que guía a sus alumnos a lo largo de un ritual dilatado y laberíntico. Es árbitro del cumplimiento de las normas y administra las intrincadas rúbricas de iniciación a la vida. En el mejor de los casos, monta la escena para la adquisición de una habilidad como siempre han hecho los maestros de escuela. Sin hacerse ilusiones acerca de producir ningún saber profundo, somete a sus alumnos a ciertas rutinas básicas.";}i:2;i:76984;}i:449;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77441;}i:450;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77441;}i:451;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:3:"El ";}i:2;i:77443;}i:452;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77446;}i:453;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:23:"profesor-como-moralista";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:23:"profesor-como-moralista";}i:2;i:77447;}i:454;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77470;}i:455;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:162:" reemplaza a los padres, a Dios, al Estado. Adoctrina al alumno acerca de lo bueno y lo malo, no sólo en la escuela, sino en la sociedad en general. Se presenta ";}i:2;i:77471;}i:456;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77633;}i:457;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:77634;}i:458;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77650;}i:459;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:75:" para cada cual y asegura así que todos se sientan hijos del mismo Estado.";}i:2;i:77651;}i:460;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77726;}i:461;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77726;}i:462;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:3:"El ";}i:2;i:77728;}i:463;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77731;}i:464;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:23:"profesor-como-terapeuta";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:23:"profesor-como-terapeuta";}i:2;i:77732;}i:465;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77755;}i:466;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:312:" se siente autorizado a inmiscuirse en la vida privada de su alumno a fin de ayudarle a desarrollarse como persona. Cuando esta función la desempeña un custodio y predicador, significa por lo común que persuade al alumno a someterse a una domesticación de su visión de la verdad y de su sentido de lo justo.";}i:2;i:77756;}i:467;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78068;}i:468;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78068;}i:469;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:606:"La afirmación de que una sociedad liberal puede basarse en la escuela moderna, es paradójica. Todas las defensas de la libertad individual quedan anuladas en los tratos de un maestro de escuela con su alumno. Cuando el maestro funde en su persona las funciones de juez, ideólogo y médico, el estilo fundamental de la sociedad es pervertido por el proceso mismo que debiera preparar para la vida. Un maestro que combine estos tres poderes contribuye mucho más a la deformación del niño que las leyes que dictan su menor edad legal o económica, o que restringen su libertad de reunión o de vivienda.";}i:2;i:78070;}i:470;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78676;}i:471;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78676;}i:472;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:619:"Los maestros no son en absoluto los únicos en ofrecer servicios terapéuticos. Los psiquiatras, los consejeros vocacionales y laborales, y hasta los abogados ayudan a sus clientes a decidir, a desarrollar sus personalidades y a aprender. Pero el sentido común le dice al cliente que dichos profesionales deben abstenerse de imponer sus opiniones sobre lo bueno y lo malo, o de obligar a nadie a seguir su consejo. Los maestros de escuelas y los curas son los únicos profesionales que se sienten con derecho para inmiscuirse en los asuntos privados de sus clientes al mismo tiempo que predican a un público obligado.";}i:2;i:78678;}i:473;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:79297;}i:474;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:79297;}i:475;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:701:"Los niños no están protegidos ni por la Primera ni por la Quinta Enmienda[^n07] cuando están frente a ese sacerdote secular, el profesor. El niño tiene que enfrentarse con un hombre que usa una triple corona invisible y que, como la tiara papal, es el símbolo de la triple autoridad conjugada en una persona. Para el niño, el maestro pontifica como pastor, profeta y sacerdote —es a un mismo tiempo guía, maestro y administrador de un ritual sagrado—. Conjuga las pretensiones de los papas medievales en una sociedad constituida bajo la garantía de que tales pretensiones no serán jamás ejercidas conjuntamente por una institución establecida y obligatoria —la Iglesia o el Estado—.";}i:2;i:79299;}i:476;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80000;}i:477;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80000;}i:478;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:462:"Definir a los niños como alumnos a jornada completa permite al profesor ejercer sobre sus personas una especie de poder que está mucho menos limitado por restricciones constitucionales o consuetudinarias que el poder detentado por el guardián de otros enclaves sociales. La edad cronológica de los niños los descalifica respecto de las salvaguardas que son de rutina para adultos situados en un asilo moderno —un manicomio, un monasterio o una cárcel—.";}i:2;i:80002;}i:479;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80464;}i:480;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80464;}i:481;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:509:"Bajo la mirada autoritaria del maestro, los valores se confunden y las diferencias se borran. Las distinciones entre moralidad, legalidad y valor personal se difuminan y eventualmente se eliminan. Se hace sentir cada transgresión como un delito múltiple. Se cuenta con que el delincuente sienta que ha quebrantado una norma, que se ha comportado de modo inmoral y se ha abandonado. A un alumno que ha conseguido hábilmente ayuda en un examen se le dice que es un delincuente, un corrompido y un mequetrefe.";}i:2;i:80466;}i:482;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80975;}i:483;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80975;}i:484;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:2044:"La asistencia a clases saca a los niños del mundo cotidiano de la cultura occidental y los sumerge en un ambiente mucho más primitivo, mágico y mortalmente serio. La escuela no podría crear un enclave como éste, dentro del cual se suspende físicamente a los menores durante muchos años sucesivos de las normas de la realidad ordinaria, si no tuviera el poder de encarcelar físicamente a los menores durante esos años en su territorio sagrado. La norma de asistencia posibilita que el aula sirva de útero mágico, del cual el niño es dado periódicamente a luz al terminar el día escolar y el año escolar, hasta que es finalmente lanzado a la vida adulta. Ni la niñez universalmente prolongada ni la atmósfera sofocante del aula podrían existir sin las escuelas. Sin embargo, las escuelas, como canales obligatorios de aprendizaje, podrían existir sin ninguna de ambas y ser más represivas y destructivas que todo lo que hayamos podido conocer hasta la fecha. Para entender lo que significa desescolarizar la sociedad y no tan sólo reformar el sistema educativo establecido, debemos concentrarnos ahora en el currículum oculto de la escolarización. No nos ocupamos en este caso, y directamente, del currículum oculto de las calles del gueto, que deja marcado al pobre, o del currículum camuflado de salón, que beneficia al rico. Nos interesa más bien llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que el ceremonial o ritual de la escolarización misma constituye un currículum escondido de este tipo. Incluso el mejor de los maestros no puede proteger del todo a sus alumnos contra él. Este currículum oculto de la escolarización añade inevitablemente prejuicio y culpa a la discriminación que una sociedad practica contra algunos de sus miembros y realza el privilegio de otros con un nuevo título con el cual tener en menos a la mayoría. De modo igualmente inevitable, este currículum oculto sirve como ritual de iniciación a una sociedad de consumo orientada hacia el crecimiento, tanto para ricos como para pobres.";}i:2;i:80977;}i:485;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:83022;}i:486;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:83022;}i:487;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:27:"Ritualización del progreso";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:83022;}i:2;i:83022;}i:488;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:83022;}i:489;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:31:" +## Ritualización del progreso";}i:2;i:83022;}i:490;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:83022;}i:491;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:959:"El graduado en una universidad ha sido escolarizado para cumplir un servicio selectivo entre los ricos del mundo sean cuales fueren sus afirmaciones de solidaridad con el Tercer Mundo, cada estadunidense que ha conseguido su título universitario ha tenido una educación que cuesta una cantidad cinco veces mayor que los ingresos medios de toda una vida en el seno de la mitad desheredada de la humanidad. A un estudiante latinoamericano se le introduce en esta exclusiva fraternidad acordándole para su educación un gasto por lo menos 350 veces mayor que el de sus conciudadanos de clase media. Salvo muy raras excepciones, el graduado universitario de un país pobre se siente más a gusto con sus colegas norteamericanos o europeos que con sus compatriotas no escolarizados, y a todos los estudiantes se les somete a un proceso académico que les hace sentirse felices sólo en compañía de otros consumidores de los productos de la máquina educativa.";}i:2;i:83055;}i:492;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:84014;}i:493;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:84014;}i:494;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1269:"La universidad moderna sólo confiere el privilegio de disentir a aquellos que han sido comprobados y clasificados como fabricantes de dinero o detentadores de poder en potencia. A nadie se le conceden fondos provenientes de impuestos para que tengan así tiempo libre para autoeducarse o el derecho de educar a otros, a menos que al mismo tiempo puedan certificarse sus logros. Las escuelas eligen para cada nivel superior sucesivo a aquellos que en las primeras etapas del juego hayan demostrado ser buenos riesgos[^n08] para el orden establecido. Al tener un monopolio sobre los recursos para el aprendizaje y sobre la investidura de los papeles por desempeñar en la sociedad, la universidad invita a sus filas al descubridor y al disidente en potencia. Un grado siempre deja su tinta indeleble con el precio en el currículum de su consumidor. Los graduados universitarios diplomados encajan sólo en un mundo que pone un marbete con el precio en sus cuellos dándoles así el poder de pertenecer a un mundo donde todo recibe un valor mercantil. En cada país, el monto que consume el graduado universitario fija la pauta para todos los demás; si fueran gente civilizada con trabajo o cesantes habrán de aspirar al estilo de vida de los graduados universitarios.";}i:2;i:84016;}i:495;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85285;}i:496;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85285;}i:497;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:657:"De este modo, la universidad tiene por efecto imponer normas de consumo en el trabajo o en el hogar, y lo hace en todo el mundo y bajo todos los sistemas políticos. Cuanto menos graduados universitarios hay en un país, tanto más sirven de modelo para el resto de la población sus ilustradas exigencias. La brecha entre el consumo de un graduado universitario y el de un ciudadano corriente es incluso más ancha en Rusia, China y Argelia que en Estados Unidos. Los coches, los viajes en avión y los magnetófonos confieren una distinción más notoria en un país socialista en donde únicamente un título, y no tan sólo el dinero, puede procurarlos.";}i:2;i:85287;}i:498;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85944;}i:499;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85944;}i:500;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:575:"La capacidad de la universidad para fijar metas de consumo es algo nuevo. En muchos países la universidad adquirió este poder sólo en la década de los años sesenta, conforme la ilusión de acceso parejo a la educación pública comenzó a difundirse. Antes de entonces la universidad protegía la libertad de expresión de un individuo, pero no convertía automáticamente su conocimiento en riqueza. Durante la Edad Media, ser un estudioso significaba ser pobre y hasta mendicante. En virtud de su vocación, el estudioso medieval aprendía latín, se convertía en un ";}i:2;i:85946;}i:501;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:86521;}i:502;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"outsider";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"outsider";}i:2;i:86522;}i:503;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:86530;}i:504;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:106:" digno tanto de la mofa como de la estimación del campesino y del príncipe, del burgués y del clérigo.";}i:2;i:86531;}i:505;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:86637;}i:506;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:86637;}i:507;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:557:"Para triunfar en el mundo, el escolástico tenía que ingresar primero en él, entrando en la carrera funcionaria, preferiblemente la eclesiástica. La universidad antigua era una zona liberada para el descubrimiento y el debate de ideas nuevas y viejas. Los maestros y los estudiantes se reunían para leer los textos de otros maestros, muertos mucho antes, y las palabras vivas de los maestros difuntos daban nuevas perspectivas a las falacias del mundo presente. La universidad era entonces una comunidad de búsqueda académica y de inquietud endémica.";}i:2;i:86639;}i:508;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87196;}i:509;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87196;}i:510;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:797:"En la universidad multidisciplinaria moderna esta comunidad ha huido hacia las márgenes, en donde se junta en un apartamento, en la oficina de un profesor o en los aposentos del capellán. El propósito estructural de la universidad moderna guarda poca relación con la búsqueda tradicional. Desde los días de Gutenberg, el intercambio de la indagación disciplinada y crítica se ha trasladado en su mayor parte de la “cátedra” a la imprenta. La universidad moderna ha perdido por incumplimiento su posibilidad de ofrecer un escenario simple para encuentros que sean autónomos y anárquicos, enfocados hacia un interés y sin embargo espontáneos y vivaces, y ha elegido en cambio administrar el proceso mediante el cual se produce lo que ha dado en llamarse investigación y enseñanza.";}i:2;i:87198;}i:511;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87995;}i:512;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87995;}i:513;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:9:"Desde el ";}i:2;i:87997;}i:514;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88006;}i:515;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"Sputnik";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"Sputnik";}i:2;i:88007;}i:516;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88014;}i:517;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:216:" , la universidad estadunidense ha estado tratando de ponerse a la par con el número de graduados que sacan los soviéticos. Ahora los alemanes están abandonando su tradición académica y están construyendo unos ";}i:2;i:88015;}i:518;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88231;}i:519;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"campus";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"campus";}i:2;i:88232;}i:520;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88238;}i:521;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:675:" para ponerse a la par con los estadunidenses. Durante esta década quieren aumentar sus erogaciones en escuelas primarias y secundarias de 14 000 a 59 000 millones de marcos alemanes y triplicar los desembolsos para la instrucción superior. Los franceses se proponen elevar para 1980 a 10% de su PNB el monto gastado en escuelas, y la Fundación Ford ha estado empujando a países pobres de América Latina a elevar sus desembolsos per cápita para los graduados “respetables” a los niveles estadunidenses. Los estudiantes consideran sus estudios como la inversión que produce el mayor rédito monetario, y las naciones los ven como un factor clave para el desarrollo.";}i:2;i:88239;}i:522;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:88914;}i:523;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:88914;}i:524;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"Para la mayoría que va en pos de un grado universitario, la universidad no ha perdido prestigio, pero desde 1968 ha perdido notoriamente categoría entre sus creyentes. Los estudiantes se niegan a prepararse para la guerra, la contaminación y la perpetuación del prejuicio. Los profesores les ayudan en su recusación de la legitimidad del gobierno, de su política exterior, de la educación y del sistema de vida norteamericano. No pocos rechazan títulos y se preparan para una vida en una contracultura, fuera de la sociedad diplomada. Parecen elegir la vía de los Fraticelli medievales o de los Alumbrados de la Reforma, que fueron los ";}i:2;i:88916;}i:525;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:89561;}i:526;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"hippies";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"hippies";}i:2;i:89562;}i:527;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:89569;}i:528;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:326:" y desertores escolares de su época. Otros reconocen el monopolio de las escuelas sobre los recursos que ellos necesitan para construir una contrasociedad. Buscan apoyo el uno en el otro para vivir con integridad mientras se someten al ritual académico. Forman, por así decirlo, focos de herejía en medio de la jerarquía.";}i:2;i:89570;}i:529;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:89896;}i:530;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:89896;}i:531;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"No obstante, grandes sectores de la población general miran al místico moderno y al heresiarca moderno con alarma. Éstos amenazan la economía consumista, el privilegio democrático y la imagen que de sí mismo tiene Estados Unidos. Pero no es posible eliminarlos con sólo desearlo. Son cada vez menos aquellos a los que es posible reconvertir y reincorporar en las filas mediante sutilezas —como, por ejemplo, darles el cargo de enseñar como profesores su herejía—. De aquí la búsqueda de medios que hagan posible ya sea librarse de disidentes, ya sea disminuir la importancia de la universidad que les sirve de base para protestar.";}i:2;i:89898;}i:532;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:90543;}i:533;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:90543;}i:534;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:807:"A los estudiantes y a la facultad que ponen en tela de juicio la legitimidad de la universidad, y lo hacen pagando un alto costo personal, no les parece por cierto estar fijando normas de consumo ni favoreciendo un sistema determinado de producción. Aquellos que han fundado grupos tales como el Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars y el North American Congress of Latin America (NACLA) han sido de los más eficaces para cambiar radicalmente la visión que millones de personas jóvenes tenían de países extranjeros. Otros más han tratado de formular interpretaciones marxistas de la sociedad norteamericana o han figurado entre los responsables de la creación de comunas. Sus logros dan nuevo vigor al argumento de que la existencia de la universidad es necesaria para una crítica social sostenida.";}i:2;i:90545;}i:535;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91352;}i:536;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91352;}i:537;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:550:"No cabe duda de que en este momento la universidad ofrece una combinación singular de circunstancias que permite a algunos de sus miembros criticar el conjunto de la sociedad. Proporciona tiempo, movilidad, acceso a los iguales y a la información, así como cierta impunidad —privilegios de que no disponen igualmente otros sectores de la población—. Pero la universidad permite esta libertad sólo a quienes ya han sido profundamente iniciados en la sociedad de consumo y en la necesidad de alguna especie de escolaridad pública obligatoria.";}i:2;i:91354;}i:538;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91904;}i:539;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91904;}i:540;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:904:"El sistema escolar de hoy en día desempeña la triple función que ha sido común a las Iglesias poderosas a lo largo de la historia. Es simultáneamente el depósito del mito de la sociedad, la institucionalización de las contradicciones de ese mito y el lugar donde ocurre el ritual que reproduce y encubre las disciplinas entre el mito y la realidad. El sistema escolar, y en particular la universidad, proporciona hoy grandes oportunidades para criticar el mito y para rebelarse contra las perversiones institucionales. Pero el ritual que exige tolerancia para con las contradicciones fundamentales entre mito e institución pasa todavía por lo general sin ponerse en tela de juicio, pues ni la crítica ideológica ni la acción social pueden dar a luz una nueva sociedad. Sólo el desencanto del ritual social central, el desligarse del mismo y reformarlo pueden llevar a cabo un cambio radical.";}i:2;i:91906;}i:541;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:92810;}i:542;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:92810;}i:543;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:887:"La universidad estadunidense ha llegado a ser la etapa final del rito de iniciación más global que el mundo haya conocido. Ninguna sociedad histórica ha logrado sobrevivir sin ritual o mito, pero la nuestra es la primera que ha necesitado una iniciación tan aburrida, morosa, destructiva y costosa a su mito. La civilización mundial contemporánea es también la primera que estimó necesario racionalizar su ritual fundamental de iniciación en nombre de la educación. No podemos iniciar una reforma de la educación a menos que entendamos primero que ni el aprendizaje individual ni la igualdad social pueden acrecentarse mediante el ritual de la escolarización. No podremos ir más allá de la sociedad de consumo a menos que entendamos primero que las escuelas públicas obligatorias reproducen inevitablemente dicha sociedad, independientemente de lo que se enseñe en ellas.";}i:2;i:92812;}i:544;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:93699;}i:545;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:93699;}i:546;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:512:"El proyecto de desmitologización que propongo no puede limitarse tan sólo a la universidad. Cualquier intento de reformar la universidad sin ocuparse del sistema del que forma parte integral es como tratar de hacer la reforma urbana en Nueva York, desde el piso decimosegundo hacia arriba. La mayor parte de las reformas introducidas en la enseñanza superior, equivalen a rascacielos construidos sobre chozas. Sólo una generación que se críe sin escuelas obligatorias será capaz de recrear la universidad.";}i:2;i:93701;}i:547;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:94213;}i:548;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:94215;}i:549;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:42:"El mito de los valores institucionalizados";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:94215;}i:2;i:94215;}i:550;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:94215;}i:551;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:47:" +### El mito de los valores institucionalizados";}i:2;i:94215;}i:552;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:94215;}i:553;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:931:"La escuela inicia asimismo el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin. Este mito moderno se funda en la creencia según la cual el sistema de producción produce inevitablemente algo de valor y que, por consiguiente, la producción produce necesariamente demanda. La escuela nos enseña que la instrucción produce aprendizaje. La existencia de las escuelas produce la demanda de escolaridad. Una vez que hemos aprendido a necesitar la escuela, todas nuestras actividades tienden a tomar la forma de relaciones de clientes respecto de otras instituciones especializadas. Una vez que se ha desacreditado al hombre o a la mujer autodidactos, toda actividad no profesional se hace sospechosa. En la escuela se nos enseña que el resultado de la asistencia es un aprendizaje valioso; que el valor del aprendizaje aumenta con el monto de la información de entrada y, finalmente, que este valor puede medirse y documentarse mediante grados y diplomas.";}i:2;i:94264;}i:554;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95195;}i:555;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95195;}i:556;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:470:"De hecho, el aprendizaje es la actividad humana que menos manipulación de terceros necesita. La mayor parte del aprendizaje no es la consecuencia de una instrucción. Es más bien el resultado de una participación a la que no se estorba en un entorno significativo. La mayoría de la gente aprende mejor “metiendo la cuchara” y, sin embargo, la escuela les hace identificar su desarrollo cognoscitivo personal con una programación y una manipulación complicadas.";}i:2;i:95197;}i:557;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95667;}i:558;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95667;}i:559;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:711:"Una vez que un hombre o una mujer ha aceptado la necesidad de la escuela, es presa fácil de otras instituciones. Una vez que los jóvenes han permitido que a su imaginación la forme la instrucción curricular, están condicionados para las planificaciones institucionales de toda especie. La “institución” les ahoga el horizonte imaginativo. No se les puede traicionar, sólo engañar en el precio, porque se les ha enseñado a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. Para bien o para mal, ya no serán sorprendidos por terceros, pues se les ha enseñado qué pueden esperar de cualquier otra persona que ha sido enseñada como ellos. Esto es válido para el caso de otra persona o de una máquina.";}i:2;i:95669;}i:560;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:96380;}i:561;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:96380;}i:562;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:209:"Esta transferencia de responsabilidad desde sí mismo a una institución garantiza la regresión social, especialmente desde el momento en que se ha aceptado como una obligación. Así, los rebeldes contra el ";}i:2;i:96382;}i:563;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:96591;}i:564;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"Alma Mater";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"Alma Mater";}i:2;i:96592;}i:565;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:96602;}i:566;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:536:" a menudo “la consiguen” e ingresan en su facultad en vez de desarrollar la valentía de infectar a otros con su enseñanza personal y de asumir la responsabilidad de las consecuencias de tal enseñanza. Esto sugiere la posibilidad de una nueva historia de Edipo —Edipo Profesor, que “consigue” a su madre a fin de engendrar hijos de ella—. El hombre adicto a ser enseñado busca su seguridad en la enseñanza compulsiva. La mujer que experimenta su conocimiento como el resultado de un proceso quiere reproducirlo en otros.";}i:2;i:96603;}i:567;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97139;}i:568;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97141;}i:569;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:38:"El mito de la medición de los valores";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:97141;}i:2;i:97141;}i:570;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:97141;}i:571;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:43:" +### El mito de la medición de los valores";}i:2;i:97141;}i:572;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97141;}i:573;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:205:"Los valores institucionalizados que infunde la escuela son valores cuantificados. La escuela inicia a los jóvenes en un mundo en el que todo puede medirse, incluso su imaginación y hasta el hombre mismo.";}i:2;i:97186;}i:574;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97391;}i:575;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97391;}i:576;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:423:"Pero el desarrollo personal no es una entidad mensurable. Es crecimiento en disensión disciplinada, que no puede medirse respecto a ningún cartabón, a ningún currículum, ni compararse con lo logrado por algún otro. En ese aprendizaje podemos emular a otros sólo en el empeño imaginativo, y seguir sus huellas más bien que remedar sus maneras de andar. El aprendizaje que yo aprecio es una recreación inmensurable.";}i:2;i:97393;}i:577;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97816;}i:578;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97816;}i:579;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:629:"Las escuelas pretenden desglosar el aprendizaje en “materias”, para incorporar en el alumno un currículum hecho con estos ladrillos prefabricados y para medir el resultado con una escala internacional. Las personas que se someten a la norma de otros para la medida de su propio desarrollo personal pronto se aplican el mismo cartabón a sí mismos. Ya no es necesario ponerlos en su lugar, pues se colocan solos en sus casilleros correspondientes, se comprimen en el nicho que se les ha enseñado a buscar y, en el curso de este mismo proceso, colocan asimismo a sus prójimos en sus lugares, hasta que todo y todos encajan.";}i:2;i:97818;}i:580;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98447;}i:581;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98447;}i:582;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:388:"Las personas que han sido escolarizadas hasta su talla dejan que la experiencia no mensurada se les escape entre los dedos. Para ellas, lo que no puede medirse se hace secundario, amenazante. No es necesario robarles su creatividad. Con la instrucción, han desaprendido a “hacer” lo suyo o a “ser” ellas mismas, y valoran sólo aquello que ha sido fabricado o podría fabricarse.";}i:2;i:98449;}i:583;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98837;}i:584;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98837;}i:585;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:459:"Una vez que se ha escolarizado a las personas con la idea de que los valores pueden producirse y medirse, tienden a aceptar toda clase de clasificaciones jerárquicas. Existe una escala para el desarrollo de las naciones, otra para la inteligencia de los nenes, e incluso el avance hacia la paz puede medirse según un recuento de personas. En un mundo escolarizado, el camino hacia la felicidad está pavimentado con un índice de precios para el consumidor.";}i:2;i:98839;}i:586;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:99298;}i:587;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:99300;}i:588;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:32:"El mito de los valores envasados";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:99300;}i:2;i:99300;}i:589;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:99300;}i:590;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:37:" +### El mito de los valores envasados";}i:2;i:99300;}i:591;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:99300;}i:592;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:841:"La escuela vende currículum: un atado de mercancías hecho con el mismo proceso y con la misma estructura que cualquier otra mercancía. La producción del currículum para la mayoría de las escuelas comienza con la investigación presuntamente científica; fundados en ella los ingenieros de la educación predicen la demanda futura y las herramientas para la línea de montaje, dentro de los límites establecidos por presupuestos y tabúes. El distribuidor-profesor entrega el producto terminado al consumidor-alumno, cuyas reacciones son cuidadosamente estudiadas y tabuladas a fin de proporcionar datos para la investigación que servirán para preparar el modelo siguiente que podrá ser “desgraduado”, “concebido para alumnado”, “concebido para un trabajo en equipo”, “con ayudas visuales” o “centrado en temas”.";}i:2;i:99339;}i:593;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100180;}i:594;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100180;}i:595;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:663:"El resultado del proceso de producción de un currículum se asemeja a cualquier otro artículo moderno de primera necesidad. Es un paquete de significados planificados, una mercancía cuyo “atractivo equilibrado” la hace comercializable para una clientela lo bastante grande como para justificar su elevado coste de producción. A los consumidores-alumnos se les enseña a ajustar sus deseos a valores comercializables. De modo que se les hace sentir culpables si no se comportan en conformidad con los resultados de los análisis de mercado y si no obtienen los grados y diplomas que los colocarán en la categoría laboral que se les ha inducido a esperar.";}i:2;i:100182;}i:596;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100845;}i:597;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100845;}i:598;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:696:"Los educadores pueden justificar unos currícula más costosos fundándose en lo que han observado, a saber, que las dificultades de aprendizaje se elevan en proporción al costo del currículum. Ésta es una aplicación de aquella ley de Parkinson que dice que una labor se expande junto con los recursos disponibles para ejecutarla. Esta ley puede verificarse en todos los niveles de la escuela: por ejemplo, las dificultades de lectura han sido un tema principal de debate en que los grados per cápita en ellas se han aproximado a los niveles estadunidenses de 1950 —año en el cual las dificultades para aprender a leer llegaron a ser tema de importancia en las escuelas de Estados Unidos.";}i:2;i:100847;}i:599;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101543;}i:600;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101543;}i:601;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:412:"De hecho, los estudiantes saludables redoblan su resistencia a la enseñanza conforme se ven más cabalmente manipulados. Su resistencia no se debe al estilo autoritario de una escuela pública o al estilo seductor de algunas escuelas libres, sino al planteamiento fundamental común a todas las escuelas —la idea de que el juicio de una persona debiera determinar qué y cuándo debe aprender otra persona—.";}i:2;i:101545;}i:602;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101957;}i:603;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101959;}i:604;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:49:"El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:101959;}i:2;i:101959;}i:605;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:101959;}i:606;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:54:" +### El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo";}i:2;i:101959;}i:607;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101959;}i:608;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:783:"Los crecientes costes per cápita de la instrucción, aun cuando vayan acompañados por réditos de aprendizaje decrecientes, aumentan paradójicamente el valor del alumno o alumna ante sus propios ojos y su valor en el mercado. La escuela, casi al coste que sea, iza a empellones al alumno hasta el nivel del consumo curricular competitivo, hasta meterlo en el progreso hacia unos niveles cada vez más elevados. Los gastos que motivan al alumno a permanecer en la escuela se desbocan conforme asciende la pirámide. En niveles más altos adoptan el disfraz de nuevos estadios de futbol o programas llamados de Educación Internacional. Aunque no enseña ninguna otra cosa, la escuela enseña al menos el valor de la escalada: el valor de la manera estadunidense de hacer las cosas.";}i:2;i:102015;}i:609;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:102798;}i:610;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:102798;}i:611;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:867:"La guerra de Vietnam se ajusta a la lógica prevaleciente. Su éxito se ha medido por el número de personas efectivamente tratadas con balas baratas descargadas a un coste inmenso, y a este cálculo salvaje se le llama desvergonzadamente “recuento de cuerpos”. Así como los negocios son los negocios, la acumulación inacabable de dinero, así también la guerra es el matar, la acumulación inacabable de cuerpos muertos. De manera semejante, la educación es escolarización, y este proceso sin término se cuenta en alumnos-hora. Los diferentes procesos son irreversibles y se justifican por sí mismos. Según las normas económicas, el país se hace cada vez más rico. Según las normas de la contabilidad mortal, la nación continúa ganando perennemente sus guerras. Y conforme a las normas escolares, la población se va haciendo cada vez más educada.";}i:2;i:102800;}i:612;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:103667;}i:613;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:103667;}i:614;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1025:"El programa escolar está hambriento de un bocado cada vez mayor de instrucción, pero aun cuando esta hambre conduzca a una absorción sostenida, nunca da el gozo de saber algo a satisfacción. Cada tema llega envasado con la instrucción de continuar consumiendo una “oferta” tras otra, y el envase del año anterior es siempre anticuado para el consumidor del año en curso. El fraudulento negocio de los libros de texto está construido sobre esta demanda. Los reformadores de la educación prometen a cada generación lo último y lo mejor, y al público se le escolariza para pedir lo que ellos ofrecen. Tanto el desertor, a quien se le hace recordar a perpetuidad lo que se perdió, como el graduado, a quien se le hace sentir inferior a la nueva casta de estudiantes, saben exactamente dónde están situados en el ritual de engaños crecientes, y continúan apoyando una sociedad que, para denominar la brecha cada vez más ancha de frustración, usa el eufemismo de “revolución de expectativas crecientes”.";}i:2;i:103669;}i:615;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104694;}i:616;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104694;}i:617;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:224:"Pero el crecimiento concebido como un consumo sin términos —el progreso eterno— no puede conducir jamás a la madurez. El compromiso con un ilimitado aumento cuantitativo vicia la posibilidad de un desarrollo orgánico.";}i:2;i:104696;}i:618;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104920;}i:619;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104922;}i:620;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:44:"El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:104922;}i:2;i:104922;}i:621;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:104922;}i:622;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:49:" +### El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial";}i:2;i:104922;}i:623;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104922;}i:624;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"En las naciones desarrolladas, la edad para salir de la escuela excede el aumento de los años de vida probable. Dentro de una década se cortarán ambas curvas y crearán un problema para Jessica Mitford y para los profesionales que se interesan por la “educación terminal”. Me hace recordar la Edad Media tardía, cuando la demanda por los servicios de la Iglesia sobrepasó la duración de la vida, y se creó el “purgatorio” para purificar a las almas bajo el control papal antes de que pudiesen ingresar en la paz eterna. Lógicamente, esto condujo primero a un tráfico de indulgencias y luego a un intento de Reforma. El Mito del Consumo Sin Fin ocupa ahora el lugar de la creencia en la vida eterna.";}i:2;i:104973;}i:625;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:105689;}i:626;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:105689;}i:627;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:979:"Arnold Toynbee señaló que la decadencia de una gran cultura suele ir acompañada por el surgimiento de una nueva Iglesia Universal que lleva la esperanza al proletariado interior mientras atiende al mismo tiempo las necesidades de una nueva casta guerrera. La escuela parece eminentemente apta para ser la Iglesia Universal de nuestra decadente cultura. Ninguna institución podría ocultar mejor a sus participantes la profunda discrepancia entre los principios sociales y la realidad social en el mundo de hoy. Secular, científica y negadora de la muerte, se ciñe estrechamente al ánimo moderno. Su apariencia clásica, crítica, la hace aparecer, si no antirreligiosa, al menos pluralista. Su currículum define la ciencia y la define a ella misma mediante la llamada investigación científica. Nadie completa la escuela —todavía—. No cierra sus puertas a nadie sin antes ofrecerle una oportunidad más: educación de recuperación, para adultos y de continuación.";}i:2;i:105691;}i:628;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:106670;}i:629;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:106670;}i:630;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1079:"La escuela sirve como una eficaz creadora y preservadora del mito social debido a su estructura como juego ritual de promociones graduadas. La introducción a este ritual es mucho más importante que el asunto enseñado o el cómo se enseña. Es el juego mismo el que escolariza, el que se mete en la sangre y se convierte en hábito. Se inicia a una sociedad entera en el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin de servicios. Esto ocurre hasta tal punto que la formalidad de participar en el ritual sin término se hace obligatoria y compulsiva por doquier. La escuela ordena una rivalidad ritual en forma de juego internacional que obliga a los competidores a achacar los males del mundo a aquellos que no pueden o no quieren jugar. La escuela es un ritual de iniciación que introduce al neófito en la sagrada carrera del consumo progresivo, un ritual propiciatorio cuyos sacerdotes académicos son mediadores entre los creyentes y los dioses del privilegio y del poder, un ritual de expiación que sacrifica a sus desertores, marcándolos a fuego como chivos expiatorios del subdesarrollo.";}i:2;i:106672;}i:631;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:107751;}i:632;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:107751;}i:633;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:762:"Incluso aquellos que en el mejor de los casos pasan unos pocos años en la escuela —y éste es el caso de la abrumadora mayoría en América Latina, Asia y África— aprenden a sentirse culpables debido a su subconsumo de escolarización. En México es obligatorio aprobar seis grados de escuela. Los niños nacidos en el tercio económico inferior tienen sólo dos posibilidades sobre tres de aprobar el primer grado. Si lo aprueban, tienen cuatro probabilidades sobre 100 de terminar la escolaridad obligatoria en el sexto grado. Si nacen en el tercio medio, sus probabilidades aumentan a 12 sobre 100. Con estas pautas, México ha tenido más éxito que la mayoría de las otras 26 repúblicas latinoamericanas en cuanto a proporcionar educación pública.";}i:2;i:107753;}i:634;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:108515;}i:635;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:108515;}i:636;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:970:"Todos los niños saben, en todas partes, que se les ha dado una posibilidad, aunque desigual, en una lotería obligatoria, y la supuesta igualdad de la norma internacional realza ahora la pobreza original de esos niños con la discriminación autoinfligida que el desertor acepta. Se les ha escolarizado en la creencia de las expectativas crecientes y pueden racionalizar ahora su creciente frustración fuera de la escuela aceptando el rechazo de la gracia escolástica que les ha caído en suerte. Se les expulsa del paraíso porque, habiendo sido bautizados, no fueron a la Iglesia. Nacidos en pecado original, se les bautiza en el primer grado, pero van al Gehenna (que en hebreo significa “conventillo”) debido a sus faltas personales. Así como Max Weber examinó los efectos sociales de la creencia en que la salvación pertenecía a quienes acumulaban riqueza, podemos observar ahora que la gracia está reservada para aquellos que acumulan años de escuela.";}i:2;i:108517;}i:637;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:109487;}i:638;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:109489;}i:639;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:58:"El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:109489;}i:2;i:109489;}i:640;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:109489;}i:641;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:63:" +### El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas";}i:2;i:109489;}i:642;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:109489;}i:643;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:173:"La escuela conjuga las expectativas del consumidor expresadas en sus pretensiones, con las creencias del productor expresadas en su ritual. Es una expresión litúrgica del ";}i:2;i:109554;}i:644;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:109727;}i:645;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"cargocult";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"cargocult";}i:2;i:109728;}i:646;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:109737;}i:647;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:283:"[^n09] que recorrió la Melanesia en la década de 1940-1950, que inyectaba en sus cultores la creencia de que si se colocaban una corbata negra sobre el torso desnudo, Jesús llegaría en un vapor trayendo una nevera, un par de pantalones y una máquina de coser para cada creyente.";}i:2;i:109738;}i:648;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110021;}i:649;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110021;}i:650;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:454:"La escuela funde el crecimiento en humillante dependencia de un maestro con el crecimiento en el vano sentido de omnipotencia que es tan típico del alumno que quiere ir a enseñar a todas las naciones a salvarse. El ritual está moldeado según los severos hábitos de trabajo de los obreros de la construcción, y su finalidad es celebrar el mito de un paraíso terrestre de consumo sin fin, que es la única esperanza del desgraciado y el desposeído.";}i:2;i:110023;}i:651;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110477;}i:652;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110477;}i:653;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:778:"A lo largo de la historia ha habido epidemias de insaciables expectativas en este mundo, especialmente entre grupos colonizados y marginales en todas las culturas. Los judíos tuvieron durante el Imperio romano sus Esenios y Mesías judíos, los siervos en la Reforma tuvieron su Thomas Münzer, los desposeídos indios desde el Paraguay hasta Dakota sus contagiosos bailarines. Estas sectas estaban siempre dirigidas por un profeta, y limitaban sus promesas a unos pocos elegidos. En cambio la espera del reino a que induce la escuela es impersonal más que profética, y universal más que local. El hombre ha llegado a ser el ingeniero de su propio Mesías y promete las limitadas recompensas de la ciencia a aquellos que somete a una progresiva tecnificación para su reino.";}i:2;i:110479;}i:654;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:111257;}i:655;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:111259;}i:656;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:20:"La nueva alienación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:111259;}i:2;i:111259;}i:657;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:111259;}i:658;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:25:" +### La nueva alienación";}i:2;i:111259;}i:659;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:111259;}i:660;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:892:"La escuela no sólo es la Nueva Religión Mundial. Es también el mercado de trabajo de crecimiento más veloz del mundo. La tecnificación de los consumidores ha llegado a ser el principal sector de crecimiento de la economía. Conforme el coste de la producción disminuye en las naciones ricas, se produce una concentración creciente de capital y trabajo en la vasta empresa de equipar al hombre para un consumo disciplinario. Durante la década pasada las inversiones de capital relacionadas directamente con el sistema escolar aumentaron con velocidad incluso mayor que los gastos para defensa. El desarme tan sólo aceleraría el proceso por el cual la industria del aprendizaje se encamina al centro de la economía nacional. La escuela proporciona oportunidades ilimitadas para el derroche legitimizado, mientras su destructividad pasa inadvertida y crece el coste de los paliativos.";}i:2;i:111286;}i:661;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:112178;}i:662;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:112178;}i:663;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:989:"Si a quienes asisten a jornada completa agregamos los que enseñan a jornada completa, nos percatamos de que esta llamada superestructura ha llegado a ser el principal patrono de la sociedad. En Estados Unidos hay 62 millones en la escuela y 80 millones trabajando en otras cosas. Esto a menudo lo han olvidado los analistas neomarxistas cuando dicen que el proceso de desescolarización debe posponerse o dejarse pendiente hasta que otros desórdenes, considerados tradicionalmente como más importantes, los haya corregido una revolución económica y política. Pero hay que comprender que la escuela es una industria antes de querer edificar una estrategia revolucionaria realista. Para Marx, el coste de producir las demandas de bienes apenas si era significativo. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la mano de obra está empleada en la producción de demandas que puede satisfacer la industria que hace un uso intenso del capital. La mayor parte de este trabajo se realiza en la escuela.";}i:2;i:112180;}i:664;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:113169;}i:665;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:113169;}i:666;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1093:"En el esquema tradicional, la alienación era una consecuencia directa de que el trabajo se convirtiera en labor asalariada que privaba al hombre de su oportunidad para crear y recrearse. Ahora a los menores los prealienan las escuelas que los aíslan del mundo mientras juegan a ser productores y consumidores de su propio conocimiento, al que se concibe como una mercancía en el mercado en la escuela. La escuela hace de la alienación una preparación para la vida, privando así a la educación de realidad y al trabajo de creatividad. La escuela prepara para la alienante institucionalización de la vida al enseñar la necesidad de ser enseñado. Una vez que se aprende esta lección, la gente pierde su incentivo para desarrollarse con independencia; ya no encuentra atractivos en relacionarse y se cierra a las sorpresas que la vida ofrece cuando no está predeterminada por la definición institucional. La escuela emplea directa o indirectamente a una mayor parte de la población. La escuela o bien guarda a la gente de por vida o asegura el que encaje en alguna otra institución.";}i:2;i:113171;}i:667;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114264;}i:668;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114264;}i:669;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:269:"La Nueva Iglesia Mundial es la industria del conocimiento, proveedora de opio y banco de trabajo durante un número creciente de años de la vida de un individuo. La desescolarización es por consiguiente fundamental para cualquier movimiento de liberación del hombre.";}i:2;i:114266;}i:670;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114535;}i:671;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114537;}i:672;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:56:"La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:114537;}i:2;i:114537;}i:673;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:114537;}i:674;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:61:" +### La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización";}i:2;i:114537;}i:675;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114537;}i:676;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:844:"La escuela no es de ningún modo, por cierto, la única institución moderna cuya finalidad primaria es moldear la visión de la realidad en el hombre. El currículum escondido de la vida familiar, de la conscripción militar, del llamado profesionalismo o de los medios informativos desempeña un importante papel en la manipulación institucional de la visión del mundo que tiene el hombre, de su lenguaje y de sus demandas. Pero la escuela esclaviza más profunda y sistemáticamente, puesto que sólo a ella se le acredita la función principal de formar el juicio crítico y, paradójicamente, trata de hacerlo haciendo que el aprender sobre sí mismo, sobre los demás y sobre la naturaleza dependa de un proceso preempacado. La escuela nos alcanza de manera tan íntima que ninguno puede esperar liberarse de ella mediante algo externo.";}i:2;i:114600;}i:677;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:115444;}i:678;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:115444;}i:679;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:743:"Muchos de los que se autodenominan revolucionarios son víctimas de la escuela. Incluso ven la “liberación” como el producto de algo institucional. Sólo al librarse uno mismo de la escuela se disipa esa ilusión. El descubrimiento de que la mayor parte del aprendizaje no requiere enseñanza no puede ser ni manipulado ni planificado. Cada uno de nosotros es responsable de su propia desescolarización, y sólo nosotros tenemos el poder de hacerlo. No puede excusarse a nadie si no logra liberarse de la escolarización. El pueblo no pudo liberarse de la Corona sino hasta que al menos algunos de ellos se liberaron de la Iglesia establecida. No pueden liberarse del consumo progresivo hasta que no se liberen de la escuela obligatoria.";}i:2;i:115446;}i:680;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116189;}i:681;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116189;}i:682;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:601:"Todos estamos metidos en la escolarización, tanto desde el aspecto de la producción como desde el del consumo. Estamos supersticiosamente convencidos de que el buen aprendizaje puede y debería producirse en nosotros —y de que podemos producirlo en otros—. Nuestro intento de desligarnos del concepto de escuela hará surgir las resistencias que hallamos en nosotros mismos cuando tratamos de renunciar al consumo ilimitado y a la ubicua suposición de que a los otros se les puede manipular por su propio bien. Nadie está totalmente exento de explotar a otros en el proceso de escolarización.";}i:2;i:116191;}i:683;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116792;}i:684;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116792;}i:685;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:648:"La escuela es el más grande y más anónimo de todos los patrones. De hecho es el mejor empleo de un nuevo tipo de empresa, sucesora del gremio, de la fábrica y de la sociedad anónima. Las empresas multinacionales que han dominado la economía están siendo complementadas ahora, y puede que algún día sean suplantadas por organismos de servicio con planificación supranacional. Estas empresas presentan sus servicios de manera que hacen que todos los hombres se sientan obligados a consumirlos. Se rigen por una normativa internacional, redefiniendo el valor de sus servicios periódicamente y por doquiera a un ritmo aproximadamente parejo.";}i:2;i:116794;}i:686;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:117442;}i:687;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:117442;}i:688;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:599:"El “transporte” que se apoya en nuevos coches y supercarreteras atiende a la misma necesidad institucionalmente envasada de comodidad, prestigio, velocidad y equipamiento, independientemente de que sus componentes los produzca o no el Estado. El aparato de la “atención médica” define una especie peculiar de salud, poco importa que sea el individuo o el Estado quien pague el servicio. La promoción graduada a fin de obtener diplomas ajusta al estudiante para ocupar un lugar en la misma pirámide internacional de mano de obra cualificada, independientemente de quien dirija la escuela.";}i:2;i:117444;}i:689;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118043;}i:690;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118043;}i:691;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:689:"En todos estos casos el empleo es un beneficio oculto: el chofer de un automóvil privado, el paciente que se somete a hospitalización o el alumno en el aula deben considerase como parte de una nueva clase de “empleados”. Un movimiento de liberación que se inicie en la escuela y, sin embargo, esté fundado en maestros y alumnos como explotados y explotadores simultáneamente, podría anticiparse a las estrategias revolucionarias del futuro; pues un programa radical de desescolarización podría adiestrar a la juventud en el nuevo estilo de revolución necesaria para desafiar a un sistema social que exhibe una “salud”, una “riqueza” y una “seguridad” obligatorias.";}i:2;i:118045;}i:692;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118734;}i:693;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118734;}i:694;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:667:"Los riesgos de una rebelión contra la escuela son imprevisibles, pero no son tan horribles como los de una revolución que se inicie en cualquier otra institución principal. La escuela no está todavía organizada para defenderse con tanta eficacia como una nación-Estado, o incluso como una gran sociedad anónima. La liberación de la opresión de las escuelas podría ser incruenta. Las armas del vigilante escolar[^n10] y de sus aliados en los tribunales y en las agencias de empleo podrían tomar medidas muy crueles contra el o la delincuente individual, especialmente si fuese pobre, pero podrían ser a su vez impotentes si surgiera un movimiento de masas.";}i:2;i:118736;}i:695;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:119403;}i:696;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:119403;}i:697;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1109:"La escuela se ha convertido en un problema social; se le ataca por todas partes, y los ciudadanos y los gobiernos patrocinan experimentos no convencionales en todo el mundo. Recurren a insólitos expedientes estadísticos a fin de preservar la fe y salvar las apariencias. El ánimo que existe entre algunos educadores es muy parecido al ánimo de los obispos católicos después del Concilio Vaticano. Los planes de estudio de las llamadas “escuelas libres” se parecen a las liturgias de las misas con música folclórica y rock. Las exigencias de los estudiantes de bachillerato para tener voz y voto en la elección de sus profesores son tan estridentes como las de los feligreses que exigen seleccionar a sus párrocos. Pero para la sociedad está en juego algo mucho mayor si una minoría significativa pierde su fe en la escolaridad. Esto pondría en peligro la supervivencia no sólo del orden económico construido sobre la coproducción de bienes y demandas, sino igualmente del orden político construido sobre la nación-Estado dentro del cual los estudiantes son dados a la luz por la escuela.";}i:2;i:119405;}i:698;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120514;}i:699;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120514;}i:700;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:452:"Nuestras alternativas posibles son harto claras. O continuamos creyendo que el aprendizaje institucionalizado es un producto que justifica una inversión ilimitada, o redescubrimos que la legislación, la planificación y la inversión, si de alguna manera encajan en la educación formal, debieran usarse principalmente para derribar las barreras que ahora obstaculizan las posibilidades de aprendizaje, el cual sólo puede ser una actividad personal.";}i:2;i:120516;}i:701;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120968;}i:702;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120968;}i:703;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1010:"Si no ponemos en tela de juicio el supuesto de que el conocimiento valedero es una mercancía que en ciertas circunstancias puede metérsele a la fuerza al consumidor, la sociedad se verá cada día más dominada por siniestras seudoescuelas y totalitarios administradores de la información. Los terapeutas pedagógicos drogarán más a sus alumnos a fin de enseñarles mejor, y los estudiantes se drogarán más a fin de conseguir aliviarse de las presiones de los profesores y de la carrera por diplomas. Ejércitos cada día mayores de burócratas presumirán de maestros. El lenguaje del escolar ya se lo ha apropiado el publicista. Ahora el general y el policía tratarán de dignificar sus profesiones disfrazándose de educadores. En una sociedad escolarizada, las guerras y la represión civil encuentran una justificación racional educativa. La guerra pedagógica al estilo Vietnam se justificará cada vez más como la única manera de enseñar a la gente el valor superior del progreso inacabable.";}i:2;i:120970;}i:704;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:121980;}i:705;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:121980;}i:706;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:689:"La represión se considerará como un empeño de misioneros por apresurar la venida del Mesías mecánico. Más y más países recurrirán a la tortura pedagógica puesta ya en práctica en Brasil y Grecia. Esta tortura pedagógica no se usa para extraer información o para satisfacer las necesidades psíquicas de unos sádicos. Se apoya en el terror aleatorio para romper la integridad de toda una población y convertirla en un material plástico para las enseñanzas inventadas por tecnócratas. La naturaleza totalmente destructiva y en constante progreso de la instrucción obligatoria cumplirá cabalmente su lógica final a menos que comencemos a librarnos desde ahora de nuestra ";}i:2;i:121982;}i:707;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:122671;}i:708;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"hybris";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"hybris";}i:2;i:122672;}i:709;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:122678;}i:710;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:124:" pedagógica, nuestra creencia de que el hombre puede hacer lo que no puede Dios, a saber, manipular a otros para salvarlos.";}i:2;i:122679;}i:711;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:122803;}i:712;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:122803;}i:713;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:517:"Muchos comienzan recientemente a darse cuenta de la inexorable destrucción que las tendencias actuales de producción implican para el medio ambiente, pero las personas aisladas tienen un poder muy restringido para cambiar estas tendencias. La manipulación de hombres y mujeres iniciada en la escuela ha llegado también a un punto sin retorno, y la mayoría de las personas aún no se han percatado de ello. Fomentan todavía la reforma escolar, tal como Henry Ford II propone unos nuevos automóviles ponzoñosos.";}i:2;i:122805;}i:714;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123322;}i:715;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123322;}i:716;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:430:"Daniel Bell dice que nuestra época se caracteriza por una extrema disyunción entre las estructuras cultural y social; una dedicada a actitudes apocalípticas y la otra a la toma tecnocrática de decisiones. Esto es sin duda verdadero respecto de muchos reformadores de la educación que se sienten impulsados a condenar casi todo aquello que caracteriza a las escuelas modernas —y proponen simultáneamente nuevas escuelas—.";}i:2;i:123324;}i:717;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123754;}i:718;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123754;}i:719;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:6:"En su ";}i:2;i:123756;}i:720;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:123762;}i:721;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:43:"Estructura de las revoluciones científicas";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:43:"Estructura de las revoluciones científicas";}i:2;i:123763;}i:722;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:123806;}i:723;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:518:" , Thomas Kuhn aduce que dicha disonancia precede inevitablemente a la aparición de un nuevo paradigma cognoscitivo. Los hechos que informaban aquellos que observaban la caída libre, aquellos que volvían del otro lado de la Tierra y aquellos que usaban el nuevo telescopio, no se ajustaban a la visión cósmica tolemaica. Súbitamente, se aceptó el paradigma newtoniano. La disonancia que caracteriza a muchos jóvenes de hoy no es tanto cognoscitiva como un asunto de actitudes —un sentimiento acerca de cómo ";}i:2;i:123807;}i:724;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:124325;}i:725;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"no";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"no";}i:2;i:124326;}i:726;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:124328;}i:727;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:150:" puede ser una sociedad tolerable—. Lo sorprendente respecto de esta disonancia es la capacidad de un número muy grande de personas para tolerarla.";}i:2;i:124329;}i:728;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:124479;}i:729;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:124479;}i:730;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:742:"La capacidad para ir tras metas incongruentes exige una explicación. Según Max Gluckman, todas las sociedades poseen procedimientos para ocultar tales disonancias de sus miembros. Los rituales pueden ocultar a sus participantes incluso discrepancias y conflictos entre principio social y organización social. Mientras un individuo no sea explícitamente consciente del carácter ritual del proceso a través del cual se le inició en las fuerzas que moldean su cosmos, no puede romper el conjuro y moldear un nuevo cosmos. Mientras no nos percatemos del ritual a través del cual la escuela moldea al consumidor progresivo —el recurso principal de la economía—, no podremos romper el conjuro de esta economía y dar forma a una nueva.";}i:2;i:124481;}i:731;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:125224;}i:732;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:125224;}i:733;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:22:"Espectro institucional";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:125224;}i:2;i:125224;}i:734;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:125224;}i:735;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:26:" +## Espectro institucional";}i:2;i:125224;}i:736;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:125224;}i:737;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1182:"La mayoría de los esquemas utópicos y escenarios futurísticos requieren nuevas y costosas tecnologías que habrían de venderse a las naciones ricas y pobres por igual. Herman Kahn ha encontrado alumnos en Venezuela, Argentina y Colombia. Las fantasías de Sergio Bernardes para su Brasil del año 2000 centellean con más maquinaria nueva de la que hoy posee Estados Unidos, que para entonces estará recargado con los obsoletos emplazamientos para misiles, aeropuertos para reactores y ciudades de las décadas de los años sesenta-setenta. Los futuristas inspirados en Buckminster Fuller se apoyarían más bien en dispositivos más baratos y exóticos. Cuentan con que se acepte una tecnología nueva pero posible, que al parecer nos permitiría hacer más con menos —monorrieles ligeros en vez de transporte supersónico, viviendas verticales en vez de dispersión horizontal—. Todos los planificadores futuristas de hoy tratan de hacer económicamente factible lo técnicamente posible, negándose a la vez a enfrentar las inevitables consecuencias sociales: el creciente anhelo de todos los hombres por bienes y servicios que seguirán siendo privilegio de unos pocos.";}i:2;i:125252;}i:738;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:126434;}i:739;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:126434;}i:740;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:905:"Creo que un futuro deseable depende, en primer lugar, de nuestra voluntad de elegir una vida de acción en vez de una vida de consumo, de que engendremos un estilo de vida que nos permita ser espontáneos, independientes y, sin embargo, relacionarnos uno con otro, en vez de mantener un estilo de vida que sólo nos permite hacer y deshacer, producir y consumir —un estilo de vida que es sólo una estación en el camino hacia el agotamiento y la contaminación del entorno—. El futuro depende más de nuestra elección de instituciones que mantengan una vida de acción y menos de que desarrollemos nuevas ideologías y tecnologías. Necesitamos un conjunto de pautas que nos permitan reconocer aquellas instituciones que apoyan el desarrollo personal en vez del enviciamiento, como también la voluntad de dedicar nuestros recursos tecnológicos preferentemente a dichas instituciones de desarrollo.";}i:2;i:126436;}i:741;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:127341;}i:742;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:127341;}i:743;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:800:"La elección se sitúa entre dos tipos institucionales radicalmente opuestos, ejemplificados ambos en ciertas instituciones existentes, aunque uno de esos tipos caracteriza de tal manera la época contemporánea que casi la define. A este tipo dominante yo propondría llamarlo la institución manipulativa. El otro tipo existe, pero sólo precariamente. Las instituciones que se ajustan a él son más humildes y menos notorias. No obstante, las tomo como modelos de un futuro más deseable. Las llamo “convivenciales” y sugiero colocarlas a la izquierda institucional, para mostrar que hay instituciones situadas entre ambos extremos y para ilustrar cómo las instituciones históricas pueden cambiar de color conforme se desplazan desde un facilitar la actividad a un organizar la producción.";}i:2;i:127343;}i:744;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128143;}i:745;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128143;}i:746;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:651:"Dicho espectro, que se desplaza de izquierda a derecha, se ha usado por lo general para caracterizar a los hombres y sus ideologías, y no a nuestras instituciones sociales y a sus estilos. Esta categorización de los hombres, sea como individuos o como grupos, suele producir más calor que luz. Pueden suscitarse poderosas objeciones contra el uso de una convención corriente, pero al hacerlo espero desplazar los términos del debate de un plano estéril a uno fértil. Se evidenciará que los hombres de izquierda no siempre se caracterizan por su oposición a las instituciones manipulativas, a las que coloco en el extremo derecho del espectro.";}i:2;i:128145;}i:747;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128796;}i:748;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128796;}i:749;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:168:"Las instituciones modernas más influyentes se agolpan al lado derecho del espectro. Hacia él se ha desplazado la coerción legal, conforme ha pasado de las manos del ";}i:2;i:128798;}i:750;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:128966;}i:751;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"sheriff";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"sheriff";}i:2;i:128967;}i:752;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:128974;}i:753;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:796:" a las del FBI y del Pentágono. La guerra moderna se ha convertido en una empresa sumamente profesional cuyo negocio es matar. Ha llegado al punto en que su eficiencia se mide por el recuento de cuerpos. Sus capacidades pacificadoras dependen de su poder para convencer a amigos y enemigos de la ilimitada potencia letal de la nación. Las balas y los productos químicos modernos son tan eficaces que a un ínfimo precio son capaces de matar o mutilar infaliblemente al “cliente”. Pero los costos de entrega aumentan vertiginosamente; el coste de un vietnamita muerto subió de 360 000 dólares en 1967 a 450 000 dólares en 1969. Sólo economías a una escala cercana al suicidio de la raza harían económicamente eficiente el arte militar moderno. Se está haciendo más obvio el efecto ";}i:2;i:128975;}i:754;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:129771;}i:755;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"boomerang";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"boomerang";}i:2;i:129772;}i:756;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:129781;}i:757;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:355:" en la guerra: cuanto mayor es el recuento de cuerpos de vietnamitas muertos, tantos más enemigos consigue Estados Unidos por todo el mundo; asimismo, tanto más debe gastar Estados Unidos en crear otra institución manipulativa —motejada cínicamente como de “pacificación”— en un vano intento por absorber los efectos secundarios de la guerra.";}i:2;i:129782;}i:758;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:130137;}i:759;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:130137;}i:760;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1663:"En este mismo lado del espectro hallamos también organismos sociales que se especializan en la manipulación de sus clientes. Semejante a la organización militar, tienden a crear efectos contrarios a sus objetivos conforme crece el ámbito de sus operaciones. Estas instituciones sociales son igualmente contraproductivas, pero lo son de manera menos evidente. Muchas adoptan una imagen simpática y terapéutica para encubrir este efecto paradójico. Por ejemplo, hasta hace un par de siglos, las cárceles servían como medio para detener a las personas hasta que se les sentenciaba, se les mutilaba, se les mataba o se les exiliaba; en ocasiones se usaban deliberadamente como forma de tortura. Sólo recientemente comenzamos a pretender que encerrar a la gente en jaulas tendrá un efecto benéfico sobre su carácter y comportamiento. Ahora, más que unos pocos están empezando a entender que la cárcel incrementa tanto la calidad de los criminales como su cantidad, que es perfectamente capaz de hacer de un simple inconforme un criminal endurecido. No obstante, es mucho menor el número de los que al parecer entienden que las clínicas psiquiátricas, hogares de reposo y orfanatos hacen algo muy parecido. Estas instituciones proporcionan a sus clientes la destructiva autoimagen del psicótico, del excedido en años o del niño abandonado, y proveen la justificación lógica para la existencia de ciertas profesiones, tal como las cárceles poseen sus guardias. La afiliación a instituciones que se encuentran en este extremo del espectro se consigue de dos maneras, ambas coercitivas: mediante compromiso obligado o mediante servicio selectivo.";}i:2;i:130139;}i:761;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:131802;}i:762;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:131802;}i:763;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1802:"En el extremo opuesto del espectro se sitúan unas instituciones que se distinguen por el uso espontáneo —las instituciones “convivenciales”—. Las conexiones telefónicas, las líneas de metro, los recorridos de los carteros, los mercados y lonjas no tienen necesidad de convencernos de su necesidad. Los sistemas de alcantarillado, de agua potable, los parques y veredas son instituciones que los hombres usan sin tener que estar institucionalmente convencidos de que les conviene hacerlo. Todas las instituciones exigen, por cierto, cierta reglamentación. Pero el funcionamiento de instituciones que existen para usarse más que para producir algo, requiere de normas cuya índole es totalmente diferente de la que exigen las instituciones-tratamiento, que son manipulativas. Las normas que rigen a las instituciones para uso tienen por fin principal evitar abusos que frustrarían su accesibilidad general. Las veredas deben mantenerse libres de obstrucciones, el uso industrial de agua potable debe someterse a ciertos límites y el juego de pelota debe restringirse a zonas especiales dentro de un parque. Actualmente necesitamos una legislación especial para evitar el abuso de nuestras líneas telefónicas por parte de computadoras, el abuso del servicio de correo por parte de los anunciantes y la contaminación de nuestros sistemas de alcantarillado por los desechos industriales. La reglamentación de las instituciones convivenciales fija límites para su empleo; conforme uno pasa del extremo convivencial del espectro al manipulativo, las normas van exigiendo cada vez más un consumo o participación no queridos. El diferente coste de la adquisición de clientes es precisamente una de las características que distingue a las instituciones conviviales de las manipulativas.";}i:2;i:131804;}i:764;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:133606;}i:765;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:133606;}i:766;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:792:"En ambos extremos del espectro encontramos instituciones de servicio, pero a la derecha, el servicio es una manipulación impuesta y al cliente se le convierte en víctima de la publicidad, la agresión, el adoctrinamiento, la prisión o el electrochoque. A la izquierda, el servicio es una mayor oportunidad de límites definidos formalmente, mientras el cliente sigue siendo un agente libre. Las instituciones del ala derecha tienden a procesos de producción altamente complejos y costosos en los que gran parte de la complicación y el gasto se ocupan en convencer a los consumidores de que no pueden vivir sin el producto o tratamiento ofrecido por la institución. Las instituciones del ala izquierda tienden a redes que facilitan la composición o cooperación iniciada por el cliente.";}i:2;i:133608;}i:767;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:134400;}i:768;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:134400;}i:769;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1251:"Las instituciones manipulativas de la derecha son formadoras de hábito, “adictivas”, social y psicológicamente. La adicción social, o escalada, consiste en la tendencia a prescribir un tratamiento intensificado si dosis menores no han rendido los resultados deseados. La adicción psicológica, o habituamiento, se produce cuando los consumidores se envician con la necesidad de una cantidad cada vez mayor del proceso o del producto. Las instituciones de la izquierda que uno mismo pone en actividad tienden a autolimitarse. Al revés de los procesos de producción que identifican la satisfacción con el mero acto del consumo, estas redes sirven a un objetivo que va más allá de su uso repetido. Una persona levanta el teléfono cuando quiere decir algo a otra, y cuelga una vez terminada la comunicación deseada. A excepción hecha de los adolescentes, no usa el teléfono por el puro placer de hablar ante el receptor. Si el teléfono no es el mejor modo de ponerse en comunicación, las personas escribirán una carta o harán un viaje. Las instituciones de la derecha, como podemos ver claramente en el caso de las escuelas, invitan compulsivamente al uso repetitivo y frustran las maneras alternativas de lograr resultados similares.";}i:2;i:134402;}i:770;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:135653;}i:771;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:135653;}i:772;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:620:"Hacia la izquierda del espectro institucional, pero no en el extremo mismo, podemos colocar a las empresas que compiten entre sí en la actividad que les es propia, pero que no han empezado a ocupar la publicidad de manera notable. Encontramos aquí las lavanderías manuales, las pequeñas panaderías, los peluqueros y, para hablar de profesionales, algunos abogados y profesores de música. Son por consiguiente característicamente del ala izquierda las personas que han institucionalizado sus servicios, pero no su publicidad. Consiguen clientes mediante su contacto personal y la calidad relativa de sus servicios.";}i:2;i:135655;}i:773;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136275;}i:774;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136275;}i:775;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:632:"Los hoteles y las cafeterías se acercan algo más al centro. Las grandes cadenas hoteleras como la Hilton que gastan inmensas cantidades en vender su imagen, a menudo se comportan como si estuvieran dirigiendo instituciones de la derecha. No obstante, las empresas Hilton y Sheraton no ofrecen nada más —de hecho dan frecuentemente menos— que alojamientos de precio similar y dirigidos independientemente. En lo esencial, un letrero de hotel atrae al viajero como lo hace un signo caminero. Dice más bien: “Detente, aquí hay una cama para ti”, y no: “¡Deberías preferir una cama de hotel a una banca en el parque!”";}i:2;i:136277;}i:776;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136909;}i:777;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136909;}i:778;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:454:"Los productores de artículos de primera necesidad y de la mayoría de los bienes efímeros pertenecen a la parte central de nuestro espectro. Satisfacen demandas genéricas y agregan al costo de producción y distribución todo lo que el mercado soporte en costos publicitarios, en anuncios y envases. Cuanto más básico sea el producto —trátese de bienes o de servicios— tanto más tiende la competencia a limitar el costo de venta del artículo.";}i:2;i:136911;}i:779;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:137365;}i:780;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:137365;}i:781;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1353:"La mayoría de los fabricantes de bienes de consumo se han ido mucho más a la derecha. Tanto directa como indirectamente, producen demandas de accesorios que hinchan el precio real de compra muy por encima del coste de producción. La General Motors y la Ford producen medios de transporte, pero también, y esto es más importante, manipulan el gusto del público de manera tal que la necesidad de transporte se expresa como una demanda de coches privados y no de autobuses públicos. Venden el deseo de controlar una máquina, correr a grandes velocidades con lujosa comodidad, al tiempo que ofrecen el espejismo de la evasión. Pero lo que venden no es tan sólo un asunto de motores inútilmente poderosos, de artilugios superfluos o de suplementos nuevos que los fabricantes han tenido que agregar obligados por Ralph Nader y los grupos que presionan en pro de un aire limpio. La lista de precios incluye dispositivos anticontaminantes, cinturones de seguridad, climatización; pero también comprende otros costes que no se le declaran abiertamente al conductor: los gastos de publicidad y de ventas de la empresa, el combustible, el mantenimiento y las refacciones, el seguro, el interés sobre el crédito, como también costes menos tangibles, como la pérdida de tiempo, el buen humor y el aire respirable en nuestras congestionadas ciudades.";}i:2;i:137367;}i:782;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:138720;}i:783;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:138720;}i:784;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:345:"Un corolario particularmente interesante de nuestro examen de instituciones socialmente útiles es el sistema de carreteras “públicas”. Este importante elemento del coste total de los automóviles merece un análisis más dilatado, pues conduce directamente a la institución derechista en la que estoy más interesado, a saber, la escuela.";}i:2;i:138722;}i:785;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139067;}i:786;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139069;}i:787;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:37:"Falsos servicios de utilidad pública";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:139069;}i:2;i:139069;}i:788;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:139069;}i:789;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:42:" +### Falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:139069;}i:790;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139069;}i:791;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:558:"El sistema de carreteras es una red para la locomoción a través de distancias relativamente grandes. En su condición de red, parecería corresponderle estar a la izquierda en el espectro institucional. Pero en este caso debemos hacer una distinción que esclarecerá tanto la naturaleza de las carreteras como la naturaleza de los verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Los caminos que son genuinamente para todos, son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Las supercarreteras son cotos privados, cuyo coste se le encaja parcialmente al público.";}i:2;i:139113;}i:792;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139671;}i:793;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139671;}i:794;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:887:"Los sistemas de teléfonos, correos y caminos son redes, y ninguno es gratis. El acceso a la red de teléfonos está limitado por cobros sobre tiempo ocupado en cada llamada. Estas tarifas son relativamente bajas y podrían reducirse sin cambiar la naturaleza del sistema. El uso del sistema telefónico no está en absoluto limitado por lo que se transmita, aunque lo emplean mejor quienes pueden hablar frases coherentes en el lenguaje del interlocutor, una capacidad que poseen todos los que desean usar la red. El franqueo suele ser barato. El uso del sistema postal se ve ligeramente limitado por el precio de la pluma y el papel, y algo más por la capacidad de escribir. Aún así, cuando alguien que no sabe escribir tiene un pariente o un amigo a quien pueda dictarle una carta, el sistema postal está a su disposición, tal como lo está si quiere despachar una cinta grabada.";}i:2;i:139673;}i:795;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:140560;}i:796;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:140560;}i:797;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:675:"El sistema de carreteras no llega a estar disponible de manera similar para alguien que tan sólo aprenda a conducir. Las redes telefónica y postal existen para servir a quienes deseen usarlas, mientras el sistema de carreteras sirve principalmente como accesorio del automóvil privado. Las primeras son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública, mientras el último es un servicio público para los dueños de coches, camiones y autobuses. Los servicios de utilidad pública existen en pro de la comunicación entre los hombres: las carreteras, como otras instituciones de la derecha, existen en pro de un producto. Tal como hicimos notar, los fabricantes de automóviles ";}i:2;i:140562;}i:798;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141237;}i:799;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:141238;}i:800;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141246;}i:801;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:71:" simultáneamente tanto los coches como la demanda de coches. Asimismo ";}i:2;i:141247;}i:802;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141318;}i:803;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:141319;}i:804;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141327;}i:805;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:318:" la demanda de carreteras de varias vías, puentes y campos petrolíferos. El coche privado es el foco de una constelación de instituciones del ala derecha. El elevado coste de cada elemento lo dicta la complicación del producto básico, y vender el producto básico es enviciar a la sociedad en el paquete conjunto.";}i:2;i:141328;}i:806;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:141646;}i:807;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:141646;}i:808;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:423:"Planificar un sistema vial como un verdadero servicio de utilidad pública discriminaría a aquellos para quienes la velocidad y el confort individualizado son los valores primarios de transporte, y favorecería a aquellos que valoran la fluidez y el lugar de destino. Es la diferencia entre una red extendidísima con acceso máximo para los viajeros y otra que ofrezca sólo un acceso privilegiado a una zona restringida.";}i:2;i:141648;}i:809;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:142071;}i:810;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:142071;}i:811;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1544:"La transferencia de una institución moderna a las naciones en desarrollo permite probar esto con mejor claridad. En los países muy pobres, los caminos suelen ser apenas lo bastante buenos como para permitir el tránsito mediante camiones especiales de eje elevado, cargados de víveres, reses o personas. Este tipo de país debería usar sus limitados recursos para construir una telaraña de pistas que llegaran a todas sus regiones y debería restringir la importancia de vehículos a dos o tres modelos diferentes muy duraderos que puedan transitar por malos caminos a baja velocidad. Esto simplificaría el mantenimiento continuo de estos vehículos y proporcionaría una máxima fluidez y elección de puntos de destino a todos los ciudadanos. Esto exigiría proyectar vehículos para todo servicio con la simplicidad del Ford T, utilizando las aleaciones más modernas para garantizar su durabilidad, con un límite de velocidad incorporado de unos 25 kilómetros por hora a lo más, y lo bastante firme como para rodar por el terreno más áspero. No se ofrecen estos vehículos en el mercado porque no hay demanda de ellos. De hecho sería preciso cultivar esa demanda, muy posiblemente al amparo de una legislación estricta. Actualmente, cada vez que una demanda de esta especie se hace sentir un poco, se le descarta rápida y desdeñosamente mediante una publicidad contraria, encaminada a la venta universal de las máquinas que extraen hoy de los contribuyentes estadunidenses el dinero necesario para construir supercarreteras.";}i:2;i:142073;}i:812;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:143617;}i:813;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:143617;}i:814;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:679:"Para “mejorar” el transporte, todos los países, hasta los más pobres, proyectan ahora sistemas viales concebidos para coches de pasajeros y remolques de alta velocidad que se ajustan a la minoría, pendiente del velocímetro, compuesta por productores y consumidores en las clases selectas. Este planteamiento a menudo se justifica racionalmente pintándolo como un ahorro del recurso más precioso de un país pobre: el tiempo del médico, del inspector escolar o del funcionario público. Estos hombres, naturalmente, sirven casi exclusivamente a la misma gente que posee un coche o espera tenerlo algún día. Los impuestos locales y las escasas divisas se derrochan en ";}i:2;i:143619;}i:815;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:144298;}i:816;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:37:"falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:37:"falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:144299;}i:817;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:144336;}i:818;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:".";}i:2;i:144337;}i:819;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:144338;}i:820;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:144338;}i:821;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:735:"La tecnología “moderna” transferida a los países pobres puede dividirse en tres categorías: bienes, fábricas que los hacen e instituciones de servicios —principalmente escuelas— que convierten a los hombres en productores y consumidores modernos. La mayor parte de los países gastan la mayor proporción de su presupuesto, y con mucho, en escuelas. Los graduados fabricados con escuelas crean entonces una demanda de otros servicios conspicuos de utilidad pública, tales como potencia industrial, carreteras pavimentadas, hospitales modernos y aeropuertos, y éstos crean a su vez un mercado para los bienes hechos para países ricos y, al cabo de un tiempo, la tendencia a importar fábricas anticuadas para producirlos.";}i:2;i:144340;}i:822;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145075;}i:823;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145075;}i:824;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:490:"De todos los “falsos servicios de utilidad pública”, la escuela es el más insidioso. Los sistemas de carreteras producen sólo demanda de coches. Las escuelas crean una demanda para el conjunto completo de instituciones modernas que llenan el extremo derecho del espectro. A un hombre que pusiera en duda la necesidad de carreteras se le tacharía de romántico; al que ponga en tela de juicio la necesidad de escuelas se le ataca de inmediato: un ser sin entrañas o un imperialista.";}i:2;i:145077;}i:825;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145567;}i:826;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145569;}i:827;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:55:"Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:145569;}i:2;i:145569;}i:828;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:145569;}i:829;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:60:" +### Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:145569;}i:830;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145569;}i:831;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:737:"Al igual que las carreteras, las escuelas dan a primera vista la impresión de estar igualmente abiertas para todos los interesados. De hecho están abiertas sólo para quienes renueven sin cejar sus credenciales. Así como las carreteras crean la impresión de que su nivel actual de costes anuales es necesario para que la gente pueda moverse, así se supone que las escuelas son indispensables para alcanzar la competencia que exige una sociedad que use la tecnología moderna. Hemos expuesto las autopistas como servicios de utilidad pública espurios observando cómo dependen de los automóviles privados. Las escuelas se fundan en la hipótesis igualmente espuria de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza curricular.";}i:2;i:145631;}i:832;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:146368;}i:833;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:146368;}i:834;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:798:"Las carreteras son las consecuencias del deseo y la necesidad de movilizarse que se pervierten para convertirlos en demanda de coches privados. Las escuelas pervierten la natural inclinación a desarrollarse y aprender convirtiéndola en demanda de instrucción. La demanda de una madurez manufacturada es mucho más la abnegación de la actividad iniciada por uno mismo que la demanda de bienes manufacturados. Las escuelas no sólo están a la derecha de las carreteras y los coches, tienen su lugar cerca del extremo del espectro institucional ocupado por los asilos totales. Incluso los productores de recuentos de cuerpos matan solamente cuerpos. Al hacer que los hombres abdiquen de la responsabilidad de su propio desarrollo, la escuela conduce a muchos a una especie de suicidio espiritual.";}i:2;i:146370;}i:835;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:147168;}i:836;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:147168;}i:837;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1122:"Las carreteras las pagan en parte quienes las utilizan, puesto que los peajes e impuestos al combustible se obtienen sólo de los conductores. La escuela, en cambio, es un sistema perfecto de tributación regresiva, en el que los privilegios cabalgan sobre el lomo de todo público pagador. La escuela fija un gravamen por cabeza sobre la promoción. El subconsumo de distancias recorridas por carretera no es nunca tan costoso como el subconsumo de escolarización. El hombre que no posea un coche en Los Ángeles posiblemente esté casi inmovilizado, pero si se ingenia de algún modo para llegar a su lugar de trabajo, podrá conseguir y conservar un empleo. El desertor escolar carece de vía alternativa. El habitante suburbano en su Lincoln nuevo y su primo campesino que conduce una vieja carcacha se aprovechan más o menos igual de la carretera, aunque el vehículo del uno cueste 30 veces más que el del otro. El valor de la escolarización de un hombre es función del número de años que ha permanecido en escuelas y de la carestía de éstas. La ley no obliga a conducir, en cambio obliga a ir a la escuela.";}i:2;i:147170;}i:838;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148292;}i:839;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148292;}i:840;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:367:"El análisis de las instituciones según su actual emplazamiento en un espectro continuo izquierda-derecha me permite esclarecer mi convicción de que el cambio social fundamental debe comenzar con un cambio en la conciencia que se tiene de las instituciones y explicar por qué la dimensión de un futuro viable recae en el rejuvenecimiento del estilo institucional.";}i:2;i:148294;}i:841;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148661;}i:842;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148661;}i:843;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:549:"Durante la década 1960-1970, unas instituciones, nacidas en diversas épocas después de la Revolución francesa, llegaron a su vejez; los sistemas de escuelas públicas fundados en la época de Jefferson o de Atatürk, junto con otros que se iniciaron después de la segunda Guerra Mundial, se hicieron todos burocráticos, autojustificantes y manipulativos. Lo mismo les ocurrió a los sistemas de seguridad social, a los sindicatos, a las principales Iglesias y cuerpos diplomáticos, a la atención de los ancianos y a los servicios funerarios.";}i:2;i:148663;}i:844;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149212;}i:845;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149212;}i:846;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:568:"Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay un mayor parecido ente los sistemas escolares de Colombia, Inglaterra, la Unión Soviética y Estados Unidos, que entre las escuelas de este último de fines del siglo pasado y las de hoy o las de Rusia en ese tiempo. Las escuelas son hoy obligatorias, sin término definido y competitivo. Esa misma convergencia en el estilo institucional afecta la atención médica, la comercialización, la administración de personal y la vida política. Todos estos procesos institucionales tienden a apilarse en el extremo manipulativo del espectro.";}i:2;i:149214;}i:847;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149782;}i:848;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149782;}i:849;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:325:"La consecuencia de esta convergencia de instituciones es la fusión de burocracias mundiales. El estilo, el sistema de ordenamiento jerárquico y la parafernalia (desde el libro de texto a la computadora) se normalizan en los consejos de planificación de Costa Rica o de Afganistán, según los modelos de Europa occidental.";}i:2;i:149784;}i:850;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:150109;}i:851;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:150109;}i:852;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:292:"Las burocracias parecen centrarse en todas partes en la misma tarea: promover el crecimiento de las instituciones de la derecha. Se ocupan de la fabricación de cosas, la fabricación de normas rituales y la fabricación —y remodelación— de la “verdad ejecutiva”, la ideología o el ";}i:2;i:150111;}i:853;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:150403;}i:854;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"fiat";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"fiat";}i:2;i:150404;}i:855;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:150408;}i:856;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:744:" que establece el valor presente que debiera atribuirse a lo que ellas producen. La tecnología proporciona a estas burocracias un poder creciente a la mano derecha de la sociedad. La mano izquierda parece marchitarse y no porque la tecnología sea menos capaz de aumentar el ámbito de la actividad humana y de proporcionar tiempo para el despliegue de la imaginación individual y para la creatividad personal, sino porque ese uso de la tecnología no aumenta el poder de la élite que la administra. El director de correos no tiene control sobre el uso esencial de ese servicio; la telefonista o el directivo de la compañía telefónica carecen de poder para impedir que se preparen adulterios, asesinatos o subversiones usando sus líneas.";}i:2;i:150409;}i:857;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151153;}i:858;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151153;}i:859;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:275:"En la elección entre la derecha y la izquierda institucional está en juego la naturaleza misma de la vida humana. El hombre debe elegir entre ser rico en cosas o tener libertad para usarlas. Debe elegir entre estilos alternativos de vida y programas conexos de producción.";}i:2;i:151155;}i:860;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151430;}i:861;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151430;}i:862;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:245:"Aristóteles ya había descubierto que “hacer y actuar” son diferentes, y de hecho tan diferentes que lo uno jamás incluye lo otro. “Porque ni es el actuar una manera de hacer, ni el hacer una manera del verdadero actuar. La arquitectura ";}i:2;i:151432;}i:863;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:151677;}i:864;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"techne";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"techne";}i:2;i:151678;}i:865;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:151684;}i:866;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:367:" es una manera de hacer… dar nacimiento a algo cuyo origen está en su hacedor y no en la cosa. El hacer siempre tiene una finalidad que no es él mismo, y no así la acción, puesto que la buena acción es en sí misma un fin. La perfección en el hacer es un arte; la perfección en el actuar, una virtud.”[^n11] La palabra que Aristóteles usó para hacer fue ";}i:2;i:151685;}i:867;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152052;}i:868;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"poesis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"poesis";}i:2;i:152053;}i:869;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152059;}i:870;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:30:" , y la que usó para actuar, ";}i:2;i:152060;}i:871;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152090;}i:872;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"praxis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"praxis";}i:2;i:152091;}i:873;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152097;}i:874;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1043:". El movimiento hacia la derecha de una institución indica que se la está reestructurando para aumentar su capacidad de “hacer”, mientras que si se desplaza hacia la izquierda indica que se la está reestructurando para permitir un mayor “actuar” o “praxis”. La tecnología moderna ha aumentado la capacidad del hombre para dejar a las máquinas el “hacer” cosas y ha aumentado el tiempo que puede dedicar a “actuar”. El “hacer” las cosas cotidianas imprescindibles ha dejado de ocupar su tiempo. El desempleo es la consecuencia de esta modernización: es la ociosidad del hombre para quien no hay nada que “hacer” y que no sabe cómo “actuar”. El desempleo es la triste ociosidad del hombre que, al revés de Aristóteles, cree que hacer cosas o trabajar es virtuoso y que la ociosidad es mala. El desempleo es la experiencia del hombre que ha sucumbido a la ética protestante. Según Weber, el hombre necesita el ocio para poder trabajar. Según Aristóteles, el trabajo es necesario para poder tener ocio.";}i:2;i:152098;}i:875;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153141;}i:876;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153141;}i:877;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:435:"La tecnología proporciona al hombre tiempo discrecional que puede llenar ya sea haciendo, ya sea actuando. Toda nuestra cultura tiene abierta ahora la opción entre un triste desempleo o un ocio feliz. Depende del estilo institucional que la cultura elija. Esta elección habría sido inconcebible en una cultura antigua fundada en la agricultura campesina o en la esclavitud. Ha llegado a ser inevitable para el hombre posindustrial.";}i:2;i:153143;}i:878;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153578;}i:879;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153578;}i:880;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:685:"Una manera de llenar el tiempo disponible es estimular mayores demandas de consumo de bienes y, simultáneamente, de producción de servicios. Lo primero implica una economía que proporciona una falange cada vez mayor de cosas siempre novedosas que pueden hacerse, consumirse y someterse a reciclaje. Lo segundo implica el vano intento de “hacer” acciones virtuosas, haciendo aparecer como tales los productos de las instituciones de “servicios”. Esto conduce a la identificación de la escolaridad con la educación, del servicio médico con la salud, de los programas con la recreación, de la velocidad con la locomoción eficaz. La primera opción lleva ahora el apodo de ";}i:2;i:153580;}i:881;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:154265;}i:882;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"desarrollo.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"desarrollo.";}i:2;i:154266;}i:883;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:154277;}i:884;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154278;}i:885;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154278;}i:886;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:244:"La manera radicalmente alternativa de llenar el tiempo disponible consiste en una gama limitada de bienes más durables y en proporcionar acceso a instituciones que puedan aumentar la oportunidad y apetencia de las acciones humanas recíprocas.";}i:2;i:154280;}i:887;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154524;}i:888;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154524;}i:889;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:418:"Una economía de bienes duraderos es exactamente lo contrario de una economía fundada en la obsolescencia programada. Una economía de bienes duraderos significa una restricción en la lista de mercancías. Los bienes habrían de ser de tal especie que diesen un máximo de oportunidad para “actuar” en algo con ellos: artículos hechos para montarlos uno mismo, para autoayudarse, para su reempleo y reparación.";}i:2;i:154526;}i:890;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154944;}i:891;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154944;}i:892;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:934:"El complemento de una lista de bienes durables, reparables y reutilizables no es un aumento de servicios producidos institucionalmente, sino más bien una estructura institucional que eduque constantemente en la acción, en la participación, en la autoayuda. El movimiento de nuestra sociedad desde el presente —en el que todas las instituciones gravitan hacia una burocracia posindustrial— a un futuro de convivencialidad posindustrial —en el que la intensidad de la acción sería preponderante sobre la producción— debe comenzar con una renovación del estilo de las instituciones de servicio y, antes que nada, por una renovación de la educación. Un futuro deseable y factible depende de nuestra disposición a invertir nuestro saber tecnológico en el desarrollo de instituciones convivenciales. En el terreno de las investigaciones sobre educación, esto equivale a exigir que se trastroquen las tendencias actuales.";}i:2;i:154946;}i:893;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:155881;}i:894;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:155881;}i:895;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:29:"Compatibilidades irracionales";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:155881;}i:2;i:155881;}i:896;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:155881;}i:897;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:33:" +## Compatibilidades irracionales";}i:2;i:155881;}i:898;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:155881;}i:899;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1032:"[^n12] Creo que la crisis contemporánea de la educación nos obliga más bien a modificar la idea de un aprendizaje públicamente prescrito y no los métodos usados para hacerlo cumplir. La proporción de desertores —especialmente de alumnos de los primeros años de bachillerato y de maestros de primaria— señala que las bases están pidiendo un enfoque totalmente nuevo. Al “practicante del aula” que se estima un profesor liberal se le ataca cada vez más por todos lados. El movimiento pro escuela libre, que confunde disciplina con adoctrinamiento, le ha adjudicado el papel de elemento destructivo y autoritario. El tecnólogo educativo demuestra sostenidamente la inferioridad del profesor para medir y modificar la conducta. Y la administración escolar para la que trabaja lo obliga a inclinarse tanto ante Summerhill como ante Skinner, poniendo en evidencia que el aprendizaje obligatorio no puede ser una empresa liberal. No debe asombrar que el índice de maestros desertores esté superando el de los alumnos.";}i:2;i:155916;}i:900;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:156948;}i:901;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:156948;}i:902;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:786:"El compromiso que Estados Unidos ha contraído de educar obligatoriamente a sus menores se demuestra tan vano como el pretendido compromiso norteamericano de democratizar obligatoriamente a los vietnamitas. Las escuelas convencionales obviamente no pueden hacerlo. El movimiento pro escuela libre seduce a los educadores no convencionales, pero en definitiva lo hace en apoyo de la ideología convencional de la escolarización. Y lo que prometen los tecnólogos de la educación, a saber, que sus investigaciones y desarrollo —si se les dota de fondos suficientes— pueden ofrecer alguna especie de solución final a la resistencia de la juventud contra el aprendizaje obligatorio, suena tan confiado y demuestra ser tan fatuo como las promesas hechas por los tecnólogos militares.";}i:2;i:156950;}i:903;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:157736;}i:904;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:157736;}i:905;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1399:"Las críticas dirigidas contra el sistema escolar estadunidense por parte de los conductistas, y las que provienen de la nueva raza de educadores raciales, parecen diametralmente opuestas. Los conductistas aplican las investigaciones sobre educación a la “inducción de instrucción autotélica mediante paquetes de aprendizaje individualizados”. El estilo conductista choca con la idea de hacer que los jóvenes ingresen por voluntad propia en unas comunas liberadas que les invitan a ingresar, las cuales estarían supervisadas por adultos. No obstante, bajo una perspectiva histórica, ambas no son sino manifestaciones contemporáneas de las metas, aparentemente contradictorias, pero en verdad complementarias, del sistema escolar público. Desde los comienzos de este siglo, las escuelas han sido protagonistas del control social por una parte y de la cooperación libre por la otra, poniéndose ambos aspectos al servicio de la “buena sociedad” a la que se concibe como una estructura corporativa altamente organizada y de suave funcionamiento. Sometidos al impacto de una urbanización intensa, los niños se convierten en un recurso natural que las escuelas han de moldear para luego alimentar la máquina industrial. Las políticas progresistas y el culto a la eficiencia coincidieron con el crecimiento de la escuela pública estadunidense.[^n13] La orientación vocacional y la ";}i:2;i:157738;}i:906;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159137;}i:907;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:17:"junior highschool";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:17:"junior highschool";}i:2;i:159138;}i:908;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159155;}i:909;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:67:"[^n14] fueron dos importantes resultados de este tipo de conceptos.";}i:2;i:159156;}i:910;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:159223;}i:911;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:159223;}i:912;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:620:"Parece, por consiguiente, que el intento de producir cambios específicos en el comportamiento, que puedan medirse y de los que pueda responsabilizarse al encargado del proceso, es sólo el anverso de la medalla, cuyo reverso es la pacificación de la nueva generación dentro de enclaves especialmente proyectados que los inducirán a entrar en el sueño de sus mayores. Estos seres pacificados en sociedad están bien descritos por Dewey, quien quiere que “hagamos de cada una de nuestras escuelas una vida comunitaria en embrión, activa, con tipos de ocupaciones que reflejen la vida de la sociedad en pleno, y la ";}i:2;i:159225;}i:913;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159845;}i:914;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"impregnen";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"impregnen";}i:2;i:159846;}i:915;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159855;}i:916;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1399:" con el espíritu del arte, de la historia, de la ciencia”. Bajo esta perspectiva histórica, sería un grave error interpretar la actual controversia a tres bandas entre el establecimiento escolar, los tecnólogos de la educación y las escuelas libres como el preludio de una revolución en la educación. Esta controversia refleja más bien una etapa de un intento para convertir a grandes trancos un viejo sueño en hecho y convertir finalmente todo aprendizaje valedero en el resultado de una enseñanza profesional. La mayoría de las alternativas educativas propuestas convergen hacia metas que son inmanentes a la producción del hombre cooperativo cuyas necesidades individuales se satisfacen mediante su especialización en el sistema estadunidense: están orientadas hacia el mejoramiento de lo que yo llamo —a falta de una mejor expresión— la sociedad escolarizada. Incluso los críticos aparentemente radicales del sistema escolar no están dispuestos a abandonar la idea de que tienen una obligación para con los jóvenes, especialmente para con los pobres, la obligación de hacerlos pasar por el proceso, sea mediante amor o mediante odio, para meterlos en una sociedad que necesita especialización disciplinada tanto de sus productores como de sus consumidores y, asimismo, el pleno compromiso de todos ellos con la ideología que antepone a todo el crecimiento económico.";}i:2;i:159856;}i:917;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161255;}i:918;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161255;}i:919;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:534:"La disensión enmascara la contradicción inherente a la idea misma de escuela. Los sindicatos establecidos de profesores, los brujos de la tecnología y los movimientos de liberación escolar refuerzan el compromiso de la sociedad entera con los axiomas fundamentales de un mundo escolarizado, más o menos del modo en que muchos movimientos pacifistas y de protesta refuerzan el compromiso de sus miembros —sean negros, mujeres, jóvenes o pobres— con la búsqueda de justicia mediante el crecimiento del ingreso nacional bruto.";}i:2;i:161257;}i:920;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161791;}i:921;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161791;}i:922;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:477:"Es fácil anotar algunos de los postulados que ahora pasan inadvertidos a la crítica. En primer lugar está la creencia compartida de que la conducta que se ha adquirido ante los ojos de un pedagogo es de especial valor para el alumno y de especial provecho para la sociedad. Esto está relacionado con el supuesto de que el hombre social nace sólo en la adolescencia, y que nace adecuadamente sólo si madura en la escuela-matriz, que algunos desean hacer dulce mediante el ";}i:2;i:161793;}i:923;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:162270;}i:924;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:14:"laissez-faire,";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:14:"laissez-faire,";}i:2;i:162271;}i:925;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:162285;}i:926;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:921:"[^n15] otros quieren llenar de artilugios mecánicos y unos terceros buscan barnizar con una tradición liberal. Está finalmente una visión común de la juventud, psicológicamente romántica y políticamente conservadora. Según esta visión, los cambios de la sociedad deben llevarse a cabo agobiando a los jóvenes con la responsabilidad de transformarla —pero sólo después de que en su momento se han liberado de la escuela—. Para una sociedad fundada en tales postulados es fácil ir creando un sentido de su responsabilidad respecto de la educación de la nueva generación, y esto inevitablemente significa que algunos hombres pueden fijar, especificar y evaluar las metas personales de otros. En un “párrafo tomado de una enciclopedia china imaginaria” Jorge Luis Borges trata de evocar el mareo que debe producir ese intento. Nos dice que los animales están divididos en las clases siguientes: “ ";}i:2;i:162286;}i:927;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163207;}i:928;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"a)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"a)";}i:2;i:163208;}i:929;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163210;}i:930;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:30:" pertenecientes al Emperador, 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jarrón, ";}i:2;i:163512;}i:979;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163546;}i:980;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"n)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"n)";}i:2;i:163547;}i:981;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163549;}i:982;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:248:" que de lejos parecen moscas”. Ahora bien, semejante taxonomía no aparece a menos que alguien estime que puede servir para sus fines: en este caso, supongo, ese alguien era un cobrador de impuestos. Para él, al menos, esta taxonomía bestiaria ";}i:2;i:163550;}i:983;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163798;}i:984;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"tiene";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"tiene";}i:2;i:163799;}i:985;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163804;}i:986;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:118:" que haber tenido sentido, tal como la taxonomía de objetivos educativos tiene sentido para los autores científicos.";}i:2;i:163805;}i:987;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:163923;}i:988;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:163923;}i:989;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:472:"La visión de hombres dotados de una lógica tan inescrutable, y autorizados para evaluar su ganado, debe haber producido en el campesino un helado sentimiento de impotencia. Los estudiantes, por motivos parecidos, tienden a sentirse paranoicos cuando se someten seriamente a un currículum. Inevitablemente se asustan aún más que mi imaginario campesino chino, porque no es su ganado, sino sus objetivos vitales los que están siendo marcados con un signo inescrutable.";}i:2;i:163925;}i:990;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:164397;}i:991;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:164397;}i:992;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:67:"Este pasaje de Borges es fascinante, porque evoca la lógica de la ";}i:2;i:164399;}i:993;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:164466;}i:994;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:25:"compatibilidad irracional";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:25:"compatibilidad irracional";}i:2;i:164467;}i:995;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:164492;}i:996;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:800:" que hace a las burocracias de Kafka y de Koestler tan siniestras y no obstante tan evocadoras de la vida cotidiana. El encadenamiento implacable de las reglas parece embrujar a quienes se vuelven cómplices de ellas y los empuja a hacer prueba de una disciplina todavía más ciega. Es la lógica creada por la conducta burocrática. Y se convierte en la lógica de una sociedad que exige que a los administradores de sus instituciones educativas se les considere públicamente responsables de la modificación del comportamiento que producen en sus clientes. Los estudiantes a los que se puede motivar para valorar los paquetes educativos que sus profesores les obligan a consumir son comparables a los campesinos chinos que pueden ajustar sus rebaños al formulario de impuestos que ofrece Borges.";}i:2;i:164493;}i:997;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165293;}i:998;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165293;}i:999;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:347:"Durante el transcurso de las dos últimas generaciones triunfó en algún momento en la cultura norteamericana un compromiso con la terapia, y vino a considerarse a los profesores como los terapeutas cuyas recetas todos los hombres necesitan, si es que desean gozar de la libertad y la igualdad con las cuales, según la Constitución, han nacido.";}i:2;i:165295;}i:1000;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165642;}i:1001;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165642;}i:1002;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:119:"Ahora los profesores-terapeutas siguen adelante al proponer como paso siguiente el tratamiento educativo vitalicio. El ";}i:2;i:165644;}i:1003;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:165763;}i:1004;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"estudio";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"estudio";}i:2;i:165764;}i:1005;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:165771;}i:1006;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:366:" de este tratamiento está sujeto a discusión: ¿debiera adoptar la forma de una asistencia constante de los adultos al aula? ¿O la de éxtasis electrónico? ¿O de sesiones periódicas de sensibilización? Todos los educadores están prontos a conspirar para extender los muros del aula y agrandarla, con la meta de transformar la cultura completa en una escuela.";}i:2;i:165772;}i:1007;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:166138;}i:1008;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:166138;}i:1009;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:971:"Detrás de la retórica y del alboroto, la controversia sobre el futuro de la educación que tiene lugar en Estados Unidos es más conservadora que el debate en otros ámbitos de la política común. Respecto de las relaciones exteriores, por lo menos, una minoría organizada nos recuerda constantemente que el país debe renunciar a su papel de policía del mundo. Los economistas radicales, y ahora incluso sus profesores, menos radicales, ponen en duda la convivencia del crecimiento conjunto como meta. Hay grupos de presión para favorecer la medicina preventiva y no la curativa y otros propugnan por la fluidez en vez de la velocidad en el transporte. Sólo en el ámbito de la educación permanecen dispersas las voces articuladas que piden una desescolarización radical de la sociedad. Existe una carencia de argumentación persuasiva y de un liderazgo maduro encaminados a quitar el apoyo oficial a todas y cada una de las instituciones que tienen por fin el ";}i:2;i:166140;}i:1010;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:167111;}i:1011;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"aprendizaje";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"aprendizaje";}i:2;i:167112;}i:1012;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:167123;}i:1013;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:306:" obligatorio. Por el momento, la desescolarización radical de la sociedad es todavía una causa sin partido. Esto sorprende especialmente en un periodo de resistencia creciente, aunque caótica, a todas las formas de instrucción planificada institucionalmente, por parte de los jóvenes de 12 a 17 años.";}i:2;i:167124;}i:1014;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:167430;}i:1015;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:167430;}i:1016;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1076:"Los innovadores educativos siguen suponiendo que las instituciones educativas funcionan como embudos para los programas que ellos envasan. Para los fines de mi argumento da lo mismo que estos embudos tengan la forma de un aula, de un transmisor de televisión o de una “zona liberada”. Es igualmente ajeno al asunto si los envases suministrados son ricos o pobres, calientes o fríos, duros y mensurables (como Matemáticas III) o imposibles de evaluar (como la sensibilización). Lo que interesa es que se suponga que la educación es el resultado de un proceso institucional dirigido por el educador. Mientras las relaciones continúen siendo aquellas que existen entre un proveedor y un consumidor, el trabajo de investigación sobre educación continuará siendo un proceso circular. Acumulará pruebas científicas en apoyo de la necesidad de más paquetes educativos y del perfeccionamiento de los métodos de entrega, tal como cierta rama de las ciencias sociales puede probar la necesidad de acrecentar la distribución de los productos de la institución militar.";}i:2;i:167432;}i:1017;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168508;}i:1018;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168508;}i:1019;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:190:"Una revolución educativa se apoya en una doble inversión: una nueva orientación del trabajo de investigación y una nueva comprensión del estilo educativo de una contracultura emergente.";}i:2;i:168510;}i:1020;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168700;}i:1021;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168700;}i:1022;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:650:"La investigación operativa trata ahora de optimizar la eficiencia de una estructura heredada —un marco de referencia que jamás se pone en tela de juicio—. Este marco de referencia tiene la estructura sintáctica de un embudo para paquetes de enseñanza. La alternativa sintáctica respecto del mismo es una red o trama educativa para el montaje autónomo de recursos bajo el control personal de cada aprendiz. Esta estructura alternativa de una institución educativa yace ahora en el punto ciego conceptual de nuestra investigación operativa. Si la investigación se enfocara en él, ello constituiría una auténtica revolución científica.";}i:2;i:168702;}i:1023;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169352;}i:1024;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169352;}i:1025;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:619:"El punto ciego de los trabajos de investigación en educación refleja la parcialidad cultural de una sociedad en la que el crecimiento tecnológico se ha confundido con el control tecnocrático. Para el tecnócrata, el valor de un entorno aumenta conforme pueda programarse un mayor número de contactos entre un hombre y su medio ambiente. Es este mundo, las elecciones abiertas para el observador o el planificador deben estar acordes con los deseos de quienes están sometidos a una observación y a quienes se denomina los “beneficiarios”. La libertad se reduce a la elección entre unas mercancías envasadas.";}i:2;i:169354;}i:1026;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169973;}i:1027;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169973;}i:1028;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:647:"La contracultura emergente afirma los valores del contenido semántico por encima de la eficiencia de una sintaxis mayor y más rígida. Valora la riqueza de la connotación por encima del poder de la sintaxis para producir riquezas. Valora la consecuencia imprevisible de la instrucción profesional. Esta reorientación hacia la sorpresa personal, y no hacia los valores producidos por la institución, es capaz de perturbar el orden establecido hasta que podamos separar la creciente disponibilidad de las herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan el encuentro del creciente control del tecnócrata sobre lo que ocurre cuando la gente se reúne.";}i:2;i:169975;}i:1029;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170622;}i:1030;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170622;}i:1031;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:241:"Nuestras actuales instituciones educativas están al servicio de las metas del profesor. Las estructuras de relación que necesitamos son las que permitan a cada hombre definirse él mismo aprendiendo y contribuyendo al aprendizaje de otros.";}i:2;i:170624;}i:1032;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170866;}i:1033;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170866;}i:1034;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:22:"Tramas del aprendizaje";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:170866;}i:2;i:170866;}i:1035;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:170866;}i:1036;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:26:" +## Tramas del aprendizaje";}i:2;i:170866;}i:1037;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170866;}i:1038;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:445:"En un capítulo anterior examiné aquello que se está convirtiendo en una queja común acerca de las escuelas una queja que se hace sentir por ejemplo, en un informe reciente de la Carnegie Commission: en las escuelas los alumnos matriculados se someten ante maestros diplomados a fin de obtener sus propios diplomas; ambos quedan frustrados y ambos culpan a los recursos insuficientes —dinero, tiempo o edificios— de su mutua frustración.";}i:2;i:170894;}i:1039;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:171339;}i:1040;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:171339;}i:1041;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1167:"Una crítica semejante conduce a muchos a pensar si no será posible concebir un estilo diferente de aprendizaje. Paradójicamente, si a esas mismas personas se les insta a especificar cómo adquirieron lo que saben y estiman, admitirán prontamente que con mayor frecuencia lo aprendieron fuera y no dentro de la escuela. Su conocimiento de hechos, lo que entienden de la vida y de su trabajo les vino de la amistad o del amor, de leer, del ejemplo de sus iguales o de la incitación de un encuentro callejero. O tal vez aprendieron lo que saben por medio del ritual de iniciación de una pandilla callejera, de un hospital, de la redacción de un periódico, de un taller de fontanería o de una oficina de seguros. La alternativa a la dependencia respecto de las escuelas no es el uso de recursos públicos para algún nuevo dispositivo que “haga” aprender a la gente; es más bien la creación de un nuevo estilo de relación educativa entre el hombre y su medio. Para propiciar este estilo será necesaria una modificación de la idea que nos hacemos del crecimiento, de los útiles necesarios para aprender y de la calidad y estructura de la vida cotidiana.";}i:2;i:171341;}i:1042;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:172508;}i:1043;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:172508;}i:1044;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:671:"Las actitudes ya están cambiando. Ha desaparecido la orgullosa dependencia respecto de la escuela. En la industria del conocimiento se acrecienta la resistencia del consumidor. Muchos profesores y alumnos, contribuyentes y patronos, economistas y policías, preferirían no seguir dependiendo de las escuelas. Lo que impide que su frustración dé forma a otras instituciones es una carencia no sólo de imaginación, sino también, con frecuencia, de un lenguaje apropiado y de un interés personal ilustrado. No pueden visualizar ya sea una sociedad desescolarizada, ya sean unas instituciones educativas en una sociedad que haya privado de apoyo oficial a la escuela.";}i:2;i:172510;}i:1045;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173181;}i:1046;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173181;}i:1047;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:664:"En este capítulo me propongo mostrar que lo contrario de la escuela es posible: que podemos apoyarnos en el aprendizaje automotivado en vez de contratar profesores para sobornar u obligar al estudiante a hallar el tiempo y la voluntad de aprender, que podemos proporcionar al aprendiz nuevos vínculos con el mundo en vez de continuar canalizando todos los programas educativos por medio del profesor. Examinaré algunas de las características que distinguen la escolarización del aprendizaje y esbozaré cuatro categorías principales de instituciones que serían atractivas no sólo para muchas personas, sino también para muchos grupos de intereses comunes.";}i:2;i:173183;}i:1048;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173847;}i:1049;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173849;}i:1050;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:65:"Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:173849;}i:2;i:173849;}i:1051;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:173849;}i:1052;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:70:" +### Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada";}i:2;i:173849;}i:1053;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173849;}i:1054;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:812:"Estamos acostumbrados a considerar las escuelas como una variable que depende de la estructura política y económica. Si podemos cambiar el estilo de la dirección política o promover los intereses de una clase u otra, suponemos que el sistema escolar cambiará también. En cambio, las instituciones educativas que propondré están ideadas para servir a una sociedad que no existe ahora, aunque la actual frustración respecto de las escuelas tiene en sí el potencial de una fuerza importante para poner en movimiento un cambio hacia nuevas configuraciones sociales. Contra este planteamiento se ha suscitado una objeción de peso: ¿por qué canalizar energías para construir puentes hacia ninguna parte, en vez de organizarlas primero para cambiar no las escuelas, sino el sistema político y económico?";}i:2;i:173921;}i:1055;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174733;}i:1056;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174733;}i:1057;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:183:"No obstante, esta objeción subestima la naturaleza política y económica del sistema escolar en sí, así como el potencial político inherente a cualquier oposición eficaz a ella.";}i:2;i:174735;}i:1058;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174918;}i:1059;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174918;}i:1060;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:509:"En un sentido fundamental, las escuelas han dejado de ser dependientes de la ideología profesada por cualquier gobierno u organización de mercados. Otras instituciones pueden diferir de un país a otro: la familia, el partido, la Iglesia, la prensa. Pero el sistema escolar tiene por doquier la misma estructura, y en todas partes el currículum oculto tiene el mismo efecto. De modo invariable, modela al consumidor que valora los bienes institucionales sobre los servicios no profesionales de un prójimo.";}i:2;i:174920;}i:1061;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:175429;}i:1062;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:175429;}i:1063;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:704:"El currículum oculto de la escolarización inicia en todas partes al ciudadano en el mito de que algunas burocracias guiadas por el conocimiento científico son eficientes y benevolentes. Por doquiera, este mismo currículum inculca en el alumno el mito de que la mayor producción proporcionará una vida mejor. Y por doquiera crea el hábito —que se contradice a sí mismo— de consumo de servicios y de producción enajenante, la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional y el reconocimiento de los escalafones institucionales. El currículum oculto sustenta la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional, el reconocimiento por los profesores y cualquiera que sea la ideología preponderante.";}i:2;i:175431;}i:1064;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176135;}i:1065;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176135;}i:1066;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:420:"En otras palabras, las escuelas son fundamentalmente semejantes en todos los países, sean éstos fascistas, democráticos o socialistas, grandes o pequeños, ricos o pobres. La identidad del sistema escolar nos obliga a reconocer la profunda identidad en todo el mundo, del mito, del modo de producción y del método de control social, pese a la gran variedad de mitologías en las cuales encuentra expresión el mito.";}i:2;i:176137;}i:1067;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176557;}i:1068;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176557;}i:1069;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:378:"En vista de esta identidad, es ilusorio pretender que las escuelas son, en algún sentido profundo, unas variables dependientes. Esto significa que esperar un cambio social o económico concebido convencionalmente, es también una ilusión. Más aún, esta ilusión concede a la escuela —el órgano de reproducción de la sociedad de consumo— una inmunidad casi indiscutida.";}i:2;i:176559;}i:1070;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176937;}i:1071;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176937;}i:1072;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:606:"Al llegar a este punto es cuando adquiere importancia el ejemplo de China. Durante tres milenios, China protegió el aprendizaje superior por medio de un divorcio total entre el proceso del aprendizaje y el privilegio conferido por los exámenes para optar a altos cargos públicos. Para llegar a ser una potencia mundial y una nación-Estado moderno, China tuvo que adoptar el estilo internacional de escolarización. Sólo una mirada retrospectiva nos permitirá descubrir si la Gran Revolución Cultural resultará haber sido el primer intento logrado de desescolarizar las instituciones de la sociedad.";}i:2;i:176939;}i:1073;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:177545;}i:1074;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:177545;}i:1075;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:646:"Incluso la creación a retazos de nuevos organismos educativos que fuesen lo inverso de la escuela sería un ataque sobre el eslabón más sensible de un fenómeno ubicuo, el cual es organizado por el Estado en todos los países. Un programa político que no reconozca explícitamente la necesidad de la desescolarización no es revolucionario; es demagogia que pide más de lo mismo. Todo programa político importante de esta década debiera medirse con este rasero: ¿hasta dónde es claro afirmar la necesidad de la desescolarización —y qué directrices ofrece para asignar la calidad educativa de la sociedad hacia la cual se encamina—?";}i:2;i:177547;}i:1076;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178193;}i:1077;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178193;}i:1078;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:403:"La lucha contra el dominio que ejercen el mercado mundial y la política de las grandes potencias puede estar fuera del alcance de ciertas comunidades o países pobres, pero esta debilidad es una razón más para hacer hincapié en la importancia que tiene liberar a cada sociedad mediante una inversión de su estructura educativa, cambio este que no está más allá de los medios de ninguna sociedad.";}i:2;i:178195;}i:1079;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178598;}i:1080;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178600;}i:1081;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:75:"Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:178600;}i:2;i:178600;}i:1082;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:178600;}i:1083;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:80:" +### Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales";}i:2;i:178600;}i:1084;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178600;}i:1085;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1136:"Un buen sistema educativo debería tener tres objetivos: proporcionar a todos aquellos que lo quieren el acceso a recursos disponibles en cualquier momento de sus vidas; dotar a todos los que quieran compartir lo que saben del poder de encontrar a quienes quieran aprender de ellos, y, finalmente, dar a todo aquel que quiera presentar al público un tema de debate la oportunidad de dar a conocer su argumento. Un sistema como éste exigiría que se aplicaran a la educación unas garantías constitucionales. Los aprendices no podrían ser sometidos a un currículum obligatorio o a una discriminación fundada en la posesión o carencia de un certificado o diploma. Ni se obligaría tampoco al público a mantener, mediante una retribución regresiva, un gigantesco aparato profesional de educadores y edificios que de hecho disminuye las posibilidades que el público tiene de acceder a los servicios que la profesión está dispuesta a ofrecer en el mercado. Debería usar la tecnología moderna para lograr que la libre expresión, la libre reunión y la prensa libre fuesen universales y, por consiguiente, plenamente educativas.";}i:2;i:178682;}i:1086;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:179818;}i:1087;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:179818;}i:1088;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:930:"Las escuelas están proyectadas a partir del supuesto de que cada cosa en la vida tiene un secreto; de que la calidad de la vida depende de conocer ese secreto; de que los secretos pueden conocerse en ordenadas sucesiones, y de que sólo los profesores pueden revelar adecuadamente esos secretos. Una persona de mente escolarizada concibe el mundo como una pirámide de paquetes clasificados accesible sólo a aquellos que llevan los rótulos apropiados. Las nuevas instituciones educativas destrozarían esta pirámide. Su propósito debe ser facilitar el acceso al aprendiz, permitirle mirar al interior de la sala de control o del parlamento, si no puede entrar por la puerta. Además, esas nuevas instituciones deberían ser canales a los que el aprendiz tuviese acceso sin credenciales ni títulos de linaje —espacios públicos en los que iguales y mayores situados fuera de su horizonte inmediato se harían accesibles—.";}i:2;i:179820;}i:1089;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:180750;}i:1090;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:180750;}i:1091;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:691:"Pienso que no más de cuatro —y posiblemente hasta tres— “canales” distintos o centros de intercambio podrían contener todos los recursos necesarios para el aprendizaje real. El niño crece en un mundo de cosas, rodeado de personas que sirven de modelos para habilidades y valores. Encuentra seres como él, sus iguales, que le incitan a discutir, a competir, a cooperar, a entender, y si el niño es afortunado, se ve expuesto a la confrontación o a la crítica de un mayor experimentado que realmente se preocupe. Cosas, modelos, iguales y mayores son cuatro recursos, cada uno de los cuales requiere un tipo diferente de ordenamiento para asegurar que todos tengan acceso a él.";}i:2;i:180752;}i:1092;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:181443;}i:1093;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:181443;}i:1094;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:980:"Usaré las palabras “trama de oportunidad” en vez de “red” para designar las maneras específicas de proporcionar acceso a cada uno de los cuatro conjuntos de recursos. Desafortunadamente, “red” se emplea con frecuencia para designar los canales reservados a los materiales seleccionados por terceros para el adoctrinamiento, la instrucción y la recreación. Pero también puede usarse para los servicios postal o telefónico, que son primariamente accesibles para personas que quieren enviarse mensajes entre sí. Ojalá tuviésemos otra palabra para designar tales estructuras reticulares a fin de tener un acceso recíproco, una palabra que no evocase tanto una trampa, menos degradada por el uso corriente, y que sugiriese más el hecho de que cualquier ordenamiento de esta especie abarca aspectos legales, organizativos y técnicos. No habiendo hallado dicho término, trataré de redimir el único disponible, usándolo como sinónimo de “trama educativa”.";}i:2;i:181445;}i:1095;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182425;}i:1096;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182425;}i:1097;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:181:"Lo que se precisa son nuevas redes, de la cuales el público pueda disponer fácilmente y que estén concebidas para difundir una igualdad de oportunidades para aprender y enseñar.";}i:2;i:182427;}i:1098;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182608;}i:1099;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182608;}i:1100;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:710:"Para dar un ejemplo: en la televisión y en los magnetófonos se usa el mismo nivel de tecnología. Todos los países latinoamericanos han introducido la televisión: en Bolivia, el gobierno financió una estación transmisora de televisión, que se construyó hace siete años, y no hay más de 7 000 televisores para cuatro millones de ciudadanos. El dinero empozado hoy en instalaciones de televisión por toda América Latina podría haber dotado de magnetófonos a un ciudadano de cada cinco. Además, el dinero habría bastado para proporcionar un número casi ilimitado de cintas grabadas, con puestos de entrega incluso en aldeas perdidas, como también para un amplio suministro de cintas no grabadas.";}i:2;i:182610;}i:1101;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183320;}i:1102;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183320;}i:1103;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:540:"Esta red de magnetófonos sería, por supuesto, radicalmente diferente de la red actual de televisión. Proporcionaría oportunidades a la libre expresión: letrados y analfabetos podrían, por igual, registrar, preservar, difundir y repetir sus opiniones. La inversión actual en televisión, en cambio, proporciona a los burócratas, sean políticos o educadores, el poder de rociar el continente con programas producidos institucionalmente, que ellos —o sus patrocinadores— deciden que son buenos para el pueblo o que éste los pide.";}i:2;i:183322;}i:1104;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183862;}i:1105;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183864;}i:1106;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"Cuatro redes";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:183864;}i:2;i:183864;}i:1107;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:183864;}i:1108;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:17:" +### Cuatro redes";}i:2;i:183864;}i:1109;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183864;}i:1110;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:471:"El planteamiento de nuevas instituciones educativas no debiera comenzar por las metas administrativas de un rector director, ni por las metas pedagógicas de un educador profesional, ni por las metas de aprendizaje de una clase hipotética de personas. No debe iniciarse con la pregunta: “¿Qué debiera aprender alguien?”, sino con la pregunta: “¿Con qué tipos de cosas y personas podrían querer ponerse en contacto los que buscan aprender a fin de aprender?”";}i:2;i:183883;}i:1111;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:184354;}i:1112;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:184354;}i:1113;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1628:"Alguien que quiera aprender sabe que necesita tanto información como reacción crítica respecto del uso de esta información por parte de otra persona. La información puede almacenarse en personas y en cosas. En un buen sistema educativo el acceso a las cosas debiera estar disponible con sólo pedirlo el aprendiz, mientras el acceso a los informantes requeriría además el conocimiento de terceros. La crítica puede asimismo provenir de dos direcciones: de los iguales o de los mayores, esto es, de compañeros de aprendizaje cuyos intereses inmediatos concuerden con los míos, o de aquellos que me concederán una parte de su experiencia superior. Los iguales pueden ser colegas con quienes suscitar un debate, compañeros para una caminata o lectura juguetona y deleitable (o ardua), retadores en cualquier clase de juegos. Los mayores pueden ser asesores acerca de qué destreza aprender, qué método usar, qué compañía buscar en un momento dado. Pueden ser guías respecto a la pregunta correcta que hay que plantear entre iguales y a la deficiencia de las respuestas a que lleguen. La mayoría de estos recursos son abundantes. Pero convencionalmente ni se les percibe como recursos educativos, ni es fácil el acceso a ellos para fines de aprendizaje, especialmente para los pobres. Debemos idear nuevas estructuras de relación que se monten con el deliberado propósito de facilitar el acceso a estos recursos para el uso de cualquiera que esté motivado a buscarlos para su educación. Para montar estas estructuras tramadas se requieren disposiciones administrativas, tecnológicas y especialmente legales.";}i:2;i:184356;}i:1114;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:185984;}i:1115;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:185984;}i:1116;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:289:"Los recursos educativos suelen rotularse según las metas curriculares de los educadores. Propongo hacer lo contrario, y rotular cuatro enfoques diferentes que permitan al estudiante conseguir el acceso a cualquier recurso educativo que pueda ayudarle a definir y lograr sus propias metas:";}i:2;i:185986;}i:1117;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186275;}i:1118;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186275;}i:1119;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:468:"_1_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Objetos Educativos. Que faciliten el acceso a cosas o procesos usados para el aprendizaje formal. Algunas de estas cosas pueden reservarse para ese fin, almacenadas en bibliotecas, agencias de alquiler, laboratorios y salas de exposición, tales como museos y teatros; otras pueden estar en uso cotidiano en fábricas, aeropuertos o puestas en granjas, pero a disposición de estudiantes como aprendices o en horas de descanso.";}i:2;i:186277;}i:1120;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186745;}i:1121;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186745;}i:1122;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:259:"_2_. Servicios de habilidades. Que permitan a unas personas hacer una lista de sus habilidades, las condiciones según las cuales están dispuestas a servir de modelos a otros que quieran aprender esas habilidades y las direcciones en que se les puede hallar.";}i:2;i:186747;}i:1123;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187006;}i:1124;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187006;}i:1125;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:219:"_3_. Servicio de búsqueda de Compañero. Una red de comunicaciones que permita a las personas describir la actividad de aprendizaje a la que desean dedicarse, con la esperanza de hallar un compañero para la búsqueda.";}i:2;i:187008;}i:1126;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187227;}i:1127;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187227;}i:1128;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:412:"_4_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Educadores Independientes, los cuales pueden figurar en un catálogo que indique las direcciones y las descripciones —hechas por ellos mismos— de profesionales, paraprofesionales e independientes, conjuntamente con las condiciones de acceso a sus servicios. Tales educadores, como veremos, podrían elegirse mediante encuestas o consultando a sus clientes anteriores.";}i:2;i:187229;}i:1129;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187641;}i:1130;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187643;}i:1131;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:54:"Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:187643;}i:2;i:187643;}i:1132;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:187643;}i:1133;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:59:" +### Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos";}i:2;i:187643;}i:1134;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187643;}i:1135;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"Las cosas son recursos básicos para aprender. La calidad del entorno y la relación de una persona con él determinarán cuánto aprenderá incidentalmente. El aprendizaje formal exige el acceso especial a cosas corrientes, por una parte o, por la otra, el acceso fácil y seguro a cosas especiales hechas con fines educativos. Un ejemplo del primer caso es el derecho especial a hacer funcionar o a desarmar una máquina en un garaje. Un ejemplo del segundo caso es el derecho general a usar un ábaco, una computadora, un libro, un jardín botánico o una máquina retirada de la producción y puesta a plena disposición de unos estudiantes.";}i:2;i:187704;}i:1136;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:188349;}i:1137;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:188349;}i:1138;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:958:"En la actualidad, la atención se centra en la disparidad entre niños ricos y pobres en cuanto a su acceso a cosas y en la manera en que pueden aprender de ellas. La OEO[^n16] y otros organismos, siguiendo este planteamiento, se concentran en igualar las posibilidades de cada cual, tratando de proveer de un mayor instrumental educativo a los pobres. Un punto de partida más radical sería reconocer que, en la ciudad, a ricos y pobres se les mantiene igualmente alejados de manera artificial de las cosas que los rodean. Los niños nacidos en la era de los plásticos y de los expertos en eficiencia deben traspasar dos barreras que obstaculizan sus entendimientos: una incorporada a las cosas y la otra construida en torno a las instituciones. El diseño industrial crea un mundo de cosas que ofrecen resistencia a la comprensión de su naturaleza interna, y las escuelas tapian al aprendiz respecto del mundo de las cosas en su escenario significativo.";}i:2;i:188351;}i:1139;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:189309;}i:1140;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:189309;}i:1141;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:974:"Después de una breve visita a Nueva York, una mujer de una aldea mexicana me dijo que le había impresionado que las tiendas vendiesen “solamente productos muy maquillados con cosméticos”. Entendí que ella quería decir que los productos industriales “hablan” a sus clientes acerca de sus encantos y no acerca de su naturaleza. La industria ha rodeado a la gente de artefactos hechos de manera que sólo a los especialistas les está permitido entender su mecanismo interno. Al no especialista que intenta hacer marchar el reloj o hacer sonar el teléfono o hacer funcionar la máquina de escribir, se le desalienta con la advertencia de que se romperá si lo intenta. Puede que se le diga qué hace funcionar un radio de transistores, pero no puede descubrirlo por sí mismo. Este tipo de diseño tiende a reforzar una sociedad no inventiva, en la que los expertos encuentran cada vez más fácil esconderse detrás de su pericia y más allá de una evaluación.";}i:2;i:189311;}i:1142;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190285;}i:1143;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190285;}i:1144;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:453:"El entorno creado por el hombre ha llegado a ser tan inescrutable como la naturaleza lo es para el primitivo. Al mismo tiempo, los materiales educativos los ha monopolizado la escuela. Los objetos educativos simples han sido costosamente empacados por la industria del conocimiento. Se han convertido en herramientas especializadas para los educadores profesionales, y se ha inflado su coste al obligarles a estimular ya sea entornos, ya sea profesores.";}i:2;i:190287;}i:1145;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190740;}i:1146;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190740;}i:1147;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:807:"El profesor es celoso del libro de texto al que define como su instrumento profesional. El estudiante puede llegar a odiar el laboratorio porque lo asocia con tareas escolares. El administrador racionaliza su actitud protectora hacia la biblioteca como una defensa de un instrumental público costoso contra quienes quisieran jugar con ella más bien que aprender. En esta atmósfera, el estudiante usa con excesiva frecuencia el mapa, el laboratorio, la enciclopedia o el microscopio sólo en los escasos momentos en que el currículum le dice que debe hacerlo. Incluso los grandes clásicos se convierten en arte de la “novatada” universitaria, en vez de señalar una nueva dirección en la vida de una persona. La escuela aparta las cosas del uso cotidiano al rotularlas como instrumentos educativos.";}i:2;i:190742;}i:1148;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:191549;}i:1149;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:191549;}i:1150;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:450:"Para que podamos desescolarizar será preciso invertir ambas tendencias. El entorno físico general debe hacerse accesible, y aquellos recursos físicos de aprendizaje que han sido reducidos a instrumentos de enseñanza deben llegar a estar disponibles para el aprendizaje autodirigido. Usar cosas sólo como partes de un currículum puede tener un efecto incluso peor que apartarlas del entorno general. Puede corromper las actitudes de los alumnos.";}i:2;i:191551;}i:1151;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:192001;}i:1152;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:192001;}i:1153;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:663:"Los juegos son un caso de este tipo. No me refiero a los “juegos” del departamento de educación física (tales como el futbol o el baloncesto), que las escuelas usan para generar ingresos y prestigio y en los que han hecho sustanciosas inversiones de capital. Como lo saben muy bien los mismos atletas, estas empresas, que adoptan la forma de torneos guerreros, han minado el aspecto juguetón de los deportes y se usan para reforzar la naturaleza competitiva de las escuelas. Hablo más bien de los juegos educativos que pueden proporcionar una manera singular de entender los sistemas formales. Un amigo mío fue a un mercado mexicano con un juego llamado ";}i:2;i:192003;}i:1154;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:192666;}i:1155;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"Wff’n Proff";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"Wff’n Proff";}i:2;i:192667;}i:1156;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:192680;}i:1157;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:480:" , que consta de varios dados en los que están impresos 12 símbolos lógicos. Mostró a unos niños qué combinaciones formaban una frase bien hecha —unas dos o tres de las muchas posibles— e, inductivamente, al cabo de la primera hora, algunos mirones también captaron el principio. A las pocas horas, jugando pruebas lógicas formales, algunos niños eran capaces de iniciar a otros en las pruebas formales de la lógica de proposiciones. Los otros simplemente se fueron.";}i:2;i:192681;}i:1158;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:193161;}i:1159;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:193161;}i:1160;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1033:"Para algunos niños dichos juegos son en efecto una forma especial de liberar la educación, puesto que les permite descubrir que los sistemas formales se fundan en axiomas mutables y que las operaciones conceptuales tienen un carácter lúdico. Son asimismo simples, baratos y en buena parte pueden organizarlos los jugadores mismos. Cuando se usan fuera del currículum, tales juegos dan una oportunidad para identificar y desarrollar el talento poco común, mientras que el psicólogo escolar identificará a menudo a quienes posean dicho talento como a personas en peligro de llegar a ser antisociales, enfermas o desequilibradas. Dentro de la escuela, cuando se usan en forma de torneos, a los juegos no sólo se les saca de la esfera de la recreación, a menudo se convierten en instrumentos para transformar al alumno juguetón en un espíritu competitivo y la falta de razonamiento abstracto en signo de inferioridad. Un ejercicio que para ciertos tipos de carácter es liberador, se convierte en camisa de fuerza para otros.";}i:2;i:193163;}i:1161;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194196;}i:1162;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194196;}i:1163;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:397:"El control de la escuela sobre el instrumental educativo tiene además otro efecto. Aumenta enormemente el coste de esos materiales baratos. Una vez que su uso se restringe a unas horas programadas, se paga a profesionales que supervisen su adquisición, almacenamiento y uso. Entonces los estudiantes descargan su rabia contra la escuela sobre el instrumental, que es preciso adquirir nuevamente.";}i:2;i:194198;}i:1164;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194595;}i:1165;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194595;}i:1166;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:811:"Algo paralelo a la intocabilidad de los útiles educativos es la impenetrabilidad de la moderna chatarra. En la década de 1930 cualquier muchacho que se respetara sabía reparar un automóvil, pero ahora los fabricantes de coches multiplican los alambres y apartan los manuales de todo el que no sea un mecánico especializado. En un periodo anterior un radio viejo contenía suficientes bobinas y condensadores como para construir un transmisor que hiciera chillar por realimentación a todos los radios del vecindario. Los radios de transistores son más portátiles, pero nadie se atreve a desarmarlos. En los países altamente industrializados sería inmensamente difícil cambiar esto, pero al menos en los países del Tercer Mundo debemos insistir en ciertas cualidades educativas incorporadas al objeto.";}i:2;i:194597;}i:1167;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:195408;}i:1168;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:195408;}i:1169;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:911:"Para ilustrar mi argumento, permítaseme presentar un modelo: gastando 10 millones de dólares sería posible conectar 40 000 aldeas de un país como Perú mediante una telaraña de pistas de un metro ochenta de ancho y mantenerlas funcionando; además, dotar al país de 200 000 burros mecánicos de tres ruedas —cinco por aldea como promedio—. Pocos países pobres de ese tamaño gastan menos de esa cantidad cada año en coches y caminos, cuyo uso, el de ambos, se limita principalmente a los ricos y a sus empleados, mientras la gente pobre queda atrapada en sus aldeas. Cada uno de estos pequeños vehículos, simples pero duraderos, equipados con un motor de seis caballos de fuerza, costaría 125 dólares. Un “burro” podría andar a 24 kilómetros por hora, y trasladaría cargas de unos 400 kilogramos (es decir, la mayoría de las cosas que suelen moverse, aparte de troncos y vigas de acero).";}i:2;i:195410;}i:1170;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196321;}i:1171;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196321;}i:1172;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:587:"El atractivo político que dicho sistema de transporte tendría para el campesinado es obvio. Igualmente obvio es el motivo por el cual quienes detentan el poder —y por tanto poseen, automáticamente, un coche— no están interesados en gastar dinero en pistas semejantes y en obstruir los caminos con burros motorizados. El burro universal podría funcionar sólo si los dirigentes de un país impusieran un límite de, digamos, 40 kilómetros por hora y adaptaran sus instituciones públicas a ese límite. El modelo no podría funcionar si estuviese concebido sólo como un parche.";}i:2;i:196323;}i:1173;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196910;}i:1174;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196910;}i:1175;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1113:"No es éste el lugar apropiado para examinar en detalle la factibilidad política, social, económica, financiera y técnica de este modelo. Deseo solamente indicar que los considerandos educativos pueden ser de primordial importancia cuando se elige una alternativa semejante frente a un transporte que usa relativamente más capital que mano de obra. Aumentando el coste unitario de cada burro 20% se haría posible planificar la producción de todas sus piezas de modo que, hasta donde fuera posible, cada futuro dueño pasase de uno a dos meses haciendo y entendiendo su máquina y fuese capaz de repararla. Con este coste adicional sería asimismo posible descentralizar la producción en fábricas dispersas. Las ventajas adicionales provendrían no sólo de incluir los costes educativos en el proceso de construcción. Más significativo todavía, un motor duradero que prácticamente cualquiera podría aprender a reparar y que podría usar como arado y como bomba aquel que lo entendiera, produciría unos beneficios educativos mucho más elevados que los inescrutables motores de los países avanzados.";}i:2;i:196912;}i:1176;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:198025;}i:1177;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:198025;}i:1178;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:995:"No sólo la chatarra, sino los lugares presuntamente públicos de la ciudad moderna se han vuelto impenetrables. En la sociedad estadunidense se excluye a los niños de la mayoría de las cosas y lugares con el argumento de que son privados. Pero incluso en las sociedades que han declarado el fin de la propiedad privada se aparta a los niños de las mismas cosas y lugares porque estos últimos se consideran un ámbito especial y peligroso para el no iniciado. A partir de la pasada generación el patio de los ferrocarriles se hizo tan inaccesible como el cuartel de bomberos. Sin embargo, con un poco de ingenio no sería difícil eliminar los peligros en esos lugares. El desescolarizar los artefactos de la educación haría necesario poner a disposición los artefactos y procesos —y reconocer su valor educativo—. Algunos trabajadores, sin duda, encontrarían molesto hacerlos accesibles a los aprendices, pero esta molestia debe valorarse comparándola con las ventajas educativas.";}i:2;i:198027;}i:1179;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199022;}i:1180;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199022;}i:1181;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:654:"Los automóviles privados podrían desterrarse de Manhattan. Hace cinco años esto era impensable. Ahora, ciertas calles de Nueva York se cierran a ciertas horas, y esta tendencia probablemente continuará. De hecho, la mayoría de las calles transversales deberían cerrarse al tránsito automotriz y el estacionamiento debería prohibirse en todas partes. En una ciudad abierta al pueblo, los materiales de enseñanza, que ahora se encierran en almacenes y laboratorios, podrían diseminarse en depósitos abiertos a la calle y gestionarse de manera independiente para que los adultos y los niños pudiesen visitarlos sin peligro de que los atropellen.";}i:2;i:199024;}i:1182;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199678;}i:1183;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199678;}i:1184;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1094:"Si las metas de la educación ya no estuviesen dominadas por las escuelas y los maestros de escuela, el mercado para los aprendices sería mucho más variado y la definición de “artefactos educativos” sería menos restrictiva. Podría haber talleres de herramientas, bibliotecas, laboratorios y salas de juegos. Los laboratorios fotográficos y prensas offset permitirían el florecimiento de diarios vecinales. Algunos centros de aprendizaje abiertos a la calle podrían contener cabinas para mirar programas de televisión en circuito cerrado, otros podrían poseer útiles de oficina para usar y para reparar. Los tocadiscos del tipo tragamonedas y de tipo corriente serían de uso diario, especializándose algunos en música clásica, otros en melodías folclóricas internacionales, otros en jazz. Las filmotecas competirían entre sí y con la televisión comercial. Los locales de museos abiertos al público podrían ser redes para poner en circulación muestras de arte antiguo y moderno, originales y reproducciones, tal vez administradas por los diversos museos metropolitanos.";}i:2;i:199680;}i:1185;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:200774;}i:1186;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:200774;}i:1187;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:589:"El personal profesional necesario para esta red se parecería mucho más a unos custodios, guardias de museo o bibliotecarios de servicio público que a unos profesores. Desde la tienda de biología de la esquina podrían dirigir a sus clientes a la colección de caracoles del museo o señalarles cuándo habría una exhibición de videocintas de biología en determinadas cabinas de televisión. Podrían dar indicaciones para el control de plagas, dietas y otras clases de medicina preventiva. Podrían remitir a quienes necesitaran consejos a “mayores” que pudiesen proporcionarlo.";}i:2;i:200776;}i:1188;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201365;}i:1189;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201365;}i:1190;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:534:"El financiamiento de una red de “objetos de aprendizaje” puede encararse de dos maneras. Una comunidad podría fijar un presupuesto máximo para este fin y disponer que todas las partes de la red estuviesen abiertas a todos los visitantes a ciertas horas razonables. O bien la comunidad podría decidir proporcionar a los ciudadanos unos bonos o derechos limitados, según sus edades, que les darían acceso especial a ciertos materiales costosos y escasos, dejando en cambio otros materiales más simples a disposición de todos.";}i:2;i:201367;}i:1191;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201901;}i:1192;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201901;}i:1193;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:561:"Encontrar recursos para materiales hechos específicamente para educar es sólo un aspecto —y tal vez el menos costoso— de la construcción de un mundo educativo. El dinero que hoy se gasta en la parafernalia sagrada del ritual escolar podría liberarse para proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos un mejor acceso a la vida real de la ciudad. Podrían otorgarse incentivos tributarios especiales a quienes emplearan niños de ocho a 14 años durante un par de horas diarias si las condiciones de empleo fuesen humanas. Deberíamos volver a la tradición de la ";}i:2;i:201903;}i:1194;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:202464;}i:1195;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"bar mitzvah";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"bar mitzvah";}i:2;i:202465;}i:1196;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:202476;}i:1197;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:667:" o de la confirmación. Quiero decir con esto que debiéramos primero restringir y luego eliminar la privación de derechos y deberes civiles de los menores, y permitir que un muchacho de 12 años llegue a ser plenamente responsable de su participación en la vida de la comunidad. Muchas personas de “edad escolar” saben más acerca de su vecindario que los trabajadores sociales o los concejales. Naturalmente que hacen también preguntas más incómodas y proponen soluciones que amenazan a la burocracia. Debería permitírseles llegar a la mayoría de edad de modo que pusieran sus conocimientos y capacidad de indagación al servicio de un gobierno popular.";}i:2;i:202477;}i:1198;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203144;}i:1199;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203144;}i:1200;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:351:"Hasta hace poco era fácil subestimar los peligros de la escuela en comparación con los peligros de un periodo de aprendizaje en la policía, en el cuerpo de bomberos o en la industria del espectáculo. Este argumento deja de ser válido con gran frecuencia. Visité recientemente una iglesia metodista de Harlem ocupada por un grupo de los llamados ";}i:2;i:203146;}i:1201;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:203497;}i:1202;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"Young Lords";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"Young Lords";}i:2;i:203498;}i:1203;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:203509;}i:1204;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:349:" como protesta por la muerte de Julio Rodan, un muchacho puertorriqueño al que se encontró ahorcado en su celda carcelaria. Yo conocía a los líderes del grupo, que habían pasado un semestre en Cuernavaca. Cuando me sorprendí al no hallar a uno de ellos, Juan, en el grupo, me dijeron: “Volvió a la heroína y a la Universidad del Estado”.";}i:2;i:203510;}i:1205;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203859;}i:1206;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203859;}i:1207;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1296:"Para desencadenar el potencial educativo encerrado en la gigantesca inversión de nuestra sociedad en instalaciones y útiles pueden usarse el planteamiento, los incentivos y la legislación. No existirá el acceso pleno a los objetos educativos mientras se permita a empresas comerciales conjugar las defensas legales que la Carta Fundamental reserva a la vida privada de las personas con el poder económico que les confieren sus millones de clientes y miles de empleados, accionistas y proveedores. Una parte considerable de los conocimientos prácticos y teóricos del mundo y la mayoría de sus procesos y equipos de producción están encerrados entre los muros de firmas comerciales, apartados de sus clientes, empleados y accionistas, como también del público en general, cuyas leyes e instalaciones les permiten funcionar. El dinero que se gasta en publicidad en los países capitalistas podrían canalizarse hacia la educación en y por parte de la General Electric, NBC-TV o cervezas Budweiser. Es decir, las fábricas y oficinas deberían reorganizarse de forma tal que su funcionamiento cotidiano fuese más accesible al público y de maneras que hiciesen posible el aprendizaje, y, en verdad, podrían hallarse modos de pagar a las compañías lo que la gente aprendiese en ellas.";}i:2;i:203861;}i:1208;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:205157;}i:1209;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:205157;}i:1210;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:983:"Es posible que un conjunto de objetos e informaciones científicas aún más valioso esté apartado del acceso general —e incluso de los científicos competentes— bajo el pretexto de la seguridad nacional. Hasta hace poco la ciencia era el único foro que funcionaba como el sueño de un anarquista. Cada hombre capaz de realizar investigaciones tenía más o menos las mismas oportunidades que otros en cuanto a acceso a su instrumental y a ser escuchado por la comunidad de iguales. Ahora la burocratización y la organización han puesto a gran parte de la ciencia fuera del alcance del público. En efecto, lo que solía ser una red internacional de información científica ha sido escindida en una lid de grupos competidores. Tanto a los miembros como a los artefactos de la comunidad científica se les ha encerrado en programas nacionales y corporativos para logros prácticos y para el radical empobrecimiento de los hombres que mantienen estas naciones y corporaciones.";}i:2;i:205159;}i:1211;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206142;}i:1212;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206142;}i:1213;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:752:"En un mundo que controlan y poseen naciones y compañías, nunca será posible sino un acceso limitado a los objetos educativos. Pero un mejor acceso a aquellos objetos que pueden compartirse para fines educativos puede ilustrarnos lo suficiente como para traspasar estas barreras políticas finales. Las escuelas públicas transfieren el control sobre los usos educativos de los objetos de manos privadas a manos profesionales. La inversión institucional de las escuelas podría dar al individuo el poder de volver a exigir el derecho a usarlos para su educación. Si el control privado o corporativo sobre el aspecto educativo de las “cosas” se lograse extinguir gradualmente, podría comenzar a aparecer un tipo de propiedad realmente pública.";}i:2;i:206144;}i:1214;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206896;}i:1215;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206898;}i:1216;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:24:"Servicios de habilidades";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:206898;}i:2;i:206898;}i:1217;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:206898;}i:1218;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:29:" +### Servicios de habilidades";}i:2;i:206898;}i:1219;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206898;}i:1220;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:942:"Al revés de lo que ocurre con una guitarra, a un profesor de ese instrumento no se le puede clasificar en un museo, ni lo puede poseer el público, ni se le puede tomar en alquiler en un almacén de elementos educativos. Los profesores de habilidades pertenecen a una clase de recursos que es diferente de la de los objetos necesarios para aprender una habilidad. Esto no quiere decir que sean indispensables en todos los casos. Puedo alquilar no sólo una guitarra, sino también lecciones de guitarra grabadas en cintas y gráficos que ilustren los acordes, y con estos elementos puedo enseñarme yo mismo a tocar la guitarra. De hecho, este sistema puede presentar ventajas si las cintas disponibles son mejores que los profesores disponibles, o si las únicas horas en que puedo aprender guitarra son nocturnas o si las melodías que quiero interpretar son desconocidas en mi país o si soy tímido y prefiero meter la pata sin testigos.";}i:2;i:206929;}i:1221;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:207871;}i:1222;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:207871;}i:1223;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:400:"El canal que se usa para registrar a los profesores de habilidades y comunicarse con ellos debe ser diferente al descrito para objetos. Una cosa está disponible a petición del usuario —o podría estarlo— mientras una persona llega formalmente a ser una fuente de enseñanza de habilidades sólo cuando considere serlo y pueda asimismo restringir la ocasión, el lugar y el método a su tamaño.";}i:2;i:207873;}i:1224;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208273;}i:1225;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208273;}i:1226;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:509:"Es también necesario distinguir a los profesores de los iguales de los que uno desearía aprender. Los iguales que desean seguir una búsqueda común deben partir de capacidades o intereses comunes; se juntan para ejercitar o mejorar una habilidad que comparten: baloncesto, baile, construcción de un campamento, debate sobre las próximas elecciones. Por otra parte, la primera transmisión de una habilidad supone el reunir a alguien que posea una destreza con alguien que no la posea y quiera adquirirla.";}i:2;i:208275;}i:1227;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208784;}i:1228;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208784;}i:1229;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:925:"Un “modelo de habilidad” es una persona que posee una habilidad y está dispuesta a demostrar su práctica. Frecuentemente el aprendiz en potencia precisa el recurso de una demostración de esta clase. Los inventos modernos nos permiten registrar demostraciones en cinta, en película o en gráficos; no obstante, sería de esperar que la demostración personal continuase gozando de gran demanda, especialmente en las habilidades de comunicación. En nuestro Centro, en Cuernavaca, han aprendido español unos 10 000 adultos —en su mayoría personas muy motivadas que deseaban obtener una cuasi-fluidez en un segundo idioma—. Cuando se les plantea la elección entre una instrucción cuidadosamente programada en un laboratorio de idiomas o sesiones rutinarias con otros dos estudiantes y una persona cuyo idioma nativo es el español y que se ciñe a una rutina rígida, la mayoría prefiere la segunda alternativa.";}i:2;i:208786;}i:1230;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:209711;}i:1231;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:209711;}i:1232;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:623:"Respecto de la mayor parte de las habilidades ampliamente compartidas, que una persona demuestre su habilidad es el único recurso humano que llegamos a necesitar u obtener. Ya sea para hablar o para conducir, para cocinar o para usar equipos de comunicaciones, a menudo apenas nos damos cuenta de la instrucción y el aprendizaje formales, especialmente después de nuestra primera experiencia con los materiales en cuestión. No veo razón por la cual no pudiesen aprenderse de igual manera otras habilidades complejas, tales como los aspectos mecánicos de la cirugía, tocar el violín, leer o usar listas y catálogos.";}i:2;i:209713;}i:1233;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210336;}i:1234;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210336;}i:1235;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:637:"Un estudiante bien motivado que no lucha contra una desventaja determinada a menudo no necesita más ayuda humana que la que puede proporcionar alguien que puede demostrar a quien lo solicite cómo hacer lo que el aprendiz quiere hacer. Aquello de insistir a personas diestras en que antes de demostrar su habilidad certifiquen que son pedagogos es el resultado de la insistencia de una de dos alternativas: o que la gente aprenda lo que no quiere saber, o bien que todos —incluso quienes sufren de alguna desventaja especial— aprendan ciertas cosas, en un momento dado de sus vidas, y preferentemente en circunstancias específicas.";}i:2;i:210338;}i:1236;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210975;}i:1237;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210975;}i:1238;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:617:"Lo que crea una escasez de habilidades en el mercado educativo de hoy es el requisito institucional de que quienes pueden demostrarlas no pueden hacerlo a menos de otorgárseles pública confianza por medio de un certificado. Insistimos en que aquellos que ayudan a terceros a adquirir una habilidad habrían de saber también diagnosticar las dificultades de aprendizaje y ser capaces de motivar a la gente a aprender habilidades. En resumen, les exigimos ser pedagogos. Habría abundancia de personas que pueden demostrar habilidades tan pronto aprendiéramos a reconocerlas fuera de la profesión de la enseñanza.";}i:2;i:210977;}i:1239;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:211594;}i:1240;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:211594;}i:1241;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:547:"Cuando se está enseñando a unos principitos, es comprensible, aunque ha dejado de ser justificable, la insistencia de sus padres en que el profesor y la persona dotada de habilidades se conjuguen en una misma persona. Pero el que todos los padres aspiren a tener un Aristóteles para su Alejandro es obviamente insostenible. Las personas que pueden inspirar a los estudiantes y demostrar una técnica son tan escasas, y tan difíciles de reconocer, que hasta los principitos consiguen con mayor frecuencia un sofista y no un verdadero filósofo.";}i:2;i:211596;}i:1242;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212143;}i:1243;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212143;}i:1244;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:690:"Una demanda de habilidades escasas puede satisfacerse rápidamente aun cuando hay un número pequeño de personas que las demuestren, pero debe facilitarse el acceso a dichas personas. Durante la década de 1940-1950, los reparadores de radios, la mayoría de los cuales no estudiaron su trabajo en escuelas, penetraron en el interior de América con no más de dos años de retraso respecto a la llegada de los radios a la región. Permanecieron allí hasta que los radios de transistores, baratos e imposibles de reparar, los dejaron cesantes. Las escuelas técnicas no logran realizar lo que algunos reparadores de radios podrían hacer sin problemas: restauraciones útiles y duraderas.";}i:2;i:212145;}i:1245;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212835;}i:1246;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212835;}i:1247;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:756:"Ciertos intereses privados y convergentes conspiran hoy para impedir que una persona comparta su habilidad. A quien posee la habilidad le beneficia su escasez y no su reproducción. Al maestro que se especializa en transmitir la habilidad le beneficia la renuencia del artesano a ofrecer su propio taller para aprendices. Al público se le adoctrina con la creencia de que las habilidades son valiosas y de fiarse sólo si son el resultado de una escolarización formal. El mercado de trabajo depende de hacer escasas las habilidades y de mantenerlas escasas, ya sea proscribiendo su uso a transmisión no autorizada, o bien haciendo cosas que puedan operar y reparar sólo quienes tengan acceso a herramientas o informaciones que se mantienen en déficit.";}i:2;i:212837;}i:1248;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213593;}i:1249;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213593;}i:1250;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:397:"De este modo, las escuelas producen escasez de personas especializadas. Un buen ejemplo de esto es el número decreciente de enfermeras en Estados Unidos, debido al rápido aumento de programas universitarios de cuatro años en ese ramo. Las mujeres de familias más pobres que anteriormente se habrían alistado en un programa de dos o tres años, se han alejado por completo de dicha profesión.";}i:2;i:213595;}i:1251;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213992;}i:1252;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213992;}i:1253;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:919:"Otra manera de mantener la escasez de habilidades es insistir en maestros diplomados. Si se alentara a las enfermeras a adiestrar a otras enfermeras, y si a las enfermeras se les empleara de acuerdo con su habilidad demostrada para poner inyecciones, trazar gráficos y dar medicinas, pronto se terminaría la escasez de enfermeras capacitadas. Los certificados tienden hoy a coartar la libertad de la educación al convertir el derecho civil de compartir conocimientos en el privilegio de la libertad académica que ahora se confiere sólo a los empleados de alguna escuela. Para garantizar el acceso a un intercambio eficaz de habilidades necesitamos leyes que generalicen la libertad académica. El derecho a enseñar cualquier habilidad debería estar amparado por la libertad de expresión. Una vez que se eliminen las restricciones sobre la enseñanza, pronto desaparecerán también las relativas al aprendizaje.";}i:2;i:213994;}i:1254;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:214913;}i:1255;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:214913;}i:1256;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1017:"El profesor de habilidades necesita algún incentivo para otorgar sus servicios a un alumno. Hay por lo menos dos maneras sencillas de comenzar a canalizar fondos públicos hacia profesores no diplomados. Una sería institucionalizar los servicios de habilidades mediante la creación de centros de habilidades, libres y abiertos al público. Dichos centros podrían y deberían establecerse en zonas industriales, al menos para habilidades que son un requisito indispensable para ingresar en ciertos noviciados o aprendizajes —habilidades tales como la lectura, la mecanografía, la contabilidad, los idiomas extranjeros, la programación de computadoras y la manipulación de números, la lectura de lenguajes especiales (como el de los circuitos eléctricos), la manipulación de ciertas máquinas, etc.—. Otro planteamiento sería proporcionar a ciertos grupos de la población una moneda educativa válida para asistir a centros de habilidades en los que otros clientes habrían de pagar tarifas comerciales.";}i:2;i:214915;}i:1257;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:215932;}i:1258;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:215932;}i:1259;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:609:"Un planteamiento mucho más radical consistiría en crear un “banco” para el intercambio de habilidades. A cada ciudadano se le abriría un crédito básico con el que pudiese adquirir habilidades fundamentales. Luego, se beneficiaría con créditos adicionales enseñando, ya fuera en centros de habilidades organizados, en casa o sobre la marcha. Sólo aquellos que hubiesen enseñado a otros durante un lapso equivalente podrían solicitar el tiempo de profesores más avanzados. Se promovería una élite enteramente nueva, una élite formada por quienes hubiesen ganado su educación compartiéndola.";}i:2;i:215934;}i:1260;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:216543;}i:1261;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:216543;}i:1262;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:632:"¿Deberían los padres tener el derecho a ganar crédito educativo para sus hijos? Como una disposición de este tipo daría nuevas ventajas a las clases privilegiadas, podría compensarse otorgando un crédito mayor a los desfavorecidos. El funcionamiento de un servicio de habilidades dependería de la existencia de organismos que facilitarían el desarrollo de información —listas de personas— y asegurarían su uso libre y barato. Dicho organismo podría proporcionar servicios auxiliares de prueba y certificación y ayudaría a poner en vigor la legislación necesaria para quebrar e impedir las prácticas monopólicas.";}i:2;i:216545;}i:1263;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:217177;}i:1264;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:217177;}i:1265;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:478:"La libertad de un servicio universal de habilidades podría estar garantizada fundamentalmente por leyes que permitiesen la discriminación sólo de acuerdo con habilidades verificadas y no según el historial educativo. Una garantía semejante requiere inevitablemente un control público sobre las pruebas que puedan usarse para determinar quiénes están capacitados para el mercado laboral. De otra manera sería posible reintroducir subrepticiamente complejas baterías de ";}i:2;i:217179;}i:1266;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:217657;}i:1267;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"test";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"test";}i:2;i:217658;}i:1268;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:217662;}i:1269;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:532:" en el lugar mismo de trabajo que servirían para selección social. Mucho podría hacerse a fin de lograr objetividad en las pruebas de competencia en habilidades, como por ejemplo permitir que se comprobara sólo el manejo de máquinas o sistemas específicos. Las pruebas de mecanografía (en las que se mediría la velocidad, el número de errores y se valoraría el saber tomar dictados), el dominio de un sistema contable o de una grúa hidráulica, la codificación en Cobol,[^n17] etc., pueden fácilmente hacerse objetivas.";}i:2;i:217663;}i:1270;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:218195;}i:1271;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:218195;}i:1272;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:821:"De hecho, muchas de las verdaderas habilidades de importancia práctica pueden verificarse de ese modo. Y para los fines de administración de personal es mucho más útil una prueba sobre el nivel presente de competencia en determinada habilidad que la información sobre el hecho de que 20 años atrás una persona dejó satisfecho a su profesor respecto de un currículum en el que se enseñaba mecanografía, taquigrafía y contabilidad. Naturalmente puede ponerse en duda la necesidad misma de una comprobación oficial de habilidades: yo tengo la convicción de que el hecho de imponer ciertas restricciones constituye una mejor garantía para el derecho que un hombre tiene a que su reputación no sufra daños indebidos provenientes de una rotulación, que la garantía lograda al prohibir pruebas de competencia.";}i:2;i:218197;}i:1273;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219018;}i:1274;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219020;}i:1275;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:35:"Servicio de búsqueda de compañero";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:219020;}i:2;i:219020;}i:1276;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:219020;}i:1277;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:40:" +### Servicio de búsqueda de compañero";}i:2;i:219020;}i:1278;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219020;}i:1279;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:487:"En el peor de los casos, las escuelas reúnen condiscípulos en la misma habitación y los someten a la misma secuencia de tratamiento en matemáticas, educación cívica y lenguaje. En el mejor, permiten a cada estudiante elegir un curso de entre un número limitado de ellos. En cualquier caso, se forman grupos de iguales en torno a las metas de los profesores. Un sistema conveniente de educación permitiría a cada persona especificar la actividad para la cual busca un compañero.";}i:2;i:219062;}i:1280;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219549;}i:1281;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219549;}i:1282;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:461:"La escuela ofrece efectivamente a los niños una oportunidad para escapar de sus casas y encontrar nuevos amigos. Pero al mismo tiempo, este proceso inculca en ellos la idea de que deberían elegir sus amigos entre aquellos con quienes han sido congregados. El invitar a los menores desde su más tierna infancia a conocer, evaluar y buscar a otros los prepararía para mantener durante toda su vida el interés por buscar nuevos asociados para nuevos empeños.";}i:2;i:219551;}i:1283;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220012;}i:1284;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220012;}i:1285;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:895:"A un buen jugador de ajedrez siempre le gusta hallar un buen adversario, y a un novato le alegra hallar otro. Los clubes les sirven para este fin. Las personas que quieren conversar sobre determinados libros o artículos probablemente pagarían por hallar compañeros de debate. Los que quieren practicar juegos, ir de excursión, construir estanques para peces o motorizar bicicletas se tomarán molestias considerables para hallar compañeros para ello. El premio de sus esfuerzos es encontrar esos compañeros. Las buenas escuelas tratan de poner al descubierto los intereses comunes de los estudiantes matriculados en los mismos programas. Lo inverso de la escuela sería una institución que aumentase las posibilidades de que las personas que en un determinado momento compartiesen el mismo interés específico, pudiesen encontrarse independientemente de que tuviesen otra cosa en común.";}i:2;i:220014;}i:1286;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220909;}i:1287;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220909;}i:1288;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:664:"La enseñanza de habilidades no proporciona beneficios iguales a ambas partes, como lo hace la reunión de iguales. Tal como he señalado, al profesor de habilidades debe ofrecérsele algún otro incentivo aparte de las satisfacciones de enseñar. La enseñanza de habilidades es un asunto de repetir una y otra vez ciertas rutinas y de hecho es más tediosa para los alumnos que más la necesitan. Un servicio de habilidades necesita dinero o créditos u otros incentivos tangibles para funcionar, aun cuando el servicio mismo produjese su propia moneda. Un sistema de búsqueda de compañero no precisaría tales incentivos, sino sólo una red de comunicaciones.";}i:2;i:220911;}i:1289;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:221575;}i:1290;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:221575;}i:1291;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:678:"Las cintas, los sistemas de informática, la instrucción programada y la reproducción de formas y de sonidos tienden a disminuir la necesidad de recurrir a profesores humanos para muchas habilidades; aumentan la eficiencia de los profesores y el número de habilidades que uno puede conseguir a lo largo de su vida. Paralelamente a este aspecto se ha creado la necesidad creciente de encontrarse con gente interesada en disfrutar de la habilidad recientemente adquirida. Una estudiante que haya aprendido griego antes de sus vacaciones querrá conversar en griego sobre política cretense cuando regrese. Un mexicano de Nueva York quiere hallar a otros lectores de la revista ";}i:2;i:221577;}i:1292;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222255;}i:1293;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"Siempre!";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"Siempre!";}i:2;i:222256;}i:1294;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222264;}i:1295;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:6:" o de ";}i:2;i:222265;}i:1296;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222271;}i:1297;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"Los Agachados";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"Los Agachados";}i:2;i:222272;}i:1298;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222285;}i:1299;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:169:" , la más popular de las historietas. Algún otro quiere encontrar compañeros que, como él, desearían aumentar su interés en la obra de James Baldwin o de Bolívar.";}i:2;i:222286;}i:1300;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222455;}i:1301;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222455;}i:1302;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:448:"El funcionamiento de una red para búsqueda de compañeros sería simple. El usuario se identificaría por su nombre y dirección y describiría la actividad para la cual estuviese buscando compañero. Una computadora le remitiría los nombres y direcciones de todos aquellos que hubiesen introducido la misma descripción. Es asombroso que un servicio público tan sencillo no se haya usado nunca en gran escala para actividades de valor público.";}i:2;i:222457;}i:1303;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222905;}i:1304;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222905;}i:1305;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:507:"En su forma más rudimentaria, la comunicación entre cliente y computadora podría establecerse por correo. En las grandes ciudades, unas máquinas de escribir conectadas a una computadora podrían proporcionar respuestas instantáneas. La única manera de conseguir que la computadora entregase un nombre y dirección sería anotar una actividad para la cual se buscase un compañero. Las personas que utilizasen el sistema llegarían a ser conocidas únicamente por sus posibles compañeros de actividad.";}i:2;i:222907;}i:1306;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223414;}i:1307;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223414;}i:1308;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:570:"Un complemento de la computadora podría ser una red de pizarras o cuadros de anuncios y de avisos clasificados de periódico, consistentes en listas de actividades para las cuales no se hubiese hallado compañero mediante la computadora. No sería necesario dar nombres. Los lectores interesados introducirían entonces sus nombres en el sistema. Es posible que un sistema de búsqueda de compañero, con patrocinio público, sea la única manera de garantizar la libertad de reunión y de adiestrar a la gente en el ejercicio de esta actividad cívica tan fundamental.";}i:2;i:223416;}i:1309;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223986;}i:1310;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223986;}i:1311;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:404:"El derecho a la libre reunión ha sido reconocido políticamente y aceptado socialmente. Deberíamos entender ahora que este derecho está restringido por leyes que hacen obligatorias ciertas formas de reunión. Éste es en particular el caso de las instituciones que reclutan según edad, clase o sexo, y que consumen muchísimo tiempo. El ejército es un ejemplo. La escuela es otro aún más ofensivo.";}i:2;i:223988;}i:1312;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224392;}i:1313;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224392;}i:1314;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:463:"Desescolarizar significa abolir el poder de una persona para obligar a otra a asistir a una reunión. Significa también reconocer el derecho de cualquier persona, de cualquier edad o sexo, a convocar una reunión. Este derecho se ha visto drásticamente disminuido por la institucionalización de las reuniones. “Reunión” se refería originalmente al resultado del acto individual de juntarse. Ahora se refiere al producto institucional de algún organismo.";}i:2;i:224394;}i:1315;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224857;}i:1316;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224857;}i:1317;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:593:"La capacidad de las instituciones de servicio para adquirir clientes ha sobrepasado con mucho la capacidad de las personas para ser oídas con independencia de los medios de información institucional, que reaccionan ante personas individuales sólo si son noticias vendibles. Deberían existir servicios de búsqueda de compañero para personas que quisiesen reunir a otras, de modo que fuese tan fácil como la campana de la aldea que convocaba a los aldeanos a un cabildo. Los edificios escolares —dudosamente adaptables para otros fines— podrían cumplir en muchos casos este objetivo.";}i:2;i:224859;}i:1318;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:225452;}i:1319;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:225452;}i:1320;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1197:"De hecho, el sistema escolar puede encontrarse pronto con un problema que las Iglesias han enfrentado anteriormente: qué hacer con el espacio sobrante que ha quedado con la defección de los fieles. Las escuelas son difíciles de vender como templos. Una manera de continuar manteniéndolas en uso sería entregar esos edificios al vecindario. Cada cual podría manifestar lo que haría en el aula y cuándo, y algunos anuncios pondrían los programas disponibles en conocimiento de quien indagara. El acceso a “clase” sería gratis —o se compraría con bonos educativos—. El “profesor” podría incluso pagarse según el número de alumnos que atrajese por cualquier periodo completo de dos horas. Me imagino que los líderes muy jóvenes y los grandes educadores serían los dos tipos de persona más destacados en semejante sistema. Podría seguirse igual planteamiento respecto de la educación superior. Podría dotarse a los estudiantes de bonos educativos que los hicieran acreedores a 10 horas anuales de consulta con el profesor de su elección y, para el resto de su aprendizaje, se apoyaría en la biblioteca, la red para búsqueda de compañeros y los periodos de aprendiz.";}i:2;i:225454;}i:1321;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:226651;}i:1322;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:226651;}i:1323;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:797:"Naturalmente, debemos reconocer la probabilidad de que se abuse de esos dispositivos públicos de búsqueda para fines inmorales y de explotación, tal como se ha abusado de los teléfonos y del correo. Se requeriría cierta protección semejante a la que se usa para esas redes. En otras páginas he propuesto un sistema de búsqueda de compañero que permitiría usar sólo una información impresa pertinente, más el nombre y la dirección del averiguador. Un sistema de esta especie sería prácticamente a prueba de abusos. Otra medida sería permitir que se agregase cualquier libro, película, programa de televisión u otro artículo que figurase en un catálogo especial. La preocupación acerca de los peligros del sistema no debe hacernos perder de vista sus beneficios, tanto mayores.";}i:2;i:226653;}i:1324;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:227450;}i:1325;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:227450;}i:1326;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:337:"Algunos que comparten mi preocupación por la libertad de expresión y la reunión alegarán que el sistema de búsqueda de compañero es un medio artificial de juntar personas y que no lo utilizarían los pobres —que son quienes más lo necesitan—. Hay personas que auténticamente se alborotan cuando uno sugiere montar encuentros ";}i:2;i:227452;}i:1327;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:227789;}i:1328;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"ad hoc";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"ad hoc";}i:2;i:227790;}i:1329;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:227796;}i:1330;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:475:" que no tengan su raíz en la vida de una comunidad local. Otros reaccionan cuando uno sugiere usar una computadora para entresacar y conjuntar intereses que algunos clientes del sistema hayan definido. No es posible reunir a las personas de una manera tan impersonal, dicen. La búsqueda en común debe estar arraigada en una historia de experiencias compartidas a muchos niveles, y debe nacer de esta experiencia —el desarrollo de instituciones vecinales, por ejemplo—.";}i:2;i:227797;}i:1331;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:228272;}i:1332;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:228272;}i:1333;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1203:"Simpatizo con estas objeciones, pero creo que no comprenden el verdadero sentido de lo que persigo y no dan tampoco con lo que ellos mismos persiguen. En primer lugar, el retorno a la vida vecinal como centro primario de expresión creativa podría de hecho ser contraproducente para volver a establecer los vecindarios como unidades políticas. Centrar las demandas sobre el barrio o vecindario podría, en efecto, descuidar un importante aspecto liberador de la vida urbana —el que una persona pueda participar simultáneamente en varios grupos de sus iguales—. Además, existe un sentido importante: personas que jamás han vivido juntas en una comunidad física pueden tener ocasionalmente muchas más experiencias por compartir que quienes se han conocido desde la infancia. Las grandes religiones han reconocido siempre la importancia de estos encuentros lejanos, y los fieles han hallado siempre libertad mediante ellos: los peregrinajes, el monacato y el mutuo apoyo de templos y santuarios son reflejos de este reconocimiento. La conjunción de iguales podría ayudar significativamente a hacer explícitas las numerosas comunidades en potencia, aunque reprimidas, que existen en la ciudad.";}i:2;i:228274;}i:1334;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:229477;}i:1335;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:229477;}i:1336;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1125:"Las comunidades locales son valiosas. Son también una realidad que se desvanece conforme los hombres dejan que las instituciones definan cada vez más sus círculos de relación social. En un libro reciente, Milton Kotler mostró que el imperialismo del “centro” de la ciudad priva al barrio de su significación política. El intento proteccionista de resucitar la barriada como unidad cultural sólo sirve de apoyo a este imperialismo burocrático. Lejos de apartar artificialmente a la gente de su contexto local para unirla con grupos abstractos, el servicio de búsqueda de compañero alentaría un renacer de la vida local en las ciudades de las cuales está desapareciendo hoy en día. Un hombre que recupere su iniciativa para llamar a sus prójimos a sostener una conversación significativa, puede dejar de conformarse con estar separado de ellos por el protocolo oficinesco o por la etiqueta suburbana. Habiendo visto por una vez que el hacer cosas en conjunto depende del decidir hacerlo, la gente posiblemente insista incluso en que su comunidad local se haga más abierta al intercambio político creativo.";}i:2;i:229479;}i:1337;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:230604;}i:1338;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:230604;}i:1339;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:486:"Debemos reconocer que la vida urbana tiende a hacerse inmensamente costosa conforme a los habitantes de la ciudad se les enseña a confiar en complejos servicios institucionales para satisfacer cada una de sus necesidades. Es extraordinariamente costoso incluso mantenerla en un nivel mínimo de habitabilidad. El servicio de búsqueda de compañero de aprendizaje en la ciudad podría ser un primer paso para romper la dependencia de los ciudadanos respecto de servicios burocráticos.";}i:2;i:230606;}i:1340;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231092;}i:1341;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231092;}i:1342;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:497:"Sería también una medida esencial para proporcionar nuevos medios de establecer la confianza pública. En una sociedad escolarizada hemos llegado a confiar cada día más en el juicio profesional de educadores sobre el efecto de su propia labor para decidir en quién podemos o no confiar: vamos al médico, al abogado o al psicólogo porque confiamos en que cualquiera que ha tenido la cantidad requerida de tratamiento educativo especializado a manos de otros colegas merece nuestra confianza.";}i:2;i:231094;}i:1343;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231591;}i:1344;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231591;}i:1345;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:779:"En una sociedad desescolarizada, los profesionales ya no pueden reclamar la confianza de sus clientes a partir de su historial curricular o asegurar su prestigio con sólo remitir a sus clientes a otros profesionales que dieron aprobación a su escolarización. En vez de depositar su confianza en profesionales, debería ser posible, en cualquier momento, que cualquier presunto cliente consultase con otros clientes experimentados sobre la calidad del servicio prestado por un profesional mediante otra red de comunicación de intereses comunes fácilmente montada en una computadora o mediante muchos otros medios. Podría considerarse a tales redes como servicios de utilidad pública que permitiesen a los estudiantes elegir a sus profesores o a los pacientes, sus médicos.";}i:2;i:231593;}i:1346;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:232372;}i:1347;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:232374;}i:1348;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:24:"Educadores profesionales";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:232374;}i:2;i:232374;}i:1349;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:232374;}i:1350;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:29:" +### Educadores profesionales";}i:2;i:232374;}i:1351;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:232374;}i:1352;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:823:"Conforme los ciudadanos tengan nuevas posibilidades de elección, nuevas posibilidades de aprendizaje, su disposición a buscar directivos debiera aumentar. Podemos contar con que experimentarán más hondamente tanto su propia independencia como su necesidad de guía. Conforme estén liberados de la manipulación por parte de terceros, debieran aprender a beneficiarse de la disciplina que otros han adquirido durante toda su vida. El desescolarizar la educación debiera más bien aumentar, y no ahogar, la búsqueda de hombres de sabiduría práctica que estuviesen dispuestos a apoyar al recién llegado en su aventura educativa. Conforme los maestros en su arte abandonan la pretensión de ser informantes superiores o modelos de habilidades, comenzará a parecer verdadera la sabiduría superior que parecen poseer.";}i:2;i:232405;}i:1353;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233228;}i:1354;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233228;}i:1355;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:675:"Al aumentar la demanda de maestros debiera aumentar también la oferta. Conforme se desvanezca el maestro de escuela, se suscitarán condiciones que harán aparecer la vocación del educador independiente. Esto puede parecer casi contradictorio; a tal punto han llegado a ser complementarios escuelas y profesores. Sin embargo éste es exactamente el resultado a que tendería el desarrollo de los primeros servicios educativos —y lo que se precisaría para hacer posible el aprovecharlos plenamente—, pues los padres y otros “educadores naturales” necesitan un guía, las personas que aprenden necesitan ayuda, y las redes necesitan personas que las hagan funcionar.";}i:2;i:233230;}i:1356;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233905;}i:1357;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233905;}i:1358;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:829:"Los padres necesitan orientación para dirigir a sus hijos por el camino que conduce a la independencia educativa responsable. Los aprendices necesitan líderes experimentados cuando se topan con un terreno arduo. Estas dos necesidades son muy distintas: la primera es una necesidad de pedagogía, la segunda una necesidad de dirección intelectual en todas las demás ramas del conocimiento. La primera exige conocimiento del aprendizaje humano y de los recursos educativos, la segunda exige sabiduría fundada en la experiencia en cualquier clase de exploración. Ambos tipos de experiencia son indispensables para una empresa educativa eficaz. Las escuelas envasan estas funciones en un solo papel —y hacen que el ejercicio independiente de cualquiera de ellas se vuelva, si no algo lleno de desdoro, al menos sospechoso—.";}i:2;i:233907;}i:1359;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:234736;}i:1360;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:234736;}i:1361;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:246:"De hecho deberían distinguirse tres tipos de competencia educativa especial: una, crear y manejar los tipos de servicios o redes educativas esbozadas aquí; otra, guiar a estudiantes y padres en el uso de estas redes, y una tercera, actuar como ";}i:2;i:234738;}i:1362;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:234984;}i:1363;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:18:"primus inter pares";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:18:"primus inter pares";}i:2;i:234985;}i:1364;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:235003;}i:1365;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:450:" al emprender difíciles viajes de exploración intelectual. Sólo las dos primeras pueden concebirse como ramas de una profesión independiente: administradores educativos y consejeros pedagógicos. No se precisaría mucha gente para proyectar y gestionar las redes que he estado describiendo, pero sí gente con un profundo entendimiento de la educación y la administración, con una perspectiva muy diferente y hasta opuesta a la de las escuelas.";}i:2;i:235004;}i:1366;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:235454;}i:1367;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:235454;}i:1368;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1178:"Si bien una profesión educativa independiente de esta especie daría la bienvenida a muchas personas que las escuelas excluyen, excluiría asimismo a muchas que las escuelas declaran aptas. El establecimiento y gestión de redes educativas precisaría de algunos proyectistas y administradores, pero no en la cantidad ni del tipo que exige la administración de escuelas. La disciplina estudiantil, las relaciones públicas, la contratación, supervisión y despido de profesores no tendrían lugar ni equivalente en las redes que he estado describiendo. Tampoco la creación de currícula, la compra de libros de texto, el entretenimiento de lugares e instalaciones, ni la supervisión de competencias atléticas interescolares. La custodia de niños, el planteamiento de lecciones y la anotación de datos archivables, que ocupan ahora tanto tiempo de los profesores, tampoco figurarían en la gestión de las redes educativas. En cambio, para el funcionamiento de las tramas de aprendizaje se necesitarían algunas de las habilidades y actitudes que se esperan actualmente del personal de un museo, de una biblioteca, de una agencia para contratación de directivos o de un ";}i:2;i:235456;}i:1369;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:236634;}i:1370;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:18:"maître d’hôtel";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:18:"maître d’hôtel";}i:2;i:236635;}i:1371;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:236653;}i:1372;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:7:".[^n18]";}i:2;i:236654;}i:1373;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:236661;}i:1374;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:236661;}i:1375;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:854:"Los administradores educativos de hoy en día se preocupan de controlar a profesores y estudiantes de modo que queden satisfechos unos terceros —fideicomisarios, legislaturas y jefes de empresas—. Los constructores y administradores de las redes antedichas tendrían que demostrar tener genio para ponerse a sí mismos y a terceras personas donde no estorbasen a la gente, para facilitar encuentros entre estudiantes, modelos de habilidades, líderes educativos y objetos educativos. Muchas de las personas a las que hoy atrae la enseñanza son profundamente autoritarias y no serían capaces de hacerse cargo de esta tarea: construir servicios o bolsas de intercambio educativo significaría facilitar a la gente —en especial a los jóvenes— el ir en pos de metas que pudieren contradecir los ideales del gerente que hiciese posible tal empeño.";}i:2;i:236663;}i:1376;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:237517;}i:1377;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:237517;}i:1378;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:853:"Si pudiesen hacer su aparición las redes que he descrito, el recorrido educativo que siguiese cada estudiante sería cosa suya o propia, y sólo mirado retrospectivamente podría adquirir las características de un programa reconocible. El estudiante sensato buscaría periódicamente el consejo profesional: ayuda para fijarse una nueva meta, comprensión penetrante de las dificultades habidas, elección entre algunos métodos posibles. Incluso ahora, la mayoría de las personas admitirán que los servicios importantes que les prestaron sus profesores fueron consejos o asesoramiento de esta especie, dados en una reunión casual o durante una conversación personal. En un mundo desescolarizado, los pedagogos también harían valer sus métodos y serían capaces de realizar aquello que los profesores frustrados pretenden emprender hoy en día.";}i:2;i:237519;}i:1379;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:238372;}i:1380;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:238372;}i:1381;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:990:"Mientras los administradores de redes se concentrarían principalmente en la construcción y el mantenimiento de cambios que dieran acceso a recursos, el pedagogo ayudaría al estudiante a hallar el sendero que le pudiese conducir a mayor velocidad hacia su meta. Si un estudiante quisiese aprender cantonés hablado de un vecino chino, el pedagogo estaría a mano para juzgar el aprovechamiento y pericia de ambos y para ayudarles a elegir el libro de texto y los métodos más adecuados para sus talentos, caracteres y tiempo disponible para estudiar. Podría aconsejar al mecánico de aviación en ciernes sobre los mejores lugares para practicar como aprendiz. Podría recomendar libros o alguno que quisiese hallar compañeros con garra para debatir sobre historia de África. Al igual que el administrador de redes, el consejero pedagógico se vería a sí mismo como un educador profesional. El acceso a cualquiera de ambos podrían lograrlo las personas usando sus bonos educativos.";}i:2;i:238374;}i:1382;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:239364;}i:1383;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:239364;}i:1384;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1038:"El papel del iniciador o líder educativo, del maestro o “verdadero” líder es algo más elusivo que el de administrador profesional o de pedagogo. Esto se debe a que el liderazgo es en sí algo difícil de definir. En la práctica, una persona es un líder si la gente sigue su iniciativa y se convierten en aprendices de sus descubrimientos progresivos. Esto frecuentemente presupone una visión profética de normas enteramente nuevas —muy comprensibles en el presente— en las cuales el “error” actual se convertirá en “acierto”. En una sociedad que respetaría el derecho a convocar asambleas a través del sistema de búsqueda de compañero, la capacidad de tomar la iniciativa educativa sobre un tema específico sería tan amplia como el acceso mismo al aprendizaje. Pero, naturalmente, hay una enorme diferencia entre la iniciativa que toma alguien para convocar una provechosa reunión para debatir este ensayo y la capacidad de alguien para servir de líder en la exploración sistemática de sus implicaciones.";}i:2;i:239366;}i:1385;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:240404;}i:1386;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:240404;}i:1387;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1045:"El liderazgo tampoco depende del hecho de estar en lo cierto. Tal como señala Thomas Kuhn, en un periodo de paradigmas en constante variación, la mayoría de los más distinguidos líderes tiene la probabilidad de haber incurrido en error cuando se someten a una prueba retrospectiva. La condición de líder intelectual se funda en una disciplina intelectual y una imaginación superiores, y en la disposición a asociarse con otros en el ejercicio de aquéllas. Por ejemplo, el aprendiz puede pensar que existe una analogía entre el Movimiento Antiesclavista de Estados Unidos o la Revolución cubana y lo que está ocurriendo en Harlem. El educador que sea al mismo tiempo historiador podría mostrarle cómo advertir las fallas de dicha analogía. Puede recorrer de nuevo su camino como historiador. Puede invitar al aprendiz a participar en las investigaciones que realice. En ambos casos iniciará a su alumno en el aprendizaje de un arte crítico —que es escaso en la escuela— y que no puede comprarse ni con dinero ni con favores.";}i:2;i:240406;}i:1388;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241451;}i:1389;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241451;}i:1390;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:519:"La relación entre maestro y discípulo no se limita a la disciplina intelectual. Tiene su equivalente en las artes, en física, en religión, en psicoanálisis y en pedagogía. Encaja en el montañismo, en la platería y en política, en ebanistería y en administración de personal. Lo que es común en todas las verdaderas relaciones maestro-discípulo es el hecho de que ambos tienen conciencia de que su mutua relación es literalmente inapreciable y de maneras muy diferentes constituye un privilegio para ambos.";}i:2;i:241453;}i:1391;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241972;}i:1392;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241972;}i:1393;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:939:"Los charlatanes, los demagogos, los proselitistas, los maestros corrompidos, los sacerdotes simoniacos, los pillos, los taumaturgos y los mesías han demostrado ser capaces de asumir el papel de líderes y han demostrado así los peligros que para un discípulo tiene la dependencia respecto del maestro. Las diversas sociedades han adoptado diversas medidas para protegerse de estos maestros falsificados. Los hindúes se apoyaron en el sistema de castas. Los judíos orientales, en la condición de discípulo espiritual de los rabinos, los grandes periodos de la cristiandad en una vida ejemplar de virtud monástica, y otros periodos en el orden jerárquico. Nuestra sociedad confía en los certificados dados por escuelas. Es dudoso que ese procedimiento constituya una criba más eficaz, pero si se pretendiese que lo es, podría alegarse en contra que lo hace al costo de casi hacer desaparecer la condición de discípulo personal.";}i:2;i:241974;}i:1394;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:242913;}i:1395;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:242913;}i:1396;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:312:"En la práctica el límite entre el profesor de habilidades y los líderes educadores antes señalados será siempre confuso, y no hay razones prácticas para que no pueda lograrse el acceso a ciertos líderes descubriendo al “maestro” en el profesor rutinario que inicia a unos estudiantes en su disciplina.";}i:2;i:242915;}i:1397;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243227;}i:1398;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243227;}i:1399;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:460:"Por otra parte, lo que caracteriza la verdadera relación maestro-discípulo es su carácter de inapreciable. Aristóteles dice de ella: “Es un tipo de amistad moral, no fundada en términos fijos: hace un regalo, o hace lo que hace, como a un amigo”. Tomás de Aquino dice de este tipo de enseñanza que inevitablemente es un acto de amor y de compasión. Este tipo de enseñanza es siempre un lujo para el profesor y una forma de recreación (en griego, ";}i:2;i:243229;}i:1400;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:243689;}i:1401;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"schole";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"schole";}i:2;i:243690;}i:1402;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:243696;}i:1403;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:97:") para él y para su discípulo: una actividad significativa para ambos, sin propósito ulterior.";}i:2;i:243697;}i:1404;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243794;}i:1405;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243794;}i:1406;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:953:"Contar con que haya personas dotadas dispuestas a proveer una auténtica dirección intelectual es obviamente necesario incluso en nuestra sociedad, pero podría dictarse como norma ahora. Debemos construir primero una sociedad en la cual los actos profesionales mismos recuperen un valor más elevado que el de hacer cosas y manipular gente. En una sociedad así, la enseñanza exploratoria, inventiva, creativa, se contaría lógicamente entre las formas más elevadas del “ocio”. Pero no es necesario esperar hasta el advenimiento de la utopía. Incluso ahora, una de las consecuencias más importantes de la desescolarización y del establecimiento de sistemas para búsqueda de compañero sería la iniciativa que algunos “maestros” pudiesen tomar para congregar discípulos que congeniasen. Daría también, como hemos visto, oportunidades amplias para que los discípulos en potencia compartiesen informaciones o seleccionasen un maestro.";}i:2;i:243796;}i:1407;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:244749;}i:1408;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:244749;}i:1409;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:838:"Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones que pervierten una profesión al meter en un solo paquete varios papeles por desempeñar. Los hospitales hacen cada vez más imposible la atención en el hogar —y luego justifican la hospitalización como un beneficio para el enfermo—. Simultáneamente, la legitimidad y las posibilidades de ejercer de un médico vienen a depender de modo creciente de su asociación con un hospital, si bien su dependencia es mucho menor que la de los profesores respecto de las escuelas. Igual cosa podría decirse de los tribunales, que atiborran sus calendarios conforme nuevas transacciones adquieren solemnidad legal, demorando así la justicia. En cada uno de estos casos el resultado es un servicio escaso a un coste mayor, y un mayor ingreso para los miembros menos competentes de la profesión.";}i:2;i:244751;}i:1410;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:245589;}i:1411;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:245589;}i:1412;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:933:"Mientras las profesiones más antiguas monopolicen los mayores ingresos y prestigio, será difícil reformarlas. La profesión de maestro de escuela debiera ser fácil de reformar, no sólo debido a su origen más reciente. La profesión educativa pretende ahora un monopolio global; reclama ser la única competente para impartir el aprendizaje no sólo a sus propios novicios sino también a los de otras profesiones. Esta expansión excesiva la hace vulnerable ante cualquier otra profesión que reclame el derecho a enseñar a sus propios aprendices. Los maestros de escuela están abrumadoramente mal pagados y frustrados por la estrecha fiscalización del sistema escolar. Los más emprendedores y dotados de entre ellos hallarían probablemente un trabajo más simpático, una mayor independencia y hasta mejores ingresos al especializarse como modelos de habilidades, administradores de redes o especialistas en orientación.";}i:2;i:245591;}i:1413;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:246524;}i:1414;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:246524;}i:1415;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:564:"Finalmente, es más fácil romper la dependencia del alumno matriculado respecto del profesor diplomado que su dependencia de otros profesionales —por ejemplo, que la de un paciente hospitalizado respecto de su médico—. Si las escuelas dejaran de ser obligatorias, aquellos profesores cuya satisfacción reside en el ejercicio de la autoridad pedagógica en el aula se quedarían sólo con los alumnos para quienes fuese atractivo ese estilo. La desaparición de nuestra actual estructura profesional podría comenzar con la deserción del maestro de escuela.";}i:2;i:246526;}i:1416;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247090;}i:1417;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247090;}i:1418;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:360:"La desaparición de las escuelas ocurriría inevitablemente —y ocurriría a velocidad sorprendente—. No puede postergarse por más tiempo, y no hace ninguna falta promoverlo vigorosamente, porque ya está ocurriendo. Lo que vale la pena es tratar de orientarla en una dirección prometedora, pues puede dirigirse en dos direcciones diametralmente opuestas.";}i:2;i:247092;}i:1419;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247452;}i:1420;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247452;}i:1421;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:595:"La primera sería la ampliación del mandato del pedagogo y su control creciente sobre la sociedad, incluso fuera de la escuela. Con la mejor intención y tan sólo ampliando la retórica usada hoy como en las aulas, la crisis actual de las escuelas podría proporcionar a los educadores la excusa para usar todas las redes de la sociedad contemporánea para enviarnos sus mensajes —para nuestro bien—. La desescolarización que no podemos detener, podría significar el advenimiento de un “mundo feliz” dominado por algunos bien intencionados administradores de instrucción programada.";}i:2;i:247454;}i:1422;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248049;}i:1423;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248049;}i:1424;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:568:"Por otra parte, el hecho de que tanto los gobiernos como los empleados, los contribuyentes, los pedagogos despiertos y los administradores escolares advierten con creciente claridad que la enseñanza graduada de currícula en pro de unos certificados se ha hecho perjudicial, podría ofrecer a grandes masas humanas una oportunidad única: la de preservar el derecho de tener un acceso parejo a los instrumentos tanto para aprender, como para competir con otros lo que saben o creen. Pero esto exigiría que la revolución educativa estuviese guiada por ciertas metas:";}i:2;i:248051;}i:1425;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248619;}i:1426;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248619;}i:1427;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248621;}i:1428;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"1.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"1.";}i:2;i:248622;}i:1429;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248624;}i:1430;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:142:" Liberar el acceso a las cosas, mediante la abolición del control que hoy ejercen unas personas e instituciones sobre sus valores educativos.";}i:2;i:248625;}i:1431;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248767;}i:1432;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248767;}i:1433;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248769;}i:1434;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"2.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"2.";}i:2;i:248770;}i:1435;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248772;}i:1436;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:112:" Liberar la coparticipación de habilidades al garantizar la libertad de enseñarlas o de ejercitarlas a pedido.";}i:2;i:248773;}i:1437;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248885;}i:1438;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248885;}i:1439;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248887;}i:1440;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"3.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"3.";}i:2;i:248888;}i:1441;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248890;}i:1442;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:252:" Liberar los recursos críticos y creativos de la gente por medio de un regreso a la capacidad de las personas para convocar y organizar reuniones —capacidad crecientemente monopolizada por instituciones que afirman estar al servicio del público—.";}i:2;i:248891;}i:1443;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249143;}i:1444;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249143;}i:1445;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:249145;}i:1446;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"4.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"4.";}i:2;i:249146;}i:1447;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:249148;}i:1448;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:496:" Liberar al individuo de la obligación de moldear sus expectativas según los servicios ofrecidos por cualquier profesión establecida —proporcionándole la oportunidad de aprovechar la experiencia de sus iguales y de confiarse al profesor, guía, consejero o curandero de su elección—. La desescolarización de la sociedad difuminará inevitablemente las distinciones entre economía, educación y política, sobre las que se funda ahora la estabilidad del orden mundial y de las naciones.";}i:2;i:249149;}i:1449;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249645;}i:1450;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249645;}i:1451;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:792:"Nuestra reseña de las instituciones educativas nos lleva a modificar nuestra imagen del hombre. La criatura que las escuelas necesitan como cliente no tiene ni la autonomía ni la motivación para crecer por su cuenta. Podemos reconocer la escolarización como la culminación de una empresa prometeica, y hablar acerca de su alternativa refiriéndonos a un mundo adecuado para que en él viva un hombre epimeteico. Ya que nos es posible imaginar el reemplazo del embudo escolástico por una trama de intercambios y hacer que el mundo vuelva a ser visible mediante múltiples posibilidades de comunicación, sólo nos queda, al final de este esfuerzo, esperar que la naturaleza epimeteica del hombre aparezca, porque este renacimiento no depende de nuestros proyectos ni de nuestra voluntad.";}i:2;i:249647;}i:1452;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250440;}i:1453;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250440;}i:1454;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:34:"Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:250440;}i:2;i:250440;}i:1455;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:250440;}i:1456;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:38:" +## Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico";}i:2;i:250440;}i:1457;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250440;}i:1458;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:463:"Nuestra sociedad se parece a la máquina implacable que una vez vi en una juguetería neoyorquina consistía en un cofrecillo metálico con un interruptor que, al tocarlo se abría de golpe descubriendo una mano mecánica. Unos dedos cromados se estiraban hacia la tapa y la cerraban desde el interior. Era una caja; uno esperaba poder sacar algo de ella, pero no contenía sino un mecanismo para cerrarla. Este artilugio es lo opuesto a la “caja” de Pandora.";}i:2;i:250480;}i:1459;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250943;}i:1460;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250943;}i:1461;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:162:"La Pandora original, “la dadora de todo”, era una diosa de la Tierra en la Grecia prehistórica y matriarcal que dejó escapar todos los males de su ánfora (";}i:2;i:250945;}i:1462;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:251107;}i:1463;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"pythos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"pythos";}i:2;i:251108;}i:1464;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:251114;}i:1465;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:391:"). Pero cerró la tapa antes de que pudiera escapar la esperanza. La historia del hombre moderno comienza con la degradación del mito de Pandora y llega a su término con el cofrecillo que se cierra solo. Es la historia del empeño prometeico por forjar instituciones a fin de encerrar los males desencadenados. Es la historia de una esperanza que declina y de unas expectativas crecientes.";}i:2;i:251115;}i:1466;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:251506;}i:1467;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:251506;}i:1468;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:530:"Para comprender lo que esto significa debemos redescubrir la diferencia entre expectativa y esperanza. Esperanza, en su sentido vigoroso, significa fe confiada en la bondad de la naturaleza; mientras expectativa, tal como la emplearé aquí, significa fiarse en resultados planificados y controlados por el hombre. La esperanza centra el deseo en una persona de la que aguardamos un regalo. La expectativa promete una satisfacción que proviene de un proceso predecible que producirá aquello que tenemos el derecho de exigir. El ";}i:2;i:251508;}i:1469;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:252038;}i:1470;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:252039;}i:1471;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:252044;}i:1472;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:135:" prometeico ha eclipsado actualmente la esperanza. La supervivencia de la raza humana depende de que se la descubra como fuerza social.";}i:2;i:252045;}i:1473;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252180;}i:1474;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252180;}i:1475;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:669:"La Pandora original fue enviada a la Tierra con un frasco que contenía todos los males; de las cosas buenas, contenía sólo la esperanza. El hombre primitivo vivía en este mundo de la esperanza. Para subsistir confiaba en la munificencia de la naturaleza, en los regalos de los dioses y en los instintos de su tribu. Los griegos del periodo clásico comenzaron a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. En la versión que dieron de Pandora, ésta soltó tanto males como bienes. La recordaban principalmente por los males que había desencadenado. Y, lo que es más significativo, olvidaron que “la dadora de todo” era también la custodia de la esperanza.";}i:2;i:252182;}i:1476;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252851;}i:1477;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252851;}i:1478;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1335:"Los griegos contaban la historia de dos hermanos, Prometeo y Epimeteo. El primero advirtió al segundo que no se metiera con Pandora. Éste, en cambio, casó con ella. En la Grecia clásica, al nombre Epimeteo, que significa “percepción tardía” o “visión ulterior”, se le daba el significado de “lerdo” o “tonto”. Para la época en que Hesíodo relataba el cuento en su forma clásica, los griegos se habían convertido en patriarcas moralistas y misóginos que se espantaban ante el pensamiento de la primera mujer. Construyeron una sociedad racional y autoritaria. Los hombres proyectaron instituciones mediante las cuales programaron enfrentarse a todos los males desencadenados. Llegaron a percatarse de su poder para conformar el mundo y hacerlo producir servicios que aprendieron también a esperar. Querían que sus artefactos moldearan sus propias necesidades y las exigencias futuras de sus hijos. Se convirtieron en legisladores, arquitectos y autores, hacedores de constituciones, ciudades y obras de arte que sirviesen de ejemplo para su progenie. El hombre primitivo contaba con la participación mística en ritos sagrados para iniciar a los individuos en las tradiciones de la sociedad, pero los griegos clásicos reconocieron como verdaderos hombres sólo a aquellos ciudadanos que permitían que la ";}i:2;i:252853;}i:1479;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254188;}i:1480;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:254189;}i:1481;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254196;}i:1482;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:102:" (educación) los hiciera aptos para ingresar en las instituciones que sus mayores habían proyectado.";}i:2;i:254197;}i:1483;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:254299;}i:1484;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:254299;}i:1485;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:70:"El mito en desarrollo refleja la transición desde un mundo en que se ";}i:2;i:254301;}i:1486;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254371;}i:1487;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"interpretaban";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"interpretaban";}i:2;i:254372;}i:1488;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254385;}i:1489;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:31:" los sueños a un mundo en que ";}i:2;i:254386;}i:1490;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254417;}i:1491;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"se hacían";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"se hacían";}i:2;i:254418;}i:1492;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254428;}i:1493;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:183:" oráculos. Desde tiempos inmemoriales, se había adorado a la diosa de la Tierra en las laderas del monte Parnaso, que era el centro y el ombligo de la tierra. Allí, en Delphos (de ";}i:2;i:254429;}i:1494;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254612;}i:1495;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"delphys";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"delphys";}i:2;i:254613;}i:1496;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254620;}i:1497;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1117:" , la matriz), dormía Gaia, hermana de Caos y de Eros. Su hijo, Pitón, el dragón, cuidaba sus sueños lunares y húmedos de rocío, hasta que Apolo, el dios del Sol, el arquitecto de Troya, se alzó al Oriente, mató al dragón y se apoderó de la cueva de Gaia. Los sacerdotes de Apolo se hicieron cargo del templo de la diosa. Emplearon a una doncella de la localidad, la sentaron en un trípode, sobre el ombligo humeante de la tierra, y la adormecieron con emanaciones. Luego pusieron sus declaraciones extáticas en hexámetros rimados de profecías que se cumplían por la misma influencia que ejercían. De todo el Peloponeso venían hombres a traer sus problemas ante Apolo. Se consultaba el oráculo sobre posibles alternativas sociales, tales como las medidas que se debían adoptar frente a una peste o una hambruna, sobre cuál era la constitución conveniente para Esparta o cuáles los emplazamientos propicios para ciudades que más tarde se llamaron Bizancio y Caledonia. La flecha que nunca yerra se convirtió en un símbolo de Apolo. Todo lo referente a él adquirió un fin determinado y útil.";}i:2;i:254621;}i:1498;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:255738;}i:1499;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:255738;}i:1500;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:6:"En la ";}i:2;i:255740;}i:1501;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:255746;}i:1502;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"República";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"República";}i:2;i:255747;}i:1503;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:255757;}i:1504;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:573:" , al describir el Estado ideal, Platón ya excluye la música popular. En las ciudades se permitiría sólo el arpa y la lira de Apolo, porque únicamente la armonía de éstas crea “la tensión de la necesidad y la tensión de la libertad, la tensión de lo infortunado y la tensión de lo afortunado, la tensión del valor y la tensión de la templanza, dignas del ciudadano”. Los habitantes de la ciudad se espantaron ante la flauta de Pan y su poder para despertar los instintos. Sólo “los pastores pueden tocar las flautas (de Pan) y esto sólo en el campo”.";}i:2;i:255758;}i:1505;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256331;}i:1506;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256331;}i:1507;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:229:"El hombre se hizo responsable de las leyes bajo las cuales quería vivir y de moldear el medio ambiente a su propia semejanza. La iniciación primitiva que daba la Madre Tierra a una vida mítica se transformó en la educación (";}i:2;i:256333;}i:1508;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:256562;}i:1509;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:256563;}i:1510;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:256570;}i:1511;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:52:") del ciudadano que se sentiría a gusto en el foro.";}i:2;i:256571;}i:1512;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256623;}i:1513;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256623;}i:1514;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"Para el primitivo, el mundo estaba regido por el destino, los hechos y la necesidad. Al robar el fuego de los dioses, Prometeo convirtió los hechos en problemas, puso en tela de juicio la necesidad y desafió al destino. El hombre clásico tramó un contexto civilizado para la perspectiva humana. Se percataba de que podía desafiar al trío destino-naturaleza-entorno, pero sólo bajo su propio riesgo. El hombre contemporáneo va aún más lejos; intenta crear el mundo a su semejanza, contribuir y planificar su entorno, y descubre entonces que sólo puede hacerlo a condición de rehacerse continuamente para ajustarse a él. Debemos enfrentarnos ahora al hecho de que es el hombre mismo el que está en juego.";}i:2;i:256625;}i:1515;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:257341;}i:1516;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:257341;}i:1517;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1596:"La vida en Nueva York produce una visión peculiar de lo que es y de lo que podría ser, y sin esta visión, la vida en Nueva York se hace imposible. En las calles de Nueva York, un niño jamás toca nada que no haya sido ideado, proyectado, planificado y vendido científicamente a alguien. Hasta los árboles están allí porque el Departamento de Parques así lo decidió. Los chistes que el niño escucha por televisión han sido programados a gran coste. La basura con que juega en las calles de Harlem está hecha de paquetes deshechos ideados para un tercero. Hasta los deseos y los temores están moldeados institucionalmente. El poder y la violencia están organizados y administrados: las pandillas, frente a la policía. El aprendizaje mismo se define como el consumo de una materia, que es el resultado de programas investigados, planificados y promocionados. Lo que allí haya de bueno, es el producto de alguna institución especializada. Sería tonto pedir algo que no pudiese producir alguna institución. El niño de la ciudad no puede esperar nada que esté más allá del posible desarrollo del proceso institucional. Hasta a su fantasía se le urge a producir ciencia ficción. Puede experimentar la sorpresa poética de lo no planificado sólo a través de sus encuentros con la “mugre”, el desatino o el fracaso: la cáscara de naranja en la cuneta, el charco en la calle, el quebrantamiento del orden, del programa o de la máquina son los únicos despegues para el vuelo de la fantasía creadora. El “viaje” se convierte en la única poesía al alcance de la mano.";}i:2;i:257343;}i:1518;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:258939;}i:1519;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:258939;}i:1520;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1193:"Como nada deseable hay que no haya sido planificado, el niño ciudadano pronto llega a la conclusión de que siempre podremos idear una institución para cada una de nuestras apetencias. Toma por descontado el poder del proceso para crear valor. Ya sea que la meta fuere juntarse con un compañero, integrar un barrio o adquirir habilidades de lectura, se la definirá de tal modo que su logro pueda proyectarse técnicamente. El hombre que sabe que nada que está en demanda deja de producirse llega pronto a esperar que nada de lo que se produce pueda carecer de demanda. Si puede proyectarse un vehículo lunar, también puede proyectarse la demanda de viajes a la Luna. No ir donde uno puede sería subversivo. Desenmascararía, mostrándola como una locura, la suposición de que cada demanda satisfecha trae consigo el descubrimiento de otra, mayor aún, e insatisfecha. Esa percepción detendría el progreso. No producir lo que es posible dejaría a la ley de las “expectativas crecientes” al descubierto, en calidad de eufemismo para expresar una brecha creciente de frustración, que es el motor de la sociedad, fundado en la coproducción de servicios y en la demanda creciente.";}i:2;i:258941;}i:1521;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260134;}i:1522;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260134;}i:1523;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:774:"El estado mental del habitante de la ciudad moderna aparece en la tradición mitológica sólo bajo la imagen del Infierno: Sísifo, que por un tiempo había encadenado a Tánatos (la muerte), debe empujar una pesada roca cerro arriba hasta el pináculo del Infierno, y la piedra siempre se escapa de sus manos cuando está a punto de llegar a la cima. Tántalo, a quien los dioses invitaron a compartir la comida olímpica, y que aprovechó la ocasión para robarles el secreto de la preparación de la ambrosía que todo lo cura, sufre hambre y sed eternas, de pie en un río cuyas aguas se le escapan y a la sombra de árboles cuyos frutos no alcanza. Un mundo de demandas siempre crecientes no sólo es malo; el único término adecuado para nombrarlo es “Infierno”.";}i:2;i:260136;}i:1524;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260910;}i:1525;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260910;}i:1526;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:586:"El hombre ha desarrollado la frustradora capacidad de pedir cualquier cosa porque no puede visualizar nada que una institución no pueda hacer por él. Rodeado por herramientas todopoderosas, el hombre queda reducido a ser instrumento de sus instrumentos. Cada una de las instituciones ideadas para exorcizar alguno de los males primordiales se ha convertido en un ataúd a prueba de errores y de cierre automático y hermético para el hombre. El hombre está atrapado en las cajas que fabrica para encerrar los males que Pandora dejó escapar. El oscurecimiento de la realidad por el ";}i:2;i:260912;}i:1527;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:261498;}i:1528;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"smog";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"smog";}i:2;i:261499;}i:1529;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:261503;}i:1530;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:123:" producido por nuestras propias herramientas nos rodea. Súbitamente nos hallamos en la oscuridad de nuestra propia trampa.";}i:2;i:261504;}i:1531;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:261627;}i:1532;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:261627;}i:1533;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:845:"Hasta la realidad ha llegado a depender de la decisión humana. El mismo presidente que ordenó la ineficaz invasión de Camboya podría ordenar de igual manera el uso eficaz del átomo. El “interruptor Hiroshima” puede cortar hoy el ombligo de la tierra. El hombre ha adquirido el poder de hacer que Caos anonade a Eros y a Gaia. Esta nueva capacidad del hombre, el poder cortar el ombligo de la tierra, es un recuerdo constante de que nuestras instituciones no sólo crean sus propios fines, sino que tienen también el poder de señalar su propio fin y el nuestro. El absurdo de las instituciones modernas se evidencia en el caso de la institución militar. Las armas modernas pueden defender la libertad, la civilización y la vida únicamente aniquilándolas. En lenguaje militar, seguridad significa la capacidad de eliminar la Tierra.";}i:2;i:261629;}i:1534;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:262474;}i:1535;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:262474;}i:1536;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1887:"El absurdo subyacente en las instituciones no militares no es menos manifiesto. No hay en ellas un interruptor que active sus poderes destructores, pero tampoco lo necesitan. Sus dedos ya atenazan la tapa del mundo. Crean a mayor velocidad necesidades que satisfacciones, y en el proceso de tratar de satisfacer las necesidades que engendran, consumen la tierra. Esto vale para la agricultura y la manufactura, y no menos para la medicina y la educación. La agricultura moderna envenena y agota el suelo. La “revolución verde” puede, mediante nuevas semillas, triplicar la producción de una hectárea —pero sólo con un aumento proporcionalmente mayor de fertilizantes, insecticidas, agua y energía—. Fabricar estas cosas, como los demás bienes, contamina los océanos y la atmósfera y degrada recursos irreemplazables. Si la combustión continúa aumentando según los índices actuales, pronto consumiremos el oxígeno de la atmósfera sin poder reemplazarlo con igual presteza. No tenemos razones para creer que la fisión o la fusión puedan reemplazar la combustión sin peligros iguales o mayores. Los expertos en medicina reemplazan a las parteras y prometen convertir al hombre en otra cosa: genéticamente planificado, farmacológicamente endulzado y capaz de enfermedades más prolongadas. El ideal contemporáneo es un mundo panhigiénico: un mundo en el que todos los contactos entre los hombres, y entre los hombres y su mundo, sean el resultado de la previsión y la manipulación. La escuela se ha convertido en el proceso planificado que labra al hombre para un mundo planificado, en la trampa principal para entrampar al hombre en la trampa humana. Se supone que moldea a cada hombre a un nivel adecuado para desempeñar un papel en este juego mundial. De manera inexorable, cultivamos, elaboramos, producimos y escolarizamos el mundo hasta acabar con él.";}i:2;i:262476;}i:1537;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264363;}i:1538;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264363;}i:1539;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:341:"La institución militar es evidentemente absurda. Más difícil se hace enfrentar el absurdo de las instituciones no militares. Es aún más aterrorizante, precisamente porque funciona inexorablemente. Sabemos qué interruptor debe quedar abierto para evitar un holocausto atómico. No hay interruptor para detener un apocalipsis ecológico.";}i:2;i:264365;}i:1540;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264706;}i:1541;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264706;}i:1542;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:577:"En la antigüedad clásica, el hombre descubrió que el mundo podía forjarse según los planes del hombre, y, junto con este descubrimiento, advirtió que ello era inherentemente precario, dramático y cómico. Fueron creándose las instituciones democráticas y dentro de su estructura se supuso que el hombre era digno de confianza. Lo que se esperaba del debido proceso legal y la confianza en la naturaleza humana se mantenía en equilibrio recíproco. Se desarrollaron las profesiones tradicionales y con ellas las instituciones necesarias para el ejercicio de aquéllas.";}i:2;i:264708;}i:1543;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265285;}i:1544;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265285;}i:1545;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:559:"Subrepticiamente, la confianza en el proceso institucional ha reemplazado la dependencia respecto de la buena voluntad humana personal. El mundo ha perdido su dimensión humana y ha readquirido la necesidad de los tiempos primitivos. Pero mientras el caos de los bárbaros estaba constantemente ordenado en nombre de dioses misteriosos y antropomórficos, hoy en día la única razón que puede ofrecerse para que el mundo esté como está es la planificación del hombre. El hombre se ha convertido en el juguete de científicos, ingenieros y planificadores.";}i:2;i:265287;}i:1546;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265846;}i:1547;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265846;}i:1548;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:460:"Vemos esta lógica en otros y en nosotros mismos. Conozco una aldea mexicana en la que no pasa más de media docena de autos cada día. Un mexicano estaba jugando al dominó sobre la nueva carretera asfaltada frente a su casa —en donde probablemente se había sentado y había jugado desde muchacho—. Un coche pasó velozmente y lo mató. El turista que me informó del hecho estaba profundamente conmovido y, sin embargo, dijo: “Tenía que sucederle”.";}i:2;i:265848;}i:1549;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:266308;}i:1550;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:266308;}i:1551;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1152:"A primera vista, la observación del turista no difiere de la de un bosquimano que relata la muerte de algún fulano que se hubiera topado con un tabú y por consiguiente hubiera muerto. Pero las dos afirmaciones poseen significados diferentes. El primitivo puede culpar a alguna entidad trascendente, tremenda y ciega, mientras el turista está pasmado ante la inexorable lógica de la máquina. El primitivo no siente responsabilidad; el turista la siente, pero la niega. Tanto en el primitivo como en el turista están ausentes la modalidad clásica del drama, el estilo de la tragedia, la lógica del empeño individual y de la rebelión. El hombre primitivo no ha llegado a tener conciencia de ello, y el turista la ha perdido. El mito del bosquimano y el mito del norteamericano están compuestos ambos de fuerzas inertes, inhumanas. Ninguno de los dos experimenta una rebeldía trágica. Para el bosquimano, el suceso se ciñe a las leyes de la magia, para el norteamericano se ciñe a las leyes de la ciencia. El suceso le pone bajo el hechizo de las leyes de la mecánica, que para él gobiernan los sucesos físicos, sociales y psicológicos.";}i:2;i:266310;}i:1552;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:267462;}i:1553;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:267462;}i:1554;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:566:"El estado de ánimo de 1971 es propicio para un cambio importante de dirección en busca de un futuro esperanzador. A las metas institucionales las contradicen continuamente los resultados institucionales. El programa para la pobreza produce más pobres, la guerra en Asia acrecienta los Vietcong, la ayuda técnica engendra más subdesarrollo. Las clínicas para control de nacimientos incrementan los índices de supervivencia y provocan aumentos de población; las escuelas producen más desertores, y el atajar un tipo de contaminación suele aumentar otro tipo.";}i:2;i:267464;}i:1555;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268030;}i:1556;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268030;}i:1557;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:516:"Los consumidores se enfrentan al claro hecho de que cuanto más pueden comprar, tanto más engaño han de tragar. Hasta hace poco parecía lógico que pudiera echarse la culpa de esta inflación pandémica de disfunciones ya fuese al retraso de los descubrimientos científicos respecto de las exigencias tecnológicas, ya fuese a la perversidad de los enemigos étnicos, ideológicos o de clase. Han declinado las expectativas tanto respecto de un milenario científico como de una guerra que acabe con las guerras.";}i:2;i:268032;}i:1558;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268548;}i:1559;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268548;}i:1560;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:795:"Para el consumidor avezado no hay manera de regresar a una ingenua confianza en las tecnologías mágicas. Demasiadas personas han tenido la experiencia de computadoras que se descomponen, infecciones hospitalarias y saturación dondequiera que haya tráfico en la carretera, en el aire o en el teléfono. Hace apenas 10 años, la sabiduría convencional preveía una mejor vida fundada en los descubrimientos científicos. Ahora, los científicos asustan a los niños. Los viajes a la Luna proporcionan una fascinante demostración de que el fallo humano puede casi eliminarse entre los operarios de sistemas complejos —sin embargo, esto no mitiga los temores ante la posibilidad de que un fallo humano que consista en no consumir conforme a las instrucciones pueda escapar a todo control—.";}i:2;i:268550;}i:1561;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269345;}i:1562;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269345;}i:1563;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:443:"Para el reformador social tampoco hay modo de regresar a las premisas de la década de los años cuarenta. Se ha desvanecido la esperanza de que el problema de distribuir con justicia los bienes pueda evadirse creándolos en abundancia. El coste de la cesta mínima que satisfaga los gustos contemporáneos se ha ido a las nubes, y lo que hace que un gusto sea moderno es el hecho de que aparezca como anticuado antes de haber sido satisfecho.";}i:2;i:269347;}i:1564;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269790;}i:1565;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269790;}i:1566;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:424:"Los límites de los recursos de la tierra ya se han evidenciado. Ninguna nueva avenida de la ciencia o la tecnología podría proveer a cada hombre del mundo de los bienes y servicios de que disponen ahora los pobres de los países ricos. Por ejemplo, se precisaría extraer 100 veces las cantidades actuales de hierro, estaño, cobre y plomo para lograr esa meta, incluso con la alternativa tecnológica más “liviana”.";}i:2;i:269792;}i:1567;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270216;}i:1568;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270216;}i:1569;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:324:"Por fin, los profesores, médicos y trabajadores sociales caen en la cuenta de que sus diversos tratamientos profesionales tienen un aspecto —por lo menos— en común: crean nuevas demandas para los tratamientos profesionales que proporcionan, a una mayor rapidez con la que pueden proporcionar instituciones de servicio.";}i:2;i:270218;}i:1570;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270542;}i:1571;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270542;}i:1572;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1346:"Se está haciendo sospechosa no sólo una parte, sino la lógica misma de la sabiduría convencional. Incluso las leyes de la economía parecen poco convincentes fuera de los estrechos parámetros aplicables a la región social y geográfica en la que se encuentra la mayor parte del dinero. En efecto, el dinero es el circulante más barato, pero sólo en una economía encaminada hacia una eficiencia medida en términos monetarios. Tanto los países capitalistas como los comunistas en sus diversas formas están dedicados a medir la eficiencia en relación con el coste/beneficio expresado en dólares. El capitalismo se jacta de un nivel más elevado de vida para afirmar su superioridad. El comunismo hace alarde de una mayor tasa de crecimiento como índice de su triunfo final. Pero bajo cualquiera de ambas ideologías el coste total de aumentar la eficiencia se incrementa geométricamente. Las instituciones de mayor tamaño compiten con fiereza por los recursos que no están anotados en ningún inventario: el aire, el océano, el silencio, la luz del sol y la salud. Ponen en evidencia la escasez de estos recursos ante la opinión pública sólo cuando están casi irremediablemente degradados. Por doquiera, la naturaleza se vuelve ponzoñosa, la sociedad inhumana, la vida interior se ve invadida y la vocación personal ahogada.";}i:2;i:270544;}i:1573;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:271890;}i:1574;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:271890;}i:1575;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:741:"Una sociedad dedicada a la institucionalización de los valores identifica la producción de bienes y servicios con la demanda de los mismos. La educación que le hace a uno necesitar el producto está incluida en el precio del producto. La escuela es la agencia de publicidad que le hace a uno creer que necesita la sociedad tal y como está. En dicha sociedad el valor marginal ha llegado a ser constantemente autotrascendente. Obliga a los consumidores más grandes —son pocos— a competir por tener el poder de agotar la tierra, por llenarse sus propias panzas hinchadas, por disciplinar a los consumidores de menor tamaño, y por poner fuera de acción a quienes aún encuentran satisfacción en arreglárselas con lo que tienen. El ";}i:2;i:271892;}i:1576;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:272633;}i:1577;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:272634;}i:1578;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:272639;}i:1579;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:137:" de la insaciabilidad es por tanto la fuente misma de la depredación física, de la polarización social y de la pasividad psicológica.";}i:2;i:272640;}i:1580;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:272777;}i:1581;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:272777;}i:1582;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:878:"Cuando los valores se han institucionalizado en procesos planificados y técnicamente construidos, los miembros de la sociedad moderna creen que la buena vida consiste en tener instituciones que definan los valores que tanto ellos como su sociedad creen que necesitan. El valor institucional puede definirse como el nivel de producción de una institución. El valor correspondiente del hombre se mide por su capacidad para consumir y degradar estas producciones institucionales y crear así una demanda nueva —y aún mayor—. El valor del hombre institucionalizado depende de su capacidad como incinerador. Para emplear una imagen, ha llegado a ser el ídolo de sus artesanías. El hombre se autodefiende ahora como el horno en que se queman los valores producidos por sus herramientas. Y no hay límites para su voracidad. Su acto es el acto de Prometeo llevado al extremo.";}i:2;i:272779;}i:1583;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:273657;}i:1584;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:273657;}i:1585;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:600:"El agotamiento y la contaminación de los recursos de la tierra es, por encima de todo, el resultado de una corrupción de la imagen que el hombre tiene de sí mismo, de una regresión en su conciencia. Algunos tienden a hablar acerca de una mutación de la conciencia colectiva que conduce a concebir al hombre como un organismo que no depende de la naturaleza y de las personas, sino más bien de instituciones. Esta institucionalización de valores esenciales, esta creencia en que un proceso planificado de tratamiento da finalmente unos resultados deseados por quien recibe el tratamiento, este ";}i:2;i:273659;}i:1586;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274259;}i:1587;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:274260;}i:1588;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274265;}i:1589;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:70:" de consumidor, se halla en el núcleo mismo de la falacia prometeica.";}i:2;i:274266;}i:1590;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:274336;}i:1591;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:274336;}i:1592;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:194:"Los empeños por encontrar un nuevo equilibrio en el medio ambiente global dependen de la desinstitucionalización de los valores. La sospecha de que algo estructural anda mal en la visión del ";}i:2;i:274338;}i:1593;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274532;}i:1594;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"homo faber";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"homo faber";}i:2;i:274533;}i:1595;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274543;}i:1596;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:863:" es común en una creciente minoría de países tanto capitalistas como comunistas y “subdesarrollados”. Esta sospecha es la característica compartida por una nueva élite. A ella pertenece gente de todas las clases, ingresos, creencias y civilizaciones. Se han vuelto suspicaces respecto de los mitos de la mayoría: de las utopías científicas, del diabolismo ideológico y de la expectativa de que la distribución de bienes y servicios se hará con igualdad. Comparten con la mayoría la sensación de estar atrapados, de percatarse de que la mayor parte de las nuevas pautas adoptadas por amplio consenso conducen a resultados que se oponen descaradamente a sus metas propuestas. No obstante, mientras la mayoría de los prometeicos astronautas en ciernes sigue evadiendo el problema fundamental, la minoría emergente se muestra crítica respecto del ";}i:2;i:274544;}i:1597;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275407;}i:1598;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:15:"deus ex machina";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:15:"deus ex machina";}i:2;i:275408;}i:1599;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275423;}i:1600;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:295:" científico, de la panacea ideológica y de la cacería de diablos y brujas. Esta minoría comienza a dar forma a su sospecha de que nuestros constantes engaños nos atan a las instituciones contemporáneas como las cadenas ataban a Prometeo a su roca. La esperanza, la confianza y la ironía (";}i:2;i:275424;}i:1601;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275719;}i:1602;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"eironeia";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"eironeia";}i:2;i:275720;}i:1603;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275728;}i:1604;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:75:") clásica deben conspirar para dejar al descubierto la falacia prometeica.";}i:2;i:275729;}i:1605;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:275804;}i:1606;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:275804;}i:1607;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:325:"Solía pensarse que Prometeo significaba “previsión” y aun llegó a traducirse por “aquel que hace avanzar la Estrella Polar”. Privó astutamente a los dioses del monopolio del fuego, enseñó a los hombres a usarlo para forjar el hierro, se convirtió en el dios de los tecnólogos y terminó con cadenas de hierro.";}i:2;i:275806;}i:1608;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276131;}i:1609;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276131;}i:1610;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:420:"La Pitonisa de Delfos fue reemplazada por una computadora que se cierne sobre cuadros de instrumentos y tarjetas perforadas. Los exámenes del oráculo cedieron el paso a los códigos de programación. El timonel humano entregó el rumbo a la máquina cibernética. Emerge la máquina definitiva para dirigir nuestros destinos. Los niños se imaginan volando en sus máquinas espaciales, lejos de una Tierra crepuscular.";}i:2;i:276133;}i:1611;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276553;}i:1612;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276553;}i:1613;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:350:"Mirando desde las perspectivas del Hombre de la Luna, Prometeo pudo reconocer a Gaia como el planeta de la Esperanza y como el Arco de la Humanidad. Un sentido nuevo de la finitud de la Tierra y una nueva nostalgia pueden ahora abrir los ojos del hombre y hacerle ver por qué su hermano Epimeteo, al desposar a Pandora, eligió desposar a la Tierra.";}i:2;i:276555;}i:1614;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276905;}i:1615;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276905;}i:1616;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:470:"Al llegar aquí el mito griego se convierte en esperanzada profecía, pues nos dice que el hijo de Prometeo fue Deucalión, el Timonel del Arca, quien, como Noé, navegó sobre el Diluvio para convertirse en el padre de la humanidad nueva que, con ayuda de Pirra, hija de Epimeteo y de Pandora, sacó de la tierra. Por ello nos es necesario comprender el sentido de ese Pithos que Pandora obtuvo de los dioses y que es el inverso de la Caja: nuestro Vaso y nuestra Arca.";}i:2;i:276907;}i:1617;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277377;}i:1618;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277377;}i:1619;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:193:"Necesitamos ahora un nombre para quienes valoran más la esperanza que las expectativas. Necesitamos un nombre para quienes aman más a la gente que a los productos, para aquellos que creen que";}i:2;i:277379;}i:1620;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277573;}i:1621;a:3:{i:0;s:4:"code";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:162:" + +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros. +";i:1;N;}i:2;i:277573;}i:1622;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:26:"markdowku_githubcodeblocks";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:168:" +``` +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros. +```";}i:2;i:277573;}i:1623;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277573;}i:1624;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:101:"Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que aman la tierra en la que podemos encontrarnos unos con otros,";}i:2;i:277743;}i:1625;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277845;}i:1626;a:3:{i:0;s:4:"code";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:118:" + +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés. +";i:1;N;}i:2;i:277845;}i:1627;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:26:"markdowku_githubcodeblocks";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:124:" +``` +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés. +```";}i:2;i:277845;}i:1628;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277845;}i:1629;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:236:"Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que colaboran con su hermano Prometeo en alumbrar el fuego y en dar forma al hierro, pero que lo hacen para acrecentar así su capacidad de entender y cuidar y ser guardián del prójimo, sabiendo que";}i:2;i:277971;}i:1630;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278208;}i:1631;a:3:{i:0;s:4:"code";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:149:" + +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes. +";i:1;N;}i:2;i:278208;}i:1632;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:26:"markdowku_githubcodeblocks";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:155:" +``` +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes. +```";}i:2;i:278208;}i:1633;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278208;}i:1634;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:85:"[^n19] A esto hermanos y hermanas esperanzados sugiero llamarlos hombres epimeteicos.";}i:2;i:278365;}i:1635;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278451;}i:1636;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278451;}i:1637;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:34:"Apéndice: una elección que hacer";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:278451;}i:2;i:278451;}i:1638;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:278451;}i:1639;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:38:" +## Apéndice: una elección que hacer";}i:2;i:278451;}i:1640;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278451;}i:1641;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:796:"De generación en generación nos hemos esforzado por llegar a la educación de un mundo mejor y para hacerlo hemos desarrollado sin cesar la escolaridad. Hasta ahora, la empresa se ha pagado con un fracaso. ¿Y qué hemos aprendido si no es a constreñir a los niños para que suban la escalera sin fin de la educación que, lejos de conducir a la igualdad buscada, sólo favorece al que se adelantó a los otros o al que tiene mejor salud o al que se beneficia de una mejor preparación? Peor aún, la enseñanza obligatoria parece minar la voluntad personal de aprender. Por último, al saber considerado como una mercancía, que hay que almacenar y distribuir, pronto se le considera como un bien sometido a las garantías de la propiedad individual y, por lo mismo, tiende a volverse escaso.";}i:2;i:278491;}i:1642;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:279287;}i:1643;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:279287;}i:1644;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1182:"Comenzamos a percibir que este esfuerzo por desarrollar la educación pública mediante una escolaridad obligatoria está a punto de perder su legitimidad desde el punto de vista social, pedagógico y económico. Frente a esta crisis, los espíritus críticos no se contentan ya con remedios clásicos, ¡sino que proponen unos mucho más violentos! Imaginan, por ejemplo, sistemas de crédito educativo que permitirían a cada uno comprar la educación de su elección en un mercado no controlado, o bien, proponen retirarle a las escuelas la responsabilidad en materia de educación para dársela a los medios modernos de información y al aprendizaje en los sitios de trabajo. Algunos, aislados, entrevén la necesidad de destruir los fundamentos institucionales de la escuela, como le sucedió a la Iglesia en el transcurso de los dos últimos siglos. Ciertos reformadores proponen reemplazar la escuela universal por nuevos y diferentes sistemas que pretenden preparar mejor para la vida en una sociedad moderna… En síntesis, estamos frente a una elección: podemos contentarnos con desmantelar las escuelas o podemos ir más lejos y desescolarizar por completo la sociedad.";}i:2;i:279289;}i:1645;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:280471;}i:1646;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:280471;}i:1647;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:642:"Todas esas proposiciones en favor de instituciones educativas nuevas se reparten, de hecho, en tres categorías: las reformas que llevan al “salón de clases” sin tocar el sistema escolar; luego, la dispersión de clases “liberadas” en toda la sociedad; por último, la transformación de la misma sociedad en un inmenso salón de clases. Pero estos tres enfoques del problema —clase reformada, liberada o que englobe al mundo entero— los consideramos como tres etapas de la escalada del proceso educativo a través de las cuales se afirmará la empresa de un control todavía más sutil y más invasor del que habrá reemplazado.";}i:2;i:280473;}i:1648;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:281115;}i:1649;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:281115;}i:1650;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1357:"Si por mi parte estoy convencido de que conviene poner un término al reino de la escuela (desenlace que, por otra parte, creo ineluctable), es porque me parece que esta desaparición de una convicción ilusoria nos debería llenar de esperanza. Sin embargo, no estoy por ello menos consciente de que, llegados a este término de la “era escolar”, podríamos muy bien entrar en la de una escuela totalitaria que sólo el nombre distinguiría del asilo de alienados o de un campo de concentración donde educación, corrección y reajuste serían por fin sinónimos. Creo, en consecuencia, que el desmantelamiento de la escuela nos fuerza a ver más allá de su inminente desaparición y nos constriñe a enfrentar las posibilidades fundamentales de elección en materia de educación: ya sea que elijamos trabajar en la constitución de un arsenal educativo aterrador, con el objeto de acrecentar de golpe la fuerza de una enseñanza que trata de un mundo sin cesar más ensombrecido, más amenazador para el hombre; ya sea que intentemos poner en orden las condiciones necesarias para el surgimiento de una nueva era donde la tecnología se pondrá al servicio de una sociedad más simple, más transparente, de suerte que todos los hombres puedan descubrir lo que los rodea y servirse de las herramientas que hoy en día dan forma a sus propias vidas.";}i:2;i:281117;}i:1651;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:282474;}i:1652;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:282476;}i:1653;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:36:"La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:282476;}i:2;i:282476;}i:1654;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:282476;}i:1655;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:41:" +### La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas";}i:2;i:282476;}i:1656;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:282476;}i:1657;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:897:"Debemos distinguir entre “educación” y “escolaridad” si queremos ver surgir más claramente esa elección que se nos ofrece. Comprendo que conviene distinguir entre los objetivos humanistas del profesor y los efectos inherentes a la estructura inalterable de la escuela. Con toda seguridad esta estructura no es evidente a primera vista, pero sólo su existencia explica cierta forma de instrucción transmitida a todos y que escapa al control del docente o del consejo de profesores. En efecto, un mensaje se inscribe indeleble: sólo la escolaridad es capaz de preparar la entrada en la sociedad. Por ello, lo que no se enseña en la escuela se le retira su valor y, por lo mismo ¡lo que se aprende fuera de ella no vale la pena conocerse! Eso es lo que llamo la enseñanza oculta de las escuelas que define los límites en los cuales se efectúan los pretendidos cambios de programas.";}i:2;i:282519;}i:1658;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:283416;}i:1659;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:283416;}i:1660;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1156:"Sin defendernos de ella, esta enseñanza no varía de una escuela a otra ni de un lugar a otro. En todas partes los niños deben congregarse en grupos, según la edad; luego, alrededor de 30 toman su lugar frente a un profesor diplomado en razón de 150, incluso 1 000 horas, al año o más, No importa si el programa oficial intenta enseñar los principios del fascismo o del liberalismo, del catolicismo o del socialismo, o si pretende ponerse al servicio de una “liberación”, ya que en todos los casos la institución se arroga el derecho de definir las actividades propias que conducen a una “educación” legitima. Poco importa, igualmente, si el objetivo confesado de la escuela es producir ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o médicos, en la medida en que sin el diploma no se es un ciudadano verdadero o un doctor reconocido… Aunque todas las reuniones no se hagan en el mismo recinto, aunque incluso se consideren, de una manera o de otra, necesarias (cortar caña es trabajo del cañero; reformarse, el del prisionero, y seguir una parte del programa, el de los estudiantes), no hay en lo anterior ninguna diferencia.";}i:2;i:283418;}i:1661;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:284574;}i:1662;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:284574;}i:1663;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:758:"Nos enfrentamos a una especie de directiva secreta que quiere que los estudiantes aprendan antes que nada que la educación sólo tiene valor una vez que se adquirió en el seno de la universidad mediante un método graduado de consumo, y se le promete que el éxito social dependerá de la cantidad de saber consumido, Están convencidos de que vale mucho más instruirse a distancia de lo que es el mundo. El hecho de que la escolaridad imponga esta regla secreta en un programa educativo la distingue inmediatamente de otras formas de educación planificada. Todos los sistemas escolares del planeta tienen características comunes en relación con su rendimiento institucional y la razón de ello es ese “programa oculto” común a todas las escuelas.";}i:2;i:284576;}i:1664;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:285334;}i:1665;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:285334;}i:1666;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:791:"Hay que entender bien que ese programa oculto modifica la concepción que tenemos de la adquisición del saber y hace de la actividad personal una mercancía de la que la escuela cree detentar el monopolio. A un bien de consumo le damos hoy en día el nombre de “educación”: un producto cuya fabricación la asegura una institución oficial llamada “escuela”. En consecuencia, henos ahí con el fin de medir la duración y el costo del tratamiento aplicado al estudiante (en Estados Unidos, el diplomado de una pequeña universidad regional y el de uno de los colegios de la “liga de la hieda”[^n20] tienen cubiertos los mismos 135 “créditos”,[^n21] ¡pero están plenamente conscientes de la diferente cotización de sus “títulos” en la bolsa de valores educativos!).";}i:2;i:285336;}i:1667;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286127;}i:1668;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286127;}i:1669;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:672:"En todos los países convertidos al ideal escolar, el saber se considera como un bien de primera necesidad, como un asunto de sobrevivencia y, de la misma forma, como una moneda de cambio más fácilmente convertible que los rublos y los dólares. Cuando hablamos de alienación estamos de tal manera habituados al vocabulario marxista que sólo pensamos frecuentemente en la del trabajador en relación con su trabajo desde la perspectiva de una sociedad de clases; hoy en día nos sería necesario reconocer otra forma de la alienación, la del hombre frente al saber cuando este último, transformado en producto de un servicio, hace de quien lo adquiere un consumidor.";}i:2;i:286129;}i:1670;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286801;}i:1671;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286801;}i:1672;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:609:"Entre más educación “consume” un ser humano, más hace fructificar su posesión y se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del conocimiento. La educación definió una nueva pirámide de clases, en la medida en que los grandes consumidores de saber —esos portadores de bonos del tesoro del conocimiento— pueden inmediatamente pretender dar servicios de un valor más eminente a su sociedad. Ellos representan las inversiones seguras en el portafolio del capital humano de una sociedad y sólo ellos tienen un pronto acceso a las herramientas más poderosas o menos extendidas de la producción.";}i:2;i:286803;}i:1673;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:287412;}i:1674;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:287412;}i:1675;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:810:"De esa manera, ese programa secreto definió implícitamente la naturaleza de la educación: permite medirla y establecer qué nivel de productividad da derecho a su consumo. Disponemos entonces de la posibilidad de justificar la creciente correlación entre los empleos y los privilegios que manan de ellos. En ciertas sociedades esos privilegios se conocerán bajo la forma de ingresos personales más considerables; en otras, será un acceso fácil a servicios todavía poco desarrollados o a una formación más favorecida, sin olvidar un creciente prestigio (por otra parte, en el momento mismo en que, en nombre de la educación, se reclaman crecientes privilegios, la fosa entre la formación y la competencia profesional se acrecienta, como lo muestran ciertos estudios, en particular el de Ivar Berg, ";}i:2;i:287414;}i:1676;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288224;}i:1677;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:60:"La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:60:"La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación";}i:2;i:288225;}i:1678;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288285;}i:1679;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:2:").";}i:2;i:288286;}i:1680;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:288288;}i:1681;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:288288;}i:1682;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:550:"Querer hacer pasar a todos los seres humanos por las etapas sucesivas de la adquisición del saber nos lleva a recordar la búsqueda de los alquimistas y a mirar bien ahí: en el “gran arte” del final de la Edad Media encontraremos con toda seguridad los orígenes profundos de la idea de escolaridad. Consideramos a justo título que Jan Amos Komensky fue uno de los grandes precursores de las teorías de la escuela moderna. Más conocido con el nombre de Comenius, Jan Amos era obispo de Moravia y se decía “pansofista” y pedagogo. En su ";}i:2;i:288290;}i:1683;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288840;}i:1684;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:15:"Didactica Magna";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:15:"Didactica Magna";}i:2;i:288841;}i:1685;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288856;}i:1686;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:958:" describe las escuelas como medios para “enseñar todo a todo el mundo” y podemos ver en él como un anteproyecto de la producción en la cadena del saber, ya que quería hacer la educación a la vez mejor y menos costosa, con el fin de permitir a todos el acceso a la condición de hombre. Pero sería insuficiente ver en Comenius una suerte de predecesor de nuestros expertos en métodos pedagógicos. Experto en alquimia, utilizaba su jerga para describir el arte de educar a los niños. Como se sabe, los alquimistas buscaban trasmutar el plomo vil, los elementos vulgares, en oro, haciendo pasar sus espíritus destilados por las 12 etapas del enriquecimiento. Es evidente que si veían en eso una manera de enriquecerse a sí mismos, pretendían trabajar en nombre del interés general, y sus sucesivos fracasos no los desalentaban, ya que su “ciencia” les permitía encontrar en ella las razones y justificar la continuación de sus esfuerzos.";}i:2;i:288857;}i:1687;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:289815;}i:1688;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:289815;}i:1689;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:82:"En esta perspectiva, la pedagogía abría un nuevo capítulo en la historia de la ";}i:2;i:289817;}i:1690;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:289899;}i:1691;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"Ars Magna";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"Ars Magna";}i:2;i:289900;}i:1692;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:289909;}i:1693;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:514:" : la educación se volvía, en efecto, la búsqueda de una especie de método alquímico destinado a hacer surgir un nuevo tipo de hombre capaz de adaptarse a un medio creado por la magia científica. Y, al igual que en la alquimia, cualquiera que fuera la suma consagrada a cada generación para edificar escuelas, el resultado es que la mayoría de aquellos a los que se les enseña no responden a esa “afinación” y pronto hay que rechazarlos como no aptos para existir en un mundo concebido por el hombre.";}i:2;i:289910;}i:1694;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290424;}i:1695;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290424;}i:1696;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:463:"Los reformadores en materia de educación que admiten el fracaso de las escuelas se reparten en tres categorías. Los más respetables son seguramente los grandes maestros en alquimia que prometen mejores escuelas; los más seductores, esos magos populares que anuncian la transformación de cada cocina en un laboratorio alquímico; los más aterradores, esos nuevos “masones” del universo que buscan transformar el mundo en un vasto templo de la enseñanza.";}i:2;i:290426;}i:1697;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290889;}i:1698;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290889;}i:1699;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1336:"Veamos, en particular, entre esos maestros alquimistas del momento, a los directores de investigación que emplean o patrocinan las grandes fundaciones. Están persuadidos de que las escuelas, si pudieran de alguna manera mejorarse, se volverían empresas más económicamente viables que venderían un más vasto conjunto de servicios. En cuanto a aquellos cuyo interés se dirige hacia los programas, pretenden que éstos no están adaptados o están sobrepasados. De esa manera se conciben nuevos programas en los que se introducen mercancías al gusto del momento: cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación femenina, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. Se denuncia la pasividad (con toda seguridad es un mal) y, para remediarla, se concede a los estudiantes que ellos mismos decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y de qué manera. Algunos dicen que las escuelas son prisiones y, en consecuencia, se aconseja a los jefes de establecimientos dar su asentimiento a salidas educativas: un horizonte de pupitres y de muros se sustituye, por ejemplo, por una calle de Harlem cuidadosamente delimitada. Por último, la psicología está de moda y se instaura la terapia de grupos en el salón de clases. La escuela, que se consideraba el todo aprender de todos, se vuelve hoy en día el universo de todos los niños.";}i:2;i:290891;}i:1700;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:292227;}i:1701;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:292227;}i:1702;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:531:"Otros críticos se levantan para subrayar que las escuelas no utilizan suficientemente los recursos de la ciencia moderna. Surge el deseo de que los hombres de ciencia inventen algún medicamento que consuman los niños para que el instructor pueda modificar más fácilmente sus comportamientos. Se habla de transformar las escuelas en casinos educativos. Hay quienes quisieran “electrificar” el salón de clases y, por poco que crean ser buenos discípulos de McLuhan, helos ahí reemplazando el pizarrón y los manuales por ";}i:2;i:292229;}i:1703;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:292760;}i:1704;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"happenings";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"happenings";}i:2;i:292761;}i:1705;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:292771;}i:1706;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:265:" en los que se ofrece toda la batería de aparatos de comunicación. Si admiran a Skinner, afirman que la aplicación de sus teorías permitirá una acción más eficaz sobre el comportamiento de los estudiantes que la de los antiguos maestros, hoy pasados de moda.";}i:2;i:292772;}i:1707;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293037;}i:1708;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293037;}i:1709;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:361:"Que algunas de estas reformas tengan efectos felices, es innegable. La práctica de la escuela tradicional está en un fuerte proceso de disminución en las escuelas experimentales. A veces los padres tienen un sentimiento mayor de participación. Los alumnos designados por sus profesores para seguir cursillos de aprendizaje adquieren frecuentemente un mayor ";}i:2;i:293039;}i:1710;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:293400;}i:1711;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:12:"savoir faire";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:12:"savoir faire";}i:2;i:293401;}i:1712;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:293413;}i:1713;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:384:"[^n22] que el de sus camaradas que permanecen en clase (conocí niños que mejoraban sus conocimientos de español en el laboratorio de lengua, porque preferían jugar con los botones de las grabadoras que conversar con sus iguales puertorriqueños). Sin embargo, todas esas mejoras intervienen en límites estrechos y previsibles, ya que no llegan al programa oculto de las escuelas.";}i:2;i:293414;}i:1714;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293798;}i:1715;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293798;}i:1716;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:846:"A algunos reformadores les gustaría liberarse de esa regla secreta de las escuelas públicas, pero sólo lo logran raras veces. Las escuelas “activas”, que conducen al desarrollo de otras escuelas del mismo tipo, sólo crean una engañosa ilusión: la liberación permanece como un espejismo, incluso si la constricción a los cursos obligatorios se interrumpe con frecuencia por periodos de ociosidad. Que se busque agradar a alguien para convencerlo de asistir a los cursos es, bien mirado, ¡más insidioso todavía que la obligación legal y el apoyo de la brigada de los menores! Mejor que una presencia consentida a disgusto, la que embauca lleva más fácilmente a creer en la necesidad del tratamiento educativo. El docente tolerante hace al alumno correr un creciente riesgo de sentirse incapaz de vivir fuera del refugio acolchado.";}i:2;i:293800;}i:1717;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294646;}i:1718;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294646;}i:1719;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:322:"¿En qué difiere la enseñanza suministrada en las nuevas escuelas? Aunque se facilite por el consenso de un grupo, más que por los decretos del cuerpo docente, se trata siempre de adquirir competencias que la sociedad reconoce, lo que no cambia en nada el problema. La apariencia cambia; la realidad profunda permanece.";}i:2;i:294648;}i:1720;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294970;}i:1721;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294970;}i:1722;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:786:"Para ser verdaderas escuelas de libertad, les sería necesario llenar dos condiciones. En primer lugar, deben administrarse de tal suerte que no permitan a la regla secreta de la enseñanza aplicarse, es decir, que los escolares, definidos como tales, ubicados frente a profesores reconocidos, no asistan a una sucesión de cursos graduados. En segundo lugar, esas escuelas deberían proporcionar un marco en el que todos los participantes, docentes y alumnos, puedan liberarse de los postulados sobre los que reposa, sin que lo sepamos, una sociedad escolarizada. A veces escuchamos enunciar la primera condición en los objetivos que se propone una escuela “activa”. En cuanto a la segunda, por lo general no se le pone atención, y ciertamente no es el objetivo de esas escuelas.";}i:2;i:294972;}i:1723;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:295758;}i:1724;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:295760;}i:1725;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:40:"Los postulados secretos de la educación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:295760;}i:2;i:295760;}i:1726;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:295760;}i:1727;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:45:" +### Los postulados secretos de la educación";}i:2;i:295760;}i:1728;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:295760;}i:1729;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:935:"No es necesario, en esta fase, distinguir entre la regla secreta y aquélla sobre la que, sin darnos cuenta, se funda la idea de la escolaridad. El programa oculto constituye una especie de ritual iniciático que podemos concebir como un preparativo para el ingreso en la sociedad moderna. Por intermedio de la escuela el programa adquiere su dimensión institucional. Detrás del velo de la ceremonia ritual, las contradicciones se encuentran disimuladas para los participantes. ¿Cómo, en efecto, conciliar el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad social fundada en el reconocimiento de un orden jerárquico que finalmente el rito impone? Pero una vez reconocidos en lo que son, los ritos ya no llegan a mantener la ilusión; ese fenómeno es aparente en el caso de la escolaridad. No obstante, la ceremonia reposa sobre postulados aceptados inconscientemente a los que las escuelas “privadas” podrían dar nuevo vigor.";}i:2;i:295807;}i:1730;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:296742;}i:1731;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:296742;}i:1732;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:551:"A primera vista, se nos reprochará que hagamos un juicio de orden general sobre las escuelas “activas” y más precisamente, en 1971, sobre las de Estados Unidos, las de Canadá y las de Alemania del Oeste en donde ellas parecen querer ser el más hermoso adorno de un renacimiento. A decir verdad, nuestra generalización sólo se dirige a las empresas experimentales que pretenden ser instituciones educativas. Para evitar cualquier menosprecio debemos examinar con más atención la relación que hay entre “educación” y “escolaridad”.";}i:2;i:296744;}i:1733;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:297295;}i:1734;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:297295;}i:1735;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:372:"Con mucha frecuencia olvidamos que la educación no es una invención antigua. Ese sustantivo se desconocía antes de la Reforma. En Francia se habla por vez primera de la educación de los niños en un manuscrito de 1498. Era el año en que Erasmo llegó a residir en Oxford, en que a Savonarola lo quemaron en Florencia, en que Durero trazaba los primeros apuntes de su ";}i:2;i:297297;}i:1736;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297669;}i:1737;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"Apocalipsis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"Apocalipsis";}i:2;i:297670;}i:1738;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297681;}i:1739;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:153:" , que todavía hoy evoca con fuerza la atmósfera sombría, la impresión de un inminente desastre que pesaba sobre ese periodo. En inglés, la palabra ";}i:2;i:297682;}i:1740;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297835;}i:1741;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"educación";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"educación";}i:2;i:297836;}i:1742;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297846;}i:1743;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:607:" apareció por primera vez en 1530. Ese año, Enrique VIII repudiaba a Catalina de Aragón y la Iglesia luterana se separaba de Roma con la dieta de Augsburgo. Hay que esperar todavía un siglo para que la idea de “educación” se manifieste en el imperio español. En 1611, Lope de Vega habla de la educación como de una novedad. Ese año, la universidad de San Marcos en Lima celebraba su 60 aniversario. Centros de saber existían antes de que la palabra “educación” formara parte del lenguaje familiar. Se “leía” a los autores clásicos; se estudiaba el derecho; no se enseñaba a vivir…";}i:2;i:297847;}i:1744;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:298454;}i:1745;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:298454;}i:1746;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1208:"En el siglo XVI, en el corazón de todas las disputas teológicas se encontraba la necesidad de encontrar justificaciones, de las que la política supo servirse bien para explicar las grandes masacres de la época. En la Iglesia, cismas intervinieron y se hizo posible sostener convicciones diferentes sobre el punto de saber en qué medida el hombre nace pecador, corrompido o sometido a la predestinación. Desde el siglo XVII, el acuerdo se rehizo sobre un punto: el hombre nace no apto para la vida social, en consecuencia es necesario prepararlo proponiéndole una educación. Así, la educación se volvió lo opuesto de la competencia adquirida en la vida cotidiana y terminó por significar un método de tratamiento más que el simple saber de hechos de la existencia y la capacidad de servirse de herramientas que dan forma a la vida concreta del hombre. Progresivamente la educación se transformó en un servicio que había que producir, para el bien de todos, mercancía intangible que se recibía de la misma manera en que la Iglesia visible había conferido anteriormente la gracia invisible. El hombre, nacido en la estupidez original, debía ahora presentar cartas de creencia a la sociedad.";}i:2;i:298456;}i:1747;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:299664;}i:1748;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:299664;}i:1749;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:850:"La escuela y la educación mantuvieron relaciones comparables a las de la Iglesia y la religión o, en una perspectiva más general, a las que se establecen entre el rito y el mito; el rito crea y sostiene al mito; detenta una función mitopoiética. El mito inspira el “programa” por el que se perpetúa. La educación representa a la vez todo un conjunto de justificaciones sobre el plano social y un concepto para el que no podemos encontrar análogos específicos en otras culturas (fuera de la teología cristiana). La educación por el método de la escolaridad distingue fundamentalmente a las escuelas de otras instituciones de enseñanza que existieron en otras épocas. Ése es un aspecto que no hay que despreciar si queremos hacer aparecer las insuficiencias de las “escuelas” llamadas privadas, no estructuradas o independientes.";}i:2;i:299666;}i:1750;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:300516;}i:1751;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:300516;}i:1752;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:721:"Con el fin de sobrepasar una simple reforma de la clase, una escuela activa debe todavía rechazar el programa secreto de la escolaridad descrito anteriormente. Una escuela activa ideal intentaría proporcionar una educación esforzándose en evitar que esa educación se utilice para establecer o justificar una estructura de clase y se vuelva un patrón maestro para medir al alumno con cierto rasero. Debería, en consecuencia, no someter a este último a una represión, a un control o intentar definirlo de cualquier manera. Pero mientras las escuelas activas intenten proporcionar una “educación general”, no están en condiciones de sobrepasar una concepción fundada en los postulados secretos de la escuela.";}i:2;i:300518;}i:1753;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301239;}i:1754;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301239;}i:1755;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:420:"Entre sus principios, hay uno que Peter Schrag, en una perspectiva particular, definió como el “síndrome de inmigración”, que nos incita a tratar a todos los seres humanos como si fueran recién llegados que deben someterse a un proceso de naturalización. Sólo los consumidores garantizados del saber se admiten en la ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen iguales, sólo por el periodo de gestación en el seno del ";}i:2;i:301241;}i:1756;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:301661;}i:1757;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"Alma mater";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"Alma mater";}i:2;i:301662;}i:1758;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:301672;}i:1759;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:33:" podrán acceder a esta igualdad.";}i:2;i:301673;}i:1760;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301706;}i:1761;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301706;}i:1762;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:993:"Otro postulado conduce a creer que el hombre, nacido inmaduro, debe adquirir su “madurez” en el transcurso del primer periodo de su existencia para después formar parte de una sociedad civilizada. Esta idea de una “maduración” es, con toda seguridad, contraria a otra convicción que define al hombre como el mamífero que, por el mecanismo de la evolución y con el concurso de la selección natural entre sus maestros primates, adquirió el carácter específico de permanecer durante toda su vida “inmaduro” —lo que constituye su “gracia” particular—. Pero, en conformidad con la fijación ideológica sobre la madurez, nos persuadimos de que es necesario, después de su nacimiento, mantener al ser humano apartado de su medio natural y hacerlo pasar por una matriz social para que adquiera las cualidades necesarias para la vida cotidiana. Las escuelas activas son capaces de llenar esta función frecuentemente mucho mejor que escuelas de un modelo menos atractivo.";}i:2;i:301708;}i:1763;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:302701;}i:1764;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:302701;}i:1765;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:175:"Los establecimientos educativos liberados comparten con quienes lo son menos otra característica: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la educación. Ponen una institución ";}i:2;i:302703;}i:1766;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:302878;}i:1767;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:302879;}i:1768;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:302895;}i:1769;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:497:". Perpetúan la idea de que la enseñanza, si se realiza fuera del círculo familiar, debe estar asegurada por una “agencia” cuyo docente es sólo un representante. En una sociedad escolarizada, la misma familia se reduce a ser sólo una “agencia de aculturación”. En cuanto a los organismos educativos que emplean profesores para promover la política de su consejo administrativo, se vuelven instrumentos al servicio de una despersonalización de las relaciones entre personas privadas.";}i:2;i:302896;}i:1770;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:303393;}i:1771;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:303393;}i:1772;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:734:"Naturalmente, numerosas escuelas activas funcionan sin profesores acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una amenaza seria para los sindicatos de maestros, pero, no por ello, ponen en peligro la estructura social fundada en un reconocimiento de las profesiones. Una escuela en la que los miembros del consejo administrativo eligen y nombran a los profesores, sin preocuparse de saber si detentan certificados, una licencia o una credencial sindical, no atenta contra la legitimidad de la profesión de enseñante; no más que una encargada de un prostíbulo clandestino, en un país donde un trabajo así, para ser legal, debe hacerse bajo el control de la policía, ¡no cuestiona la legitimidad de la profesión más antigua del mundo!";}i:2;i:303395;}i:1773;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304129;}i:1774;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304129;}i:1775;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:751:"La mayoría de los que enseñan en escuelas activas no tienen la oportunidad de trabajar en su nombre. Aseguran la tarea de la enseñanza en nombre de un consejo; en nombre de sus alumnos asumen la función menos evidente de la enseñanza y sirven a la educación bajo su aspecto casi místico en nombre de toda “la sociedad”. La mejor prueba de ello es que pasan todavía más tiempo que sus colegas de la enseñanza pública reuniéndose en comisiones con el objeto de planificar el método por el cual la escuela debería educar. La duración de esas reuniones ha incitado a muchos docentes de alma generosa, una vez que sus ilusiones se han disipado, a pasar de la escuela pública a la enseñanza privada, para luego ir todavía más allá…";}i:2;i:304131;}i:1776;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304882;}i:1777;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304882;}i:1778;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:857:"Todos los establecimientos de enseñaza pretenden “formar hombres” en una tarea de mejoramiento del futuro, pero no les permiten cumplirla antes de que hayan adquirido una sólida tolerancia frente a las maneras de vivir de sus mayores. Es siempre una educación que prepara para la vida, más que adquirida en la vida cotidiana. Muy pocas escuelas activas pueden evitar esa trampa. Sin embargo, hay que reconocer que contribuyen a la aparición de un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán sus diplomas sobre la sociedad, sino más bien porque los padres que eligen educar a sus hijos sin beneficiarse de los servicios de enseñanza “ordenados según la regla” pertenecen frecuentemente a una minoría radical, y porque el interés que aportan a ese problema, el gusto que tienen de educar a sus hijos, los mantiene en su modo de vida.";}i:2;i:304884;}i:1779;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:305741;}i:1780;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:305743;}i:1781;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:54:"Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:305743;}i:2;i:305743;}i:1782;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:305743;}i:1783;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:59:" +### Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación";}i:2;i:305743;}i:1784;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:305743;}i:1785;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:806:"La especie más peligrosa entre los reformadores en materia de educación es la que pretende demostrar que el saber puede producirse y venderse de manera mucho más eficaz en un mercado libre que en el que controla la escuela. Pretenden que una capacidad puede fácilmente adquirirse por medio de un modelo, aunque el aprendiz considere poco esta adquisición como de interés evidente. Afirman también que un sistema de asignación individualizado proporciona un poder de compra más igualitario en materia de educación. Piden, por último, que se distinga entre el método de adquisición y el que mide los resultados (lo que me parece una necesidad muy evidente). Pero sería erróneo creer que la instauración de un mercado abierto del saber representaría una solución opuesta a la de hoy en día.";}i:2;i:305804;}i:1786;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:306610;}i:1787;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:306610;}i:1788;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"Esta sustitución aboliría, ciertamente, lo que llamamos el programa secreto de la escolaridad (el hecho de que hay que seguir a determinadas edades programas graduados). Un mercado abierto daría, en primer lugar, la impresión de que vamos al encuentro de esos principios en los que reposa una sociedad escolarizada: el “síndrome de la inmigración”, el monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el rito de la integración progresiva. Pero, por lo mismo, un mercado libre de educación proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables ocasiones para influir en secreto, con el fin de encerrar a cada hombre en los múltiples y pequeños compartimentos que una tecnocracia todavía más desarrollada podría crear.";}i:2;i:306612;}i:1789;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:307328;}i:1790;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:307328;}i:1791;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:2079:"La confianza puesta desde hace decenios en la escolarización del ser humano ha hecho del saber una mercancía de una especie particular. Como lo hemos visto, todos consideran ahora el saber como un artículo de primera necesidad y, al mismo tiempo, como la moneda de cambio más preciosa de la sociedad. Esta transformación del saber en bien de consumo se refleja, igualmente, en nuestro comportamiento de todos los días, incluso en el lenguaje familiar. Así, verbos que describen una actividad personal, como “aprender”, “alojarse”, “sanarse”, nos hacen irresistiblemente pensar en servicios cuya distribución está más o menos asegurada. Pensamos que es necesario resolver los problemas de la habitación, de los cuidados médicos, etc., sin recordar un solo instante que los hombres podrían curarse o edificar sus casas por ellos mismos. Todo es cuestión de servicios y el adolescente, en lugar de aprender, por ejemplo, a ocuparse de su abuela, aprende a manifestarse frente al asilo de ancianos donde no hay camas disponibles. ¿El desmantelamiento de la escuela sería, pues, suficiente para conducir a la desaparición de esas actitudes? (Mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución norteamericana se continuaba exigiendo la filiación a una Iglesia como condición para cualquier candidatura a un puesto oficial). Con mayor razón, ¿el cierre de las escuelas permitiría evitar que tuviéramos acceso a baterías de pruebas para medir el nivel de educación? Si ése no es el caso, esta nueva situación conduciría a la obligación, para cada uno, de adquirir un mínimo de mercancías en el depósito del saber. La ambición de medir científicamente el valor de cada hombre se vincula sin dificultad con el sueño del alquimista de hacer a todo hombre “educable” con el fin de guiarlo hacia una humanidad “verdadera”. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado libre, llegaremos a un entorno sometido al control de los terapeutas-pedagogos, a una matriz universal donde cada hombre se alimentaría con fluidos elegidos.";}i:2;i:307330;}i:1792;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309409;}i:1793;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309409;}i:1794;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:516:"Las escuelas limitan por ahora la competencia del profesor al salón de clases. No le permiten reivindicar la existencia del hombre para una región. Desde esta perspectiva, renunciar a la escuela haría desaparecer esta frágil barrera y conferiría una legitimidad semejante a la invasión pedagógica de la vida privada de cada uno. Podría conducir a una lucha encarnizada por la adquisición del saber en un mercado libre del conocimiento y a la edificación, bajo apariencias igualitarias, de una meritocracia.";}i:2;i:309411;}i:1795;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309927;}i:1796;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309927;}i:1797;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1516:"Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones (ni incluso las más eficaces) que pretenden hacer de la información, de la comprensión y de la sabiduría rasgos d comportamiento susceptibles de contrastarse (y medirlos conduce a detentar la llave que abre las puertas del éxito y del poder). El sistema chino, por ejemplo, ofrecía, en el plano de la educación, una estimulante eficacia definiendo una clase relativamente abierta, cuyos privilegios dependían de la adquisición de un saber mesurable. Alrededor de 2 000 años antes de Cristo, parece que el emperador de China interrogaba cada tres años a sus administradores. Después de tres veces, les daba responsabilidades mayores o los echaba para siempre. Algunos 1 000 años más tarde, el primer emperador Chang estableció un verdadero examen para sus funcionarios. Música, tiro con arco y aritmética constituían los temas impuestos. Cada tres años, los concursos se abrían a los candidatos. Uno sobre 100 lograba franquear las tres series de pruebas que le conferían sucesivamente los títulos de “genio en hierbas”, de “perfecto letrado” y de “dispuesto para el servicio del emperador”. La selección era, pues, muy severa, y se le dedicaba la mayor importancia a los examinadores; así, por ejemplo, en el segundo nivel, en el que era necesario redactar una composición, el texto del candidato lo volvía a copiar un secretario antes de dárselo al jurado, a fin de que sus miembros no pudieran reconocer la caligrafía del autor.";}i:2;i:309929;}i:1798;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:311445;}i:1799;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:311445;}i:1800;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:605:"Más tarde, la promoción a rango de mandarín no daba necesariamente derecho a uno de los puestos deseados. Permitía solamente participar en el sorteo de esos empleos. Ninguna escuela apareció en China antes de la época de las luchas con los poderes europeos. El caso del imperio chino es único entre las grandes naciones, ya que no poseía ni Iglesia oficial ni sistema escolar, pero pudo durante cerca de 3 000 años reclutar su élite gubernamental sin fundar una vasta aristocracia hereditaria. El acceso a esa élite estaba reservado a la familia del emperador y a los que pasaban los exámenes.";}i:2;i:311447;}i:1801;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312052;}i:1802;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312052;}i:1803;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:800:"Voltaire y sus contemporáneos elogiaron el sistema chino, donde la promoción se fundaba en las pruebas dadas de un saber. Los exámenes de ingreso en la administración aparecieron en Francia en 1791; después, Napoleón los abolió. ¿Qué habría sucedido si, para propagar las ideas de la Revolución, se hubiera elegido el mandarinato en lugar del sistema escolar que inevitablemente sostiene al nacionalismo y a la disciplina militar? De hecho, Napoleón se erigió en el defensor de la escuela politécnica y del colegio de pensionados… Más que inspirarse en el mandarinato, las instituciones educativas se calcaron del modelo jesuita de la promoción ritual en el interior de una estructura jerárquica cerrada; de esa forma, las sociedades occidentales eligieron legitimar a sus élites.";}i:2;i:312054;}i:1804;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312854;}i:1805;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312854;}i:1806;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1041:"Los jefes de establecimientos escolares se volvieron, de alguna forma, los abades de una cadena mundial de monasterios en donde todos se dedicaron a acumular conocimientos que les permitieran acceder a la tierra prometida, paraíso terrestre sometido a las leyes del envejecimiento planificado que se desborda sin cesar. Eso nos recuerda el esfuerzo de los calvinistas que arrasaron todos los monasterios para, finalmente, transformar Ginebra en un vasto claustro. Tenemos, por lo tanto, razones para temer que el desmantelamiento de la escuela permita la aparición de una fábrica del saber a escala mundial. A menos que transformemos la idea que nos hemos hecho de la enseñanza o del saber, la desaparición de la escuela corre el riesgo de conducir a una situación donde, de un lado, se utilizará el sistema del mandarinato para separar el aprendizaje del saber de la prueba de control y, del otro, la sociedad se comprometerá a proporcionar la terapéutica necesaria a cualquier hombre para que pueda entrar en la “edad de oro”.";}i:2;i:312856;}i:1807;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:313897;}i:1808;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:313897;}i:1809;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:380:"Ni los alquimistas, ni los magos, ni los masones pueden resolver el problema que nos plantea la crisis de la enseñanza, La desescolarización de nuestra concepción del mundo exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza, a la vez, ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa porque busca hacer del hombre un ser social sometiéndolo a un tratamiento con métodos técnicos apropiados.";}i:2;i:313899;}i:1810;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:314279;}i:1811;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:314279;}i:1812;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:13:"Adherirse al ";}i:2;i:314281;}i:1813;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:314294;}i:1814;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:314295;}i:1815;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:314300;}i:1816;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:827:" tecnocrático nos conduce a querer poner en marcha todo lo que es técnicamente realizable, poco importa si sus beneficiarios son forzosamente poco numerosos o si no experimentan su deseo. Sobre todo la privatización o la frustración de la mayoría de los seres humanos nunca entran en la línea de cuenta. Si, por ejemplo, es posible concebir el tratamiento mediante la bomba de cobalto, es necesario que la ciudad de Tegucigalpa disponga de aparatos adaptados en cada uno de sus dos grandes hospitales. Con todos esos créditos puestos ahí se habría podido luchar en toda Honduras contra la proliferación de parásitos… Las velocidades supersónicas sugieren que conviene inmediatamente acelerar los viajes de algunos. ¿Los vuelos a Marte? ¡Se encontrará siempre una razón para que parezcan indispensables! En el ";}i:2;i:314301;}i:1817;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315128;}i:1818;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:315129;}i:1819;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315134;}i:1820;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:341:" tecnocrático la pobreza está modernizada: ¿existían soluciones antiguas? Nuevos monopolios vienen a prohibirlas. A la penuria de los bienes de primera necesidad se agrega la conciencia de la diferencia sin cesar cada vez más grande entre los servicios técnicamente realizables y los que en la práctica son accesibles a las mayorías.";}i:2;i:315135;}i:1821;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:315476;}i:1822;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:315476;}i:1823;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:80:"Un profesor se vuelve “educador” desde el momento en que se incorpora a ese ";}i:2;i:315478;}i:1824;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315558;}i:1825;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:315559;}i:1826;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315564;}i:1827;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:968:" tecnocrático. Actúa inmediatamente como si la educación fuera una empresa tecnológica concebida para insertar al hombre en el entorno que crea el “progreso” de la ciencia. Se niega a ver la evidencia: el envejecimiento de todos los bienes programados se paga muy caro (el costo de la formación del personal capaz de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas es sin cesar más alto). Parece olvidar que el precio creciente de las herramientas tiene consecuencias igualmente graves en el plano de la educación: en el momento mismo en que los horarios de trabajo disminuyen, se vuelve imposible el aprendizaje en los lugares de empleo donde se ha hecho de él el privilegio de un pequeño número. En todo el mundo el precio del coste de la educación de los hombres para la sociedad crece más rápidamente que la productividad de la economía en su conjunto, mientras menos y menos hombres experimentan el sentimiento de hacerse razonablemente útiles a la comunidad.";}i:2;i:315565;}i:1828;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:316533;}i:1829;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:316535;}i:1830;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:50:"La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:316535;}i:2;i:316535;}i:1831;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:316535;}i:1832;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:55:" +### La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático";}i:2;i:316535;}i:1833;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:316535;}i:1834;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:608:"Educar para una sociedad de consumo resulta en formar consumidores. La reforma de la clase, su desaparición o su crecimiento no son ni más ni menos que métodos que, a pesar de sus diferencias aparentes, se dirigen a la formación de consumidores de bienes inmediatamente pasados de moda. La sobrevivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden definir constantemente la dicha del hombre asimilado al consumo de los productos más recientes depende de las instituciones educativas (desde las escuelas hasta las agencias publicitarias) que transforman la educación en un medio de control social.";}i:2;i:316592;}i:1835;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:317200;}i:1836;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:317200;}i:1837;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:704:"En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, las considerables inversiones en materia de enseñanza hacen más evidentes las contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En esos países, el aumento ideológico del progreso ilimitado reposa en la idea de que el efecto igualitario de una formación permanente contrabalancea la influencia inversa de la regla del envejecimiento perpetuo. La legitimidad de la sociedad industrial depende de la credibilidad de la escuela, cualquiera que sea el partido en el poder. En tales condiciones, el público manifiesta un interés súbito por libros como el reporte de Charles Silberman a la comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el título ";}i:2;i:317202;}i:1838;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:317906;}i:1839;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:55:"Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:55:"Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)";}i:2;i:317907;}i:1840;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:317962;}i:1841;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:311:" ; esta investigación inspira confianza en la medida en que la acusación que el autor lanza contra la escuela está apoyada sólidamente. Pero tales estudios se dirigen a salvar el sistema tratando de corregir sus fallas más evidentes. Por lo mismo, pueden suscitar un nuevo ascenso de esperanzas engañosas.";}i:2;i:317963;}i:1842;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318274;}i:1843;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318274;}i:1844;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:548:"Por todas partes crecientes inversiones consagradas a las escuelas vuelven la absurdidad de la empresa escolar más evidente. Puede parecer paradójico que los pobres sean sus primeras víctimas. En el fondo, eso es lo que muestra el reporte de la comisión de encuestas Wright en Ontario: a propósito de la enseñanza superior, los miembros de la comisión señalan que las capas pobres de la población las subvencionaban desde el punto de vista de la imposición de manera desproporcionada, ya que los ricos eran casi los únicos beneficiarios.";}i:2;i:318276;}i:1845;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318824;}i:1846;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318824;}i:1847;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:435:"Esta observación podría inmediatamente hacerse en otra parte. En la URSS, un sistema de cuota aplicado durante muchos decenios parece favorecer la admisión a la universidad de los hijos de los trabajadores a expensas de las hijas e hijos de universitarios. Actualmente estos últimos son sobrerrepresentados en las clases superiores y terminales de la enseñanza rusa y en una proporción todavía más grande que en Estados Unidos.";}i:2;i:318826;}i:1848;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:319261;}i:1849;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:319261;}i:1850;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:923:"El 8 de marzo de 1971, el juez Warren E. Burger hacía público el veredicto unánime de la corte en el caso Griggs contra la sociedad Duke Power. Fundándose en la voluntad expresada por el Congreso en el artículo que concierne a la igualdad de oportunidades en la ley de 1964, la corte resolvió por unanimidad que cualquier “diploma” exigido a un candidato por un empleo (o cualquier prueba seguida) debía “medir al hombre en relación con un trabajo dado” y no “al hombre mismo en un plano abstracto”. Además, correspondía al empresario probar que sus exigencias en materia de diplomas constituía una “medida razonable de la calificación requerida”. Mediante estas consideraciones, los jueces querían evitar que las pruebas y diplomas exigidos no se utilizaran en provecho de una discriminación racial, pero la lógica del razonamiento podría también aplicarse a cualquier exigencia de un “ ";}i:2;i:319263;}i:1851;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:320186;}i:1852;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"pedigree";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"pedigree";}i:2;i:320187;}i:1853;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:320195;}i:1854;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:159:" educativo” en materia de empleo. Es tiempo de formar causa contra la “gran estafa de la formación profesional” denunciada tan justamente por Ivar Berg.";}i:2;i:320196;}i:1855;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:320355;}i:1856;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:320355;}i:1857;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1127:"En los países pobres, las escuelas sirven para justificar el atraso económico de una nación: a la mayoría de los ciudadanos se le mantiene apartada de los magros medios modernos de producción y de consumo, pero todos sueñan con beneficiarse de los favores de la economía franqueando el umbral de una escuela. La repartición jerárquica de los privilegios y del poder ya no depende, en nuestros días y en el plano de la legitimidad, de una descendencia de ancestros, de la herencia, del favor del príncipe, incluso de una lucha sin cuartel en el mercado económico o en el campo de batalla. Su verdadera legitimidad la encuentra en una forma más sutil del capitalismo donde la institución encargada de conferirla se encuentra en la escolaridad obligatoria. Quien aprovechó los servicios de la escuela vuelve entonces al subprivilegiado responsable de su desgracia: es un mal consumidor del saber. Esta justificación de la desigualdad social no resiste siempre el examen de los hechos y los regímenes populares tienen cada vez más dificultades para disimular las contradicciones entre la propaganda y la realidad.";}i:2;i:320357;}i:1858;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321484;}i:1859;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321484;}i:1860;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:512:"Desde hace 10 años, Cuba se esfuerza por promover el crecimiento rápido de la educación popular dando confianza a la mano de obra disponible sin tomar en cuenta la calificación profesional. Al principio, el éxito de esta campaña (en particular la disminución espectacular del número de analfabetos) se ha citado como prueba de que las tasas de crecimiento limitadas de los otros sistemas escolares latinoamericanos eran imputables a la corrupción, al militarismo y a la economía de mercado capitalista.";}i:2;i:321486;}i:1861;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321998;}i:1862;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321998;}i:1863;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:293:"Sin embargo, la lógica de la escolarización se hace sentir manifiestamente a consecuencia de los esfuerzos de Castro por “reproducir” al hombre nuevo mediante la escuela. Incluso si los estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en la zafra y sostienen activamente los ideales igualitarios del ";}i:2;i:322000;}i:1864;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:322293;}i:1865;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"compañero";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"compañero";}i:2;i:322294;}i:1866;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:322304;}i:1867;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:761:" Fidel, la universidad cultiva cada año una nueva cosecha de consumidores conscientes de su saber, prontos a acceder a nuevos niveles de consumo. Al mismo tiempo, el doctor Castro debe enfrentarse a la evidencia de que el sistema escolar nunca producirá suficiente mano de obra técnica diplomada. Esos diplomados que obtienen los nuevos empleos destruyen por su conservadurismo los resultados conseguidos por los cuadros no diplomados que llegaron a su posición mediante una formación en el taller. No basta con acusar a los docentes para explicar los fracasos de un gobierno revolucionario que quiere con todas sus fuerzas una institucionalización de la mano de obra siguiendo un programa secreto que garantice la producción de una burguesía universal.";}i:2;i:322305;}i:1868;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323066;}i:1869;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323068;}i:1870;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:48:"Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:323068;}i:2;i:323068;}i:1871;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:323068;}i:1872;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:53:" +### Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales";}i:2;i:323068;}i:1873;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323068;}i:1874;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:532:"Contra esta voluntad de adquirir privilegios y poder que poseen quienes detentan la competencia profesional en nombre de sus pretendidos derechos, no sabríamos imaginar una revolución sin acusar a la concepción misma de la adquisición del saber. Lo que nos conduce, en primer lugar, a considerar la cuestión de la responsabilidad en ese ámbito, ya se trate de enseñar o de instruir. Dar a conocer una mercancía sólo se consigue si imaginamos que resulta de la acción institucional o que satisface objetivos institucionales";}i:2;i:323123;}i:1875;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323655;}i:1876;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323655;}i:1877;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:240:"Para disipar este mal encantamiento, el hombre debe volver a encontrar el sentido de su responsabilidad personal cuando aprende o enseña. De esa forma se pondrá un término a esta nueva alienación donde vivir e instruirse no se toparán.";}i:2;i:323657;}i:1878;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323897;}i:1879;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323897;}i:1880;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1489:"Recobrar el poder de aprender o de enseñar tiene como consecuencia que el profesor, al tomar el riesgo de inmiscuirse en la vida privada de otros, debe asumir la responsabilidad de sus resultados; de la misma manera, el estudiante que se pone bajo la influencia de un profesor debe sentirse responsable de su propia educación. En esa perspectiva, las instituciones educativas —si realmente son necesarias— irán teniendo el aspecto de centros abiertos a todos, donde cada uno pueda encontrar lo que busca, donde uno, por ejemplo, tenga acceso a un piano, el otro, a un horno de cerámica o a registros, libros, diapositivas, etc. Hoy en día, las escuelas, los estudios de televisión y otros sitios similares están concebidos para que los profesionales los utilicen. Desescolarizar la sociedad quiere decir, ante todo, rechazar el estatus profesional del oficio que, por orden de antigüedad, viene, justo después, del más viejo del mundo, por el que entiendo la enseñanza. La calificación de los profesores constituye ahora una traba al derecho a la palabra, de igual forma que la estructura corporativa y la credencial profesional de los periodistas representan una traba al derecho de la libertad de información. La regla de la presencia obligatoria es contraria a la libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad sólo sabría concebirse como una mutación cultural por la que un pueblo vuelve a encontrar el poder de gozar de sus libertades constitucionales.";}i:2;i:323899;}i:1881;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325388;}i:1882;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325388;}i:1883;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:534:"Instruirse, enseñar, concierne a hombres que saben que nacieron libres y que no tienen, para adquirir esa libertad, que recurrir a un tratamiento apropiado. ¿Cuándo, por lo general, aprendemos? Cuando hacemos lo que nos interesa. ¿No somos, la mayor parte de nosotros, curiosos? Queremos comprender, darle un sentido a lo que se encuentra frente a nosotros, a lo que nos concierne. ¿No somos capaces de una relación personal con otros a menos de que seamos embrutecidos por un trabajo inhumano o fascinados por el ideal escolar?";}i:2;i:325390;}i:1884;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325924;}i:1885;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325924;}i:1886;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:721:"El hecho de que los habitantes de países ricos apenas se instruyan por sí mismos no constituye una prueba de lo contrario. Es más bien la consecuencia de una vida en un entorno donde paradójicamente no encuentran nada que aprender en la medida en que su medio está en gran parte “programado”. Están sin cesar frustrados por la estructura de una sociedad contemporánea en la que lo real, sobre lo que las decisiones podrían apoyarse, se ha vuelto de una naturaleza inasible. Viven, efectivamente, en un medio donde las herramientas que sería posible utilizar con fines creadores se vuelven productos de lujo, donde los canales de comunicación pertenecen a algunos que únicamente pueden hablar a la multitud.";}i:2;i:325926;}i:1887;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:326647;}i:1888;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:326649;}i:1889;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:51:"Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:326649;}i:2;i:326649;}i:1890;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:326649;}i:1891;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:56:" +### Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación";}i:2;i:326649;}i:1892;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:326649;}i:1893;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:720:"Un mito moderno quisiera hacemos creer que el sentimiento de impotencia que hoy en día experimenta la mayoría de los hombres sería consecuencia de la tecnología capaz de crear solamente vastos sistemas. Pero no es sólo la tecnología la que inventa esos sistemas, la que crea herramientas inmensamente poderosas, la que teje canales de comunicación en sentido único; por el contrario, mejor utilizada, la tecnología podría proporcionar a cada hombre la posibilidad de entender mejor su medio, de trabajarlo con sus propias manos, de comunicar mejor que en el pasado. Esta utilización de la tecnología, contrariamente a las tendencias actuales, constituye la verdadera alternativa al problema de la educación.";}i:2;i:326707;}i:1894;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:327427;}i:1895;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:327427;}i:1896;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1186:"Para que un hombre pueda crecer, lo que necesita es el libre acceso a las cosas, a los sitios, a los métodos, a los acontecimientos, a los documentos. Tiene necesidad de ver, de tocar, de manipular, gustoso de asir todo lo que le rodea en un medio que no esté desprovisto de sentido. Ese acceso se le rehúsa hoy en día. Cuando el saber se ha vuelto un producto, adquiere la protección que se dispensa a la propiedad privada, De esa forma, un principio que se concibió para preservar la vida personal de cada uno se utiliza para justificar las prohibiciones que se lanzan contra aquellos que no portan los documentos necesarios. En las escuelas los profesores conservan sus propios conocimientos, a menos que esos conocimientos se inserten en el programa del momento. Los media informan, pero omiten todo lo que se considera impropio para la difusión. Los especialistas se encierran en su jerga y se necesitan vulgarizadores para asegurar su traducción. Los cuerpos profesionales protegen los diplomas y la burocracia los secretos. Todas las profesiones detentan el poder de echar de su ámbito a las personas no autorizadas; sucede lo mismo con las instituciones y las naciones.";}i:2;i:327429;}i:1897;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:328615;}i:1898;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:328615;}i:1899;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:685:"Ni la estructura política ni la estructura profesional de nuestras sociedades, tanto en el Oeste como en el Este, podrían resistir la desaparición de estas prohibiciones, el trastrocamiento de esta posibilidad de tener a capas enteras de la población apartadas de lo que podría servirles. El acceso a los hechos que preconizamos no se satisface con una simple operación “etiquetas-verdad”. Es necesario construir este acceso a la realidad (y todo lo que pedimos de la publicidad es una garantía que no sea mentirosa). El acceso a la realidad constituye la alternativa fundamental en materia de educación frente a un sistema de enseñanza que sólo se propone hablar de él.";}i:2;i:328617;}i:1900;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:329302;}i:1901;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:329302;}i:1902;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:843:"Abolir el derecho al secreto profesional (incluso cuando la opinión del hombre profesional es que ese secreto sirve al bien común) representa, como hemos querido demostrarlo, un objetivo político mucho más radical que la reivindicación tradicional de nacionalizar o de controlar democráticamente las herramientas de producción. La socialización de las herramientas, sin la socialización efectiva de los conocimientos técnicos, tiende a poner el “capital del saber” en la posición que anteriormente ocupaba el financiero. Si el tecnócrata pretende apoderarse del poder es que él detenta una parte capital en la sociedad del saber secreto y reservado al pequeño número. Para proteger el valor de sus acciones y para aumentarlo, imagina una vasta organización que hace difícil, incluso imposible, el acceso al saber técnico.";}i:2;i:329304;}i:1903;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:330147;}i:1904;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:330147;}i:1905;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:994:"El hombre motivado necesita un tiempo relativamente corto para adquirir una capacidad que quiere utilizar —lo que tendemos a olvidar en una sociedad donde los profesores monopolizan la posibilidad de acceder a cualquier actividad y detentan el poder de acusar de charlatanería a todos aquellos que no se someten—. ¿En las industrias y en la investigación se requieren muchas capacidades que sean tan terribles, complejas y peligrosas como manejar un coche? Ese saber se adquiere muy pronto con la ayuda de un igual. No todos los seres están dotados para el ejercicio de la lógica matemática, pero quienes lo están hacen progresos rápidos desafiándose mutuamente en partidos de juegos educativos. En Cuernavaca uno de 20 niños es capaz de vencerme en esos juegos después de 15 días de entrenamiento. En cuatro meses, la gran mayoría de los adultos que vinieron a nuestro centro a aprender español llegaron a un nivel de conocimiento suficiente para atacar problemas abstractos.";}i:2;i:330149;}i:1906;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:331143;}i:1907;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:331143;}i:1908;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1143:"Una primera etapa de acceso a conocimientos consistiría en encontrar ventajas diversas para aquellos que, poseedores de una capacidad, quisieran compartirla. Eso, inevitablemente, chocaría con intereses de grupos profesionales y sindicatos. Esta multiplicidad de posibles aprendizajes tiene, sin embargo, con qué seducirnos. ¿Está prohibido imaginar a alguien que sabe a la vez conducir, reparar el teléfono, instalar plomería, actuar como partera y dibujar planos arquitectónicos? A esos, como decimos, se opondrían los grupos de interés y los consumidores disciplinados, diciendo muy alto que el público no podría prescindir de una garantía profesional (argumento cuya validez es cada vez menos evidente a los ojos de las asociaciones de defensa del consumidor). Debemos tomar mucho más en serio la objeción que los economistas harían de esta socialización de las capacidades: el “progreso”, dirían, se frenaría si el saber (títulos, capacidades y todo lo demás…) se democratiza. La mejor respuesta ¿no sería mostrar las tasas de crecimiento de los absurdos en materia económica que engendra el sistema escolar?";}i:2;i:331145;}i:1909;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:332288;}i:1910;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:332288;}i:1911;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:940:"Poder aproximar a quienes están deseosos de compartir sus conocimientos no es garantía de que haya adquisición de un saber. Dicho acceso está limitado no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos y el de los sindicatos, sino también por una tecnología de penuria. Las capacidades que hoy en día valen son las que se aplican al funcionamiento de “herramientas” concebidas de tal manera que no puedan generalizarse. Efectivamente, esas “herramientas” sirven para producir bienes o servicios de los que todos quieren gozar, pero esto último sólo se concede a un pequeño número y sólo pocos saben utilizarlas. Únicamente algunos privilegiados, por ejemplo, sobre el conjunto de los que sufren una determinada enfermedad, pueden beneficiarse de los descubrimientos de una investigación médica compleja, y todavía son menos los médicos que obtienen los conocimientos necesarios para utilizar dichas tecnologías.";}i:2;i:332290;}i:1912;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333230;}i:1913;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333230;}i:1914;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:555:"Sin embargo, la investigación médica ha permitido crear un maletín de auxilios que permite a los enfermeros de la armada, después de sólo algunos meses de formación, obtener en el campo de batalla resultados muy superiores a los de los verdaderos médicos de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A un nivel todavía más inmediato, ¿no podría cualquier campesina aprender a reconocer y a curar las enfermedades infecciosas más comunes si investigadores médicos prepararan los remedios y las instrucciones necesarias para un determinado sector geográfico?";}i:2;i:333232;}i:1915;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333787;}i:1916;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333787;}i:1917;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:508:"Todos estos ejemplos buscan ilustrar el hecho de que simples consideraciones educativas bastan para exigir una importante reducción de la importancia dada a las profesiones que se oponen a las relaciones entre los hombres de ciencia y la mayoría de quienes quieren tener acceso a esta ciencia. Si se prestara atención a esta demanda, todos los hombres podrían aprender a utilizar las herramientas de ayer, vueltas más eficaces y más durables gracias a la ciencia de hoy, para crear el mundo de mañana.";}i:2;i:333789;}i:1918;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:334297;}i:1919;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:334297;}i:1920;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:731:"Por desgracia, es la tendencia contraria la que impera. Conozco una zona costera de América del Sur donde la mayoría de los habitantes viven de la pesca. Disponen de pequeñas embarcaciones y la introducción del motor auxiliar ha representado para ellos una verdadera revolución, de consecuencias a veces dramáticas. En el sector que estudié, la mitad de los motores comprados entre 1945 y 1950 funcionan todavía gracias a constante mantenimiento; por el contrario, los que se compraron en 1965 ya no funcionan porque no se concibieron para repararse. El progreso técnico proporciona a la mayoría de los seres humanos instrumentos inútiles, demasiado costosos, privándolos de las herramientas más simples que necesitan.";}i:2;i:334299;}i:1921;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335030;}i:1922;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335030;}i:1923;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:465:"Desde 1940, considerables progresos se han realizado en el ámbito de los materiales metálicos, plásticos y de fibrocemento que se utilizan en la construcción, lo que debería darle a muchos seres humanos la posibilidad de construir sus propias casas. Pero en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, mientras que en 1948 más de 30% de las habitaciones individuales las habían construido sus propietarios, a fines de 1960 ese porcentaje había caído a menos de 20 puntos.";}i:2;i:335032;}i:1924;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335497;}i:1925;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335497;}i:1926;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1002:"El descenso del nivel de las capacidades por efecto de lo que se llama el “desarrollo económico” es aún más visible en América Latina. Ahí, la mayoría de los habitantes construyen todavía ellos mismos sus casas. Utilizan frecuentemente adobe y cal, materiales cuya utilidad es muy alta en clima cálido y húmedo. En otros sitios edifican casas con placas de chapa, cartón y otros desperdicios de la civilización industrial… En lugar de proporcionar a los habitantes herramientas simples y elementos estandarizados, sólidos, fácilmente reemplazables o reparables, los gobernantes de esos países se lanzaron a una política de producción masiva de habitaciones de interés social. Es, sin embargo, evidente que ninguno de ellos puede darse el lujo de proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas a la mayoría de los habitantes. Por todas partes esta política prohibí a las masas adquirir los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para la construcción de casas más decentes.";}i:2;i:335499;}i:1927;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:336501;}i:1928;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:336503;}i:1929;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:33:"Una pobreza libremente consentida";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:336503;}i:2;i:336503;}i:1930;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:336503;}i:1931;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:38:" +### Una pobreza libremente consentida";}i:2;i:336503;}i:1932;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:336503;}i:1933;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:923:"Darse cuenta de las posibilidades de educación nos permite ver que cualquier sociedad posindustrial debe disponer de un herramental de base cuya misma naturaleza no permita el desarrollo del control tecnocrático. Debemos, en efecto, esforzarnos por hacer surgir una sociedad donde el saber científico pueda estar, de alguna forma, abierto a las herramientas útiles, a las piezas de ensamble en unidades de dimensiones limitadas, para que sean comprensibles a los hombres. Dicho herramental permite asociarse para cumplir una tarea o, como todo mil usos lo sabe instintivamente, descubrirlas sirviéndose de ellas para nuevas posibilidades de uso. Por la combinación de posibilidades de acceso siempre abiertas a lo que sucede a nuestro alrededor y por los límites impuestos al poder de las herramientas será posible visualizar una “economía de subsistencia” capaz de utilizar las ventajas de la ciencia moderna.";}i:2;i:336543;}i:1934;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:337466;}i:1935;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:337466;}i:1936;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:629:"Desarrollar dicha economía servirá a los intereses de la aplastante mayoría de los habitantes de países pobres, pero también es la única alternativa posible en los países ricos frente a la creciente contaminación, la explotación, la construcción de un mundo cada vez más ensombrecido. Como lo hemos señalado, derribar el mito del “producto nacional bruto” no se concibe sin atacar al mismo tiempo el de la “educación nacional bruta” (que conduce a la capitalización de la mano de obra). Una economía igualitaria no podría existir en una sociedad en la que el derecho de producir lo confieren las escuelas.";}i:2;i:337468;}i:1937;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338097;}i:1938;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338097;}i:1939;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:268:"Construir una economía de subsistencia moderna no depende de invenciones científicas nuevas. Su edificación pasa por una elección deliberada del conjunto de la sociedad que debe definir límites fundamentales al desarrollo de las burocracias y de las tecnocracias.";}i:2;i:338099;}i:1940;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338367;}i:1941;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338367;}i:1942;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1386:"Estos límites pueden definirse de diferente manera, pero su utilidad dependerá de que se tomen en cuenta las verdaderas dimensiones de la existencia. (La posición del Congreso contra el desarrollo del transporte supersónico va en buena dirección.) Estas restricciones que se impondría voluntariamente la sociedad deben dirigirse a problemas simples, accesibles a todos; podríamos aquí retomar el ejemplo de los aviones supersónicos. Lo que guiaría la elección sería la conciencia de la necesidad de un disfrute igual de los frutos del saber científico. Los franceses dicen que se necesitarían mil años para enseñarle a un país a ocuparse de una vaca; no se necesitarían dos generaciones para ayudar a todos los habitantes de América Latina o de África a utilizar (o a reparar) motores auxiliares de vehículos simplificados, de bombas, de maletines médicos, de construcciones de hormigón, si la concepción de esos equipamientos no cambiara casi cada año. Obtener igual provecho de las adquisiciones de la técnica conduciría, sin duda, a una vida donde el gozo estaría presente, gozo, con sentido, de las relaciones establecidas entre los hombres, y como al mismo tiempo los hombres vivirían en un medio en donde el absurdo ya no tendría sitio, el derecho igual a los bienes de la sociedad se confundiría finalmente con la igualdad en materia de educación.";}i:2;i:338369;}i:1943;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:339755;}i:1944;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:339755;}i:1945;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:875:"Hoy en día es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre la austeridad. La razón que por costumbre se da para explicar la impotencia actual de la mayoría se sitúa en una perspectiva (económica o política) de clases, y por lo general no nos damos cuenta de que las nuevas estructuras de clase impuestas por una sociedad escolarizada son más fácilmente controladas por los intereses establecidos. Sin duda alguna, una organización imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad definió un conjunto social en el interior del cual una minoría posee una influencia desproporcionada sobre la opinión de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática, el poder de un pequeño número de “capitalistas del saber” es capaz de impedir la formación de una verdadera opinión pública por el control de las técnicas científicas y de los medios de comunicación entre los hombres.";}i:2;i:339757;}i:1946;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:340632;}i:1947;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:340632;}i:1948;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:592:"Las garantías constitucionales dadas a la libertad de expresión, de prensa, de reunión, se dirigían a asegurar el acceso del gobierno por el pueblo. La electrónica moderna, las prensas offset, las computadoras, los teléfonos podrían representar un equipamiento capaz de dar un sentido completamente nuevo a esas libertades. Por desgracia, todas esas conquistas técnicas se utilizan para acrecentar el poder de los banqueros del conocimiento, en lugar de servir para tejer las verdaderas redes que proporcionarían oportunidades iguales de encuentro a la mayoría de los seres humanos.";}i:2;i:340634;}i:1949;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341226;}i:1950;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341226;}i:1951;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:271:"Desescolarizar la estructura social y cultural exige utilizar la tecnología para hacer posible una política de participación. Sobre la base de una coalición de la mayoría se podrían determinar los límites del secreto y del poder creciente sin que exista dictadura.";}i:2;i:341228;}i:1952;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341499;}i:1953;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341499;}i:1954;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:130:"Necesitamos un entorno nuevo en el cual crecer para conocer una sociedad sin clases o entraremos en el “mundo feliz” donde el ";}i:2;i:341501;}i:1955;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341631;}i:1956;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"big brother";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"big brother";}i:2;i:341632;}i:1957;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341643;}i:1958;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:43:"[^n23] estará ahí para educarnos a todos.";}i:2;i:341644;}i:1959;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341687;}i:1960;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341687;}i:1961;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:28:"[^n01:] Penrose B. Jackson, ";}i:2;i:341689;}i:1962;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341717;}i:1963;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:95:"Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:95:"Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968";}i:2;i:341718;}i:1964;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341813;}i:1965;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:88:" , U. S. 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Traducidos por Robin Milner-Gulland y Peter Levi, y con una introducción de los traductores. Publicado por E. P. Dutton & Co., 1962, y reimpreso con su autorización.]";}i:2;i:344222;}i:2064;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344415;}i:2065;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344415;}i:2066;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:103:"[^n20:] Las 14 más célebres universidades de Estados Unidos constituyen esta “liga de la hiedra” ";}i:2;i:344417;}i:2067;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:344520;}i:2068;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:12:"(ivy league)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:12:"(ivy league)";}i:2;i:344521;}i:2069;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:344533;}i:2070;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:228:". (Son miembros de ella, por ejemplo, Yale, Harvard, Princeton…) Es una asociación sin objetivo definido, pero que conserva la tradición de grandeza. Saca su nombre de la hiedra que recubre los edificios más antiguos. (T.)]";}i:2;i:344534;}i:2071;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344762;}i:2072;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344762;}i:2073;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:191:"[^n21:] El hecho de asistir a los cursos representa cierto número de créditos por semestre. Para tener acceso al diploma es necesario haber cubierto un número de 135 en cuatro años. (T.)]";}i:2;i:344764;}i:2074;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344955;}i:2075;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344955;}i:2076;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:42:"[^n22:] En francés, en el original. (T.)]";}i:2;i:344957;}i:2077;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344999;}i:2078;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344999;}i:2079;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:45:"[^n23:] Alusiones al libro de Aldous Huxley, ";}i:2;i:345001;}i:2080;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345046;}i:2081;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:14:"Un mundo feliz";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:14:"Un mundo feliz";}i:2;i:345047;}i:2082;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345061;}i:2083;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:26:" , y al de George Orwell, ";}i:2;i:345062;}i:2084;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345088;}i:2085;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"1984.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"1984.";}i:2;i:345089;}i:2086;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345094;}i:2087;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"]";}i:2;i:345095;}i:2088;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:345096;}i:2089;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:345097;}i:2090;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"document_end";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:345097;}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/9/9f0286caedc5c3b73337cacf5f843e22.xhtml b/data/cache/9/9f0286caedc5c3b73337cacf5f843e22.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd190ef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/9/9f0286caedc5c3b73337cacf5f843e22.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,2114 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="la_sociedad_desescolarizada">La sociedad desescolarizada</h1> +<div class="level1"> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La sociedad desescolarizada","hid":"la_sociedad_desescolarizada","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":1,"range":"0-31"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit2" id="introduccion">Introducción</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Debo a Everett Reimer el interés que tengo por la educación pública hasta el día de 1958 en que nos conocimos en Puerto Rico jamás había yo puesto en duda el valor de hacer obligatoria la escuela para todos. Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Desde 1966 en adelante, Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca, organizó anualmente dos seminarios alrededor de mi diálogo con Reimer. Centenares de personas de todo el mundo participaron en estos encuentros. Quiero recordar en este lugar a dos de ellos que contribuyeron particularmente a nuestro análisis y que en el entretiempo murieron: Augusto Salazar Bondy y Paul Goodman. Los ensayos escritos para el boletín <em>Cidoc Informa</em> y reunidos en este libro se desarrollaron a partir de mis notas de seminario. El último capítulo contiene ideas que me surgieron después de mis conversaciones con Erich Fromm en torno al Mutterrecht de Bachofen. +</p> + +<p> +Durante estos años Valentina Borremans constantemente me urgía a poner a prueba nuestro pensar enfrentándolo a las realidades de América Latina y de África. Este libro refleja su convencimiento de que no sólo las instituciones sino el <em>ethos</em> de la sociedad deben ser “desescolarizados”. +</p> + +<p> +La educación universal por medio de la escolarización no es factible. No sería más factible si se intentara mediante instituciones alternativas construidas según el estilo de las escuelas actuales. Ni nuevas actitudes de los maestros hacia sus alumnos, ni la proliferación de nuevas herramientas y métodos físicos o mentales (en el aula o en el dormitorio), ni, finalmente, el intento de ampliar la responsabilidad del pedagogo hasta que englobe las vidas completas de sus alumnos, dará por resultado la educación universal. La búsqueda actual de nuevos <em>embudos</em> educacionales debe revertirse hacia la búsqueda de su antípoda institucional: <em>tramas</em> educacionales que aumenten la oportunidad para que cada cual transforme cada momento de su vida en un momento de aprendizaje, de compartir, de interesarse. Confiamos en estar aportando conceptos necesarios para aquellos que realizan investigaciones sobre la educación —y asimismo para aquellos que buscan alternativas para otras industrias de servicio establecidas—. +</p> + +<p> +Me propongo examinar algunas cuestiones inquietantes que surgen una vez que adoptamos como hipótesis que la sociedad puede desescolarizarse, buscar pautas que puedan ayudarnos a discernir instituciones dignas de desarrollo por cuanto apoyan el aprendizaje en un medio desescolarizado, y esclarecer las metas personales que ampararían el advenimiento de una Edad de Ocio <em>(schole)</em> opuesta como tal a una economía dominada por las industrias de servicio. +</p> + +<p> +IVÁN ILLICH +</p> + +<p> +<em>Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978</em> +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Introducci\u00f3n","hid":"introduccion","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":2,"range":"32-3004"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit3" id="por_que_debemos_privar_de_apoyo_oficial_a_la_escuela">Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Muchos estudiantes en especial los que son pobres saben intuitivamente qué hacen por ellos las escuelas los adiestran a confundir proceso y sustancia. Una vez que estos dos términos se hacen indistintos, se adopta una nueva lógica: cuanto más tratamiento haya, tanto mejor serán los resultados. Al alumno se le “escolariza” de ese modo para confundir enseñanza con saber, promoción al curso siguiente con educación, diploma con competencia, y fluidez con capacidad para decir algo nuevo. A su imaginación se la “escolariza” para que acepte servicio en vez de valor. Se confunde el tratamiento médico tomándolo por cuidado de la salud, el trabajo social por mejoramiento de la vida comunitaria, la protección policiaca por tranquilidad, el equilibrio militar por seguridad nacional, la mezquina lucha cotidiana por trabajo productivo. La salud, el saber, la dignidad, la independencia y el quehacer creativo quedan definidos como poco más que el desempeño de las instituciones que afirman servir a estos fines, y su mejoramiento se hace dependiente de la asignación de mayores recursos a la administración de hospitales, escuelas y demás organismos correspondientes. +</p> + +<p> +En estos ensayos mostraré que la institucionalización de los valores conduce inevitablemente a la contaminación física, a la polarización social y a la impotencia psicológica: tres dimensiones en un proceso de degradación global y de miseria modernizada. Explicaré cómo este proceso de degradación se acelera cuando unas necesidades no materiales se transforman en demanda de bienes; cuando a la salud, a la educación, a la movilidad personal, al bienestar o a la cura psicológica se las define como el resultado de servicios o de “tratamientos”. Hago esto porque creo que la mayoría de las investigaciones actualmente en curso acerca del futuro tienden a abogar por incrementos aún mayores en la institucionalización de valores y que debemos definir algunas condiciones que permitieran que ocurriese lo contrario. Precisamos investigaciones sobre el posible uso de la tecnología para crear instituciones que atiendan a la acción recíproca, creativa y autónoma entre personas y a la emergencia de valores que los tecnócratas no puedan controlar sustancialmente. Necesitamos investigación en líneas generales para la futurología actual. +</p> + +<p> +Quiero suscitar la cuestión general acerca de la mutua definición, de la naturaleza del hombre y de la naturaleza de las instituciones modernas, que caracteriza nuestra visión del mundo y nuestro lenguaje. Para hacerlo, he elegido a la escuela como mi paradigma, y por consiguiente trato sólo indirectamente de otros organismos burocráticos del Estado corporativo: la familia consumidora, el partido, el ejército, la Iglesia, los medios informativos. Mi análisis del currículum oculto de la escuela debería poner en evidencia que la educación pública se beneficiaría con la desescolarización de la sociedad, tal como la vida familiar, la política, la seguridad, la fe y la comunicación se beneficiarían con un proceso análogo. +</p> + +<p> +Quiero comenzar este estudio esforzándome en hacer comprender qué es lo que la desescolarización de una sociedad escolarizada podría significar. En este contexto debiera ser más fácil entender mi elección de los cinco aspectos específicos pertinentes respecto de este proceso, los cuales abordaré en los capítulos siguientes. +</p> + +<p> +No sólo la educación sino la propia realidad social se han escolarizado. Cuesta más o menos lo mismo escolarizar tanto al rico como al pobre en igual dependencia. El gasto anual por alumno en los arrabales y los suburbios ricos de cualquiera de 20 ciudades de Estados Unidos está comprendido dentro de unos mismos márgenes —y hasta es favorable al pobre en ciertos casos—.[^n01] +</p> + +<p> +Tanto el pobre como el rico dependen de escuelas y hospitales que guían sus vidas, forman su visión del mundo y definen para ellos qué es legítimo y qué no. Ambos consideran irresponsable medicarse uno mismo, y ven a la organización comunitaria, cuando no la pagan quienes detentan la autoridad, como una forma de agresión y subversión. Para ambos grupos, apoyarse en el tratamiento institucional hace sospechoso el logro independiente. El subdesarrollo progresivo de la confianza en sí mismo y en la comunidad es incluso más típico en Westchester que en el norte de Brasil. Por doquiera, no tan sólo la educación sino la sociedad en conjunto, necesitan “desescolarización”. +</p> + +<p> +Las burocracias del bienestar social pretenden un monopolio profesional, político y financiero sobre la imaginación social, fijando normas sobre qué es valedero y qué es factible. Este monopolio está en las raíces de la modernización de la pobreza. Cada necesidad simple para la que se halla una respuesta institucional permite la invención de una nueva clase de pobres y una nueva definición de la pobreza. Hace 10 años, lo normal en México era nacer y morir en su propia casa, y ser enterrado por sus amigos. Sólo las necesidades del alma las atendía la Iglesia institucionalizada. Ahora, comenzar y acabar la vida en casa se convierten en <em>signos</em> , ya sea de pobreza, ya sea de privilegio especial. El morir y la muerte han quedado bajo la administración institucional del médico y de los empresarios de pompas fúnebres. +</p> + +<p> +Una vez que una sociedad ha convertido ciertas necesidades básicas en demandas de bienes producidos científicamente, la pobreza queda definida por normas que los tecnócratas pueden cambiar a voluntad. “Pobre” es quien no llega a satisfacer ciertas normas del consumo obligatorio. En México son pobres aquellos que carecen de tres años de escolaridad, y en Nueva York aquellos que carecen de doce. +</p> + +<p> +Los pobres siempre han sido socialmente impotentes. Apoyarse cada vez más en la atención y el cuidado institucionales agrega una nueva dimensión a su indefensión: la impotencia psicológica, la incapacidad de valerse por sí mismos. Los campesinos del altiplano andino son explotados por el terrateniente y el comerciante —una vez que se asientan en Lima llegan a depender, además, de los jefazos políticos y están desarmados por su falta de escolaridad—. La pobreza moderna conjuga la pérdida del poder sobre las circunstancias con una pérdida de la potencia personal. Esta modernización de la pobreza es un fenómeno mundial y está en el origen del subdesarrollo contemporáneo. Adopta aspectos diferentes, por supuesto, en países ricos y países pobres. +</p> + +<p> +Probablemente se siente más intensamente en las ciudades estadunidenses. En ninguna otra parte se da un tratamiento más costoso a la pobreza. En ninguna otra parte el tratamiento de la pobreza produce tanta dependencia, ira, frustración y nuevos requerimientos. Y en ninguna otra parte es tan evidente que la pobreza —una vez modernizada— ha llegado a hacerse resistente al tratamiento con dólares y requiere de una revolución institucional. +</p> + +<p> +Hoy en día, en Estados Unidos, el negro y hasta el vagabundo pueden aspirar a un nivel de tratamiento profesional que habría sido inconcebible hace dos generaciones y que a la mayoría de la gente del Tercer Mundo le parece grotesca. Por ejemplo, los pobres de Estados Unidos pueden contar con un vigilante escolar que lleve a sus hijos de regreso a la escuela hasta que lleguen a los 17 años o con un médico que les remita a una cama de hospital que cuesta 60 dólares diarios —el equivalente al ingreso de tres meses para la mayor parte de la gente en el mundo—. Pero ese cuidado los hace sólo más dependientes de un tratamiento ulterior, y los hace cada vez más incapaces de organizar sus propias vidas en torno a sus propias experiencias y recursos dentro de sus propias comunidades. +</p> + +<p> +Los estadunidenses pobres están en una posición singular para hablar sobre el predicamento que amenaza a todos los pobres de un mundo en vías de modernización. Están descubriendo que no hay cantidad alguna de dólares que pueda eliminar la destructividad inherente de las instituciones de bienestar social, una vez que las jerarquías profesionales de estas instituciones han convencido a la sociedad de que sus servicios son moralmente necesarios. Los pobres de los núcleos urbanos centrales de Estados Unidos pueden demostrar con su propia experiencia la falacia sobre la que está construida la legislación social en una sociedad “escolarizada”. +</p> + +<p> +William O. Douglas, miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, hizo la observación de que “la única manera de establecer una observación es financiarla”. El corolario es asimismo verdadero. Sólo al desviar los dólares que ahora afluyen a las instituciones que actualmente tratan la salud, la educación y el bienestar social, podrá detenerse el progresivo empobrecimiento que ahora proviene del aspecto paralizante de las mismas instituciones. +</p> + +<p> +Debemos tener esto presente al evaluar los programas de ayuda federales. A modo de ejemplo: entre 1965 y 1968, en las escuelas de Estados Unidos se gastaron más de 3 000 millones de dólares para compensar las desventajas de unos seis millones de niños. Al programa se le conoce con el nombre de <em>Title One</em> (Artículo Primero). Es el programa compensatorio más costoso que jamás se haya intentado en parte alguna en materia de educación y, sin embargo, no es posible discernir ningún mejoramiento significativo en el aprendizaje de estos niños “desfavorecidos”. En comparación con sus condiscípulos del mismo curso que provienen de hogares de ingresos medios, han quedado aún más retrasados. Por lo demás, a lo largo de este programa, los profesionales descubrieron otros 10 millones de niños que se esforzaban sometidos a desventajas económicas y educativas. Se dispone ahora de nuevas razones para reclamar nuevos fondos federales. +</p> + +<p> +Este fracaso total en el intento de mejorar la educación de los pobres a pesar de un tratamiento más costoso puede explicarse de tres maneras: +</p> + +<p> +<em>1)</em> Tres mil millones de dólares son insuficientes para mejorar el aprovechamiento de seis millones de niños de modo apreciable; o bien, +</p> + +<p> +<em>2)</em> el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente: se requieren diferentes planes de estudio, una mejor administración, una concentración aún mayor de fondos sobre el niño pobre, y más investigaciones. Con ello se lograría el objetivo: o bien, +</p> + +<p> +<em>3)</em> la desventaja educativa no puede curarse apoyándose en una educación dentro de la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Lo primero es sin duda cierto en cuanto que el dinero se ha gastado a través del presupuesto escolar. El dinero se destinó efectivamente a las escuelas donde estaban la mayoría de los niños desfavorecidos, pero no se gastó en los niños mismos. Estos niños, a los que estaba destinado el dinero, constituían sólo alrededor de la mitad de los que asistían a las escuelas que añadieron el subsidio federal a sus presupuestos. De modo que el dinero se gastó en inspección y custodia, en indoctrinación y selección de papeles sociales, como también en educación, todo ello inextricablemente mezclado con los edificios e instalaciones, planes de estudio, profesores, administradores y otros componentes básicos de estas escuelas y, por consiguiente, con sus presupuestos. +</p> + +<p> +Los fondos adicionales permitieron a las escuelas atender desproporcionadamente a los niños relativamente más ricos que estaban “desfavorecidos” por tener que asistir a la escuela en compañía de los pobres. En el mejor de los casos, una pequeña proporción de cada dólar destinado a remediar las desventajas del niño pobre en su aprendizaje podía llegar hasta ese niño a través del presupuesto de la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Podría ser igualmente cierto que el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente. Pero ni siquiera la incompetencia poco común puede superar la del sistema escolar. Las escuelas resisten, por su estructura misma, la concentración del privilegio en quienes son, por otra parte, desfavorecidos. Los planes especiales de estudio, las clases separadas o más horas de estudio constituyen tan sólo más discriminación a un coste más elevado. +</p> + +<p> +Los contribuyentes no se han acostumbrado aún a ver que 3 000 millones de dólares se desvanezcan en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar como si se tratara del Pentágono. El gobierno actual tal vez estime que puede afrontar la ira de los educadores. Los estadunidenses de clase media no tienen nada que perder si se interrumpe el programa. Los padres pobres creen que sí pierden, pero, más todavía, están exigiendo el control de los fondos destinados a sus hijos. Un sistema lógico de recortar el presupuesto y, sería de esperar, de aumentar sus beneficios, consistiría en un sistema de becas escolares como el propuesto por Milton Friedman y otros. Los fondos se canalizarían al beneficiario, permitiéndole comprar su parte de escolaridad que elija. Si dicho crédito se limitara a unas compras que se ajustasen a un plan escolar de estudios, tendería a proporcionar una mayor igualdad de tratamiento, pero no aumentaría por ello la igualdad de las exigencias sociales. +</p> + +<p> +Debería ser obvio que incluso con escuelas de igual calidad un niño pobre rara vez se pondrá a la par de uno rico. Incluso si asisten a las mismas escuelas y comienzan a la misma edad, los niños pobres carecen de la mayoría de las oportunidades educativas que, al parecer, dispone el niño de clase media. Estas ventajas van desde la conversación y los libros en el hogar hasta el viaje de vacaciones y un sentido diferente de sí mismo, y actúan, para el niño que goza de ellas, tanto dentro de la escuela como fuera de ella. De modo que el estudiante más pobre se quedará atrás en tanto dependa de la escuela para progresar o aprender. Los pobres necesitan fondos que les permitan aprender y no obtener certificados del tratamiento de sus deficiencias presuntamente desproporcionadas. +</p> + +<p> +Todo esto es válido para naciones tanto ricas como pobres, pero aparece con aspecto diferente. En las naciones pobres, la pobreza modernizada afecta a más gente y más visiblemente, pero también —por ahora— más superficialmente. Dos de cada tres del total de niños latinoamericanos dejan la escuela antes de terminar el quinto grado, pero estos <em>desertores</em>[^n02] no están tan mal, como lo estarían en Estados Unidos. +</p> + +<p> +Hoy en día son pocos los países víctimas de la pobreza clásica, que era estable y menos paralizante. La mayoría de los países de América Latina han llegado al punto de “despegue” hacia el desarrollo económico y el consumo competitivo y, por lo tanto, hacia la pobreza modernizada: sus ciudadanos aprenden a pensar como ricos y a vivir como pobres. Sus leyes establecen un periodo escolar obligatorio de seis a 10 años. No sólo en Argentina, sino también en México o en Brasil, el ciudadano medio define una educación adecuada según las pautas estadunidenses, aun cuando la posibilidad de lograr esa prolongada escolarización esté restringida a una diminuta minoría. En estos países la mayoría ya está enviciada con la escuela, es decir, ha sido “escolarizada” para sentirse inferior respecto de quienes tienen una mejor escolaridad. Su fanatismo en favor de la escuela hace posible explotarlos por partida doble: permite aumentar la asignación de fondos públicos para la educación de unos pocos y aumentar la aceptación del control social por parte de la mayoría. +</p> + +<p> +Es paradójico que la creencia en la escolarización universal se mantenga más firme en los países en que el menor número de personas ha sido —y será— servido por las escuelas. Sin embargo, en América Latina la mayoría de los padres y de los hijos podrían seguir aún senderos diferentes hacia la educación. La proporción del ahorro nacional invertido en escuelas y maestros tal vez sea mayor que en los países ricos, pero estas inversiones son totalmente insuficientes para atender a la mayoría haciendo posible siquiera cuatro años de asistencia a la escuela. Fidel Castro habla como si quisiese avanzar directo a la desescolarización, cuando promete que para 1980 Cuba estará en condiciones de disolver su universidad, puesto que toda la vida cubana será una <em>experiencia educativa</em>. Sin embargo, en los niveles de primaria y secundaria, Cuba, al igual que otros países latinoamericanos, actúa como si el paso a través de un periodo definido como “la edad escolar” fuese una meta incuestionable para todos, sólo postergada por una escasez momentánea de recursos. +</p> + +<p> +Los dos engaños gemelos de un tratamiento más a fondo, tal como de hecho se proporciona en Estados Unidos —y como tan sólo se promete en América Latina— se complementan entre sí. Los pobres del Norte están siendo tullidos por el mismo tratamiento de 12 años cuya carencia marca a los pobres del Sur como irremediablemente retrasados. Ni en Norteamérica ni en América Latina logran los pobres igualdad a partir de escuelas obligatorias. Pero en ambas partes la sola existencia de la escuela desanima al pobre y lo invalida para asir el control de su propio aprendizaje. En todo el mundo la escuela tiene un efecto antieducacional sobre la sociedad: se le reconoce como la institución que se especializa en educación. La mayoría de las personas considera los fracasos de la escuela como una prueba de que la educación es una tarea muy costosa, muy compleja, siempre arcana y frecuentemente casi imposible. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela se apropia del dinero, de los hombres y de la buena voluntad disponibles para educación, y fuera de eso desalienta a otras instituciones respecto a asumir tareas educativas. El trabajo, el tiempo libre, la política, la vida ciudadana e incluso la vida familiar dependen de las escuelas, en lo concerniente a los hábitos y conocimientos que presuponen, en vez de convertirse ellos mismos en medios de educación. Tanto las escuelas como las otras instituciones que dependen de aquéllas llegan simultáneamente a tener un precio imposible. +</p> + +<p> +En Estados Unidos, los costes per cápita de la escolaridad han aumentado casi con igual rapidez que el coste del tratamiento médico. Pero este tratamiento más completo impartido por doctores y maestros ha mostrado resultados en continua declinación. Los gastos médicos concentrados sobre los mayores de 45 años se han duplicado varias veces durante un periodo de 40 años, dando como fruto un aumento de 3% en las probabilidades de vida de los varones. El incremento de los gastos educativos ha producido resultados aún más extraños; de otra manera el presidente Nixon no se habría sentido inclinado a prometer esta primavera que todo niño tendrá pronto el “derecho a leer” antes de dejar la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En Estados Unidos se precisarían 80 000 millones de dólares por año para proporcionar lo que los educadores consideran como tratamiento igualitario para todos en escuelas primaria y secundaria. Esto es bastante más del doble de los 36 000 millones que se están gastando ahora. Las predicciones de costes preparadas de modo independiente en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar y en la Universidad de Florida indican que para 1974 las cifras comparables serán de 107 000 millones contra los 45 000 millones proyectados ahora, y estas cifras omiten totalmente los enormes costes de lo que se denomina “educación superior”, cuya demanda está creciendo de manera más veloz. Estados Unidos, que en 1969 gastó casi 80 000 millones de dólares en “defensa”, incluyendo su despliegue en Vietnam, es obviamente demasiado pobre como para proporcionar igual escolaridad. El comité nombrado por el presidente para el estudio del financiamiento de las escuelas debiera preguntar no cómo mantener o cómo recortar tales costes, crecientes, sino cómo evitarlos. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela igual y obligatoria para todos debiera reconocerse por lo menos como algo económicamente impracticable. En América Latina, la cantidad de erario que se gasta en cada estudiante graduado oscila entre 350 y 1 500 veces el monto gastado en el ciudadano medio (es decir, el ciudadano que está en un término medio entre el más pobre y el más rico). En Estados Unidos la discrepancia es menor, pero la discriminación más aguda. Los padres más ricos, cerca de 10%, pueden permitirse proporcionar a sus hijos educación privada y ayudarles a beneficiarse de las donaciones de fundaciones. Pero además consiguen 10 veces el monto per cápita de fondos públicos si éste se compara con el gasto per cápita que se efectúa en los hijos de 10% de los más pobres. Las razones principales de que esto ocurra son que los muchachos ricos permanecen más tiempo en la escuela, que un año de universidad es desproporcionadamente más costoso que un año de escuela secundaria, y que la mayoría de las universidades privadas dependen —al menos indirectamente— de un financiamiento derivado de desgravámenes. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela obligatoria polariza inevitablemente a una sociedad y califica asimismo a las naciones del mundo según un sistema internacional de castas. A los países se los califica como castas cuya dignidad la determina el promedio de años de escolaridad de sus ciudadanos, tabla de calificación que se relaciona íntimamente con el producto nacional bruto per cápita y es mucho más dolorosa. +</p> + +<p> +La paradoja de las escuelas es evidente: el gasto creciente hace aumentar su destructividad en su propio país y en el extranjero. Esta paradoja debe convertirse en tema de debate público. Hoy por hoy se reconoce de manera general que el medio ambiente físico quedará destruido dentro de poco por la contaminación bioquímica a menos que invirtamos las tendencias actuales de producción de bienes físicos. Debería reconocerse asimismo que la vida social y personal está igualmente amenazada por la contaminación del Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar, subproducto inevitable del consumo obligatorio y competitivo del bienestar. +</p> + +<p> +La escalada de las escuelas es tan destructiva como la de las armas, si bien de manera menos visible. En todo el mundo, los costes de la escuela han aumentado con mayor velocidad que las matrículas y más velozmente por el producto nacional bruto (PNB); en todas partes los gastos en la escuela se quedan cada vez más cortos frente a las expectativas de padres, maestros y alumnos. Por doquiera, esta situación desalienta tanto la motivación como el financiamiento para una planificación en gran escala del aprendizaje no escolar. Estados Unidos está demostrando al mundo que ningún país puede ser lo bastante rico como para permitirse un sistema escolar que satisfaga las demandas que este mismo sistema crea con sólo existir, porque un sistema escolar que logre su meta escolariza a padres y alumnos en el valor supremo de un sistema escolar aún mayor, cuyo coste crece desproporcionadamente conforme se crea una demanda de grados superiores y éstos se hacen escasos. +</p> + +<p> +En vez de decir que una escolaridad pareja es impracticable por el momento, debemos reconocer que, en principio, es económicamente absurda, y que intentarla es intelectualmente castrante, socialmente polarizante y destruye la verosimilitud del sistema político que la promueve. +</p> + +<p> +La ideología de la escolaridad obligatoria no admite límites lógicos. La Casa Blanca proporcionó hace poco un buen ejemplo. El doctor Hutschnecker, el “psiquiatra” que atendió al señor Nixon antes de que fuese admitido como candidato, recomendó al presidente que todos los niños de seis a ocho años fueran examinados profesionalmente para cazar a aquellos que tuviesen tendencias destructivas, y que se les proporcionase a éstos tratamiento obligatorio. En caso necesario se exigiría su reeducación en instituciones especiales. Este memorándum enviado al presidente por su doctor pasó al Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar para que examinaran su valía. En efecto, unos campos de concentración preventivos para predelincuentes serían un adelanto lógico respecto del sistema escolar. +</p> + +<p> +El que todos tengan iguales oportunidades de educarse es una meta deseable y factible, pero identificar con ello la escolaridad obligatoria es confundir la salvación con la Iglesia. La escuela ha llegado a ser la religión del proletariado modernizado, y hace promesas huecas a los pobres de la era tecnológica. La nación-Estado la ha adoptado, reclutando a todos los ciudadanos dentro de un currículum graduado que conduce a diplomas consecutivos no distintos a los rituales de iniciación y promociones hieráticas de antaño. El Estado moderno se ha arrogado el deber de hacer cumplir el juicio de sus educadores mediante vigilantes bien intencionados y cualificaciones exigidas para conseguir trabajos, de modo muy semejante al que siguieron los reyes españoles que hicieron cumplir los juicios de sus teólogos mediante los conquistadores y la Inquisición. +</p> + +<p> +Hace dos siglos Estados Unidos dio al mundo la pauta en un movimiento para privar de apoyo oficial al monopolio de una sola Iglesia. Ahora necesitamos la separación constitucional respecto del monopolio de la escuela quitando de esa manera el apoyo oficial a un sistema que conjuga legalmente el prejuicio con la discriminación. El primer artículo de una Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre apropiada para una sociedad moderna, humanista, concordaría con la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de Estados Unidos: “El Estado no dictará ley alguna respecto del establecimiento de la educación”. No habrá ningún ritual obligatorio para todos. +</p> + +<p> +Para poner en vigencia esta separación entre Estado y escuela, necesitamos una ley que prohíba la discriminación en la contratación de personal, en las votaciones o en la admisión a los centros de enseñanza fundados en la previa asistencia a algún plan de estudios. Esta garantía no excluiría pruebas de competencia para una función o cargo, pero eliminaría la absurda discriminación actual en favor de una persona que aprende una destreza determinada con el mayor de los gastos del erario público o —lo que es igualmente probable— que ha podido obtener un diploma que no tiene relación con ninguna habilidad o trabajo útiles. Una separación constitucional del Estado y la escuela puede llegar a ser psicológicamente eficaz sólo si protege al ciudadano de la posibilidad de ser descalificado por cualquier aspecto de su carrera escolar. +</p> + +<p> +Con la escolaridad no se fomenta ni el deber ni la justicia porque los educadores insisten en aunar la instrucción y la certificación. El aprendizaje y la asignación de funciones sociales se funden en la escolarización. No obstante que aprender significa adquirir una nueva habilidad o entendimiento, la promoción depende de la opinión que otros se hayan formado de uno. Aprender es con frecuencia el resultado de una instrucción, pero ser elegido para una función o categoría en el mercado del trabajo depende cada vez más del tiempo que se ha asistido a un centro de instrucción. +</p> + +<p> +Instrucción es la selección de circunstancias que facilitan el aprendizaje. Las funciones se asignan fijando un currículum de condiciones que el candidato debe satisfacer para pasar la valla. La escuela vincula la instrucción —pero no el aprendizaje— con estas funciones. Esto no es ni razonable ni liberador. No es razonable porque no liga unas cualidades o competencias sobresalientes con las funciones por desempeñar, sino con el proceso mediante el cual se supone que habrán de adquirirse dichas cualidades. No libera ni educa porque la escuela reserva la instrucción para aquellos cuyos pasos en el aprendizaje se ajustan a unas medidas aprobadas de control social. +</p> + +<p> +El currículum se ha empleado siempre para asignar el rango social. En ocasiones podía ser prenatal: el karma le adjudica a uno a determinada casta y el linaje a la aristocracia. El currículum podía adoptar la forma de un ritual de ordenaciones sacras y secuenciales, o bien podía consistir en una sucesión de hazañas guerreras o cinegéticas, o bien las promociones ulteriores podían depender de una serie de previos favores regios. La escolaridad universal tenía por objeto separar la adjudicación de las funciones de la historia personal de cada uno: se ideó para dar a todos una oportunidad igual de obtener cualquier cargo. Aún ahora muchos creen erróneamente que la escuela asegura que la confianza pública dependa de unos logros sobresalientes en el saber. Pero en vez de haber igualado las posibilidades, el sistema escolar ha monopolizado su distribución. +</p> + +<p> +Para separar la competencia del currículum, debe convertirse en tabú toda indagación acera del historial de aprendizaje de cada persona, tal como las indagaciones acerca de su filiación política, su asistencia a la iglesia, linaje, hábitos sexuales o antecedentes raciales. Deben dictarse leyes que prohíban la discriminación basada en una previa escolaridad. Evidentemente, las leyes no pueden impedir el prejuicio contra el no escolarizado —ni se pretende con ellas obligar a nadie a casarse con un autodidacta—, pero pueden desaprobar la discriminación justificada. +</p> + +<p> +Otra gran ilusión en la que se apoya el sistema escolar es la creencia de que la mayor parte del saber es el resultado de la enseñanza. La enseñanza puede, en verdad, contribuir a ciertos tipos de aprendizaje en ciertas circunstancias. Pero la mayoría de las personas adquieren la mayor parte de su conocimiento fuera de la escuela, y cuando este conocimiento se da en ella, sólo es en la medida en que, en unos cuantos países ricos, la escuela se ha convertido en el lugar de confinamiento de las personas durante una parte cada vez mayor de sus vidas. +</p> + +<p> +Lo principal del aprendizaje sobreviene casualmente, e incluso el aprendizaje más intelectual no es el resultado de una instrucción programada. Los niños normales aprenden su lenguaje de manera informal, aunque con mayor rapidez si sus padres les prestan atención. La mayoría de las personas que aprenden bien un segundo idioma lo hacen a consecuencia de circunstancias aleatorias y no de una enseñanza ordenada. Llegan a vivir con sus abuelos, o viajan o se enamoran de algún extranjero. La lectura fácil proviene con igual frecuencia de la escuela o de actividades extracurriculares de este tipo. La mayoría de quienes leen profusamente y con placer tan sólo creen que aprendieron a hacerlo en la escuela; cuando se les discute esto, descartan fácilmente este espejismo. +</p> + +<p> +Pero el hecho de que aún ahora gran parte del aprendizaje parece suceder al azar y como subproducto de alguna otra actividad definida como trabajo u ocio no significa que el aprendizaje planificado no beneficie la instrucción planificada. Al estudiante poderosamente motivado que se enfrenta con la tarea de adquirir una habilidad nueva y compleja puede aprovecharle mucho la disciplina que hoy en día se asocia mentalmente con el maestro de viejo cuño que antaño enseñaba lectura, hebreo, catecismo o multiplicación de memoria. La escuela ha hecho que este tipo de enseñanza rutinaria sea escasa y mal reputada; no obstante hay muchas destrezas que un estudiante motivado puede dominar en pocos meses si se le enseña de este modo tradicional. Esto vale tanto para los códigos como para su desciframiento; tanto para los segundos o terceros idiomas como para la lectura y la escritura, e igualmente para lenguajes especiales como el álgebra, la programación de computadoras, el análisis químico, o para destrezas manuales como la mecanografía, la relojería, la fontanería, las instalaciones domésticas de electricidad, la reparación de televisores, o para bailar, conducir vehículos y bucear. +</p> + +<p> +En algunos casos, ser aceptado en un programa de aprendizaje dirigido a una determinada habilidad podría presuponer competencia en alguna otra habilidad, pero ciertamente no se haría depender del proceso mediante el cual se hubieran adquirido tales habilidades previamente requeridas. La reparación de televisores presupone saber leer y algo de matemáticas; el bucear, ser buen nadador, y el conducir, muy poco de ambas cosas. +</p> + +<p> +El progreso en el aprendizaje es mensurable. Es fácil calcular los recursos óptimos de tiempo y materiales que un adulto corriente motivado necesita. El coste de enseñar un segundo idioma europeo occidental hasta un elevado nivel de fluidez oscila entre 400 y 600 dólares en Estados Unidos, y para una lengua oriental el tiempo requerido de instrucción podría duplicarse. Esto sería todavía poquísimo en comparación con el coste de 12 años de escolaridad en la ciudad de Nueva York (condición para ingresar en el Departamento de Higiene) —casi 15 000 dólares—. Sin duda no sólo el maestro, sino también el impresor y el farmacéutico protegen sus oficios mediante el espejismo público de que el adiestramiento para aprenderlos es muy costoso. +</p> + +<p> +En la actualidad, las escuelas se apropian de antemano de la mayor parte de los fondos para educación. La instrucción rutinaria, que cuesta menos que una escolarización comparable, es ahora un privilegio de quienes son lo bastante ricos como para pasarse por alto las escuelas, y de aquellos a quienes el ejército o las grandes firmas les proporcionan un adiestramiento en el trabajo mismo. En un programa de desescolarización progresiva para Estados Unidos, en un comienzo habría escasez de recursos para el adiestramiento rutinario. Pero finalmente no habría impedimento alguno para cualquiera que en cualquier momento de su vida quisiese elegir una instrucción entre centenares de habilidades definibles y a cargo del Estado. +</p> + +<p> +Ahora mismo podrían proporcionarse calificaciones educativas aceptables en cualquier centro de enseñanza de oficios en cantidades limitadas para personas de cualquier edad, y no sólo para pobres. Yo concibo dicha calificación (o crédito) en forma de un pasaporte educativo o de una “tarjeta de educrédito” entregada a cada ciudadano al nacer. A fin de favorecer a los pobres, que probablemente no usarían sus cuotas anuales a temprana edad, podría estipularse que los usuarios tardíos de tales “títulos” acumulados ganasen interés. Dichos créditos permitirían a la mayoría adquirir las habilidades de mayor demanda, cuando les conviene, de manera mejor, más rápida, más barata y con menos efectos subsidiarios desfavorables que en la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Se me objetará la falta de profesores, pero esto es plantear mal el problema, pues, por una parte, la demanda de una habilidad crece sólo al ponerse en práctica en una comunidad y, por otra, un hombre que ejerza una habilidad puede también enseñarla. Pero, actualmente, aquellos que usan una habilidad que está en demanda y que precisan un profesor humano tienen estímulos negativos para compartir con otros estas habilidades. Esto lo hacen o maestros que monopolizan las licencias, o sindicatos que protegen sus intereses gremiales. Unos centros de enseñanza de oficios o habilidades a los que los clientes juzgaran por sus resultados, y no por el personal que empleasen o por el proceso que se utilizasen, abrirían oportunidades insospechables de trabajo, frecuentemente incluso para aquellos que hoy se consideran inempleables. Verdaderamente no hay motivo para que tales centros no estuviesen en el lugar mismo de trabajo; el patrono y su personal proporcionarían tanto la instrucción como trabajos a quienes eligiesen utilizar sus créditos educativos de esta manera. +</p> + +<p> +En 1956 se suscitó la necesidad de enseñar rápidamente español a varios centenares de maestros, trabajadores sociales y curas de la arquidiócesis de Nueva York, de modo que pudiesen comunicarse con los puertorriqueños. Mi amigo Gerry Morris anunció en español por una radioemisora que necesitaba hispanohablantes nativos que viviesen en Harlem. Al día siguiente unos 200 adolescentes se alineaban frente a su oficina; de entre ellos eligió cuatro docenas —muchos de ellos desertores escolares—. Los instruyó en el uso del Manual de Instrucción del Instituto del Servicio Exterior de Estados Unidos, para español, concebido para el uso de lingüistas con licenciatura, y al cabo de una semana sus profesores se manejaban solos —cada uno de ellos a cargo de cuatro neoyorkinos que querían hablar el idioma—. En el plazo de seis meses se había cumplido la misión. El cardenal Spellman podía afirmar que tenía 127 parroquias en cada una de las cuales había por lo menos tres miembros de su personal que podían conversar en español. Ningún programa escolar podría haber logrado iguales resultados. +</p> + +<p> +Los profesores de habilidades escasean por la creencia en el valor de los títulos. La certificación es una manera de manipular el mercado y es concebible sólo para una mente escolarizada. La mayoría de los profesores de artes y oficios son menos diestros, tienen menor inventiva y son menos comunicativos que los mejores artesanos y maestros. La mayoría de los profesores de español o de francés de bachillerato no hablan esos idiomas con la corrección con que lo harían alumnos después de un semestre de rutinas competentes. Unos experimentos llevados a cabo por Ángel Quintero en Puerto Rico sugieren que muchos adolescentes, si se les dan los adecuados incentivos, programas y acceso a las herramientas, son mejores que la mayoría de los maestros de escuela para iniciar a los de su edad en la exploración científica de las plantas, las estrellas y la materia, y en el descubrimiento de cómo y por qué funciona un motor o un radio. +</p> + +<p> +Las oportunidades para el aprendizaje de habilidades pueden multiplicarse enormemente si abrimos el “mercado”. Esto depende de reunir al maestro correcto con el alumno correcto cuando éste está altamente motivado dentro de un programa inteligente, sin la restricción del currículum. +</p> + +<p> +La instrucción libre y rutinaria es una blasfemia subversiva para el educador ortodoxo. Ella desliga la adquisición de destrezas de la educación “humana”, que la escuela empaca conjuntamente, y fomenta así el aprendizaje sin título no menos que la enseñanza sin título para fines imprevisibles. +</p> + +<p> +Hay actualmente una propuesta registrada que a primera vista parece sumamente sensata. La preparó Christopher Jencks, del Center for the Study of Public Policy, y está patrocinada por la Office of Economic Opportunity. Propone poner unos “bonos” o “títulos” educativos o donaciones, para pagar el coste de los estudios, en manos de padres y estudiantes para que los gasten en las escuelas que elijan. Tales bonos individuales podrían ser un importante avance en la dirección correcta. Necesitamos que se garantice a cada ciudadano el derecho a una parte igual de los recursos educativos derivados de los impuestos, el derecho a verificar esa parte, y el derecho a entablar juicio si le es denegada. Es una forma de garantía contra la tributación regresiva. +</p> + +<p> +Pero la propuesta de Jencks comienza con la ominosa declaración de que “los conservadores, los liberales y los radicales se han quejado en una u otra ocasión de que el sistema educativo estadunidense da a los educadores profesionales un incentivo demasiado pequeño para que proporcionen una educación de gran calidad a la mayoría de los niños”. La propuesta se condena sola al proponer donaciones para pagar unos estudios que tendrían que gastar en escolarizarse. +</p> + +<p> +Esto es como dar a un inválido un par de muletas, advirtiéndole que las use sólo si les amarra los extremos. En su forma actual, la propuesta de estos bonos educativos hace el juego no sólo a los educadores profesionales sino también a los racistas, a los promotores de escuelas religiosas y a otros cuyos intereses son socialmente disociantes. Sobre todo, los bonos educativos, cuyo uso se restrinja a las escuelas, hace el juego de quienes quieren continuar viviendo en una sociedad en la que el progreso social está ligado no al conocimiento comprobado, sino al historial de aprendizaje mediante el cual presuntamente se adquiere. Esta discriminación en favor de las escuelas que domina la exposición de Jencks sobre el refinamiento de la educación podría desacreditar uno de los principios que más perentoriamente se precisan para la reforma educativa: el retorno de la iniciativa y la responsabilidad del aprendizaje al aprendiz o a su tutor más inmediato. +</p> + +<p> +La desescolarización de la sociedad implica el reconocimiento de la naturaleza ambivalente del aprendizaje. La insistencia en la sola rutina podría ser un desastre; igual énfasis debe hacerse en otros tipos de aprendizaje. Pero si las escuelas son el lugar inapropiado para aprender una destreza, son lugares aún peores para adquirir una educación. La escuela realiza mal ambas tareas, en parte porque no distingue entre ellas. La escuela es ineficiente para instruir en destrezas por ser curricular. En la mayoría de las escuelas, un programa cuyo objetivo es mejorar una habilidad está siempre concatenado con otra tarea no pertinente. La historia está amarrada al derecho de usar el patio de juegos. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas son todavía menos eficientes en la creación de circunstancias que alienten el uso irrestricto, exploratorio, de habilidades adquiridas, para lo cual reservaré el término de “educación liberal”. El principal motivo es que la escuela es obligatoria y llega a convertirse en la escolaridad por la escolaridad: una estadía forzosa en compañía de profesores, que paga con el dudoso privilegio de continuar en dicha compañía. Así como la instrucción de destrezas debe ser liberada de restricciones curriculares, a la educación liberal debe desligársela de la asistencia obligatoria. Mediante dispositivos institucionales puede ayudarse tanto al aprendizaje de habilidades como a la educación encaminada a un comportamiento creativo e inventivo, pero ambas cosas son de naturaleza diferente y frecuentemente contraria. +</p> + +<p> +La mayoría de las destrezas pueden adquirirse y perfeccionarse mediante rutinas; porque la destreza o habilidad implica el dominio de una conducta definible y predecible. La instrucción de una destreza puede apoyarse, por consiguiente, en la simulación de las circunstancias en que se utilizará dicha destreza. En cambio, la educación en el empleo exploratorio y creativo de destrezas no puede descansar en sistemas rutinarios. La educación puede ser el resultado de la instrucción, aunque de una instrucción fundamentalmente opuesta a la rutina. Se apoya en la relación entre asociaciones que ya poseen algunas de la llaves que dan acceso a memorias almacenadas en la comunidad y por la comunidad. Se apoya en la sorpresa de la pregunta inesperada que abre nuevas puertas al cuestionario y a su asociado. +</p> + +<p> +El instructor de destrezas utiliza un conjunto de condiciones dadas que permiten al aprendiz desarrollar ciertas reacciones o respuestas precisas y definidas. El guía o maestro en educación se ocupa de ayudar a unos asociados a que se reúnan de modo que se dé el aprendizaje. Reúne a personas que parten de sus propias y no resueltas interrogantes. A lo más, ayuda al alumno a formular su perplejidad puesto que sólo un planteamiento claro le dará el poder de encontrar a su pareja, moverse como ella, explorar en ese momento la misma cuestión en el mismo contexto. +</p> + +<p> +En un comienzo parecería más difícil imaginar unos asociados o compañeros para fines educativos que hallar instructores de destrezas y compañeros para un juego. Una de las razones de que esto ocurra es el profundo temor que la escuela nos ha inculcado, un miedo que nos pone criticones. El intercambio intitulado de destrezas —a menudo destrezas inconvenientes— es más predecible y por tanto parece menos peligroso que las oportunidades ilimitadas de reunión para personas que comparten una cuestión en debate que es, en ese momento, social, intelectual y emocionalmente importante para ellas. +</p> + +<p> +El profesor brasileño Paulo Freire sabe esto por experiencia. Descubrió que cualquier adulto puede comenzar a leer en cosa de 40 horas si las primeras palabras que descifra están cargadas de significado político. Freire adiestra a sus maestros para trasladarse a una aldea y descubrir las palabras que designan asuntos actuales importantes, tales como el acceso a un pozo, o el interés compuesto de las deudas que han contraído con el <em>patrón</em>. Por la tarde, los aldeanos se reúnen para conversar sobre esas palabras clave. Comienzan a percatarse de que cada palabra permanece en el pizarrón incluso después de haberse desvanecido su sonido. Las letras continúan abriendo, como llaves, la realidad y haciéndola manejable como problema. Frecuentemente he presenciado cómo en unos participantes crece la conciencia social y cómo se ven impelidos a actuar políticamente con la misma velocidad con que aprenden a leer. Parecen tomar la realidad en sus manos conforme la escriben. +</p> + +<p> +Recuerdo a un hombre que se quejó del peso de los lápices: eran difíciles de manipular porque no pesaban como una pala, y recuerdo a otro que camino al trabajo se detuvo con sus compañeros y escribió con su azadón en el suelo la palabra de la que venía conversando: <em>agua</em>.[^n03] Desde 1962, mi amigo Freire ha pasado de exilio en exilio, principalmente porque rehúsa llevar a cabo sus sesiones en torno a palabras que hayan sido preseleccionadas por educadores aprobados y prefiere utilizar aquellas que los participantes llevan consigo a las clases. +</p> + +<p> +La reunión de personas con fines educativos sólo es posible cuando se han beneficiado de una verdadera escolaridad. Los que no necesitan de esa ayuda son una minoría, incluso entre aquellos que leen revistas serias. La mayoría no puede ni debe ser congregada en torno a una consigna, a una palabra, a una imagen, sino en torno a un problema elegido y definido por iniciativa de los participantes. El aprendizaje creativo, exploratorio, requiere sujetos de igual perplejidad ante los mismos términos o problemas. Las grandes universidades realizan el vano intento de aparejarlos multiplicando sus cursos y por lo general fracasan en la medida en que están ligados al currículum, a la estructura de cursos y a una administración burocrática. En las escuelas, tal como en las universidades, la mayoría de los recursos se gasta en comprar el tiempo y la motivación de un número reducido de personas para encarar problemas predeterminados en un escenario definido de forma ritual. La alternativa más radical para la escuela sería una red o servicio que diera a cada hombre la misma oportunidad de compartir sus intereses actuales con otros motivados por iguales cuestiones. +</p> + +<p> +Permítaseme dar, como ejemplo de mi planteamiento, una descripción de cómo podría funcionar esta “unión” intelectual en la ciudad de Nueva York. Cada hombre, en cualquier momento y a un precio mínimo, podría identificarse ante una computadora con su dirección y su número de teléfono, indicando libro, artículos, película o grabación acerca de los cuales busca un compañero con el cual conversar. En un plazo de días podría recibir por correo la lista de otros que hubieran tomado recientemente la misma iniciativa. Esta lista le permitiría concertar por teléfono una reunión con personas que inicialmente se conocerían exclusivamente por el hecho de haber solicitado un diálogo sobre el mismo tema. +</p> + +<p> +Juntar personas de acuerdo con el interés que tengan sobre un título dado es radicalmente simple. Permite la identificación sobre la base de un deseo mutuo de conversar sobre una afirmación registrada por un tercero, y deja al individuo la iniciativa de concertar la reunión. Normalmente se hacen tres objeciones contra esta pureza esquelética. Las recojo no sólo para esclarecer la teoría que quiero ilustrar mediante mi propuesta —pues destacan la acendrada resistencia a desescolarizar la educación, a separar el aprendizaje del control social—, sino también porque pueden ayudar a sugerir unos recursos que no se emplean ahora para fines de aprendizaje. +</p> + +<p> +La primera objeción es: ¿por qué no podría la identificación de cada uno basarse en una idea o en un tema de debate? Ciertamente dichos términos subjetivos podrían usarse también en un sistema informático. Los partidos políticos, Iglesias, sindicatos, clubes, centros vecinales y sociedades profesionales organizan ya sus actividades educativas de este modo y, en efecto, actúan como escuelas. Todos ellos reúnen personas con el fin de explorar ciertos “temas”, que se abordan en cursos, seminarios y planes de estudio en los que unos presuntos “intereses comunes” están preen-vasados. Dicha “reunión por tema” está, por definición, centrado en el profesor: precisa una presencia autoritaria para definir ante los participantes el punto de partida de su debate. +</p> + +<p> +Por el contrario, reunirse para hablar de un libro, de una película, etc., sin otra explicación que un título o una referencia, deja al autor definir el lenguaje especial, los términos y el marco de referencia dentro del cual se plantea un determinado problema o hecho, y permite a quienes acepten este punto de partida identificarse uno con otro. Por ejemplo, reunir gente en torno a la idea de “revolución cultural” conduce generalmente o a la confusión o a la demagogia. Por otra parte, reunir a quienes se interesen en ayudarse mutuamente a entender un determinado artículo de Mao, Marcuse, Freud o Goodman se inscribe en la gran tradición del aprendizaje liberal, desde los <em>Diálogos</em> de Platón, que están construidos en torno a presuntas declaraciones de Sócrates, hasta los comentarios de Tomás de Aquino sobre Pedro Lombardo. La idea de reunir a las personas alrededor de un título es pues radicalmente diferente de la teoría sobre la que se fundaban, por ejemplo, los clubes de los “Grandes Libros”: en vez de apoyarse en la selección realizada por algunos catedráticos de Chicago, cualquier par de personas puede, como compañero de juego, elegir cualquier libro para analizarlo. +</p> + +<p> +La segunda objeción pregunta: ¿por qué la identificación de quienes buscan compañero no podría incluir información sobre edad, antecedentes, visión del mundo, competencia, experiencia y otras características definitorias? No hay en este caso razón alguna para que tales restricciones discriminatorias no pudiesen (y no debiesen) incorporarse en algunas de las numerosas universidades —con o sin muros— que podrían usar la reunión alrededor de títulos como el dispositivo básico para organizarse. Puedo imaginar un sistema ideal para fomentar las reuniones de personas interesadas en las que el autor del libro elegido podría estar presente o representado, o un sistema que garantice la presencia de un asesor competente, o uno al que tuviesen acceso sólo estudiantes matriculados en una facultad o escuela, o personas capaces de presentar una investigación específica sobre la obra que se discute. Cada una de estas restricciones, se me dirá, serviría a metas específicas de aprendizaje. Pero me temo que, en la mayoría de los casos, el motivo real para proponer tales restricciones es el desdén que proviene de presuponer que la gente es ignorante: los educadores quieren evitar que el ignorante se junte con el ignorante en torno a un texto que podrían no entender y que leen <em>sólo</em> porque están interesados en él. +</p> + +<p> +La tercera objeción: ¿por qué no proporcionar a quienes buscan compañero una ayuda incidental que facilite sus reuniones —espacio, horarios, selección de participantes, protección—? Esto lo hacen actualmente las escuelas con toda la ineficiencia que caracteriza a las grandes burocracias. Si dejáramos la iniciativa de las reuniones a los interesados en reunirse, unas organizaciones que nadie clasifica hoy como educativas harían mucho mejor este trabajo. Pienso en dueños de restaurantes, editores, servicios de recados telefónicos, directivos de trenes suburbanos que podrían promover sus servicios al hacerlos atractivos para reuniones educativas. +</p> + +<p> +En una primera reunión en, digamos, un café, los interesados podrían establecer sus identidades colocando el libro en debate junto a sus tazas. Las personas que tomaran la iniciativa de concertar tales reuniones aprenderían pronto qué elementos citar para encontrarse con la gente que buscan. El riesgo de que una conversación que uno mismo ha elegido le lleve a una pérdida de tiempo, a una decepción, e incluso a un desagrado es ciertamente menor que el riesgo que corre quien solicita ingresar en una universidad. Una reunión concertada por computadora para debatir un artículo de una revista de circulación nacional, celebrada en un café de la Cuarta Avenida, no obligaría a ninguno de los participantes a permanecer en compañía de sus nuevos conocidos por más tiempo del necesario para beber una taza de café, ni tendría que encontrarse con ellos de nuevo. La probabilidad de que ello le ayudara a disipar la opacidad de la vida en una ciudad moderna, a fomentar nuevas amistades, a abrir nuevos horizontes y profundizar en un trabajo elegido, es elevada. (El hecho de que de este modo el FBI podría conseguir un registro de las reuniones y lecturas que se hacen es innegable; el que esto pueda aún preocupar a alguien en 1970 es sólo divertido para un hombre libre, quien, quiéralo o no, aporta su cuota para ahogar a los espías en las nimiedades que recolectan.) +</p> + +<p> +Tanto el intercambio de destrezas como el encuentro con copartícipes se fundan en el supuesto de que educación <em>para todos</em> significa educación <em>por parte de todos</em>. No es el reclutamiento en una institución especializada, sino sólo la movilización de toda la población lo que puede conducir a una cultura popular. Los maestros titulados se han apropiado del derecho que todo hombre tiene de ejercer su competencia para aprender e instruir igualmente. La competencia del maestro está a su vez restringida a lo que pueda hacerse en la escuela. Además, el trabajo y el tiempo libre están, a consecuencia de ello, alienados el uno del otro: tanto del trabajador como del espectador se espera que lleguen al lugar de trabajo prestos a encajar en una rutina preparada para ellos. La adaptación en forma de diseño, instrucción y publicidad de un producto los moldea para desempeñar su papel de modo muy semejante a como lo hace la educación mediante la escolaridad. Una alternativa radical para una sociedad escolarizada exige no sólo mecanismos para la adquisición formal de destrezas y el uso educativo de éstas, implica un nuevo modo de encarar la educación informal o incidental. +</p> + +<p> +La educación incidental ya no puede regresar a las formas que el aprendizaje adoptó en la aldea o en la ciudad medieval. Mientras la sociedad tradicional se asemejaba más a un grupo de círculos concéntricos de estructuras significativas, el hombre moderno debe aprender cómo hallar significación en muchas estructuras con las que está relacionado de manera sólo marginal. En la aldea, el lenguaje, la arquitectura, el trabajo, la religión y las costumbres familiares eran compatibles entre sí, se explicaban y reforzaban mutuamente. Desarrollarse en una implicaba un desarrollo en las otras. Incluso el aprendizaje especializado era el subproducto de actividades especializadas, tales como la fabricación de zapatos o el canto de los salmos. Si un aprendiz no llegaba jamás a ser maestro o erudito, contribuía sin embargo a la fabricación de zapatos o a hacer solemnes los servicios litúrgicos. La educación no competía en tiempo ni con el trabajo ni con el ocio. Casi toda la educación era compleja, vitalicia y no planificada. +</p> + +<p> +La sociedad contemporánea es el resultado de diseños e intenciones conscientes, y las oportunidades educativas han de ser incorporadas a esos diseños. Ahora disminuirá la confianza que depositamos en la instrucción especializada y de tiempo completo a través de la escuela, y hemos de hallar nuevas maneras de aprender y enseñar: la calidad educativa de todas las instituciones debe aumentar una vez más. Pero ésta es una previsión muy ambigua. Podría significar que los hombres de la ciudad moderna serán cada día más las víctimas de un proceso eficaz de instrucción total y manipulación una vez que estén privados incluso del tenue asomo de independencia crítica que proporcionan hoy en día las escuelas liberales, cuando menos a algunos de sus alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +Podría significar también que los hombres se escudarán menos tras certificados adquiridos en la escuela y adquirirán así valor para ser “respondones” y controlar e instruir de ese modo a las instituciones en que participen. Para lograr esto último debemos darnos cuenta del valor social del trabajo y del ocio por el intercambio educativo que permiten. La participación efectiva en la política de una calle, de un puesto de trabajo o de un hospital es por lo tanto el mejor patrón para evaluar el valor de las diferentes instituciones en el plan de la educación. +</p> + +<p> +Hace poco dirigí la palabra a un grupo de estudiantes de los primeros años de bachillerato, empeñados en organizar un movimiento de resistencia a su enrolamiento obligatorio en la clase siguiente. Tenían por consigna “participación-no simulación”. Les decepcionaba que esto se entendiera como una petición de menos educación en vez de lo contrario, y me hicieron recordar la resistencia que opuso Karl Marx a un párrafo en el programa de Gotha que —hace 100 años— quería hacer ilegal el trabajo infantil. Se opuso a la proposición diciendo que la ecuación de los jóvenes solo podía producirse en el trabajo. Si el mayor fruto del trabajo del hombre debiera ser la educación que se deriva de éste y la oportunidad que el trabajo le da para iniciar la educación de otros, entonces la alimentación de la sociedad moderna en un sentido pedagógico es aún peor que su alienación económica. +</p> + +<p> +El mayor obstáculo en el camino de una sociedad que educa verdaderamente lo definió muy bien un amigo mío, negro de Chicago, quien me dijo que nuestra imaginación estaba “totalmente escuelada”. Permitimos al Estado verificar las deficiencias educativas universales de sus ciudadanos y establecer un organismo especializado para tratarlos. Compartimos así la ilusión de que podemos distinguir entre qué es educación necesaria para otros y qué no lo es, tal como generaciones anteriores establecieron leyes que definían qué era sagrado y qué profano. +</p> + +<p> +Durkheim reconoció que esta capacidad para dividir la realidad social en dos ámbitos era la esencia misma de la religión formal. Existen —razonó— religiones sin lo sobrenatural y religiones sin Dios, pero no hay ninguna que no subdivida el mundo en cosas, tiempo y personas que son sagradas y en otras que por consecuencia son profanas. Este penetrante alcance de Durkheim puede aplicarse a la sociología de la educación, pues la escuela es radicalmente divisoria de manera parecida. +</p> + +<p> +La existencia misma de las escuelas obligatorias divide cualquier sociedad en dos ámbitos: ciertos lapsos, procesos, tratamientos y profesiones son “académicos” y “pedagógicos”, y otros no lo son. Así, el poder de la escuela para dividir la realidad social no conoce límites: la educación se hace no terrenal, en tanto que el mundo se hace no educacional. +</p> + +<p> +A partir de Bonhoeffer, los teólogos contemporáneos han señalado la confusión que reina hoy en día entre el mensaje bíblico y la religión institucionalizada. Señalan la experiencia que la libertad y la fe cristianas suelen ganar con la secularización. Sus afirmaciones suenan inevitablemente blasfemas para muchos clérigos. En incuestionable que el proceso educativo ganará con la desescolarización de la sociedad aun cuando esta exigencia les suene a muchos escolares como una traición a la cultura. Pero es la cultura misma la que está siendo apagada hoy en las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +La secularización de la fe cristiana depende de la dedicación que pongan en ello los cristianos arraigados en la Iglesia. De manera muy parecida, la desescolarización de la educación depende del liderazgo de quienes se criaron en las escuelas. El currículum que cumplieron no puede servirles como excusa para la tarea: cada uno de nosotros sigue siendo responsable de lo que se ha hecho por él, aun cuando puede que no sea capaz sino de aceptar esta responsabilidad y servir de advertencia para otros. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Por qu\u00e9 debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela","hid":"por_que_debemos_privar_de_apoyo_oficial_a_la_escuela","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":3,"range":"3005-63676"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit4" id="fenomenologia_de_la_escuela">Fenomenología de la escuela</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Algunas palabras llegan a ser tan flexibles que pierden cualquier significación precisa y se usan para cualquier cosa entre éstas se cuentan “escuela” y “enseñanza”. Se filtran, como una amiba, por cualquier intersticio del lenguaje. Así, decimos que el ABM[^n04] enseñará a los rusos, la IBM enseñará a los niños negros, y el ejército puede llegar a ser la escuela de la nación. +</p> + +<p> +Por consiguiente, la búsqueda de alternativas en educación debe comenzar por un acuerdo acerca de lo que entendemos por “escuela”. Esto puede hacerse de varias maneras. Podemos comenzar por anotar las funciones latentes desempeñadas por los sistemas escolares modernos, tales como los de custodia, selección, adoctrinamiento y aprendizaje. Podríamos hacer un análisis de clientela y verificar cuál de estas funciones latentes favorece o desfavorece a maestros, patronos, niños, padres o a las profesiones. Podríamos repasar la historia de la cultura occidental y la información reunida por la antropología a fin de encontrar instituciones que desempeñaron un papel semejante al que hoy cumple la escolarización. Podríamos finalmente recordar los numerosos dictámenes normativos que se han hecho desde el tiempo de Comenius, o incluso desde Quintiliano, y descubrir a cuál de éstos se aproxima más el moderno sistema escolar. Pero cualquiera de estos enfoques nos obligaría a comenzar con ciertos supuestos acerca de una relación entre escuela y educación. +</p> + +<p> +Para crear un lenguaje en el que podamos hablar sobre la escuela sin ese incesante recurrir a la educación, he querido comenzar por algo que podría llamarse fenomenología de la escuela pública. Con este objeto definiré “escuela” como el proceso que especifica edad, se relaciona con maestros y exige asistencia de tiempo completo y un currículum obligatorio. +</p> + +<p> +1. <em>Edad</em>. La escuela agrupa a las personas según sus edades. Este agrupamiento se funda en tres premisas indiscutidas. A los niños les corresponde estar en la escuela. Los niños aprenden en la escuela. A los niños puede enseñárseles solamente en la escuela. Creo que estas tres premisas no sometidas a examen merecen ser seriamente puestas en duda. +</p> + +<p> +Nos hemos ido acostumbrando a los niños. Hemos decidido que deberían ir a la escuela, hacer lo que se les dice y no tener ingresos propios. Esperamos que sepan el lugar que ocupan y se comporten como niños. Recordamos, ya sea con nostalgia o con amargura, el tiempo en que también fuimos niños. Se espera de nosotros que toleremos la conducta infantil de los niños. La humanidad es, para nosotros, una especie simultáneamente atribulada y bendecida con la tarea de cuidar niños. No obstante, olvidamos que nuestro actual concepto de “niñez” sólo se desarrolló recientemente en Europa occidental, y hace aún menos en América.[^n05] +</p> + +<p> +La niñez como algo diferente de la infancia, la adolescencia o la juventud fue algo desconocido para la mayoría de los periodos históricos. Algunos siglos del cristianismo no tuvieron ni siquiera una idea de sus proporciones corporales. Los artistas pintaban al niño como un adulto en miniatura sentado en el brazo de su madre. Los niños aparecieron en Europa junto con el reloj de bolsillo y los prestamistas cristianos del Renacimiento. Antes de nuestro siglo ni los ricos ni los pobres supieron nada acerca de vestidos para niños, juegos para niños o de la inmunidad del niño ante la ley. Esas ideas comenzaron a desarrollarse en la burguesía. El hijo del obrero, el del campesino y el del noble vestían todos como lo hacían sus padres, jugaban como éstos y eran ahorcados igual que ellos. Después de que la burguesía descubriera la “niñez”, todo esto cambió. Sólo algunas Iglesias continuaron respetando por algún tiempo la dignidad y la madurez de los menores. Hasta el Concilio Vaticano II, se le decía a cada niño que un cristiano llega a tener discernimiento moral y libertad a la edad de siete años y a partir de entonces es capaz de caer en pecados por los cuales podrá ser castigado por toda una eternidad en el infierno. A mediados de este siglo, los padres de clase media comenzaron a tratar de evitar a sus niños el impacto de esta doctrina, y su modo de pensar sobre los niños es el que hoy prevalece en la Iglesia. +</p> + +<p> +Hasta el siglo pasado, los “niños” de padres de clase media se fabricaban en casa con la ayuda de preceptores y escuelas privadas. Sólo con el advenimiento de la sociedad industrial la producción en masa de la “niñez” comenzó a ser factible y a ponerse al alcance de la multitud. El sistema escolar es un fenómeno moderno, como lo es la niñez que lo produce. +</p> + +<p> +Puesto que hoy en día la mayoría de las personas viven fuera de las ciudades industriales, la mayoría de la gente no experimenta la niñez. En los Andes, uno labra la tierra cuando ha llegado a ser “útil”. Antes de esa edad, uno cuida las ovejas. Si se está bien nutrido, debe llegar a ser útil hacia los 11 años de edad, y de otro modo a los 12. Estaba yo conversando hace poco con Marcos, mi celador nocturno, sobre su hijo de 11 años que trabaja en una barbería. Hice en español la observación de que su hijo era todavía un <em>niño</em>. Marcos, sorprendido, contestó con inocente sonrisa: “Don Iván, creo que usted tiene razón”. Percatándome de que hasta el momento de mi observación Marcos había pensado en el muchacho en primer lugar como su “hijo”, me sentí culpable de haber hecho surgir el fantasma de la niñez entre dos personas sensatas. Naturalmente que si yo fuese a decir a un habitante de los barrios bajos de Nueva York que su hijo que trabaja es todavía un “niño”, no mostraría ninguna sorpresa. Sabe muy bien que a su hijo de 11 años debería permitírsele su niñez, y se resiente de que no sea así. El hijo de Marcos no ha sido afectado aún por el anhelo de tener niñez, el hijo del neoyorkino se siente desposeído. +</p> + +<p> +Así pues, la mayoría de la gente en el mundo o no quiere o no puede conceder una niñez moderna a sus críos. Pero también parece que la niñez es una carga para esos pocos a quienes se les concede. A muchos simplemente se les obliga a pasar por ella y no están en absoluto felices de desempeñar el papel de niños. Crecer pasando por la niñez significa estar condenado a un proceso de conflicto inhumano entre la conciencia de sí y el papel que impone una sociedad que está pasando por su propia edad escolar. Ni Stephen Dédalus ni Alexander Portnoy gozaron de la niñez y, según sospecho, tampoco nos gustó a muchos de nosotros ser tratados como niños. +</p> + +<p> +Si no existiese una institución de aprendizaje obligatorio y para una edad determinada, la “niñez” dejaría de fabricarse. Los menores de los países ricos se librarían de su destructividad, y los países pobres dejarían de rivalizar con la niñería de los ricos. Para que la sociedad pudiese sobreponerse a su edad de la niñez, tendría que hacerse vivible para los menores. La disyunción actual entre una sociedad adulta que pretende ser humanitaria y un ambiente escolar que remeda la realidad no puede seguir manteniéndose. +</p> + +<p> +El hecho de privar de apoyo oficial a las escuelas podría terminar también con la discriminación contra los nenes, los adultos y los ancianos en favor de los niños durante su adolescencia y juventud. Es probable que la decisión social de asignar recursos educativos preferentemente a aquellos ciudadanos que han dejado atrás la extraordinaria capacidad de aprendizaje de sus primeros años y no han llegado a la cúspide de su aprendizaje automotivado parezca grotesca cuando se vea retrospectivamente. +</p> + +<p> +La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños necesitan la escuela. La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños aprenden en la escuela. Pero esta sabiduría institucional es en sí el producto de escuelas, porque el sólido sentido común nos dice que sólo a niños se les puede enseñar en la escuela. Sólo segregando a los seres humanos en la categoría de la niñez podremos someterlos alguna vez a la autoridad de un maestro de escuela. +</p> + +<p> +2. <em>Profesores y alumnos</em>. Por definición, los niños son alumnos. La demanda por el medio ambiente escolar crea un mercado ilimitado para los profesores titulados. La escuela es una institución construida sobre el axioma de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza. Y la sabiduría institucional continúa aceptando este axioma, pese a las pruebas abrumadoras en sentido contrario. +</p> + +<p> +Todos hemos aprendido la mayor parte de lo que sabemos fuera de la escuela. Los alumnos hacen la mayor parte de su aprendizaje sin sus maestros y, a menudo, a pesar de éstos. Lo que es más trágico es que a la mayoría de los hombres las escuelas les enseñan su lección, aun cuando nunca vayan _a_ la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Toda persona aprende a vivir fuera de la escuela. Aprendemos a hablar, a pensar, a amar, a sentir, a jugar, a blasfemar, a politiquear y a trabajar sin la interferencia de un profesor. Ni siquiera los niños que están día y noche bajo la tutela de un maestro constituyen excepciones a la regla. Los huérfanos, los cretinos y los hijos de maestros de escuela aprenden la mayor parte de lo que aprenden fuera del proceso “educativo” programado para ellos. Los profesores han quedado mal parados en sus intentos de aumentar el aprendizaje entre los pobres. A los padres pobres que quieren que sus hijos vayan a la escuela no les preocupa tanto lo que aprendan como el certificado y el dinero que obtendrán. Y los padres de clase media confían sus hijos a un profesor para evitar que aprendan aquello que los pobres aprenden en la calle. Las investigaciones sobre educación están demostrando cada día más que los niños aprenden aquello que sus maestros pretenden enseñarles, no de éstos, sino de sus iguales, de las tiras cómicas, de la simple observación al pasar y, sobre todo, del solo hecho de participar en el ritual de la escuela. Las más de las veces los maestros obstruyen el aprendizaje de materias de estudio conforme se dan en la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +La mitad de la gente en nuestro mundo jamás ha estado en una escuela. No se han topado con profesores y están privados del privilegio de llegar a ser desertores escolares. No obstante, aprenden eficazmente el mensaje que la escuela enseña: que deben tener escuela y más y más escuela. La escuela les instruye acerca de su propia inferioridad mediante el cobrador de impuestos que les hace pagar por ella, mediante el demagogo que les suscita las esperanzas de tenerla, o bien mediante sus niños cuando éstos se ven enviciados por ella. De modo que a los pobres se les quita su respeto por sí mismos al suscribirse a un credo que concede la salvación sólo a través de la escuela. La Iglesia les da al menos la posibilidad de arrepentirse en la hora de su muerte. La escuela les deja con la esperanza (una esperanza falsificada) de que sus nietos la conseguirán. Esa esperanza es, por cierto, otro aprendizaje más que proviene de la escuela, pero no de los profesores. +</p> + +<p> +Los alumnos jamás han atribuido a sus maestros lo que han aprendido. Tanto los brillantes como los lerdos han confiado siempre en la memorización, la lectura y el ingenio para pasar sus exámenes, movidos por el garrote o por la obtención de una carrera ambicionada. +</p> + +<p> +Los adultos tienden a crear fantasías románticas sobre su periodo de escuela. Atribuyen retrospectivamente su aprendizaje al maestro cuya paciencia aprendieron a admirar. Pero esos mismos adultos se preocuparán por la salud mental de un niño que corriera a casa a contarles qué ha aprendido de cada uno de sus profesores. Las escuelas crean trabajos para maestros de escuela, independientemente de lo que aprendan de ellos sus alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +3. <em>Asistencia a jornada completa</em>. Cada mes veo una nueva lista de propuestas que hace al AID[^n06] alguna industria estadunidense, sugiriéndole reemplazar a los “practicantes del aula” latinoamericanos por unos disciplinados administradores de sistemas o simplemente por la televisión. Pero, aunque el profesor sea una maestra de primaria o un equipo de tipos con delantales blancos, y que logren enseñar la materia indicada en el catálogo o fracasen en el intento, el maestro profesional crea un entorno sagrado. +</p> + +<p> +La incertidumbre acerca del futuro de la enseñanza profesional pone al aula en peligro. Si los educadores profesionales se especializan en fomentar el aprendizaje tendrían que abandonar un sistema que exige entre 750 y 1 500 reuniones por año. Pero naturalmente los profesores hacen mucho más que eso. La sabiduría institucional de la escuela dice a los padres, a los alumnos y a los educadores que el profesor, para que pueda enseñar, debe ejercer su autoridad en un recinto sagrado. Esto es válido incluso para profesores cuyos alumnos pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo escolar en un aula sin muros. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela, por su naturaleza misma, tiende a reclamar la totalidad del tiempo y las energías de sus participantes. Esto a su vez hace del profesor un custodio, un predicador y un terapeuta. +</p> + +<p> +El maestro funda su autoridad sobre una pretensión diferente en cada uno de estos tres papeles. <em>El profesor-como-custodio</em> actúa como maestro de ceremonias que guía a sus alumnos a lo largo de un ritual dilatado y laberíntico. Es árbitro del cumplimiento de las normas y administra las intrincadas rúbricas de iniciación a la vida. En el mejor de los casos, monta la escena para la adquisición de una habilidad como siempre han hecho los maestros de escuela. Sin hacerse ilusiones acerca de producir ningún saber profundo, somete a sus alumnos a ciertas rutinas básicas. +</p> + +<p> +El <em>profesor-como-moralista</em> reemplaza a los padres, a Dios, al Estado. Adoctrina al alumno acerca de lo bueno y lo malo, no sólo en la escuela, sino en la sociedad en general. Se presenta <em>in loco parentis</em> para cada cual y asegura así que todos se sientan hijos del mismo Estado. +</p> + +<p> +El <em>profesor-como-terapeuta</em> se siente autorizado a inmiscuirse en la vida privada de su alumno a fin de ayudarle a desarrollarse como persona. Cuando esta función la desempeña un custodio y predicador, significa por lo común que persuade al alumno a someterse a una domesticación de su visión de la verdad y de su sentido de lo justo. +</p> + +<p> +La afirmación de que una sociedad liberal puede basarse en la escuela moderna, es paradójica. Todas las defensas de la libertad individual quedan anuladas en los tratos de un maestro de escuela con su alumno. Cuando el maestro funde en su persona las funciones de juez, ideólogo y médico, el estilo fundamental de la sociedad es pervertido por el proceso mismo que debiera preparar para la vida. Un maestro que combine estos tres poderes contribuye mucho más a la deformación del niño que las leyes que dictan su menor edad legal o económica, o que restringen su libertad de reunión o de vivienda. +</p> + +<p> +Los maestros no son en absoluto los únicos en ofrecer servicios terapéuticos. Los psiquiatras, los consejeros vocacionales y laborales, y hasta los abogados ayudan a sus clientes a decidir, a desarrollar sus personalidades y a aprender. Pero el sentido común le dice al cliente que dichos profesionales deben abstenerse de imponer sus opiniones sobre lo bueno y lo malo, o de obligar a nadie a seguir su consejo. Los maestros de escuelas y los curas son los únicos profesionales que se sienten con derecho para inmiscuirse en los asuntos privados de sus clientes al mismo tiempo que predican a un público obligado. +</p> + +<p> +Los niños no están protegidos ni por la Primera ni por la Quinta Enmienda[^n07] cuando están frente a ese sacerdote secular, el profesor. El niño tiene que enfrentarse con un hombre que usa una triple corona invisible y que, como la tiara papal, es el símbolo de la triple autoridad conjugada en una persona. Para el niño, el maestro pontifica como pastor, profeta y sacerdote —es a un mismo tiempo guía, maestro y administrador de un ritual sagrado—. Conjuga las pretensiones de los papas medievales en una sociedad constituida bajo la garantía de que tales pretensiones no serán jamás ejercidas conjuntamente por una institución establecida y obligatoria —la Iglesia o el Estado—. +</p> + +<p> +Definir a los niños como alumnos a jornada completa permite al profesor ejercer sobre sus personas una especie de poder que está mucho menos limitado por restricciones constitucionales o consuetudinarias que el poder detentado por el guardián de otros enclaves sociales. La edad cronológica de los niños los descalifica respecto de las salvaguardas que son de rutina para adultos situados en un asilo moderno —un manicomio, un monasterio o una cárcel—. +</p> + +<p> +Bajo la mirada autoritaria del maestro, los valores se confunden y las diferencias se borran. Las distinciones entre moralidad, legalidad y valor personal se difuminan y eventualmente se eliminan. Se hace sentir cada transgresión como un delito múltiple. Se cuenta con que el delincuente sienta que ha quebrantado una norma, que se ha comportado de modo inmoral y se ha abandonado. A un alumno que ha conseguido hábilmente ayuda en un examen se le dice que es un delincuente, un corrompido y un mequetrefe. +</p> + +<p> +La asistencia a clases saca a los niños del mundo cotidiano de la cultura occidental y los sumerge en un ambiente mucho más primitivo, mágico y mortalmente serio. La escuela no podría crear un enclave como éste, dentro del cual se suspende físicamente a los menores durante muchos años sucesivos de las normas de la realidad ordinaria, si no tuviera el poder de encarcelar físicamente a los menores durante esos años en su territorio sagrado. La norma de asistencia posibilita que el aula sirva de útero mágico, del cual el niño es dado periódicamente a luz al terminar el día escolar y el año escolar, hasta que es finalmente lanzado a la vida adulta. Ni la niñez universalmente prolongada ni la atmósfera sofocante del aula podrían existir sin las escuelas. Sin embargo, las escuelas, como canales obligatorios de aprendizaje, podrían existir sin ninguna de ambas y ser más represivas y destructivas que todo lo que hayamos podido conocer hasta la fecha. Para entender lo que significa desescolarizar la sociedad y no tan sólo reformar el sistema educativo establecido, debemos concentrarnos ahora en el currículum oculto de la escolarización. No nos ocupamos en este caso, y directamente, del currículum oculto de las calles del gueto, que deja marcado al pobre, o del currículum camuflado de salón, que beneficia al rico. Nos interesa más bien llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que el ceremonial o ritual de la escolarización misma constituye un currículum escondido de este tipo. Incluso el mejor de los maestros no puede proteger del todo a sus alumnos contra él. Este currículum oculto de la escolarización añade inevitablemente prejuicio y culpa a la discriminación que una sociedad practica contra algunos de sus miembros y realza el privilegio de otros con un nuevo título con el cual tener en menos a la mayoría. De modo igualmente inevitable, este currículum oculto sirve como ritual de iniciación a una sociedad de consumo orientada hacia el crecimiento, tanto para ricos como para pobres. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Fenomenolog\u00eda de la escuela","hid":"fenomenologia_de_la_escuela","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":4,"range":"63677-83021"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit5" id="ritualizacion_del_progreso">Ritualización del progreso</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +El graduado en una universidad ha sido escolarizado para cumplir un servicio selectivo entre los ricos del mundo sean cuales fueren sus afirmaciones de solidaridad con el Tercer Mundo, cada estadunidense que ha conseguido su título universitario ha tenido una educación que cuesta una cantidad cinco veces mayor que los ingresos medios de toda una vida en el seno de la mitad desheredada de la humanidad. A un estudiante latinoamericano se le introduce en esta exclusiva fraternidad acordándole para su educación un gasto por lo menos 350 veces mayor que el de sus conciudadanos de clase media. Salvo muy raras excepciones, el graduado universitario de un país pobre se siente más a gusto con sus colegas norteamericanos o europeos que con sus compatriotas no escolarizados, y a todos los estudiantes se les somete a un proceso académico que les hace sentirse felices sólo en compañía de otros consumidores de los productos de la máquina educativa. +</p> + +<p> +La universidad moderna sólo confiere el privilegio de disentir a aquellos que han sido comprobados y clasificados como fabricantes de dinero o detentadores de poder en potencia. A nadie se le conceden fondos provenientes de impuestos para que tengan así tiempo libre para autoeducarse o el derecho de educar a otros, a menos que al mismo tiempo puedan certificarse sus logros. Las escuelas eligen para cada nivel superior sucesivo a aquellos que en las primeras etapas del juego hayan demostrado ser buenos riesgos[^n08] para el orden establecido. Al tener un monopolio sobre los recursos para el aprendizaje y sobre la investidura de los papeles por desempeñar en la sociedad, la universidad invita a sus filas al descubridor y al disidente en potencia. Un grado siempre deja su tinta indeleble con el precio en el currículum de su consumidor. Los graduados universitarios diplomados encajan sólo en un mundo que pone un marbete con el precio en sus cuellos dándoles así el poder de pertenecer a un mundo donde todo recibe un valor mercantil. En cada país, el monto que consume el graduado universitario fija la pauta para todos los demás; si fueran gente civilizada con trabajo o cesantes habrán de aspirar al estilo de vida de los graduados universitarios. +</p> + +<p> +De este modo, la universidad tiene por efecto imponer normas de consumo en el trabajo o en el hogar, y lo hace en todo el mundo y bajo todos los sistemas políticos. Cuanto menos graduados universitarios hay en un país, tanto más sirven de modelo para el resto de la población sus ilustradas exigencias. La brecha entre el consumo de un graduado universitario y el de un ciudadano corriente es incluso más ancha en Rusia, China y Argelia que en Estados Unidos. Los coches, los viajes en avión y los magnetófonos confieren una distinción más notoria en un país socialista en donde únicamente un título, y no tan sólo el dinero, puede procurarlos. +</p> + +<p> +La capacidad de la universidad para fijar metas de consumo es algo nuevo. En muchos países la universidad adquirió este poder sólo en la década de los años sesenta, conforme la ilusión de acceso parejo a la educación pública comenzó a difundirse. Antes de entonces la universidad protegía la libertad de expresión de un individuo, pero no convertía automáticamente su conocimiento en riqueza. Durante la Edad Media, ser un estudioso significaba ser pobre y hasta mendicante. En virtud de su vocación, el estudioso medieval aprendía latín, se convertía en un <em>outsider</em> digno tanto de la mofa como de la estimación del campesino y del príncipe, del burgués y del clérigo. +</p> + +<p> +Para triunfar en el mundo, el escolástico tenía que ingresar primero en él, entrando en la carrera funcionaria, preferiblemente la eclesiástica. La universidad antigua era una zona liberada para el descubrimiento y el debate de ideas nuevas y viejas. Los maestros y los estudiantes se reunían para leer los textos de otros maestros, muertos mucho antes, y las palabras vivas de los maestros difuntos daban nuevas perspectivas a las falacias del mundo presente. La universidad era entonces una comunidad de búsqueda académica y de inquietud endémica. +</p> + +<p> +En la universidad multidisciplinaria moderna esta comunidad ha huido hacia las márgenes, en donde se junta en un apartamento, en la oficina de un profesor o en los aposentos del capellán. El propósito estructural de la universidad moderna guarda poca relación con la búsqueda tradicional. Desde los días de Gutenberg, el intercambio de la indagación disciplinada y crítica se ha trasladado en su mayor parte de la “cátedra” a la imprenta. La universidad moderna ha perdido por incumplimiento su posibilidad de ofrecer un escenario simple para encuentros que sean autónomos y anárquicos, enfocados hacia un interés y sin embargo espontáneos y vivaces, y ha elegido en cambio administrar el proceso mediante el cual se produce lo que ha dado en llamarse investigación y enseñanza. +</p> + +<p> +Desde el <em>Sputnik</em> , la universidad estadunidense ha estado tratando de ponerse a la par con el número de graduados que sacan los soviéticos. Ahora los alemanes están abandonando su tradición académica y están construyendo unos <em>campus</em> para ponerse a la par con los estadunidenses. Durante esta década quieren aumentar sus erogaciones en escuelas primarias y secundarias de 14 000 a 59 000 millones de marcos alemanes y triplicar los desembolsos para la instrucción superior. Los franceses se proponen elevar para 1980 a 10% de su PNB el monto gastado en escuelas, y la Fundación Ford ha estado empujando a países pobres de América Latina a elevar sus desembolsos per cápita para los graduados “respetables” a los niveles estadunidenses. Los estudiantes consideran sus estudios como la inversión que produce el mayor rédito monetario, y las naciones los ven como un factor clave para el desarrollo. +</p> + +<p> +Para la mayoría que va en pos de un grado universitario, la universidad no ha perdido prestigio, pero desde 1968 ha perdido notoriamente categoría entre sus creyentes. Los estudiantes se niegan a prepararse para la guerra, la contaminación y la perpetuación del prejuicio. Los profesores les ayudan en su recusación de la legitimidad del gobierno, de su política exterior, de la educación y del sistema de vida norteamericano. No pocos rechazan títulos y se preparan para una vida en una contracultura, fuera de la sociedad diplomada. Parecen elegir la vía de los Fraticelli medievales o de los Alumbrados de la Reforma, que fueron los <em>hippies</em> y desertores escolares de su época. Otros reconocen el monopolio de las escuelas sobre los recursos que ellos necesitan para construir una contrasociedad. Buscan apoyo el uno en el otro para vivir con integridad mientras se someten al ritual académico. Forman, por así decirlo, focos de herejía en medio de la jerarquía. +</p> + +<p> +No obstante, grandes sectores de la población general miran al místico moderno y al heresiarca moderno con alarma. Éstos amenazan la economía consumista, el privilegio democrático y la imagen que de sí mismo tiene Estados Unidos. Pero no es posible eliminarlos con sólo desearlo. Son cada vez menos aquellos a los que es posible reconvertir y reincorporar en las filas mediante sutilezas —como, por ejemplo, darles el cargo de enseñar como profesores su herejía—. De aquí la búsqueda de medios que hagan posible ya sea librarse de disidentes, ya sea disminuir la importancia de la universidad que les sirve de base para protestar. +</p> + +<p> +A los estudiantes y a la facultad que ponen en tela de juicio la legitimidad de la universidad, y lo hacen pagando un alto costo personal, no les parece por cierto estar fijando normas de consumo ni favoreciendo un sistema determinado de producción. Aquellos que han fundado grupos tales como el Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars y el North American Congress of Latin America (NACLA) han sido de los más eficaces para cambiar radicalmente la visión que millones de personas jóvenes tenían de países extranjeros. Otros más han tratado de formular interpretaciones marxistas de la sociedad norteamericana o han figurado entre los responsables de la creación de comunas. Sus logros dan nuevo vigor al argumento de que la existencia de la universidad es necesaria para una crítica social sostenida. +</p> + +<p> +No cabe duda de que en este momento la universidad ofrece una combinación singular de circunstancias que permite a algunos de sus miembros criticar el conjunto de la sociedad. Proporciona tiempo, movilidad, acceso a los iguales y a la información, así como cierta impunidad —privilegios de que no disponen igualmente otros sectores de la población—. Pero la universidad permite esta libertad sólo a quienes ya han sido profundamente iniciados en la sociedad de consumo y en la necesidad de alguna especie de escolaridad pública obligatoria. +</p> + +<p> +El sistema escolar de hoy en día desempeña la triple función que ha sido común a las Iglesias poderosas a lo largo de la historia. Es simultáneamente el depósito del mito de la sociedad, la institucionalización de las contradicciones de ese mito y el lugar donde ocurre el ritual que reproduce y encubre las disciplinas entre el mito y la realidad. El sistema escolar, y en particular la universidad, proporciona hoy grandes oportunidades para criticar el mito y para rebelarse contra las perversiones institucionales. Pero el ritual que exige tolerancia para con las contradicciones fundamentales entre mito e institución pasa todavía por lo general sin ponerse en tela de juicio, pues ni la crítica ideológica ni la acción social pueden dar a luz una nueva sociedad. Sólo el desencanto del ritual social central, el desligarse del mismo y reformarlo pueden llevar a cabo un cambio radical. +</p> + +<p> +La universidad estadunidense ha llegado a ser la etapa final del rito de iniciación más global que el mundo haya conocido. Ninguna sociedad histórica ha logrado sobrevivir sin ritual o mito, pero la nuestra es la primera que ha necesitado una iniciación tan aburrida, morosa, destructiva y costosa a su mito. La civilización mundial contemporánea es también la primera que estimó necesario racionalizar su ritual fundamental de iniciación en nombre de la educación. No podemos iniciar una reforma de la educación a menos que entendamos primero que ni el aprendizaje individual ni la igualdad social pueden acrecentarse mediante el ritual de la escolarización. No podremos ir más allá de la sociedad de consumo a menos que entendamos primero que las escuelas públicas obligatorias reproducen inevitablemente dicha sociedad, independientemente de lo que se enseñe en ellas. +</p> + +<p> +El proyecto de desmitologización que propongo no puede limitarse tan sólo a la universidad. Cualquier intento de reformar la universidad sin ocuparse del sistema del que forma parte integral es como tratar de hacer la reforma urbana en Nueva York, desde el piso decimosegundo hacia arriba. La mayor parte de las reformas introducidas en la enseñanza superior, equivalen a rascacielos construidos sobre chozas. Sólo una generación que se críe sin escuelas obligatorias será capaz de recrear la universidad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Ritualizaci\u00f3n del progreso","hid":"ritualizacion_del_progreso","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":5,"range":"83022-94214"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit6" id="el_mito_de_los_valores_institucionalizados">El mito de los valores institucionalizados</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela inicia asimismo el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin. Este mito moderno se funda en la creencia según la cual el sistema de producción produce inevitablemente algo de valor y que, por consiguiente, la producción produce necesariamente demanda. La escuela nos enseña que la instrucción produce aprendizaje. La existencia de las escuelas produce la demanda de escolaridad. Una vez que hemos aprendido a necesitar la escuela, todas nuestras actividades tienden a tomar la forma de relaciones de clientes respecto de otras instituciones especializadas. Una vez que se ha desacreditado al hombre o a la mujer autodidactos, toda actividad no profesional se hace sospechosa. En la escuela se nos enseña que el resultado de la asistencia es un aprendizaje valioso; que el valor del aprendizaje aumenta con el monto de la información de entrada y, finalmente, que este valor puede medirse y documentarse mediante grados y diplomas. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, el aprendizaje es la actividad humana que menos manipulación de terceros necesita. La mayor parte del aprendizaje no es la consecuencia de una instrucción. Es más bien el resultado de una participación a la que no se estorba en un entorno significativo. La mayoría de la gente aprende mejor “metiendo la cuchara” y, sin embargo, la escuela les hace identificar su desarrollo cognoscitivo personal con una programación y una manipulación complicadas. +</p> + +<p> +Una vez que un hombre o una mujer ha aceptado la necesidad de la escuela, es presa fácil de otras instituciones. Una vez que los jóvenes han permitido que a su imaginación la forme la instrucción curricular, están condicionados para las planificaciones institucionales de toda especie. La “institución” les ahoga el horizonte imaginativo. No se les puede traicionar, sólo engañar en el precio, porque se les ha enseñado a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. Para bien o para mal, ya no serán sorprendidos por terceros, pues se les ha enseñado qué pueden esperar de cualquier otra persona que ha sido enseñada como ellos. Esto es válido para el caso de otra persona o de una máquina. +</p> + +<p> +Esta transferencia de responsabilidad desde sí mismo a una institución garantiza la regresión social, especialmente desde el momento en que se ha aceptado como una obligación. Así, los rebeldes contra el <em>Alma Mater</em> a menudo “la consiguen” e ingresan en su facultad en vez de desarrollar la valentía de infectar a otros con su enseñanza personal y de asumir la responsabilidad de las consecuencias de tal enseñanza. Esto sugiere la posibilidad de una nueva historia de Edipo —Edipo Profesor, que “consigue” a su madre a fin de engendrar hijos de ella—. El hombre adicto a ser enseñado busca su seguridad en la enseñanza compulsiva. La mujer que experimenta su conocimiento como el resultado de un proceso quiere reproducirlo en otros. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito de los valores institucionalizados","hid":"el_mito_de_los_valores_institucionalizados","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":6,"range":"94215-97140"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit7" id="el_mito_de_la_medicion_de_los_valores">El mito de la medición de los valores</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Los valores institucionalizados que infunde la escuela son valores cuantificados. La escuela inicia a los jóvenes en un mundo en el que todo puede medirse, incluso su imaginación y hasta el hombre mismo. +</p> + +<p> +Pero el desarrollo personal no es una entidad mensurable. Es crecimiento en disensión disciplinada, que no puede medirse respecto a ningún cartabón, a ningún currículum, ni compararse con lo logrado por algún otro. En ese aprendizaje podemos emular a otros sólo en el empeño imaginativo, y seguir sus huellas más bien que remedar sus maneras de andar. El aprendizaje que yo aprecio es una recreación inmensurable. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas pretenden desglosar el aprendizaje en “materias”, para incorporar en el alumno un currículum hecho con estos ladrillos prefabricados y para medir el resultado con una escala internacional. Las personas que se someten a la norma de otros para la medida de su propio desarrollo personal pronto se aplican el mismo cartabón a sí mismos. Ya no es necesario ponerlos en su lugar, pues se colocan solos en sus casilleros correspondientes, se comprimen en el nicho que se les ha enseñado a buscar y, en el curso de este mismo proceso, colocan asimismo a sus prójimos en sus lugares, hasta que todo y todos encajan. +</p> + +<p> +Las personas que han sido escolarizadas hasta su talla dejan que la experiencia no mensurada se les escape entre los dedos. Para ellas, lo que no puede medirse se hace secundario, amenazante. No es necesario robarles su creatividad. Con la instrucción, han desaprendido a “hacer” lo suyo o a “ser” ellas mismas, y valoran sólo aquello que ha sido fabricado o podría fabricarse. +</p> + +<p> +Una vez que se ha escolarizado a las personas con la idea de que los valores pueden producirse y medirse, tienden a aceptar toda clase de clasificaciones jerárquicas. Existe una escala para el desarrollo de las naciones, otra para la inteligencia de los nenes, e incluso el avance hacia la paz puede medirse según un recuento de personas. En un mundo escolarizado, el camino hacia la felicidad está pavimentado con un índice de precios para el consumidor. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito de la medici\u00f3n de los valores","hid":"el_mito_de_la_medicion_de_los_valores","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":7,"range":"97141-99299"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit8" id="el_mito_de_los_valores_envasados">El mito de los valores envasados</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela vende currículum: un atado de mercancías hecho con el mismo proceso y con la misma estructura que cualquier otra mercancía. La producción del currículum para la mayoría de las escuelas comienza con la investigación presuntamente científica; fundados en ella los ingenieros de la educación predicen la demanda futura y las herramientas para la línea de montaje, dentro de los límites establecidos por presupuestos y tabúes. El distribuidor-profesor entrega el producto terminado al consumidor-alumno, cuyas reacciones son cuidadosamente estudiadas y tabuladas a fin de proporcionar datos para la investigación que servirán para preparar el modelo siguiente que podrá ser “desgraduado”, “concebido para alumnado”, “concebido para un trabajo en equipo”, “con ayudas visuales” o “centrado en temas”. +</p> + +<p> +El resultado del proceso de producción de un currículum se asemeja a cualquier otro artículo moderno de primera necesidad. Es un paquete de significados planificados, una mercancía cuyo “atractivo equilibrado” la hace comercializable para una clientela lo bastante grande como para justificar su elevado coste de producción. A los consumidores-alumnos se les enseña a ajustar sus deseos a valores comercializables. De modo que se les hace sentir culpables si no se comportan en conformidad con los resultados de los análisis de mercado y si no obtienen los grados y diplomas que los colocarán en la categoría laboral que se les ha inducido a esperar. +</p> + +<p> +Los educadores pueden justificar unos currícula más costosos fundándose en lo que han observado, a saber, que las dificultades de aprendizaje se elevan en proporción al costo del currículum. Ésta es una aplicación de aquella ley de Parkinson que dice que una labor se expande junto con los recursos disponibles para ejecutarla. Esta ley puede verificarse en todos los niveles de la escuela: por ejemplo, las dificultades de lectura han sido un tema principal de debate en que los grados per cápita en ellas se han aproximado a los niveles estadunidenses de 1950 —año en el cual las dificultades para aprender a leer llegaron a ser tema de importancia en las escuelas de Estados Unidos. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, los estudiantes saludables redoblan su resistencia a la enseñanza conforme se ven más cabalmente manipulados. Su resistencia no se debe al estilo autoritario de una escuela pública o al estilo seductor de algunas escuelas libres, sino al planteamiento fundamental común a todas las escuelas —la idea de que el juicio de una persona debiera determinar qué y cuándo debe aprender otra persona—. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito de los valores envasados","hid":"el_mito_de_los_valores_envasados","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":8,"range":"99300-101958"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit9" id="el_mito_del_progreso_que_se_perpetua_a_si_mismo">El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Los crecientes costes per cápita de la instrucción, aun cuando vayan acompañados por réditos de aprendizaje decrecientes, aumentan paradójicamente el valor del alumno o alumna ante sus propios ojos y su valor en el mercado. La escuela, casi al coste que sea, iza a empellones al alumno hasta el nivel del consumo curricular competitivo, hasta meterlo en el progreso hacia unos niveles cada vez más elevados. Los gastos que motivan al alumno a permanecer en la escuela se desbocan conforme asciende la pirámide. En niveles más altos adoptan el disfraz de nuevos estadios de futbol o programas llamados de Educación Internacional. Aunque no enseña ninguna otra cosa, la escuela enseña al menos el valor de la escalada: el valor de la manera estadunidense de hacer las cosas. +</p> + +<p> +La guerra de Vietnam se ajusta a la lógica prevaleciente. Su éxito se ha medido por el número de personas efectivamente tratadas con balas baratas descargadas a un coste inmenso, y a este cálculo salvaje se le llama desvergonzadamente “recuento de cuerpos”. Así como los negocios son los negocios, la acumulación inacabable de dinero, así también la guerra es el matar, la acumulación inacabable de cuerpos muertos. De manera semejante, la educación es escolarización, y este proceso sin término se cuenta en alumnos-hora. Los diferentes procesos son irreversibles y se justifican por sí mismos. Según las normas económicas, el país se hace cada vez más rico. Según las normas de la contabilidad mortal, la nación continúa ganando perennemente sus guerras. Y conforme a las normas escolares, la población se va haciendo cada vez más educada. +</p> + +<p> +El programa escolar está hambriento de un bocado cada vez mayor de instrucción, pero aun cuando esta hambre conduzca a una absorción sostenida, nunca da el gozo de saber algo a satisfacción. Cada tema llega envasado con la instrucción de continuar consumiendo una “oferta” tras otra, y el envase del año anterior es siempre anticuado para el consumidor del año en curso. El fraudulento negocio de los libros de texto está construido sobre esta demanda. Los reformadores de la educación prometen a cada generación lo último y lo mejor, y al público se le escolariza para pedir lo que ellos ofrecen. Tanto el desertor, a quien se le hace recordar a perpetuidad lo que se perdió, como el graduado, a quien se le hace sentir inferior a la nueva casta de estudiantes, saben exactamente dónde están situados en el ritual de engaños crecientes, y continúan apoyando una sociedad que, para denominar la brecha cada vez más ancha de frustración, usa el eufemismo de “revolución de expectativas crecientes”. +</p> + +<p> +Pero el crecimiento concebido como un consumo sin términos —el progreso eterno— no puede conducir jamás a la madurez. El compromiso con un ilimitado aumento cuantitativo vicia la posibilidad de un desarrollo orgánico. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito del progreso que se perpet\u00faa a s\u00ed mismo","hid":"el_mito_del_progreso_que_se_perpetua_a_si_mismo","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":9,"range":"101959-104921"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit10" id="el_juego_ritual_y_la_nueva_religion_mundial">El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +En las naciones desarrolladas, la edad para salir de la escuela excede el aumento de los años de vida probable. Dentro de una década se cortarán ambas curvas y crearán un problema para Jessica Mitford y para los profesionales que se interesan por la “educación terminal”. Me hace recordar la Edad Media tardía, cuando la demanda por los servicios de la Iglesia sobrepasó la duración de la vida, y se creó el “purgatorio” para purificar a las almas bajo el control papal antes de que pudiesen ingresar en la paz eterna. Lógicamente, esto condujo primero a un tráfico de indulgencias y luego a un intento de Reforma. El Mito del Consumo Sin Fin ocupa ahora el lugar de la creencia en la vida eterna. +</p> + +<p> +Arnold Toynbee señaló que la decadencia de una gran cultura suele ir acompañada por el surgimiento de una nueva Iglesia Universal que lleva la esperanza al proletariado interior mientras atiende al mismo tiempo las necesidades de una nueva casta guerrera. La escuela parece eminentemente apta para ser la Iglesia Universal de nuestra decadente cultura. Ninguna institución podría ocultar mejor a sus participantes la profunda discrepancia entre los principios sociales y la realidad social en el mundo de hoy. Secular, científica y negadora de la muerte, se ciñe estrechamente al ánimo moderno. Su apariencia clásica, crítica, la hace aparecer, si no antirreligiosa, al menos pluralista. Su currículum define la ciencia y la define a ella misma mediante la llamada investigación científica. Nadie completa la escuela —todavía—. No cierra sus puertas a nadie sin antes ofrecerle una oportunidad más: educación de recuperación, para adultos y de continuación. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela sirve como una eficaz creadora y preservadora del mito social debido a su estructura como juego ritual de promociones graduadas. La introducción a este ritual es mucho más importante que el asunto enseñado o el cómo se enseña. Es el juego mismo el que escolariza, el que se mete en la sangre y se convierte en hábito. Se inicia a una sociedad entera en el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin de servicios. Esto ocurre hasta tal punto que la formalidad de participar en el ritual sin término se hace obligatoria y compulsiva por doquier. La escuela ordena una rivalidad ritual en forma de juego internacional que obliga a los competidores a achacar los males del mundo a aquellos que no pueden o no quieren jugar. La escuela es un ritual de iniciación que introduce al neófito en la sagrada carrera del consumo progresivo, un ritual propiciatorio cuyos sacerdotes académicos son mediadores entre los creyentes y los dioses del privilegio y del poder, un ritual de expiación que sacrifica a sus desertores, marcándolos a fuego como chivos expiatorios del subdesarrollo. +</p> + +<p> +Incluso aquellos que en el mejor de los casos pasan unos pocos años en la escuela —y éste es el caso de la abrumadora mayoría en América Latina, Asia y África— aprenden a sentirse culpables debido a su subconsumo de escolarización. En México es obligatorio aprobar seis grados de escuela. Los niños nacidos en el tercio económico inferior tienen sólo dos posibilidades sobre tres de aprobar el primer grado. Si lo aprueban, tienen cuatro probabilidades sobre 100 de terminar la escolaridad obligatoria en el sexto grado. Si nacen en el tercio medio, sus probabilidades aumentan a 12 sobre 100. Con estas pautas, México ha tenido más éxito que la mayoría de las otras 26 repúblicas latinoamericanas en cuanto a proporcionar educación pública. +</p> + +<p> +Todos los niños saben, en todas partes, que se les ha dado una posibilidad, aunque desigual, en una lotería obligatoria, y la supuesta igualdad de la norma internacional realza ahora la pobreza original de esos niños con la discriminación autoinfligida que el desertor acepta. Se les ha escolarizado en la creencia de las expectativas crecientes y pueden racionalizar ahora su creciente frustración fuera de la escuela aceptando el rechazo de la gracia escolástica que les ha caído en suerte. Se les expulsa del paraíso porque, habiendo sido bautizados, no fueron a la Iglesia. Nacidos en pecado original, se les bautiza en el primer grado, pero van al Gehenna (que en hebreo significa “conventillo”) debido a sus faltas personales. Así como Max Weber examinó los efectos sociales de la creencia en que la salvación pertenecía a quienes acumulaban riqueza, podemos observar ahora que la gracia está reservada para aquellos que acumulan años de escuela. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El juego ritual y la nueva religi\u00f3n mundial","hid":"el_juego_ritual_y_la_nueva_religion_mundial","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":10,"range":"104922-109488"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit11" id="el_reino_venidero_la_universalizacion_de_las_expectativas">El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela conjuga las expectativas del consumidor expresadas en sus pretensiones, con las creencias del productor expresadas en su ritual. Es una expresión litúrgica del <em>cargocult</em>[^n09] que recorrió la Melanesia en la década de 1940-1950, que inyectaba en sus cultores la creencia de que si se colocaban una corbata negra sobre el torso desnudo, Jesús llegaría en un vapor trayendo una nevera, un par de pantalones y una máquina de coser para cada creyente. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela funde el crecimiento en humillante dependencia de un maestro con el crecimiento en el vano sentido de omnipotencia que es tan típico del alumno que quiere ir a enseñar a todas las naciones a salvarse. El ritual está moldeado según los severos hábitos de trabajo de los obreros de la construcción, y su finalidad es celebrar el mito de un paraíso terrestre de consumo sin fin, que es la única esperanza del desgraciado y el desposeído. +</p> + +<p> +A lo largo de la historia ha habido epidemias de insaciables expectativas en este mundo, especialmente entre grupos colonizados y marginales en todas las culturas. Los judíos tuvieron durante el Imperio romano sus Esenios y Mesías judíos, los siervos en la Reforma tuvieron su Thomas Münzer, los desposeídos indios desde el Paraguay hasta Dakota sus contagiosos bailarines. Estas sectas estaban siempre dirigidas por un profeta, y limitaban sus promesas a unos pocos elegidos. En cambio la espera del reino a que induce la escuela es impersonal más que profética, y universal más que local. El hombre ha llegado a ser el ingeniero de su propio Mesías y promete las limitadas recompensas de la ciencia a aquellos que somete a una progresiva tecnificación para su reino. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El reino venidero la universalizaci\u00f3n de las expectativas","hid":"el_reino_venidero_la_universalizacion_de_las_expectativas","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":11,"range":"109489-111258"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit12" id="la_nueva_alienacion">La nueva alienación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela no sólo es la Nueva Religión Mundial. Es también el mercado de trabajo de crecimiento más veloz del mundo. La tecnificación de los consumidores ha llegado a ser el principal sector de crecimiento de la economía. Conforme el coste de la producción disminuye en las naciones ricas, se produce una concentración creciente de capital y trabajo en la vasta empresa de equipar al hombre para un consumo disciplinario. Durante la década pasada las inversiones de capital relacionadas directamente con el sistema escolar aumentaron con velocidad incluso mayor que los gastos para defensa. El desarme tan sólo aceleraría el proceso por el cual la industria del aprendizaje se encamina al centro de la economía nacional. La escuela proporciona oportunidades ilimitadas para el derroche legitimizado, mientras su destructividad pasa inadvertida y crece el coste de los paliativos. +</p> + +<p> +Si a quienes asisten a jornada completa agregamos los que enseñan a jornada completa, nos percatamos de que esta llamada superestructura ha llegado a ser el principal patrono de la sociedad. En Estados Unidos hay 62 millones en la escuela y 80 millones trabajando en otras cosas. Esto a menudo lo han olvidado los analistas neomarxistas cuando dicen que el proceso de desescolarización debe posponerse o dejarse pendiente hasta que otros desórdenes, considerados tradicionalmente como más importantes, los haya corregido una revolución económica y política. Pero hay que comprender que la escuela es una industria antes de querer edificar una estrategia revolucionaria realista. Para Marx, el coste de producir las demandas de bienes apenas si era significativo. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la mano de obra está empleada en la producción de demandas que puede satisfacer la industria que hace un uso intenso del capital. La mayor parte de este trabajo se realiza en la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En el esquema tradicional, la alienación era una consecuencia directa de que el trabajo se convirtiera en labor asalariada que privaba al hombre de su oportunidad para crear y recrearse. Ahora a los menores los prealienan las escuelas que los aíslan del mundo mientras juegan a ser productores y consumidores de su propio conocimiento, al que se concibe como una mercancía en el mercado en la escuela. La escuela hace de la alienación una preparación para la vida, privando así a la educación de realidad y al trabajo de creatividad. La escuela prepara para la alienante institucionalización de la vida al enseñar la necesidad de ser enseñado. Una vez que se aprende esta lección, la gente pierde su incentivo para desarrollarse con independencia; ya no encuentra atractivos en relacionarse y se cierra a las sorpresas que la vida ofrece cuando no está predeterminada por la definición institucional. La escuela emplea directa o indirectamente a una mayor parte de la población. La escuela o bien guarda a la gente de por vida o asegura el que encaje en alguna otra institución. +</p> + +<p> +La Nueva Iglesia Mundial es la industria del conocimiento, proveedora de opio y banco de trabajo durante un número creciente de años de la vida de un individuo. La desescolarización es por consiguiente fundamental para cualquier movimiento de liberación del hombre. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La nueva alienaci\u00f3n","hid":"la_nueva_alienacion","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":12,"range":"111259-114536"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit13" id="la_potencialidad_revolucionaria_de_la_desescolarizacion">La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela no es de ningún modo, por cierto, la única institución moderna cuya finalidad primaria es moldear la visión de la realidad en el hombre. El currículum escondido de la vida familiar, de la conscripción militar, del llamado profesionalismo o de los medios informativos desempeña un importante papel en la manipulación institucional de la visión del mundo que tiene el hombre, de su lenguaje y de sus demandas. Pero la escuela esclaviza más profunda y sistemáticamente, puesto que sólo a ella se le acredita la función principal de formar el juicio crítico y, paradójicamente, trata de hacerlo haciendo que el aprender sobre sí mismo, sobre los demás y sobre la naturaleza dependa de un proceso preempacado. La escuela nos alcanza de manera tan íntima que ninguno puede esperar liberarse de ella mediante algo externo. +</p> + +<p> +Muchos de los que se autodenominan revolucionarios son víctimas de la escuela. Incluso ven la “liberación” como el producto de algo institucional. Sólo al librarse uno mismo de la escuela se disipa esa ilusión. El descubrimiento de que la mayor parte del aprendizaje no requiere enseñanza no puede ser ni manipulado ni planificado. Cada uno de nosotros es responsable de su propia desescolarización, y sólo nosotros tenemos el poder de hacerlo. No puede excusarse a nadie si no logra liberarse de la escolarización. El pueblo no pudo liberarse de la Corona sino hasta que al menos algunos de ellos se liberaron de la Iglesia establecida. No pueden liberarse del consumo progresivo hasta que no se liberen de la escuela obligatoria. +</p> + +<p> +Todos estamos metidos en la escolarización, tanto desde el aspecto de la producción como desde el del consumo. Estamos supersticiosamente convencidos de que el buen aprendizaje puede y debería producirse en nosotros —y de que podemos producirlo en otros—. Nuestro intento de desligarnos del concepto de escuela hará surgir las resistencias que hallamos en nosotros mismos cuando tratamos de renunciar al consumo ilimitado y a la ubicua suposición de que a los otros se les puede manipular por su propio bien. Nadie está totalmente exento de explotar a otros en el proceso de escolarización. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela es el más grande y más anónimo de todos los patrones. De hecho es el mejor empleo de un nuevo tipo de empresa, sucesora del gremio, de la fábrica y de la sociedad anónima. Las empresas multinacionales que han dominado la economía están siendo complementadas ahora, y puede que algún día sean suplantadas por organismos de servicio con planificación supranacional. Estas empresas presentan sus servicios de manera que hacen que todos los hombres se sientan obligados a consumirlos. Se rigen por una normativa internacional, redefiniendo el valor de sus servicios periódicamente y por doquiera a un ritmo aproximadamente parejo. +</p> + +<p> +El “transporte” que se apoya en nuevos coches y supercarreteras atiende a la misma necesidad institucionalmente envasada de comodidad, prestigio, velocidad y equipamiento, independientemente de que sus componentes los produzca o no el Estado. El aparato de la “atención médica” define una especie peculiar de salud, poco importa que sea el individuo o el Estado quien pague el servicio. La promoción graduada a fin de obtener diplomas ajusta al estudiante para ocupar un lugar en la misma pirámide internacional de mano de obra cualificada, independientemente de quien dirija la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En todos estos casos el empleo es un beneficio oculto: el chofer de un automóvil privado, el paciente que se somete a hospitalización o el alumno en el aula deben considerase como parte de una nueva clase de “empleados”. Un movimiento de liberación que se inicie en la escuela y, sin embargo, esté fundado en maestros y alumnos como explotados y explotadores simultáneamente, podría anticiparse a las estrategias revolucionarias del futuro; pues un programa radical de desescolarización podría adiestrar a la juventud en el nuevo estilo de revolución necesaria para desafiar a un sistema social que exhibe una “salud”, una “riqueza” y una “seguridad” obligatorias. +</p> + +<p> +Los riesgos de una rebelión contra la escuela son imprevisibles, pero no son tan horribles como los de una revolución que se inicie en cualquier otra institución principal. La escuela no está todavía organizada para defenderse con tanta eficacia como una nación-Estado, o incluso como una gran sociedad anónima. La liberación de la opresión de las escuelas podría ser incruenta. Las armas del vigilante escolar[^n10] y de sus aliados en los tribunales y en las agencias de empleo podrían tomar medidas muy crueles contra el o la delincuente individual, especialmente si fuese pobre, pero podrían ser a su vez impotentes si surgiera un movimiento de masas. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela se ha convertido en un problema social; se le ataca por todas partes, y los ciudadanos y los gobiernos patrocinan experimentos no convencionales en todo el mundo. Recurren a insólitos expedientes estadísticos a fin de preservar la fe y salvar las apariencias. El ánimo que existe entre algunos educadores es muy parecido al ánimo de los obispos católicos después del Concilio Vaticano. Los planes de estudio de las llamadas “escuelas libres” se parecen a las liturgias de las misas con música folclórica y rock. Las exigencias de los estudiantes de bachillerato para tener voz y voto en la elección de sus profesores son tan estridentes como las de los feligreses que exigen seleccionar a sus párrocos. Pero para la sociedad está en juego algo mucho mayor si una minoría significativa pierde su fe en la escolaridad. Esto pondría en peligro la supervivencia no sólo del orden económico construido sobre la coproducción de bienes y demandas, sino igualmente del orden político construido sobre la nación-Estado dentro del cual los estudiantes son dados a la luz por la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Nuestras alternativas posibles son harto claras. O continuamos creyendo que el aprendizaje institucionalizado es un producto que justifica una inversión ilimitada, o redescubrimos que la legislación, la planificación y la inversión, si de alguna manera encajan en la educación formal, debieran usarse principalmente para derribar las barreras que ahora obstaculizan las posibilidades de aprendizaje, el cual sólo puede ser una actividad personal. +</p> + +<p> +Si no ponemos en tela de juicio el supuesto de que el conocimiento valedero es una mercancía que en ciertas circunstancias puede metérsele a la fuerza al consumidor, la sociedad se verá cada día más dominada por siniestras seudoescuelas y totalitarios administradores de la información. Los terapeutas pedagógicos drogarán más a sus alumnos a fin de enseñarles mejor, y los estudiantes se drogarán más a fin de conseguir aliviarse de las presiones de los profesores y de la carrera por diplomas. Ejércitos cada día mayores de burócratas presumirán de maestros. El lenguaje del escolar ya se lo ha apropiado el publicista. Ahora el general y el policía tratarán de dignificar sus profesiones disfrazándose de educadores. En una sociedad escolarizada, las guerras y la represión civil encuentran una justificación racional educativa. La guerra pedagógica al estilo Vietnam se justificará cada vez más como la única manera de enseñar a la gente el valor superior del progreso inacabable. +</p> + +<p> +La represión se considerará como un empeño de misioneros por apresurar la venida del Mesías mecánico. Más y más países recurrirán a la tortura pedagógica puesta ya en práctica en Brasil y Grecia. Esta tortura pedagógica no se usa para extraer información o para satisfacer las necesidades psíquicas de unos sádicos. Se apoya en el terror aleatorio para romper la integridad de toda una población y convertirla en un material plástico para las enseñanzas inventadas por tecnócratas. La naturaleza totalmente destructiva y en constante progreso de la instrucción obligatoria cumplirá cabalmente su lógica final a menos que comencemos a librarnos desde ahora de nuestra <em>hybris</em> pedagógica, nuestra creencia de que el hombre puede hacer lo que no puede Dios, a saber, manipular a otros para salvarlos. +</p> + +<p> +Muchos comienzan recientemente a darse cuenta de la inexorable destrucción que las tendencias actuales de producción implican para el medio ambiente, pero las personas aisladas tienen un poder muy restringido para cambiar estas tendencias. La manipulación de hombres y mujeres iniciada en la escuela ha llegado también a un punto sin retorno, y la mayoría de las personas aún no se han percatado de ello. Fomentan todavía la reforma escolar, tal como Henry Ford II propone unos nuevos automóviles ponzoñosos. +</p> + +<p> +Daniel Bell dice que nuestra época se caracteriza por una extrema disyunción entre las estructuras cultural y social; una dedicada a actitudes apocalípticas y la otra a la toma tecnocrática de decisiones. Esto es sin duda verdadero respecto de muchos reformadores de la educación que se sienten impulsados a condenar casi todo aquello que caracteriza a las escuelas modernas —y proponen simultáneamente nuevas escuelas—. +</p> + +<p> +En su <em>Estructura de las revoluciones científicas</em> , Thomas Kuhn aduce que dicha disonancia precede inevitablemente a la aparición de un nuevo paradigma cognoscitivo. Los hechos que informaban aquellos que observaban la caída libre, aquellos que volvían del otro lado de la Tierra y aquellos que usaban el nuevo telescopio, no se ajustaban a la visión cósmica tolemaica. Súbitamente, se aceptó el paradigma newtoniano. La disonancia que caracteriza a muchos jóvenes de hoy no es tanto cognoscitiva como un asunto de actitudes —un sentimiento acerca de cómo <em>no</em> puede ser una sociedad tolerable—. Lo sorprendente respecto de esta disonancia es la capacidad de un número muy grande de personas para tolerarla. +</p> + +<p> +La capacidad para ir tras metas incongruentes exige una explicación. Según Max Gluckman, todas las sociedades poseen procedimientos para ocultar tales disonancias de sus miembros. Los rituales pueden ocultar a sus participantes incluso discrepancias y conflictos entre principio social y organización social. Mientras un individuo no sea explícitamente consciente del carácter ritual del proceso a través del cual se le inició en las fuerzas que moldean su cosmos, no puede romper el conjuro y moldear un nuevo cosmos. Mientras no nos percatemos del ritual a través del cual la escuela moldea al consumidor progresivo —el recurso principal de la economía—, no podremos romper el conjuro de esta economía y dar forma a una nueva. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarizaci\u00f3n","hid":"la_potencialidad_revolucionaria_de_la_desescolarizacion","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":13,"range":"114537-125223"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit14" id="espectro_institucional">Espectro institucional</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +La mayoría de los esquemas utópicos y escenarios futurísticos requieren nuevas y costosas tecnologías que habrían de venderse a las naciones ricas y pobres por igual. Herman Kahn ha encontrado alumnos en Venezuela, Argentina y Colombia. Las fantasías de Sergio Bernardes para su Brasil del año 2000 centellean con más maquinaria nueva de la que hoy posee Estados Unidos, que para entonces estará recargado con los obsoletos emplazamientos para misiles, aeropuertos para reactores y ciudades de las décadas de los años sesenta-setenta. Los futuristas inspirados en Buckminster Fuller se apoyarían más bien en dispositivos más baratos y exóticos. Cuentan con que se acepte una tecnología nueva pero posible, que al parecer nos permitiría hacer más con menos —monorrieles ligeros en vez de transporte supersónico, viviendas verticales en vez de dispersión horizontal—. Todos los planificadores futuristas de hoy tratan de hacer económicamente factible lo técnicamente posible, negándose a la vez a enfrentar las inevitables consecuencias sociales: el creciente anhelo de todos los hombres por bienes y servicios que seguirán siendo privilegio de unos pocos. +</p> + +<p> +Creo que un futuro deseable depende, en primer lugar, de nuestra voluntad de elegir una vida de acción en vez de una vida de consumo, de que engendremos un estilo de vida que nos permita ser espontáneos, independientes y, sin embargo, relacionarnos uno con otro, en vez de mantener un estilo de vida que sólo nos permite hacer y deshacer, producir y consumir —un estilo de vida que es sólo una estación en el camino hacia el agotamiento y la contaminación del entorno—. El futuro depende más de nuestra elección de instituciones que mantengan una vida de acción y menos de que desarrollemos nuevas ideologías y tecnologías. Necesitamos un conjunto de pautas que nos permitan reconocer aquellas instituciones que apoyan el desarrollo personal en vez del enviciamiento, como también la voluntad de dedicar nuestros recursos tecnológicos preferentemente a dichas instituciones de desarrollo. +</p> + +<p> +La elección se sitúa entre dos tipos institucionales radicalmente opuestos, ejemplificados ambos en ciertas instituciones existentes, aunque uno de esos tipos caracteriza de tal manera la época contemporánea que casi la define. A este tipo dominante yo propondría llamarlo la institución manipulativa. El otro tipo existe, pero sólo precariamente. Las instituciones que se ajustan a él son más humildes y menos notorias. No obstante, las tomo como modelos de un futuro más deseable. Las llamo “convivenciales” y sugiero colocarlas a la izquierda institucional, para mostrar que hay instituciones situadas entre ambos extremos y para ilustrar cómo las instituciones históricas pueden cambiar de color conforme se desplazan desde un facilitar la actividad a un organizar la producción. +</p> + +<p> +Dicho espectro, que se desplaza de izquierda a derecha, se ha usado por lo general para caracterizar a los hombres y sus ideologías, y no a nuestras instituciones sociales y a sus estilos. Esta categorización de los hombres, sea como individuos o como grupos, suele producir más calor que luz. Pueden suscitarse poderosas objeciones contra el uso de una convención corriente, pero al hacerlo espero desplazar los términos del debate de un plano estéril a uno fértil. Se evidenciará que los hombres de izquierda no siempre se caracterizan por su oposición a las instituciones manipulativas, a las que coloco en el extremo derecho del espectro. +</p> + +<p> +Las instituciones modernas más influyentes se agolpan al lado derecho del espectro. Hacia él se ha desplazado la coerción legal, conforme ha pasado de las manos del <em>sheriff</em> a las del FBI y del Pentágono. La guerra moderna se ha convertido en una empresa sumamente profesional cuyo negocio es matar. Ha llegado al punto en que su eficiencia se mide por el recuento de cuerpos. Sus capacidades pacificadoras dependen de su poder para convencer a amigos y enemigos de la ilimitada potencia letal de la nación. Las balas y los productos químicos modernos son tan eficaces que a un ínfimo precio son capaces de matar o mutilar infaliblemente al “cliente”. Pero los costos de entrega aumentan vertiginosamente; el coste de un vietnamita muerto subió de 360 000 dólares en 1967 a 450 000 dólares en 1969. Sólo economías a una escala cercana al suicidio de la raza harían económicamente eficiente el arte militar moderno. Se está haciendo más obvio el efecto <em>boomerang</em> en la guerra: cuanto mayor es el recuento de cuerpos de vietnamitas muertos, tantos más enemigos consigue Estados Unidos por todo el mundo; asimismo, tanto más debe gastar Estados Unidos en crear otra institución manipulativa —motejada cínicamente como de “pacificación”— en un vano intento por absorber los efectos secundarios de la guerra. +</p> + +<p> +En este mismo lado del espectro hallamos también organismos sociales que se especializan en la manipulación de sus clientes. Semejante a la organización militar, tienden a crear efectos contrarios a sus objetivos conforme crece el ámbito de sus operaciones. Estas instituciones sociales son igualmente contraproductivas, pero lo son de manera menos evidente. Muchas adoptan una imagen simpática y terapéutica para encubrir este efecto paradójico. Por ejemplo, hasta hace un par de siglos, las cárceles servían como medio para detener a las personas hasta que se les sentenciaba, se les mutilaba, se les mataba o se les exiliaba; en ocasiones se usaban deliberadamente como forma de tortura. Sólo recientemente comenzamos a pretender que encerrar a la gente en jaulas tendrá un efecto benéfico sobre su carácter y comportamiento. Ahora, más que unos pocos están empezando a entender que la cárcel incrementa tanto la calidad de los criminales como su cantidad, que es perfectamente capaz de hacer de un simple inconforme un criminal endurecido. No obstante, es mucho menor el número de los que al parecer entienden que las clínicas psiquiátricas, hogares de reposo y orfanatos hacen algo muy parecido. Estas instituciones proporcionan a sus clientes la destructiva autoimagen del psicótico, del excedido en años o del niño abandonado, y proveen la justificación lógica para la existencia de ciertas profesiones, tal como las cárceles poseen sus guardias. La afiliación a instituciones que se encuentran en este extremo del espectro se consigue de dos maneras, ambas coercitivas: mediante compromiso obligado o mediante servicio selectivo. +</p> + +<p> +En el extremo opuesto del espectro se sitúan unas instituciones que se distinguen por el uso espontáneo —las instituciones “convivenciales”—. Las conexiones telefónicas, las líneas de metro, los recorridos de los carteros, los mercados y lonjas no tienen necesidad de convencernos de su necesidad. Los sistemas de alcantarillado, de agua potable, los parques y veredas son instituciones que los hombres usan sin tener que estar institucionalmente convencidos de que les conviene hacerlo. Todas las instituciones exigen, por cierto, cierta reglamentación. Pero el funcionamiento de instituciones que existen para usarse más que para producir algo, requiere de normas cuya índole es totalmente diferente de la que exigen las instituciones-tratamiento, que son manipulativas. Las normas que rigen a las instituciones para uso tienen por fin principal evitar abusos que frustrarían su accesibilidad general. Las veredas deben mantenerse libres de obstrucciones, el uso industrial de agua potable debe someterse a ciertos límites y el juego de pelota debe restringirse a zonas especiales dentro de un parque. Actualmente necesitamos una legislación especial para evitar el abuso de nuestras líneas telefónicas por parte de computadoras, el abuso del servicio de correo por parte de los anunciantes y la contaminación de nuestros sistemas de alcantarillado por los desechos industriales. La reglamentación de las instituciones convivenciales fija límites para su empleo; conforme uno pasa del extremo convivencial del espectro al manipulativo, las normas van exigiendo cada vez más un consumo o participación no queridos. El diferente coste de la adquisición de clientes es precisamente una de las características que distingue a las instituciones conviviales de las manipulativas. +</p> + +<p> +En ambos extremos del espectro encontramos instituciones de servicio, pero a la derecha, el servicio es una manipulación impuesta y al cliente se le convierte en víctima de la publicidad, la agresión, el adoctrinamiento, la prisión o el electrochoque. A la izquierda, el servicio es una mayor oportunidad de límites definidos formalmente, mientras el cliente sigue siendo un agente libre. Las instituciones del ala derecha tienden a procesos de producción altamente complejos y costosos en los que gran parte de la complicación y el gasto se ocupan en convencer a los consumidores de que no pueden vivir sin el producto o tratamiento ofrecido por la institución. Las instituciones del ala izquierda tienden a redes que facilitan la composición o cooperación iniciada por el cliente. +</p> + +<p> +Las instituciones manipulativas de la derecha son formadoras de hábito, “adictivas”, social y psicológicamente. La adicción social, o escalada, consiste en la tendencia a prescribir un tratamiento intensificado si dosis menores no han rendido los resultados deseados. La adicción psicológica, o habituamiento, se produce cuando los consumidores se envician con la necesidad de una cantidad cada vez mayor del proceso o del producto. Las instituciones de la izquierda que uno mismo pone en actividad tienden a autolimitarse. Al revés de los procesos de producción que identifican la satisfacción con el mero acto del consumo, estas redes sirven a un objetivo que va más allá de su uso repetido. Una persona levanta el teléfono cuando quiere decir algo a otra, y cuelga una vez terminada la comunicación deseada. A excepción hecha de los adolescentes, no usa el teléfono por el puro placer de hablar ante el receptor. Si el teléfono no es el mejor modo de ponerse en comunicación, las personas escribirán una carta o harán un viaje. Las instituciones de la derecha, como podemos ver claramente en el caso de las escuelas, invitan compulsivamente al uso repetitivo y frustran las maneras alternativas de lograr resultados similares. +</p> + +<p> +Hacia la izquierda del espectro institucional, pero no en el extremo mismo, podemos colocar a las empresas que compiten entre sí en la actividad que les es propia, pero que no han empezado a ocupar la publicidad de manera notable. Encontramos aquí las lavanderías manuales, las pequeñas panaderías, los peluqueros y, para hablar de profesionales, algunos abogados y profesores de música. Son por consiguiente característicamente del ala izquierda las personas que han institucionalizado sus servicios, pero no su publicidad. Consiguen clientes mediante su contacto personal y la calidad relativa de sus servicios. +</p> + +<p> +Los hoteles y las cafeterías se acercan algo más al centro. Las grandes cadenas hoteleras como la Hilton que gastan inmensas cantidades en vender su imagen, a menudo se comportan como si estuvieran dirigiendo instituciones de la derecha. No obstante, las empresas Hilton y Sheraton no ofrecen nada más —de hecho dan frecuentemente menos— que alojamientos de precio similar y dirigidos independientemente. En lo esencial, un letrero de hotel atrae al viajero como lo hace un signo caminero. Dice más bien: “Detente, aquí hay una cama para ti”, y no: “¡Deberías preferir una cama de hotel a una banca en el parque!” +</p> + +<p> +Los productores de artículos de primera necesidad y de la mayoría de los bienes efímeros pertenecen a la parte central de nuestro espectro. Satisfacen demandas genéricas y agregan al costo de producción y distribución todo lo que el mercado soporte en costos publicitarios, en anuncios y envases. Cuanto más básico sea el producto —trátese de bienes o de servicios— tanto más tiende la competencia a limitar el costo de venta del artículo. +</p> + +<p> +La mayoría de los fabricantes de bienes de consumo se han ido mucho más a la derecha. Tanto directa como indirectamente, producen demandas de accesorios que hinchan el precio real de compra muy por encima del coste de producción. La General Motors y la Ford producen medios de transporte, pero también, y esto es más importante, manipulan el gusto del público de manera tal que la necesidad de transporte se expresa como una demanda de coches privados y no de autobuses públicos. Venden el deseo de controlar una máquina, correr a grandes velocidades con lujosa comodidad, al tiempo que ofrecen el espejismo de la evasión. Pero lo que venden no es tan sólo un asunto de motores inútilmente poderosos, de artilugios superfluos o de suplementos nuevos que los fabricantes han tenido que agregar obligados por Ralph Nader y los grupos que presionan en pro de un aire limpio. La lista de precios incluye dispositivos anticontaminantes, cinturones de seguridad, climatización; pero también comprende otros costes que no se le declaran abiertamente al conductor: los gastos de publicidad y de ventas de la empresa, el combustible, el mantenimiento y las refacciones, el seguro, el interés sobre el crédito, como también costes menos tangibles, como la pérdida de tiempo, el buen humor y el aire respirable en nuestras congestionadas ciudades. +</p> + +<p> +Un corolario particularmente interesante de nuestro examen de instituciones socialmente útiles es el sistema de carreteras “públicas”. Este importante elemento del coste total de los automóviles merece un análisis más dilatado, pues conduce directamente a la institución derechista en la que estoy más interesado, a saber, la escuela. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Espectro institucional","hid":"espectro_institucional","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":14,"range":"125224-139068"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit15" id="falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica">Falsos servicios de utilidad pública</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +El sistema de carreteras es una red para la locomoción a través de distancias relativamente grandes. En su condición de red, parecería corresponderle estar a la izquierda en el espectro institucional. Pero en este caso debemos hacer una distinción que esclarecerá tanto la naturaleza de las carreteras como la naturaleza de los verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Los caminos que son genuinamente para todos, son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Las supercarreteras son cotos privados, cuyo coste se le encaja parcialmente al público. +</p> + +<p> +Los sistemas de teléfonos, correos y caminos son redes, y ninguno es gratis. El acceso a la red de teléfonos está limitado por cobros sobre tiempo ocupado en cada llamada. Estas tarifas son relativamente bajas y podrían reducirse sin cambiar la naturaleza del sistema. El uso del sistema telefónico no está en absoluto limitado por lo que se transmita, aunque lo emplean mejor quienes pueden hablar frases coherentes en el lenguaje del interlocutor, una capacidad que poseen todos los que desean usar la red. El franqueo suele ser barato. El uso del sistema postal se ve ligeramente limitado por el precio de la pluma y el papel, y algo más por la capacidad de escribir. Aún así, cuando alguien que no sabe escribir tiene un pariente o un amigo a quien pueda dictarle una carta, el sistema postal está a su disposición, tal como lo está si quiere despachar una cinta grabada. +</p> + +<p> +El sistema de carreteras no llega a estar disponible de manera similar para alguien que tan sólo aprenda a conducir. Las redes telefónica y postal existen para servir a quienes deseen usarlas, mientras el sistema de carreteras sirve principalmente como accesorio del automóvil privado. Las primeras son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública, mientras el último es un servicio público para los dueños de coches, camiones y autobuses. Los servicios de utilidad pública existen en pro de la comunicación entre los hombres: las carreteras, como otras instituciones de la derecha, existen en pro de un producto. Tal como hicimos notar, los fabricantes de automóviles <em>producen</em> simultáneamente tanto los coches como la demanda de coches. Asimismo <em>producen</em> la demanda de carreteras de varias vías, puentes y campos petrolíferos. El coche privado es el foco de una constelación de instituciones del ala derecha. El elevado coste de cada elemento lo dicta la complicación del producto básico, y vender el producto básico es enviciar a la sociedad en el paquete conjunto. +</p> + +<p> +Planificar un sistema vial como un verdadero servicio de utilidad pública discriminaría a aquellos para quienes la velocidad y el confort individualizado son los valores primarios de transporte, y favorecería a aquellos que valoran la fluidez y el lugar de destino. Es la diferencia entre una red extendidísima con acceso máximo para los viajeros y otra que ofrezca sólo un acceso privilegiado a una zona restringida. +</p> + +<p> +La transferencia de una institución moderna a las naciones en desarrollo permite probar esto con mejor claridad. En los países muy pobres, los caminos suelen ser apenas lo bastante buenos como para permitir el tránsito mediante camiones especiales de eje elevado, cargados de víveres, reses o personas. Este tipo de país debería usar sus limitados recursos para construir una telaraña de pistas que llegaran a todas sus regiones y debería restringir la importancia de vehículos a dos o tres modelos diferentes muy duraderos que puedan transitar por malos caminos a baja velocidad. Esto simplificaría el mantenimiento continuo de estos vehículos y proporcionaría una máxima fluidez y elección de puntos de destino a todos los ciudadanos. Esto exigiría proyectar vehículos para todo servicio con la simplicidad del Ford T, utilizando las aleaciones más modernas para garantizar su durabilidad, con un límite de velocidad incorporado de unos 25 kilómetros por hora a lo más, y lo bastante firme como para rodar por el terreno más áspero. No se ofrecen estos vehículos en el mercado porque no hay demanda de ellos. De hecho sería preciso cultivar esa demanda, muy posiblemente al amparo de una legislación estricta. Actualmente, cada vez que una demanda de esta especie se hace sentir un poco, se le descarta rápida y desdeñosamente mediante una publicidad contraria, encaminada a la venta universal de las máquinas que extraen hoy de los contribuyentes estadunidenses el dinero necesario para construir supercarreteras. +</p> + +<p> +Para “mejorar” el transporte, todos los países, hasta los más pobres, proyectan ahora sistemas viales concebidos para coches de pasajeros y remolques de alta velocidad que se ajustan a la minoría, pendiente del velocímetro, compuesta por productores y consumidores en las clases selectas. Este planteamiento a menudo se justifica racionalmente pintándolo como un ahorro del recurso más precioso de un país pobre: el tiempo del médico, del inspector escolar o del funcionario público. Estos hombres, naturalmente, sirven casi exclusivamente a la misma gente que posee un coche o espera tenerlo algún día. Los impuestos locales y las escasas divisas se derrochan en <em>falsos servicios de utilidad pública</em>. +</p> + +<p> +La tecnología “moderna” transferida a los países pobres puede dividirse en tres categorías: bienes, fábricas que los hacen e instituciones de servicios —principalmente escuelas— que convierten a los hombres en productores y consumidores modernos. La mayor parte de los países gastan la mayor proporción de su presupuesto, y con mucho, en escuelas. Los graduados fabricados con escuelas crean entonces una demanda de otros servicios conspicuos de utilidad pública, tales como potencia industrial, carreteras pavimentadas, hospitales modernos y aeropuertos, y éstos crean a su vez un mercado para los bienes hechos para países ricos y, al cabo de un tiempo, la tendencia a importar fábricas anticuadas para producirlos. +</p> + +<p> +De todos los “falsos servicios de utilidad pública”, la escuela es el más insidioso. Los sistemas de carreteras producen sólo demanda de coches. Las escuelas crean una demanda para el conjunto completo de instituciones modernas que llenan el extremo derecho del espectro. A un hombre que pusiera en duda la necesidad de carreteras se le tacharía de romántico; al que ponga en tela de juicio la necesidad de escuelas se le ataca de inmediato: un ser sin entrañas o un imperialista. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Falsos servicios de utilidad p\u00fablica","hid":"falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":15,"range":"139069-145568"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit16" id="las_escuelas_como_falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica">Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Al igual que las carreteras, las escuelas dan a primera vista la impresión de estar igualmente abiertas para todos los interesados. De hecho están abiertas sólo para quienes renueven sin cejar sus credenciales. Así como las carreteras crean la impresión de que su nivel actual de costes anuales es necesario para que la gente pueda moverse, así se supone que las escuelas son indispensables para alcanzar la competencia que exige una sociedad que use la tecnología moderna. Hemos expuesto las autopistas como servicios de utilidad pública espurios observando cómo dependen de los automóviles privados. Las escuelas se fundan en la hipótesis igualmente espuria de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza curricular. +</p> + +<p> +Las carreteras son las consecuencias del deseo y la necesidad de movilizarse que se pervierten para convertirlos en demanda de coches privados. Las escuelas pervierten la natural inclinación a desarrollarse y aprender convirtiéndola en demanda de instrucción. La demanda de una madurez manufacturada es mucho más la abnegación de la actividad iniciada por uno mismo que la demanda de bienes manufacturados. Las escuelas no sólo están a la derecha de las carreteras y los coches, tienen su lugar cerca del extremo del espectro institucional ocupado por los asilos totales. Incluso los productores de recuentos de cuerpos matan solamente cuerpos. Al hacer que los hombres abdiquen de la responsabilidad de su propio desarrollo, la escuela conduce a muchos a una especie de suicidio espiritual. +</p> + +<p> +Las carreteras las pagan en parte quienes las utilizan, puesto que los peajes e impuestos al combustible se obtienen sólo de los conductores. La escuela, en cambio, es un sistema perfecto de tributación regresiva, en el que los privilegios cabalgan sobre el lomo de todo público pagador. La escuela fija un gravamen por cabeza sobre la promoción. El subconsumo de distancias recorridas por carretera no es nunca tan costoso como el subconsumo de escolarización. El hombre que no posea un coche en Los Ángeles posiblemente esté casi inmovilizado, pero si se ingenia de algún modo para llegar a su lugar de trabajo, podrá conseguir y conservar un empleo. El desertor escolar carece de vía alternativa. El habitante suburbano en su Lincoln nuevo y su primo campesino que conduce una vieja carcacha se aprovechan más o menos igual de la carretera, aunque el vehículo del uno cueste 30 veces más que el del otro. El valor de la escolarización de un hombre es función del número de años que ha permanecido en escuelas y de la carestía de éstas. La ley no obliga a conducir, en cambio obliga a ir a la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +El análisis de las instituciones según su actual emplazamiento en un espectro continuo izquierda-derecha me permite esclarecer mi convicción de que el cambio social fundamental debe comenzar con un cambio en la conciencia que se tiene de las instituciones y explicar por qué la dimensión de un futuro viable recae en el rejuvenecimiento del estilo institucional. +</p> + +<p> +Durante la década 1960-1970, unas instituciones, nacidas en diversas épocas después de la Revolución francesa, llegaron a su vejez; los sistemas de escuelas públicas fundados en la época de Jefferson o de Atatürk, junto con otros que se iniciaron después de la segunda Guerra Mundial, se hicieron todos burocráticos, autojustificantes y manipulativos. Lo mismo les ocurrió a los sistemas de seguridad social, a los sindicatos, a las principales Iglesias y cuerpos diplomáticos, a la atención de los ancianos y a los servicios funerarios. +</p> + +<p> +Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay un mayor parecido ente los sistemas escolares de Colombia, Inglaterra, la Unión Soviética y Estados Unidos, que entre las escuelas de este último de fines del siglo pasado y las de hoy o las de Rusia en ese tiempo. Las escuelas son hoy obligatorias, sin término definido y competitivo. Esa misma convergencia en el estilo institucional afecta la atención médica, la comercialización, la administración de personal y la vida política. Todos estos procesos institucionales tienden a apilarse en el extremo manipulativo del espectro. +</p> + +<p> +La consecuencia de esta convergencia de instituciones es la fusión de burocracias mundiales. El estilo, el sistema de ordenamiento jerárquico y la parafernalia (desde el libro de texto a la computadora) se normalizan en los consejos de planificación de Costa Rica o de Afganistán, según los modelos de Europa occidental. +</p> + +<p> +Las burocracias parecen centrarse en todas partes en la misma tarea: promover el crecimiento de las instituciones de la derecha. Se ocupan de la fabricación de cosas, la fabricación de normas rituales y la fabricación —y remodelación— de la “verdad ejecutiva”, la ideología o el <em>fiat</em> que establece el valor presente que debiera atribuirse a lo que ellas producen. La tecnología proporciona a estas burocracias un poder creciente a la mano derecha de la sociedad. La mano izquierda parece marchitarse y no porque la tecnología sea menos capaz de aumentar el ámbito de la actividad humana y de proporcionar tiempo para el despliegue de la imaginación individual y para la creatividad personal, sino porque ese uso de la tecnología no aumenta el poder de la élite que la administra. El director de correos no tiene control sobre el uso esencial de ese servicio; la telefonista o el directivo de la compañía telefónica carecen de poder para impedir que se preparen adulterios, asesinatos o subversiones usando sus líneas. +</p> + +<p> +En la elección entre la derecha y la izquierda institucional está en juego la naturaleza misma de la vida humana. El hombre debe elegir entre ser rico en cosas o tener libertad para usarlas. Debe elegir entre estilos alternativos de vida y programas conexos de producción. +</p> + +<p> +Aristóteles ya había descubierto que “hacer y actuar” son diferentes, y de hecho tan diferentes que lo uno jamás incluye lo otro. “Porque ni es el actuar una manera de hacer, ni el hacer una manera del verdadero actuar. La arquitectura <em>techne</em> es una manera de hacer… dar nacimiento a algo cuyo origen está en su hacedor y no en la cosa. El hacer siempre tiene una finalidad que no es él mismo, y no así la acción, puesto que la buena acción es en sí misma un fin. La perfección en el hacer es un arte; la perfección en el actuar, una virtud.”[^n11] La palabra que Aristóteles usó para hacer fue <em>poesis</em> , y la que usó para actuar, <em>praxis</em>. El movimiento hacia la derecha de una institución indica que se la está reestructurando para aumentar su capacidad de “hacer”, mientras que si se desplaza hacia la izquierda indica que se la está reestructurando para permitir un mayor “actuar” o “praxis”. La tecnología moderna ha aumentado la capacidad del hombre para dejar a las máquinas el “hacer” cosas y ha aumentado el tiempo que puede dedicar a “actuar”. El “hacer” las cosas cotidianas imprescindibles ha dejado de ocupar su tiempo. El desempleo es la consecuencia de esta modernización: es la ociosidad del hombre para quien no hay nada que “hacer” y que no sabe cómo “actuar”. El desempleo es la triste ociosidad del hombre que, al revés de Aristóteles, cree que hacer cosas o trabajar es virtuoso y que la ociosidad es mala. El desempleo es la experiencia del hombre que ha sucumbido a la ética protestante. Según Weber, el hombre necesita el ocio para poder trabajar. Según Aristóteles, el trabajo es necesario para poder tener ocio. +</p> + +<p> +La tecnología proporciona al hombre tiempo discrecional que puede llenar ya sea haciendo, ya sea actuando. Toda nuestra cultura tiene abierta ahora la opción entre un triste desempleo o un ocio feliz. Depende del estilo institucional que la cultura elija. Esta elección habría sido inconcebible en una cultura antigua fundada en la agricultura campesina o en la esclavitud. Ha llegado a ser inevitable para el hombre posindustrial. +</p> + +<p> +Una manera de llenar el tiempo disponible es estimular mayores demandas de consumo de bienes y, simultáneamente, de producción de servicios. Lo primero implica una economía que proporciona una falange cada vez mayor de cosas siempre novedosas que pueden hacerse, consumirse y someterse a reciclaje. Lo segundo implica el vano intento de “hacer” acciones virtuosas, haciendo aparecer como tales los productos de las instituciones de “servicios”. Esto conduce a la identificación de la escolaridad con la educación, del servicio médico con la salud, de los programas con la recreación, de la velocidad con la locomoción eficaz. La primera opción lleva ahora el apodo de <em>desarrollo.</em> +</p> + +<p> +La manera radicalmente alternativa de llenar el tiempo disponible consiste en una gama limitada de bienes más durables y en proporcionar acceso a instituciones que puedan aumentar la oportunidad y apetencia de las acciones humanas recíprocas. +</p> + +<p> +Una economía de bienes duraderos es exactamente lo contrario de una economía fundada en la obsolescencia programada. Una economía de bienes duraderos significa una restricción en la lista de mercancías. Los bienes habrían de ser de tal especie que diesen un máximo de oportunidad para “actuar” en algo con ellos: artículos hechos para montarlos uno mismo, para autoayudarse, para su reempleo y reparación. +</p> + +<p> +El complemento de una lista de bienes durables, reparables y reutilizables no es un aumento de servicios producidos institucionalmente, sino más bien una estructura institucional que eduque constantemente en la acción, en la participación, en la autoayuda. El movimiento de nuestra sociedad desde el presente —en el que todas las instituciones gravitan hacia una burocracia posindustrial— a un futuro de convivencialidad posindustrial —en el que la intensidad de la acción sería preponderante sobre la producción— debe comenzar con una renovación del estilo de las instituciones de servicio y, antes que nada, por una renovación de la educación. Un futuro deseable y factible depende de nuestra disposición a invertir nuestro saber tecnológico en el desarrollo de instituciones convivenciales. En el terreno de las investigaciones sobre educación, esto equivale a exigir que se trastroquen las tendencias actuales. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad p\u00fablica","hid":"las_escuelas_como_falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":16,"range":"145569-155880"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit17" id="compatibilidades_irracionales">Compatibilidades irracionales</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +[^n12] Creo que la crisis contemporánea de la educación nos obliga más bien a modificar la idea de un aprendizaje públicamente prescrito y no los métodos usados para hacerlo cumplir. La proporción de desertores —especialmente de alumnos de los primeros años de bachillerato y de maestros de primaria— señala que las bases están pidiendo un enfoque totalmente nuevo. Al “practicante del aula” que se estima un profesor liberal se le ataca cada vez más por todos lados. El movimiento pro escuela libre, que confunde disciplina con adoctrinamiento, le ha adjudicado el papel de elemento destructivo y autoritario. El tecnólogo educativo demuestra sostenidamente la inferioridad del profesor para medir y modificar la conducta. Y la administración escolar para la que trabaja lo obliga a inclinarse tanto ante Summerhill como ante Skinner, poniendo en evidencia que el aprendizaje obligatorio no puede ser una empresa liberal. No debe asombrar que el índice de maestros desertores esté superando el de los alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +El compromiso que Estados Unidos ha contraído de educar obligatoriamente a sus menores se demuestra tan vano como el pretendido compromiso norteamericano de democratizar obligatoriamente a los vietnamitas. Las escuelas convencionales obviamente no pueden hacerlo. El movimiento pro escuela libre seduce a los educadores no convencionales, pero en definitiva lo hace en apoyo de la ideología convencional de la escolarización. Y lo que prometen los tecnólogos de la educación, a saber, que sus investigaciones y desarrollo —si se les dota de fondos suficientes— pueden ofrecer alguna especie de solución final a la resistencia de la juventud contra el aprendizaje obligatorio, suena tan confiado y demuestra ser tan fatuo como las promesas hechas por los tecnólogos militares. +</p> + +<p> +Las críticas dirigidas contra el sistema escolar estadunidense por parte de los conductistas, y las que provienen de la nueva raza de educadores raciales, parecen diametralmente opuestas. Los conductistas aplican las investigaciones sobre educación a la “inducción de instrucción autotélica mediante paquetes de aprendizaje individualizados”. El estilo conductista choca con la idea de hacer que los jóvenes ingresen por voluntad propia en unas comunas liberadas que les invitan a ingresar, las cuales estarían supervisadas por adultos. No obstante, bajo una perspectiva histórica, ambas no son sino manifestaciones contemporáneas de las metas, aparentemente contradictorias, pero en verdad complementarias, del sistema escolar público. Desde los comienzos de este siglo, las escuelas han sido protagonistas del control social por una parte y de la cooperación libre por la otra, poniéndose ambos aspectos al servicio de la “buena sociedad” a la que se concibe como una estructura corporativa altamente organizada y de suave funcionamiento. Sometidos al impacto de una urbanización intensa, los niños se convierten en un recurso natural que las escuelas han de moldear para luego alimentar la máquina industrial. Las políticas progresistas y el culto a la eficiencia coincidieron con el crecimiento de la escuela pública estadunidense.[^n13] La orientación vocacional y la <em>junior highschool</em>[^n14] fueron dos importantes resultados de este tipo de conceptos. +</p> + +<p> +Parece, por consiguiente, que el intento de producir cambios específicos en el comportamiento, que puedan medirse y de los que pueda responsabilizarse al encargado del proceso, es sólo el anverso de la medalla, cuyo reverso es la pacificación de la nueva generación dentro de enclaves especialmente proyectados que los inducirán a entrar en el sueño de sus mayores. Estos seres pacificados en sociedad están bien descritos por Dewey, quien quiere que “hagamos de cada una de nuestras escuelas una vida comunitaria en embrión, activa, con tipos de ocupaciones que reflejen la vida de la sociedad en pleno, y la <em>impregnen</em> con el espíritu del arte, de la historia, de la ciencia”. Bajo esta perspectiva histórica, sería un grave error interpretar la actual controversia a tres bandas entre el establecimiento escolar, los tecnólogos de la educación y las escuelas libres como el preludio de una revolución en la educación. Esta controversia refleja más bien una etapa de un intento para convertir a grandes trancos un viejo sueño en hecho y convertir finalmente todo aprendizaje valedero en el resultado de una enseñanza profesional. La mayoría de las alternativas educativas propuestas convergen hacia metas que son inmanentes a la producción del hombre cooperativo cuyas necesidades individuales se satisfacen mediante su especialización en el sistema estadunidense: están orientadas hacia el mejoramiento de lo que yo llamo —a falta de una mejor expresión— la sociedad escolarizada. Incluso los críticos aparentemente radicales del sistema escolar no están dispuestos a abandonar la idea de que tienen una obligación para con los jóvenes, especialmente para con los pobres, la obligación de hacerlos pasar por el proceso, sea mediante amor o mediante odio, para meterlos en una sociedad que necesita especialización disciplinada tanto de sus productores como de sus consumidores y, asimismo, el pleno compromiso de todos ellos con la ideología que antepone a todo el crecimiento económico. +</p> + +<p> +La disensión enmascara la contradicción inherente a la idea misma de escuela. Los sindicatos establecidos de profesores, los brujos de la tecnología y los movimientos de liberación escolar refuerzan el compromiso de la sociedad entera con los axiomas fundamentales de un mundo escolarizado, más o menos del modo en que muchos movimientos pacifistas y de protesta refuerzan el compromiso de sus miembros —sean negros, mujeres, jóvenes o pobres— con la búsqueda de justicia mediante el crecimiento del ingreso nacional bruto. +</p> + +<p> +Es fácil anotar algunos de los postulados que ahora pasan inadvertidos a la crítica. En primer lugar está la creencia compartida de que la conducta que se ha adquirido ante los ojos de un pedagogo es de especial valor para el alumno y de especial provecho para la sociedad. Esto está relacionado con el supuesto de que el hombre social nace sólo en la adolescencia, y que nace adecuadamente sólo si madura en la escuela-matriz, que algunos desean hacer dulce mediante el <em>laissez-faire,</em>[^n15] otros quieren llenar de artilugios mecánicos y unos terceros buscan barnizar con una tradición liberal. Está finalmente una visión común de la juventud, psicológicamente romántica y políticamente conservadora. Según esta visión, los cambios de la sociedad deben llevarse a cabo agobiando a los jóvenes con la responsabilidad de transformarla —pero sólo después de que en su momento se han liberado de la escuela—. Para una sociedad fundada en tales postulados es fácil ir creando un sentido de su responsabilidad respecto de la educación de la nueva generación, y esto inevitablemente significa que algunos hombres pueden fijar, especificar y evaluar las metas personales de otros. En un “párrafo tomado de una enciclopedia china imaginaria” Jorge Luis Borges trata de evocar el mareo que debe producir ese intento. Nos dice que los animales están divididos en las clases siguientes: “ <em>a)</em> pertenecientes al Emperador, <em>b)</em> embalsamados, <em>c)</em> amaestrados, <em>d)</em> lechones, <em>e)</em> sirenas, <em>f)</em> fabulosos, <em>g)</em> perros sueltos, <em>h)</em> incluidos en esta clasificación, <em>i)</em> que se agitan como locos, <em>j)</em> innumerables, <em>k)</em> dibujados con un pincel finísimo de pelo de camello, <em>l)</em> etcétera, <em>m)</em> que acaban de romper el jarrón, <em>n)</em> que de lejos parecen moscas”. Ahora bien, semejante taxonomía no aparece a menos que alguien estime que puede servir para sus fines: en este caso, supongo, ese alguien era un cobrador de impuestos. Para él, al menos, esta taxonomía bestiaria <em>tiene</em> que haber tenido sentido, tal como la taxonomía de objetivos educativos tiene sentido para los autores científicos. +</p> + +<p> +La visión de hombres dotados de una lógica tan inescrutable, y autorizados para evaluar su ganado, debe haber producido en el campesino un helado sentimiento de impotencia. Los estudiantes, por motivos parecidos, tienden a sentirse paranoicos cuando se someten seriamente a un currículum. Inevitablemente se asustan aún más que mi imaginario campesino chino, porque no es su ganado, sino sus objetivos vitales los que están siendo marcados con un signo inescrutable. +</p> + +<p> +Este pasaje de Borges es fascinante, porque evoca la lógica de la <em>compatibilidad irracional</em> que hace a las burocracias de Kafka y de Koestler tan siniestras y no obstante tan evocadoras de la vida cotidiana. El encadenamiento implacable de las reglas parece embrujar a quienes se vuelven cómplices de ellas y los empuja a hacer prueba de una disciplina todavía más ciega. Es la lógica creada por la conducta burocrática. Y se convierte en la lógica de una sociedad que exige que a los administradores de sus instituciones educativas se les considere públicamente responsables de la modificación del comportamiento que producen en sus clientes. Los estudiantes a los que se puede motivar para valorar los paquetes educativos que sus profesores les obligan a consumir son comparables a los campesinos chinos que pueden ajustar sus rebaños al formulario de impuestos que ofrece Borges. +</p> + +<p> +Durante el transcurso de las dos últimas generaciones triunfó en algún momento en la cultura norteamericana un compromiso con la terapia, y vino a considerarse a los profesores como los terapeutas cuyas recetas todos los hombres necesitan, si es que desean gozar de la libertad y la igualdad con las cuales, según la Constitución, han nacido. +</p> + +<p> +Ahora los profesores-terapeutas siguen adelante al proponer como paso siguiente el tratamiento educativo vitalicio. El <em>estudio</em> de este tratamiento está sujeto a discusión: ¿debiera adoptar la forma de una asistencia constante de los adultos al aula? ¿O la de éxtasis electrónico? ¿O de sesiones periódicas de sensibilización? Todos los educadores están prontos a conspirar para extender los muros del aula y agrandarla, con la meta de transformar la cultura completa en una escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Detrás de la retórica y del alboroto, la controversia sobre el futuro de la educación que tiene lugar en Estados Unidos es más conservadora que el debate en otros ámbitos de la política común. Respecto de las relaciones exteriores, por lo menos, una minoría organizada nos recuerda constantemente que el país debe renunciar a su papel de policía del mundo. Los economistas radicales, y ahora incluso sus profesores, menos radicales, ponen en duda la convivencia del crecimiento conjunto como meta. Hay grupos de presión para favorecer la medicina preventiva y no la curativa y otros propugnan por la fluidez en vez de la velocidad en el transporte. Sólo en el ámbito de la educación permanecen dispersas las voces articuladas que piden una desescolarización radical de la sociedad. Existe una carencia de argumentación persuasiva y de un liderazgo maduro encaminados a quitar el apoyo oficial a todas y cada una de las instituciones que tienen por fin el <em>aprendizaje</em> obligatorio. Por el momento, la desescolarización radical de la sociedad es todavía una causa sin partido. Esto sorprende especialmente en un periodo de resistencia creciente, aunque caótica, a todas las formas de instrucción planificada institucionalmente, por parte de los jóvenes de 12 a 17 años. +</p> + +<p> +Los innovadores educativos siguen suponiendo que las instituciones educativas funcionan como embudos para los programas que ellos envasan. Para los fines de mi argumento da lo mismo que estos embudos tengan la forma de un aula, de un transmisor de televisión o de una “zona liberada”. Es igualmente ajeno al asunto si los envases suministrados son ricos o pobres, calientes o fríos, duros y mensurables (como Matemáticas III) o imposibles de evaluar (como la sensibilización). Lo que interesa es que se suponga que la educación es el resultado de un proceso institucional dirigido por el educador. Mientras las relaciones continúen siendo aquellas que existen entre un proveedor y un consumidor, el trabajo de investigación sobre educación continuará siendo un proceso circular. Acumulará pruebas científicas en apoyo de la necesidad de más paquetes educativos y del perfeccionamiento de los métodos de entrega, tal como cierta rama de las ciencias sociales puede probar la necesidad de acrecentar la distribución de los productos de la institución militar. +</p> + +<p> +Una revolución educativa se apoya en una doble inversión: una nueva orientación del trabajo de investigación y una nueva comprensión del estilo educativo de una contracultura emergente. +</p> + +<p> +La investigación operativa trata ahora de optimizar la eficiencia de una estructura heredada —un marco de referencia que jamás se pone en tela de juicio—. Este marco de referencia tiene la estructura sintáctica de un embudo para paquetes de enseñanza. La alternativa sintáctica respecto del mismo es una red o trama educativa para el montaje autónomo de recursos bajo el control personal de cada aprendiz. Esta estructura alternativa de una institución educativa yace ahora en el punto ciego conceptual de nuestra investigación operativa. Si la investigación se enfocara en él, ello constituiría una auténtica revolución científica. +</p> + +<p> +El punto ciego de los trabajos de investigación en educación refleja la parcialidad cultural de una sociedad en la que el crecimiento tecnológico se ha confundido con el control tecnocrático. Para el tecnócrata, el valor de un entorno aumenta conforme pueda programarse un mayor número de contactos entre un hombre y su medio ambiente. Es este mundo, las elecciones abiertas para el observador o el planificador deben estar acordes con los deseos de quienes están sometidos a una observación y a quienes se denomina los “beneficiarios”. La libertad se reduce a la elección entre unas mercancías envasadas. +</p> + +<p> +La contracultura emergente afirma los valores del contenido semántico por encima de la eficiencia de una sintaxis mayor y más rígida. Valora la riqueza de la connotación por encima del poder de la sintaxis para producir riquezas. Valora la consecuencia imprevisible de la instrucción profesional. Esta reorientación hacia la sorpresa personal, y no hacia los valores producidos por la institución, es capaz de perturbar el orden establecido hasta que podamos separar la creciente disponibilidad de las herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan el encuentro del creciente control del tecnócrata sobre lo que ocurre cuando la gente se reúne. +</p> + +<p> +Nuestras actuales instituciones educativas están al servicio de las metas del profesor. Las estructuras de relación que necesitamos son las que permitan a cada hombre definirse él mismo aprendiendo y contribuyendo al aprendizaje de otros. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Compatibilidades irracionales","hid":"compatibilidades_irracionales","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":17,"range":"155881-170865"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit18" id="tramas_del_aprendizaje">Tramas del aprendizaje</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +En un capítulo anterior examiné aquello que se está convirtiendo en una queja común acerca de las escuelas una queja que se hace sentir por ejemplo, en un informe reciente de la Carnegie Commission: en las escuelas los alumnos matriculados se someten ante maestros diplomados a fin de obtener sus propios diplomas; ambos quedan frustrados y ambos culpan a los recursos insuficientes —dinero, tiempo o edificios— de su mutua frustración. +</p> + +<p> +Una crítica semejante conduce a muchos a pensar si no será posible concebir un estilo diferente de aprendizaje. Paradójicamente, si a esas mismas personas se les insta a especificar cómo adquirieron lo que saben y estiman, admitirán prontamente que con mayor frecuencia lo aprendieron fuera y no dentro de la escuela. Su conocimiento de hechos, lo que entienden de la vida y de su trabajo les vino de la amistad o del amor, de leer, del ejemplo de sus iguales o de la incitación de un encuentro callejero. O tal vez aprendieron lo que saben por medio del ritual de iniciación de una pandilla callejera, de un hospital, de la redacción de un periódico, de un taller de fontanería o de una oficina de seguros. La alternativa a la dependencia respecto de las escuelas no es el uso de recursos públicos para algún nuevo dispositivo que “haga” aprender a la gente; es más bien la creación de un nuevo estilo de relación educativa entre el hombre y su medio. Para propiciar este estilo será necesaria una modificación de la idea que nos hacemos del crecimiento, de los útiles necesarios para aprender y de la calidad y estructura de la vida cotidiana. +</p> + +<p> +Las actitudes ya están cambiando. Ha desaparecido la orgullosa dependencia respecto de la escuela. En la industria del conocimiento se acrecienta la resistencia del consumidor. Muchos profesores y alumnos, contribuyentes y patronos, economistas y policías, preferirían no seguir dependiendo de las escuelas. Lo que impide que su frustración dé forma a otras instituciones es una carencia no sólo de imaginación, sino también, con frecuencia, de un lenguaje apropiado y de un interés personal ilustrado. No pueden visualizar ya sea una sociedad desescolarizada, ya sean unas instituciones educativas en una sociedad que haya privado de apoyo oficial a la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En este capítulo me propongo mostrar que lo contrario de la escuela es posible: que podemos apoyarnos en el aprendizaje automotivado en vez de contratar profesores para sobornar u obligar al estudiante a hallar el tiempo y la voluntad de aprender, que podemos proporcionar al aprendiz nuevos vínculos con el mundo en vez de continuar canalizando todos los programas educativos por medio del profesor. Examinaré algunas de las características que distinguen la escolarización del aprendizaje y esbozaré cuatro categorías principales de instituciones que serían atractivas no sólo para muchas personas, sino también para muchos grupos de intereses comunes. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Tramas del aprendizaje","hid":"tramas_del_aprendizaje","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":18,"range":"170866-173848"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit19" id="una_objecion_a_quien_pueden_servirle_unos_puentes_hacia_la_nada">Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Estamos acostumbrados a considerar las escuelas como una variable que depende de la estructura política y económica. Si podemos cambiar el estilo de la dirección política o promover los intereses de una clase u otra, suponemos que el sistema escolar cambiará también. En cambio, las instituciones educativas que propondré están ideadas para servir a una sociedad que no existe ahora, aunque la actual frustración respecto de las escuelas tiene en sí el potencial de una fuerza importante para poner en movimiento un cambio hacia nuevas configuraciones sociales. Contra este planteamiento se ha suscitado una objeción de peso: ¿por qué canalizar energías para construir puentes hacia ninguna parte, en vez de organizarlas primero para cambiar no las escuelas, sino el sistema político y económico? +</p> + +<p> +No obstante, esta objeción subestima la naturaleza política y económica del sistema escolar en sí, así como el potencial político inherente a cualquier oposición eficaz a ella. +</p> + +<p> +En un sentido fundamental, las escuelas han dejado de ser dependientes de la ideología profesada por cualquier gobierno u organización de mercados. Otras instituciones pueden diferir de un país a otro: la familia, el partido, la Iglesia, la prensa. Pero el sistema escolar tiene por doquier la misma estructura, y en todas partes el currículum oculto tiene el mismo efecto. De modo invariable, modela al consumidor que valora los bienes institucionales sobre los servicios no profesionales de un prójimo. +</p> + +<p> +El currículum oculto de la escolarización inicia en todas partes al ciudadano en el mito de que algunas burocracias guiadas por el conocimiento científico son eficientes y benevolentes. Por doquiera, este mismo currículum inculca en el alumno el mito de que la mayor producción proporcionará una vida mejor. Y por doquiera crea el hábito —que se contradice a sí mismo— de consumo de servicios y de producción enajenante, la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional y el reconocimiento de los escalafones institucionales. El currículum oculto sustenta la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional, el reconocimiento por los profesores y cualquiera que sea la ideología preponderante. +</p> + +<p> +En otras palabras, las escuelas son fundamentalmente semejantes en todos los países, sean éstos fascistas, democráticos o socialistas, grandes o pequeños, ricos o pobres. La identidad del sistema escolar nos obliga a reconocer la profunda identidad en todo el mundo, del mito, del modo de producción y del método de control social, pese a la gran variedad de mitologías en las cuales encuentra expresión el mito. +</p> + +<p> +En vista de esta identidad, es ilusorio pretender que las escuelas son, en algún sentido profundo, unas variables dependientes. Esto significa que esperar un cambio social o económico concebido convencionalmente, es también una ilusión. Más aún, esta ilusión concede a la escuela —el órgano de reproducción de la sociedad de consumo— una inmunidad casi indiscutida. +</p> + +<p> +Al llegar a este punto es cuando adquiere importancia el ejemplo de China. Durante tres milenios, China protegió el aprendizaje superior por medio de un divorcio total entre el proceso del aprendizaje y el privilegio conferido por los exámenes para optar a altos cargos públicos. Para llegar a ser una potencia mundial y una nación-Estado moderno, China tuvo que adoptar el estilo internacional de escolarización. Sólo una mirada retrospectiva nos permitirá descubrir si la Gran Revolución Cultural resultará haber sido el primer intento logrado de desescolarizar las instituciones de la sociedad. +</p> + +<p> +Incluso la creación a retazos de nuevos organismos educativos que fuesen lo inverso de la escuela sería un ataque sobre el eslabón más sensible de un fenómeno ubicuo, el cual es organizado por el Estado en todos los países. Un programa político que no reconozca explícitamente la necesidad de la desescolarización no es revolucionario; es demagogia que pide más de lo mismo. Todo programa político importante de esta década debiera medirse con este rasero: ¿hasta dónde es claro afirmar la necesidad de la desescolarización —y qué directrices ofrece para asignar la calidad educativa de la sociedad hacia la cual se encamina—? +</p> + +<p> +La lucha contra el dominio que ejercen el mercado mundial y la política de las grandes potencias puede estar fuera del alcance de ciertas comunidades o países pobres, pero esta debilidad es una razón más para hacer hincapié en la importancia que tiene liberar a cada sociedad mediante una inversión de su estructura educativa, cambio este que no está más allá de los medios de ninguna sociedad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Una objeci\u00f3n a qui\u00e9n pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada","hid":"una_objecion_a_quien_pueden_servirle_unos_puentes_hacia_la_nada","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":19,"range":"173849-178599"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit20" id="caracteristicas_generales_de_unas_nuevas_instituciones_educativas_formales">Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Un buen sistema educativo debería tener tres objetivos: proporcionar a todos aquellos que lo quieren el acceso a recursos disponibles en cualquier momento de sus vidas; dotar a todos los que quieran compartir lo que saben del poder de encontrar a quienes quieran aprender de ellos, y, finalmente, dar a todo aquel que quiera presentar al público un tema de debate la oportunidad de dar a conocer su argumento. Un sistema como éste exigiría que se aplicaran a la educación unas garantías constitucionales. Los aprendices no podrían ser sometidos a un currículum obligatorio o a una discriminación fundada en la posesión o carencia de un certificado o diploma. Ni se obligaría tampoco al público a mantener, mediante una retribución regresiva, un gigantesco aparato profesional de educadores y edificios que de hecho disminuye las posibilidades que el público tiene de acceder a los servicios que la profesión está dispuesta a ofrecer en el mercado. Debería usar la tecnología moderna para lograr que la libre expresión, la libre reunión y la prensa libre fuesen universales y, por consiguiente, plenamente educativas. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas están proyectadas a partir del supuesto de que cada cosa en la vida tiene un secreto; de que la calidad de la vida depende de conocer ese secreto; de que los secretos pueden conocerse en ordenadas sucesiones, y de que sólo los profesores pueden revelar adecuadamente esos secretos. Una persona de mente escolarizada concibe el mundo como una pirámide de paquetes clasificados accesible sólo a aquellos que llevan los rótulos apropiados. Las nuevas instituciones educativas destrozarían esta pirámide. Su propósito debe ser facilitar el acceso al aprendiz, permitirle mirar al interior de la sala de control o del parlamento, si no puede entrar por la puerta. Además, esas nuevas instituciones deberían ser canales a los que el aprendiz tuviese acceso sin credenciales ni títulos de linaje —espacios públicos en los que iguales y mayores situados fuera de su horizonte inmediato se harían accesibles—. +</p> + +<p> +Pienso que no más de cuatro —y posiblemente hasta tres— “canales” distintos o centros de intercambio podrían contener todos los recursos necesarios para el aprendizaje real. El niño crece en un mundo de cosas, rodeado de personas que sirven de modelos para habilidades y valores. Encuentra seres como él, sus iguales, que le incitan a discutir, a competir, a cooperar, a entender, y si el niño es afortunado, se ve expuesto a la confrontación o a la crítica de un mayor experimentado que realmente se preocupe. Cosas, modelos, iguales y mayores son cuatro recursos, cada uno de los cuales requiere un tipo diferente de ordenamiento para asegurar que todos tengan acceso a él. +</p> + +<p> +Usaré las palabras “trama de oportunidad” en vez de “red” para designar las maneras específicas de proporcionar acceso a cada uno de los cuatro conjuntos de recursos. Desafortunadamente, “red” se emplea con frecuencia para designar los canales reservados a los materiales seleccionados por terceros para el adoctrinamiento, la instrucción y la recreación. Pero también puede usarse para los servicios postal o telefónico, que son primariamente accesibles para personas que quieren enviarse mensajes entre sí. Ojalá tuviésemos otra palabra para designar tales estructuras reticulares a fin de tener un acceso recíproco, una palabra que no evocase tanto una trampa, menos degradada por el uso corriente, y que sugiriese más el hecho de que cualquier ordenamiento de esta especie abarca aspectos legales, organizativos y técnicos. No habiendo hallado dicho término, trataré de redimir el único disponible, usándolo como sinónimo de “trama educativa”. +</p> + +<p> +Lo que se precisa son nuevas redes, de la cuales el público pueda disponer fácilmente y que estén concebidas para difundir una igualdad de oportunidades para aprender y enseñar. +</p> + +<p> +Para dar un ejemplo: en la televisión y en los magnetófonos se usa el mismo nivel de tecnología. Todos los países latinoamericanos han introducido la televisión: en Bolivia, el gobierno financió una estación transmisora de televisión, que se construyó hace siete años, y no hay más de 7 000 televisores para cuatro millones de ciudadanos. El dinero empozado hoy en instalaciones de televisión por toda América Latina podría haber dotado de magnetófonos a un ciudadano de cada cinco. Además, el dinero habría bastado para proporcionar un número casi ilimitado de cintas grabadas, con puestos de entrega incluso en aldeas perdidas, como también para un amplio suministro de cintas no grabadas. +</p> + +<p> +Esta red de magnetófonos sería, por supuesto, radicalmente diferente de la red actual de televisión. Proporcionaría oportunidades a la libre expresión: letrados y analfabetos podrían, por igual, registrar, preservar, difundir y repetir sus opiniones. La inversión actual en televisión, en cambio, proporciona a los burócratas, sean políticos o educadores, el poder de rociar el continente con programas producidos institucionalmente, que ellos —o sus patrocinadores— deciden que son buenos para el pueblo o que éste los pide. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Caracter\u00edsticas generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales","hid":"caracteristicas_generales_de_unas_nuevas_instituciones_educativas_formales","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":20,"range":"178600-183863"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit21" id="cuatro_redes">Cuatro redes</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +El planteamiento de nuevas instituciones educativas no debiera comenzar por las metas administrativas de un rector director, ni por las metas pedagógicas de un educador profesional, ni por las metas de aprendizaje de una clase hipotética de personas. No debe iniciarse con la pregunta: “¿Qué debiera aprender alguien?”, sino con la pregunta: “¿Con qué tipos de cosas y personas podrían querer ponerse en contacto los que buscan aprender a fin de aprender?” +</p> + +<p> +Alguien que quiera aprender sabe que necesita tanto información como reacción crítica respecto del uso de esta información por parte de otra persona. La información puede almacenarse en personas y en cosas. En un buen sistema educativo el acceso a las cosas debiera estar disponible con sólo pedirlo el aprendiz, mientras el acceso a los informantes requeriría además el conocimiento de terceros. La crítica puede asimismo provenir de dos direcciones: de los iguales o de los mayores, esto es, de compañeros de aprendizaje cuyos intereses inmediatos concuerden con los míos, o de aquellos que me concederán una parte de su experiencia superior. Los iguales pueden ser colegas con quienes suscitar un debate, compañeros para una caminata o lectura juguetona y deleitable (o ardua), retadores en cualquier clase de juegos. Los mayores pueden ser asesores acerca de qué destreza aprender, qué método usar, qué compañía buscar en un momento dado. Pueden ser guías respecto a la pregunta correcta que hay que plantear entre iguales y a la deficiencia de las respuestas a que lleguen. La mayoría de estos recursos son abundantes. Pero convencionalmente ni se les percibe como recursos educativos, ni es fácil el acceso a ellos para fines de aprendizaje, especialmente para los pobres. Debemos idear nuevas estructuras de relación que se monten con el deliberado propósito de facilitar el acceso a estos recursos para el uso de cualquiera que esté motivado a buscarlos para su educación. Para montar estas estructuras tramadas se requieren disposiciones administrativas, tecnológicas y especialmente legales. +</p> + +<p> +Los recursos educativos suelen rotularse según las metas curriculares de los educadores. Propongo hacer lo contrario, y rotular cuatro enfoques diferentes que permitan al estudiante conseguir el acceso a cualquier recurso educativo que pueda ayudarle a definir y lograr sus propias metas: +</p> + +<p> +_1_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Objetos Educativos. Que faciliten el acceso a cosas o procesos usados para el aprendizaje formal. Algunas de estas cosas pueden reservarse para ese fin, almacenadas en bibliotecas, agencias de alquiler, laboratorios y salas de exposición, tales como museos y teatros; otras pueden estar en uso cotidiano en fábricas, aeropuertos o puestas en granjas, pero a disposición de estudiantes como aprendices o en horas de descanso. +</p> + +<p> +_2_. Servicios de habilidades. Que permitan a unas personas hacer una lista de sus habilidades, las condiciones según las cuales están dispuestas a servir de modelos a otros que quieran aprender esas habilidades y las direcciones en que se les puede hallar. +</p> + +<p> +_3_. Servicio de búsqueda de Compañero. Una red de comunicaciones que permita a las personas describir la actividad de aprendizaje a la que desean dedicarse, con la esperanza de hallar un compañero para la búsqueda. +</p> + +<p> +_4_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Educadores Independientes, los cuales pueden figurar en un catálogo que indique las direcciones y las descripciones —hechas por ellos mismos— de profesionales, paraprofesionales e independientes, conjuntamente con las condiciones de acceso a sus servicios. Tales educadores, como veremos, podrían elegirse mediante encuestas o consultando a sus clientes anteriores. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Cuatro redes","hid":"cuatro_redes","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":21,"range":"183864-187642"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit22" id="servicios_de_referencia_respecto_de_objetos_educativos">Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Las cosas son recursos básicos para aprender. La calidad del entorno y la relación de una persona con él determinarán cuánto aprenderá incidentalmente. El aprendizaje formal exige el acceso especial a cosas corrientes, por una parte o, por la otra, el acceso fácil y seguro a cosas especiales hechas con fines educativos. Un ejemplo del primer caso es el derecho especial a hacer funcionar o a desarmar una máquina en un garaje. Un ejemplo del segundo caso es el derecho general a usar un ábaco, una computadora, un libro, un jardín botánico o una máquina retirada de la producción y puesta a plena disposición de unos estudiantes. +</p> + +<p> +En la actualidad, la atención se centra en la disparidad entre niños ricos y pobres en cuanto a su acceso a cosas y en la manera en que pueden aprender de ellas. La OEO[^n16] y otros organismos, siguiendo este planteamiento, se concentran en igualar las posibilidades de cada cual, tratando de proveer de un mayor instrumental educativo a los pobres. Un punto de partida más radical sería reconocer que, en la ciudad, a ricos y pobres se les mantiene igualmente alejados de manera artificial de las cosas que los rodean. Los niños nacidos en la era de los plásticos y de los expertos en eficiencia deben traspasar dos barreras que obstaculizan sus entendimientos: una incorporada a las cosas y la otra construida en torno a las instituciones. El diseño industrial crea un mundo de cosas que ofrecen resistencia a la comprensión de su naturaleza interna, y las escuelas tapian al aprendiz respecto del mundo de las cosas en su escenario significativo. +</p> + +<p> +Después de una breve visita a Nueva York, una mujer de una aldea mexicana me dijo que le había impresionado que las tiendas vendiesen “solamente productos muy maquillados con cosméticos”. Entendí que ella quería decir que los productos industriales “hablan” a sus clientes acerca de sus encantos y no acerca de su naturaleza. La industria ha rodeado a la gente de artefactos hechos de manera que sólo a los especialistas les está permitido entender su mecanismo interno. Al no especialista que intenta hacer marchar el reloj o hacer sonar el teléfono o hacer funcionar la máquina de escribir, se le desalienta con la advertencia de que se romperá si lo intenta. Puede que se le diga qué hace funcionar un radio de transistores, pero no puede descubrirlo por sí mismo. Este tipo de diseño tiende a reforzar una sociedad no inventiva, en la que los expertos encuentran cada vez más fácil esconderse detrás de su pericia y más allá de una evaluación. +</p> + +<p> +El entorno creado por el hombre ha llegado a ser tan inescrutable como la naturaleza lo es para el primitivo. Al mismo tiempo, los materiales educativos los ha monopolizado la escuela. Los objetos educativos simples han sido costosamente empacados por la industria del conocimiento. Se han convertido en herramientas especializadas para los educadores profesionales, y se ha inflado su coste al obligarles a estimular ya sea entornos, ya sea profesores. +</p> + +<p> +El profesor es celoso del libro de texto al que define como su instrumento profesional. El estudiante puede llegar a odiar el laboratorio porque lo asocia con tareas escolares. El administrador racionaliza su actitud protectora hacia la biblioteca como una defensa de un instrumental público costoso contra quienes quisieran jugar con ella más bien que aprender. En esta atmósfera, el estudiante usa con excesiva frecuencia el mapa, el laboratorio, la enciclopedia o el microscopio sólo en los escasos momentos en que el currículum le dice que debe hacerlo. Incluso los grandes clásicos se convierten en arte de la “novatada” universitaria, en vez de señalar una nueva dirección en la vida de una persona. La escuela aparta las cosas del uso cotidiano al rotularlas como instrumentos educativos. +</p> + +<p> +Para que podamos desescolarizar será preciso invertir ambas tendencias. El entorno físico general debe hacerse accesible, y aquellos recursos físicos de aprendizaje que han sido reducidos a instrumentos de enseñanza deben llegar a estar disponibles para el aprendizaje autodirigido. Usar cosas sólo como partes de un currículum puede tener un efecto incluso peor que apartarlas del entorno general. Puede corromper las actitudes de los alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +Los juegos son un caso de este tipo. No me refiero a los “juegos” del departamento de educación física (tales como el futbol o el baloncesto), que las escuelas usan para generar ingresos y prestigio y en los que han hecho sustanciosas inversiones de capital. Como lo saben muy bien los mismos atletas, estas empresas, que adoptan la forma de torneos guerreros, han minado el aspecto juguetón de los deportes y se usan para reforzar la naturaleza competitiva de las escuelas. Hablo más bien de los juegos educativos que pueden proporcionar una manera singular de entender los sistemas formales. Un amigo mío fue a un mercado mexicano con un juego llamado <em>Wff’n Proff</em> , que consta de varios dados en los que están impresos 12 símbolos lógicos. Mostró a unos niños qué combinaciones formaban una frase bien hecha —unas dos o tres de las muchas posibles— e, inductivamente, al cabo de la primera hora, algunos mirones también captaron el principio. A las pocas horas, jugando pruebas lógicas formales, algunos niños eran capaces de iniciar a otros en las pruebas formales de la lógica de proposiciones. Los otros simplemente se fueron. +</p> + +<p> +Para algunos niños dichos juegos son en efecto una forma especial de liberar la educación, puesto que les permite descubrir que los sistemas formales se fundan en axiomas mutables y que las operaciones conceptuales tienen un carácter lúdico. Son asimismo simples, baratos y en buena parte pueden organizarlos los jugadores mismos. Cuando se usan fuera del currículum, tales juegos dan una oportunidad para identificar y desarrollar el talento poco común, mientras que el psicólogo escolar identificará a menudo a quienes posean dicho talento como a personas en peligro de llegar a ser antisociales, enfermas o desequilibradas. Dentro de la escuela, cuando se usan en forma de torneos, a los juegos no sólo se les saca de la esfera de la recreación, a menudo se convierten en instrumentos para transformar al alumno juguetón en un espíritu competitivo y la falta de razonamiento abstracto en signo de inferioridad. Un ejercicio que para ciertos tipos de carácter es liberador, se convierte en camisa de fuerza para otros. +</p> + +<p> +El control de la escuela sobre el instrumental educativo tiene además otro efecto. Aumenta enormemente el coste de esos materiales baratos. Una vez que su uso se restringe a unas horas programadas, se paga a profesionales que supervisen su adquisición, almacenamiento y uso. Entonces los estudiantes descargan su rabia contra la escuela sobre el instrumental, que es preciso adquirir nuevamente. +</p> + +<p> +Algo paralelo a la intocabilidad de los útiles educativos es la impenetrabilidad de la moderna chatarra. En la década de 1930 cualquier muchacho que se respetara sabía reparar un automóvil, pero ahora los fabricantes de coches multiplican los alambres y apartan los manuales de todo el que no sea un mecánico especializado. En un periodo anterior un radio viejo contenía suficientes bobinas y condensadores como para construir un transmisor que hiciera chillar por realimentación a todos los radios del vecindario. Los radios de transistores son más portátiles, pero nadie se atreve a desarmarlos. En los países altamente industrializados sería inmensamente difícil cambiar esto, pero al menos en los países del Tercer Mundo debemos insistir en ciertas cualidades educativas incorporadas al objeto. +</p> + +<p> +Para ilustrar mi argumento, permítaseme presentar un modelo: gastando 10 millones de dólares sería posible conectar 40 000 aldeas de un país como Perú mediante una telaraña de pistas de un metro ochenta de ancho y mantenerlas funcionando; además, dotar al país de 200 000 burros mecánicos de tres ruedas —cinco por aldea como promedio—. Pocos países pobres de ese tamaño gastan menos de esa cantidad cada año en coches y caminos, cuyo uso, el de ambos, se limita principalmente a los ricos y a sus empleados, mientras la gente pobre queda atrapada en sus aldeas. Cada uno de estos pequeños vehículos, simples pero duraderos, equipados con un motor de seis caballos de fuerza, costaría 125 dólares. Un “burro” podría andar a 24 kilómetros por hora, y trasladaría cargas de unos 400 kilogramos (es decir, la mayoría de las cosas que suelen moverse, aparte de troncos y vigas de acero). +</p> + +<p> +El atractivo político que dicho sistema de transporte tendría para el campesinado es obvio. Igualmente obvio es el motivo por el cual quienes detentan el poder —y por tanto poseen, automáticamente, un coche— no están interesados en gastar dinero en pistas semejantes y en obstruir los caminos con burros motorizados. El burro universal podría funcionar sólo si los dirigentes de un país impusieran un límite de, digamos, 40 kilómetros por hora y adaptaran sus instituciones públicas a ese límite. El modelo no podría funcionar si estuviese concebido sólo como un parche. +</p> + +<p> +No es éste el lugar apropiado para examinar en detalle la factibilidad política, social, económica, financiera y técnica de este modelo. Deseo solamente indicar que los considerandos educativos pueden ser de primordial importancia cuando se elige una alternativa semejante frente a un transporte que usa relativamente más capital que mano de obra. Aumentando el coste unitario de cada burro 20% se haría posible planificar la producción de todas sus piezas de modo que, hasta donde fuera posible, cada futuro dueño pasase de uno a dos meses haciendo y entendiendo su máquina y fuese capaz de repararla. Con este coste adicional sería asimismo posible descentralizar la producción en fábricas dispersas. Las ventajas adicionales provendrían no sólo de incluir los costes educativos en el proceso de construcción. Más significativo todavía, un motor duradero que prácticamente cualquiera podría aprender a reparar y que podría usar como arado y como bomba aquel que lo entendiera, produciría unos beneficios educativos mucho más elevados que los inescrutables motores de los países avanzados. +</p> + +<p> +No sólo la chatarra, sino los lugares presuntamente públicos de la ciudad moderna se han vuelto impenetrables. En la sociedad estadunidense se excluye a los niños de la mayoría de las cosas y lugares con el argumento de que son privados. Pero incluso en las sociedades que han declarado el fin de la propiedad privada se aparta a los niños de las mismas cosas y lugares porque estos últimos se consideran un ámbito especial y peligroso para el no iniciado. A partir de la pasada generación el patio de los ferrocarriles se hizo tan inaccesible como el cuartel de bomberos. Sin embargo, con un poco de ingenio no sería difícil eliminar los peligros en esos lugares. El desescolarizar los artefactos de la educación haría necesario poner a disposición los artefactos y procesos —y reconocer su valor educativo—. Algunos trabajadores, sin duda, encontrarían molesto hacerlos accesibles a los aprendices, pero esta molestia debe valorarse comparándola con las ventajas educativas. +</p> + +<p> +Los automóviles privados podrían desterrarse de Manhattan. Hace cinco años esto era impensable. Ahora, ciertas calles de Nueva York se cierran a ciertas horas, y esta tendencia probablemente continuará. De hecho, la mayoría de las calles transversales deberían cerrarse al tránsito automotriz y el estacionamiento debería prohibirse en todas partes. En una ciudad abierta al pueblo, los materiales de enseñanza, que ahora se encierran en almacenes y laboratorios, podrían diseminarse en depósitos abiertos a la calle y gestionarse de manera independiente para que los adultos y los niños pudiesen visitarlos sin peligro de que los atropellen. +</p> + +<p> +Si las metas de la educación ya no estuviesen dominadas por las escuelas y los maestros de escuela, el mercado para los aprendices sería mucho más variado y la definición de “artefactos educativos” sería menos restrictiva. Podría haber talleres de herramientas, bibliotecas, laboratorios y salas de juegos. Los laboratorios fotográficos y prensas offset permitirían el florecimiento de diarios vecinales. Algunos centros de aprendizaje abiertos a la calle podrían contener cabinas para mirar programas de televisión en circuito cerrado, otros podrían poseer útiles de oficina para usar y para reparar. Los tocadiscos del tipo tragamonedas y de tipo corriente serían de uso diario, especializándose algunos en música clásica, otros en melodías folclóricas internacionales, otros en jazz. Las filmotecas competirían entre sí y con la televisión comercial. Los locales de museos abiertos al público podrían ser redes para poner en circulación muestras de arte antiguo y moderno, originales y reproducciones, tal vez administradas por los diversos museos metropolitanos. +</p> + +<p> +El personal profesional necesario para esta red se parecería mucho más a unos custodios, guardias de museo o bibliotecarios de servicio público que a unos profesores. Desde la tienda de biología de la esquina podrían dirigir a sus clientes a la colección de caracoles del museo o señalarles cuándo habría una exhibición de videocintas de biología en determinadas cabinas de televisión. Podrían dar indicaciones para el control de plagas, dietas y otras clases de medicina preventiva. Podrían remitir a quienes necesitaran consejos a “mayores” que pudiesen proporcionarlo. +</p> + +<p> +El financiamiento de una red de “objetos de aprendizaje” puede encararse de dos maneras. Una comunidad podría fijar un presupuesto máximo para este fin y disponer que todas las partes de la red estuviesen abiertas a todos los visitantes a ciertas horas razonables. O bien la comunidad podría decidir proporcionar a los ciudadanos unos bonos o derechos limitados, según sus edades, que les darían acceso especial a ciertos materiales costosos y escasos, dejando en cambio otros materiales más simples a disposición de todos. +</p> + +<p> +Encontrar recursos para materiales hechos específicamente para educar es sólo un aspecto —y tal vez el menos costoso— de la construcción de un mundo educativo. El dinero que hoy se gasta en la parafernalia sagrada del ritual escolar podría liberarse para proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos un mejor acceso a la vida real de la ciudad. Podrían otorgarse incentivos tributarios especiales a quienes emplearan niños de ocho a 14 años durante un par de horas diarias si las condiciones de empleo fuesen humanas. Deberíamos volver a la tradición de la <em>bar mitzvah</em> o de la confirmación. Quiero decir con esto que debiéramos primero restringir y luego eliminar la privación de derechos y deberes civiles de los menores, y permitir que un muchacho de 12 años llegue a ser plenamente responsable de su participación en la vida de la comunidad. Muchas personas de “edad escolar” saben más acerca de su vecindario que los trabajadores sociales o los concejales. Naturalmente que hacen también preguntas más incómodas y proponen soluciones que amenazan a la burocracia. Debería permitírseles llegar a la mayoría de edad de modo que pusieran sus conocimientos y capacidad de indagación al servicio de un gobierno popular. +</p> + +<p> +Hasta hace poco era fácil subestimar los peligros de la escuela en comparación con los peligros de un periodo de aprendizaje en la policía, en el cuerpo de bomberos o en la industria del espectáculo. Este argumento deja de ser válido con gran frecuencia. Visité recientemente una iglesia metodista de Harlem ocupada por un grupo de los llamados <em>Young Lords</em> como protesta por la muerte de Julio Rodan, un muchacho puertorriqueño al que se encontró ahorcado en su celda carcelaria. Yo conocía a los líderes del grupo, que habían pasado un semestre en Cuernavaca. Cuando me sorprendí al no hallar a uno de ellos, Juan, en el grupo, me dijeron: “Volvió a la heroína y a la Universidad del Estado”. +</p> + +<p> +Para desencadenar el potencial educativo encerrado en la gigantesca inversión de nuestra sociedad en instalaciones y útiles pueden usarse el planteamiento, los incentivos y la legislación. No existirá el acceso pleno a los objetos educativos mientras se permita a empresas comerciales conjugar las defensas legales que la Carta Fundamental reserva a la vida privada de las personas con el poder económico que les confieren sus millones de clientes y miles de empleados, accionistas y proveedores. Una parte considerable de los conocimientos prácticos y teóricos del mundo y la mayoría de sus procesos y equipos de producción están encerrados entre los muros de firmas comerciales, apartados de sus clientes, empleados y accionistas, como también del público en general, cuyas leyes e instalaciones les permiten funcionar. El dinero que se gasta en publicidad en los países capitalistas podrían canalizarse hacia la educación en y por parte de la General Electric, NBC-TV o cervezas Budweiser. Es decir, las fábricas y oficinas deberían reorganizarse de forma tal que su funcionamiento cotidiano fuese más accesible al público y de maneras que hiciesen posible el aprendizaje, y, en verdad, podrían hallarse modos de pagar a las compañías lo que la gente aprendiese en ellas. +</p> + +<p> +Es posible que un conjunto de objetos e informaciones científicas aún más valioso esté apartado del acceso general —e incluso de los científicos competentes— bajo el pretexto de la seguridad nacional. Hasta hace poco la ciencia era el único foro que funcionaba como el sueño de un anarquista. Cada hombre capaz de realizar investigaciones tenía más o menos las mismas oportunidades que otros en cuanto a acceso a su instrumental y a ser escuchado por la comunidad de iguales. Ahora la burocratización y la organización han puesto a gran parte de la ciencia fuera del alcance del público. En efecto, lo que solía ser una red internacional de información científica ha sido escindida en una lid de grupos competidores. Tanto a los miembros como a los artefactos de la comunidad científica se les ha encerrado en programas nacionales y corporativos para logros prácticos y para el radical empobrecimiento de los hombres que mantienen estas naciones y corporaciones. +</p> + +<p> +En un mundo que controlan y poseen naciones y compañías, nunca será posible sino un acceso limitado a los objetos educativos. Pero un mejor acceso a aquellos objetos que pueden compartirse para fines educativos puede ilustrarnos lo suficiente como para traspasar estas barreras políticas finales. Las escuelas públicas transfieren el control sobre los usos educativos de los objetos de manos privadas a manos profesionales. La inversión institucional de las escuelas podría dar al individuo el poder de volver a exigir el derecho a usarlos para su educación. Si el control privado o corporativo sobre el aspecto educativo de las “cosas” se lograse extinguir gradualmente, podría comenzar a aparecer un tipo de propiedad realmente pública. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos","hid":"servicios_de_referencia_respecto_de_objetos_educativos","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":22,"range":"187643-206897"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit23" id="servicios_de_habilidades">Servicios de habilidades</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Al revés de lo que ocurre con una guitarra, a un profesor de ese instrumento no se le puede clasificar en un museo, ni lo puede poseer el público, ni se le puede tomar en alquiler en un almacén de elementos educativos. Los profesores de habilidades pertenecen a una clase de recursos que es diferente de la de los objetos necesarios para aprender una habilidad. Esto no quiere decir que sean indispensables en todos los casos. Puedo alquilar no sólo una guitarra, sino también lecciones de guitarra grabadas en cintas y gráficos que ilustren los acordes, y con estos elementos puedo enseñarme yo mismo a tocar la guitarra. De hecho, este sistema puede presentar ventajas si las cintas disponibles son mejores que los profesores disponibles, o si las únicas horas en que puedo aprender guitarra son nocturnas o si las melodías que quiero interpretar son desconocidas en mi país o si soy tímido y prefiero meter la pata sin testigos. +</p> + +<p> +El canal que se usa para registrar a los profesores de habilidades y comunicarse con ellos debe ser diferente al descrito para objetos. Una cosa está disponible a petición del usuario —o podría estarlo— mientras una persona llega formalmente a ser una fuente de enseñanza de habilidades sólo cuando considere serlo y pueda asimismo restringir la ocasión, el lugar y el método a su tamaño. +</p> + +<p> +Es también necesario distinguir a los profesores de los iguales de los que uno desearía aprender. Los iguales que desean seguir una búsqueda común deben partir de capacidades o intereses comunes; se juntan para ejercitar o mejorar una habilidad que comparten: baloncesto, baile, construcción de un campamento, debate sobre las próximas elecciones. Por otra parte, la primera transmisión de una habilidad supone el reunir a alguien que posea una destreza con alguien que no la posea y quiera adquirirla. +</p> + +<p> +Un “modelo de habilidad” es una persona que posee una habilidad y está dispuesta a demostrar su práctica. Frecuentemente el aprendiz en potencia precisa el recurso de una demostración de esta clase. Los inventos modernos nos permiten registrar demostraciones en cinta, en película o en gráficos; no obstante, sería de esperar que la demostración personal continuase gozando de gran demanda, especialmente en las habilidades de comunicación. En nuestro Centro, en Cuernavaca, han aprendido español unos 10 000 adultos —en su mayoría personas muy motivadas que deseaban obtener una cuasi-fluidez en un segundo idioma—. Cuando se les plantea la elección entre una instrucción cuidadosamente programada en un laboratorio de idiomas o sesiones rutinarias con otros dos estudiantes y una persona cuyo idioma nativo es el español y que se ciñe a una rutina rígida, la mayoría prefiere la segunda alternativa. +</p> + +<p> +Respecto de la mayor parte de las habilidades ampliamente compartidas, que una persona demuestre su habilidad es el único recurso humano que llegamos a necesitar u obtener. Ya sea para hablar o para conducir, para cocinar o para usar equipos de comunicaciones, a menudo apenas nos damos cuenta de la instrucción y el aprendizaje formales, especialmente después de nuestra primera experiencia con los materiales en cuestión. No veo razón por la cual no pudiesen aprenderse de igual manera otras habilidades complejas, tales como los aspectos mecánicos de la cirugía, tocar el violín, leer o usar listas y catálogos. +</p> + +<p> +Un estudiante bien motivado que no lucha contra una desventaja determinada a menudo no necesita más ayuda humana que la que puede proporcionar alguien que puede demostrar a quien lo solicite cómo hacer lo que el aprendiz quiere hacer. Aquello de insistir a personas diestras en que antes de demostrar su habilidad certifiquen que son pedagogos es el resultado de la insistencia de una de dos alternativas: o que la gente aprenda lo que no quiere saber, o bien que todos —incluso quienes sufren de alguna desventaja especial— aprendan ciertas cosas, en un momento dado de sus vidas, y preferentemente en circunstancias específicas. +</p> + +<p> +Lo que crea una escasez de habilidades en el mercado educativo de hoy es el requisito institucional de que quienes pueden demostrarlas no pueden hacerlo a menos de otorgárseles pública confianza por medio de un certificado. Insistimos en que aquellos que ayudan a terceros a adquirir una habilidad habrían de saber también diagnosticar las dificultades de aprendizaje y ser capaces de motivar a la gente a aprender habilidades. En resumen, les exigimos ser pedagogos. Habría abundancia de personas que pueden demostrar habilidades tan pronto aprendiéramos a reconocerlas fuera de la profesión de la enseñanza. +</p> + +<p> +Cuando se está enseñando a unos principitos, es comprensible, aunque ha dejado de ser justificable, la insistencia de sus padres en que el profesor y la persona dotada de habilidades se conjuguen en una misma persona. Pero el que todos los padres aspiren a tener un Aristóteles para su Alejandro es obviamente insostenible. Las personas que pueden inspirar a los estudiantes y demostrar una técnica son tan escasas, y tan difíciles de reconocer, que hasta los principitos consiguen con mayor frecuencia un sofista y no un verdadero filósofo. +</p> + +<p> +Una demanda de habilidades escasas puede satisfacerse rápidamente aun cuando hay un número pequeño de personas que las demuestren, pero debe facilitarse el acceso a dichas personas. Durante la década de 1940-1950, los reparadores de radios, la mayoría de los cuales no estudiaron su trabajo en escuelas, penetraron en el interior de América con no más de dos años de retraso respecto a la llegada de los radios a la región. Permanecieron allí hasta que los radios de transistores, baratos e imposibles de reparar, los dejaron cesantes. Las escuelas técnicas no logran realizar lo que algunos reparadores de radios podrían hacer sin problemas: restauraciones útiles y duraderas. +</p> + +<p> +Ciertos intereses privados y convergentes conspiran hoy para impedir que una persona comparta su habilidad. A quien posee la habilidad le beneficia su escasez y no su reproducción. Al maestro que se especializa en transmitir la habilidad le beneficia la renuencia del artesano a ofrecer su propio taller para aprendices. Al público se le adoctrina con la creencia de que las habilidades son valiosas y de fiarse sólo si son el resultado de una escolarización formal. El mercado de trabajo depende de hacer escasas las habilidades y de mantenerlas escasas, ya sea proscribiendo su uso a transmisión no autorizada, o bien haciendo cosas que puedan operar y reparar sólo quienes tengan acceso a herramientas o informaciones que se mantienen en déficit. +</p> + +<p> +De este modo, las escuelas producen escasez de personas especializadas. Un buen ejemplo de esto es el número decreciente de enfermeras en Estados Unidos, debido al rápido aumento de programas universitarios de cuatro años en ese ramo. Las mujeres de familias más pobres que anteriormente se habrían alistado en un programa de dos o tres años, se han alejado por completo de dicha profesión. +</p> + +<p> +Otra manera de mantener la escasez de habilidades es insistir en maestros diplomados. Si se alentara a las enfermeras a adiestrar a otras enfermeras, y si a las enfermeras se les empleara de acuerdo con su habilidad demostrada para poner inyecciones, trazar gráficos y dar medicinas, pronto se terminaría la escasez de enfermeras capacitadas. Los certificados tienden hoy a coartar la libertad de la educación al convertir el derecho civil de compartir conocimientos en el privilegio de la libertad académica que ahora se confiere sólo a los empleados de alguna escuela. Para garantizar el acceso a un intercambio eficaz de habilidades necesitamos leyes que generalicen la libertad académica. El derecho a enseñar cualquier habilidad debería estar amparado por la libertad de expresión. Una vez que se eliminen las restricciones sobre la enseñanza, pronto desaparecerán también las relativas al aprendizaje. +</p> + +<p> +El profesor de habilidades necesita algún incentivo para otorgar sus servicios a un alumno. Hay por lo menos dos maneras sencillas de comenzar a canalizar fondos públicos hacia profesores no diplomados. Una sería institucionalizar los servicios de habilidades mediante la creación de centros de habilidades, libres y abiertos al público. Dichos centros podrían y deberían establecerse en zonas industriales, al menos para habilidades que son un requisito indispensable para ingresar en ciertos noviciados o aprendizajes —habilidades tales como la lectura, la mecanografía, la contabilidad, los idiomas extranjeros, la programación de computadoras y la manipulación de números, la lectura de lenguajes especiales (como el de los circuitos eléctricos), la manipulación de ciertas máquinas, etc.—. Otro planteamiento sería proporcionar a ciertos grupos de la población una moneda educativa válida para asistir a centros de habilidades en los que otros clientes habrían de pagar tarifas comerciales. +</p> + +<p> +Un planteamiento mucho más radical consistiría en crear un “banco” para el intercambio de habilidades. A cada ciudadano se le abriría un crédito básico con el que pudiese adquirir habilidades fundamentales. Luego, se beneficiaría con créditos adicionales enseñando, ya fuera en centros de habilidades organizados, en casa o sobre la marcha. Sólo aquellos que hubiesen enseñado a otros durante un lapso equivalente podrían solicitar el tiempo de profesores más avanzados. Se promovería una élite enteramente nueva, una élite formada por quienes hubiesen ganado su educación compartiéndola. +</p> + +<p> +¿Deberían los padres tener el derecho a ganar crédito educativo para sus hijos? Como una disposición de este tipo daría nuevas ventajas a las clases privilegiadas, podría compensarse otorgando un crédito mayor a los desfavorecidos. El funcionamiento de un servicio de habilidades dependería de la existencia de organismos que facilitarían el desarrollo de información —listas de personas— y asegurarían su uso libre y barato. Dicho organismo podría proporcionar servicios auxiliares de prueba y certificación y ayudaría a poner en vigor la legislación necesaria para quebrar e impedir las prácticas monopólicas. +</p> + +<p> +La libertad de un servicio universal de habilidades podría estar garantizada fundamentalmente por leyes que permitiesen la discriminación sólo de acuerdo con habilidades verificadas y no según el historial educativo. Una garantía semejante requiere inevitablemente un control público sobre las pruebas que puedan usarse para determinar quiénes están capacitados para el mercado laboral. De otra manera sería posible reintroducir subrepticiamente complejas baterías de <em>test</em> en el lugar mismo de trabajo que servirían para selección social. Mucho podría hacerse a fin de lograr objetividad en las pruebas de competencia en habilidades, como por ejemplo permitir que se comprobara sólo el manejo de máquinas o sistemas específicos. Las pruebas de mecanografía (en las que se mediría la velocidad, el número de errores y se valoraría el saber tomar dictados), el dominio de un sistema contable o de una grúa hidráulica, la codificación en Cobol,[^n17] etc., pueden fácilmente hacerse objetivas. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, muchas de las verdaderas habilidades de importancia práctica pueden verificarse de ese modo. Y para los fines de administración de personal es mucho más útil una prueba sobre el nivel presente de competencia en determinada habilidad que la información sobre el hecho de que 20 años atrás una persona dejó satisfecho a su profesor respecto de un currículum en el que se enseñaba mecanografía, taquigrafía y contabilidad. Naturalmente puede ponerse en duda la necesidad misma de una comprobación oficial de habilidades: yo tengo la convicción de que el hecho de imponer ciertas restricciones constituye una mejor garantía para el derecho que un hombre tiene a que su reputación no sufra daños indebidos provenientes de una rotulación, que la garantía lograda al prohibir pruebas de competencia. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Servicios de habilidades","hid":"servicios_de_habilidades","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":23,"range":"206898-219019"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit24" id="servicio_de_busqueda_de_companero">Servicio de búsqueda de compañero</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +En el peor de los casos, las escuelas reúnen condiscípulos en la misma habitación y los someten a la misma secuencia de tratamiento en matemáticas, educación cívica y lenguaje. En el mejor, permiten a cada estudiante elegir un curso de entre un número limitado de ellos. En cualquier caso, se forman grupos de iguales en torno a las metas de los profesores. Un sistema conveniente de educación permitiría a cada persona especificar la actividad para la cual busca un compañero. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela ofrece efectivamente a los niños una oportunidad para escapar de sus casas y encontrar nuevos amigos. Pero al mismo tiempo, este proceso inculca en ellos la idea de que deberían elegir sus amigos entre aquellos con quienes han sido congregados. El invitar a los menores desde su más tierna infancia a conocer, evaluar y buscar a otros los prepararía para mantener durante toda su vida el interés por buscar nuevos asociados para nuevos empeños. +</p> + +<p> +A un buen jugador de ajedrez siempre le gusta hallar un buen adversario, y a un novato le alegra hallar otro. Los clubes les sirven para este fin. Las personas que quieren conversar sobre determinados libros o artículos probablemente pagarían por hallar compañeros de debate. Los que quieren practicar juegos, ir de excursión, construir estanques para peces o motorizar bicicletas se tomarán molestias considerables para hallar compañeros para ello. El premio de sus esfuerzos es encontrar esos compañeros. Las buenas escuelas tratan de poner al descubierto los intereses comunes de los estudiantes matriculados en los mismos programas. Lo inverso de la escuela sería una institución que aumentase las posibilidades de que las personas que en un determinado momento compartiesen el mismo interés específico, pudiesen encontrarse independientemente de que tuviesen otra cosa en común. +</p> + +<p> +La enseñanza de habilidades no proporciona beneficios iguales a ambas partes, como lo hace la reunión de iguales. Tal como he señalado, al profesor de habilidades debe ofrecérsele algún otro incentivo aparte de las satisfacciones de enseñar. La enseñanza de habilidades es un asunto de repetir una y otra vez ciertas rutinas y de hecho es más tediosa para los alumnos que más la necesitan. Un servicio de habilidades necesita dinero o créditos u otros incentivos tangibles para funcionar, aun cuando el servicio mismo produjese su propia moneda. Un sistema de búsqueda de compañero no precisaría tales incentivos, sino sólo una red de comunicaciones. +</p> + +<p> +Las cintas, los sistemas de informática, la instrucción programada y la reproducción de formas y de sonidos tienden a disminuir la necesidad de recurrir a profesores humanos para muchas habilidades; aumentan la eficiencia de los profesores y el número de habilidades que uno puede conseguir a lo largo de su vida. Paralelamente a este aspecto se ha creado la necesidad creciente de encontrarse con gente interesada en disfrutar de la habilidad recientemente adquirida. Una estudiante que haya aprendido griego antes de sus vacaciones querrá conversar en griego sobre política cretense cuando regrese. Un mexicano de Nueva York quiere hallar a otros lectores de la revista <em>Siempre!</em> o de <em>Los Agachados</em> , la más popular de las historietas. Algún otro quiere encontrar compañeros que, como él, desearían aumentar su interés en la obra de James Baldwin o de Bolívar. +</p> + +<p> +El funcionamiento de una red para búsqueda de compañeros sería simple. El usuario se identificaría por su nombre y dirección y describiría la actividad para la cual estuviese buscando compañero. Una computadora le remitiría los nombres y direcciones de todos aquellos que hubiesen introducido la misma descripción. Es asombroso que un servicio público tan sencillo no se haya usado nunca en gran escala para actividades de valor público. +</p> + +<p> +En su forma más rudimentaria, la comunicación entre cliente y computadora podría establecerse por correo. En las grandes ciudades, unas máquinas de escribir conectadas a una computadora podrían proporcionar respuestas instantáneas. La única manera de conseguir que la computadora entregase un nombre y dirección sería anotar una actividad para la cual se buscase un compañero. Las personas que utilizasen el sistema llegarían a ser conocidas únicamente por sus posibles compañeros de actividad. +</p> + +<p> +Un complemento de la computadora podría ser una red de pizarras o cuadros de anuncios y de avisos clasificados de periódico, consistentes en listas de actividades para las cuales no se hubiese hallado compañero mediante la computadora. No sería necesario dar nombres. Los lectores interesados introducirían entonces sus nombres en el sistema. Es posible que un sistema de búsqueda de compañero, con patrocinio público, sea la única manera de garantizar la libertad de reunión y de adiestrar a la gente en el ejercicio de esta actividad cívica tan fundamental. +</p> + +<p> +El derecho a la libre reunión ha sido reconocido políticamente y aceptado socialmente. Deberíamos entender ahora que este derecho está restringido por leyes que hacen obligatorias ciertas formas de reunión. Éste es en particular el caso de las instituciones que reclutan según edad, clase o sexo, y que consumen muchísimo tiempo. El ejército es un ejemplo. La escuela es otro aún más ofensivo. +</p> + +<p> +Desescolarizar significa abolir el poder de una persona para obligar a otra a asistir a una reunión. Significa también reconocer el derecho de cualquier persona, de cualquier edad o sexo, a convocar una reunión. Este derecho se ha visto drásticamente disminuido por la institucionalización de las reuniones. “Reunión” se refería originalmente al resultado del acto individual de juntarse. Ahora se refiere al producto institucional de algún organismo. +</p> + +<p> +La capacidad de las instituciones de servicio para adquirir clientes ha sobrepasado con mucho la capacidad de las personas para ser oídas con independencia de los medios de información institucional, que reaccionan ante personas individuales sólo si son noticias vendibles. Deberían existir servicios de búsqueda de compañero para personas que quisiesen reunir a otras, de modo que fuese tan fácil como la campana de la aldea que convocaba a los aldeanos a un cabildo. Los edificios escolares —dudosamente adaptables para otros fines— podrían cumplir en muchos casos este objetivo. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, el sistema escolar puede encontrarse pronto con un problema que las Iglesias han enfrentado anteriormente: qué hacer con el espacio sobrante que ha quedado con la defección de los fieles. Las escuelas son difíciles de vender como templos. Una manera de continuar manteniéndolas en uso sería entregar esos edificios al vecindario. Cada cual podría manifestar lo que haría en el aula y cuándo, y algunos anuncios pondrían los programas disponibles en conocimiento de quien indagara. El acceso a “clase” sería gratis —o se compraría con bonos educativos—. El “profesor” podría incluso pagarse según el número de alumnos que atrajese por cualquier periodo completo de dos horas. Me imagino que los líderes muy jóvenes y los grandes educadores serían los dos tipos de persona más destacados en semejante sistema. Podría seguirse igual planteamiento respecto de la educación superior. Podría dotarse a los estudiantes de bonos educativos que los hicieran acreedores a 10 horas anuales de consulta con el profesor de su elección y, para el resto de su aprendizaje, se apoyaría en la biblioteca, la red para búsqueda de compañeros y los periodos de aprendiz. +</p> + +<p> +Naturalmente, debemos reconocer la probabilidad de que se abuse de esos dispositivos públicos de búsqueda para fines inmorales y de explotación, tal como se ha abusado de los teléfonos y del correo. Se requeriría cierta protección semejante a la que se usa para esas redes. En otras páginas he propuesto un sistema de búsqueda de compañero que permitiría usar sólo una información impresa pertinente, más el nombre y la dirección del averiguador. Un sistema de esta especie sería prácticamente a prueba de abusos. Otra medida sería permitir que se agregase cualquier libro, película, programa de televisión u otro artículo que figurase en un catálogo especial. La preocupación acerca de los peligros del sistema no debe hacernos perder de vista sus beneficios, tanto mayores. +</p> + +<p> +Algunos que comparten mi preocupación por la libertad de expresión y la reunión alegarán que el sistema de búsqueda de compañero es un medio artificial de juntar personas y que no lo utilizarían los pobres —que son quienes más lo necesitan—. Hay personas que auténticamente se alborotan cuando uno sugiere montar encuentros <em>ad hoc</em> que no tengan su raíz en la vida de una comunidad local. Otros reaccionan cuando uno sugiere usar una computadora para entresacar y conjuntar intereses que algunos clientes del sistema hayan definido. No es posible reunir a las personas de una manera tan impersonal, dicen. La búsqueda en común debe estar arraigada en una historia de experiencias compartidas a muchos niveles, y debe nacer de esta experiencia —el desarrollo de instituciones vecinales, por ejemplo—. +</p> + +<p> +Simpatizo con estas objeciones, pero creo que no comprenden el verdadero sentido de lo que persigo y no dan tampoco con lo que ellos mismos persiguen. En primer lugar, el retorno a la vida vecinal como centro primario de expresión creativa podría de hecho ser contraproducente para volver a establecer los vecindarios como unidades políticas. Centrar las demandas sobre el barrio o vecindario podría, en efecto, descuidar un importante aspecto liberador de la vida urbana —el que una persona pueda participar simultáneamente en varios grupos de sus iguales—. Además, existe un sentido importante: personas que jamás han vivido juntas en una comunidad física pueden tener ocasionalmente muchas más experiencias por compartir que quienes se han conocido desde la infancia. Las grandes religiones han reconocido siempre la importancia de estos encuentros lejanos, y los fieles han hallado siempre libertad mediante ellos: los peregrinajes, el monacato y el mutuo apoyo de templos y santuarios son reflejos de este reconocimiento. La conjunción de iguales podría ayudar significativamente a hacer explícitas las numerosas comunidades en potencia, aunque reprimidas, que existen en la ciudad. +</p> + +<p> +Las comunidades locales son valiosas. Son también una realidad que se desvanece conforme los hombres dejan que las instituciones definan cada vez más sus círculos de relación social. En un libro reciente, Milton Kotler mostró que el imperialismo del “centro” de la ciudad priva al barrio de su significación política. El intento proteccionista de resucitar la barriada como unidad cultural sólo sirve de apoyo a este imperialismo burocrático. Lejos de apartar artificialmente a la gente de su contexto local para unirla con grupos abstractos, el servicio de búsqueda de compañero alentaría un renacer de la vida local en las ciudades de las cuales está desapareciendo hoy en día. Un hombre que recupere su iniciativa para llamar a sus prójimos a sostener una conversación significativa, puede dejar de conformarse con estar separado de ellos por el protocolo oficinesco o por la etiqueta suburbana. Habiendo visto por una vez que el hacer cosas en conjunto depende del decidir hacerlo, la gente posiblemente insista incluso en que su comunidad local se haga más abierta al intercambio político creativo. +</p> + +<p> +Debemos reconocer que la vida urbana tiende a hacerse inmensamente costosa conforme a los habitantes de la ciudad se les enseña a confiar en complejos servicios institucionales para satisfacer cada una de sus necesidades. Es extraordinariamente costoso incluso mantenerla en un nivel mínimo de habitabilidad. El servicio de búsqueda de compañero de aprendizaje en la ciudad podría ser un primer paso para romper la dependencia de los ciudadanos respecto de servicios burocráticos. +</p> + +<p> +Sería también una medida esencial para proporcionar nuevos medios de establecer la confianza pública. En una sociedad escolarizada hemos llegado a confiar cada día más en el juicio profesional de educadores sobre el efecto de su propia labor para decidir en quién podemos o no confiar: vamos al médico, al abogado o al psicólogo porque confiamos en que cualquiera que ha tenido la cantidad requerida de tratamiento educativo especializado a manos de otros colegas merece nuestra confianza. +</p> + +<p> +En una sociedad desescolarizada, los profesionales ya no pueden reclamar la confianza de sus clientes a partir de su historial curricular o asegurar su prestigio con sólo remitir a sus clientes a otros profesionales que dieron aprobación a su escolarización. En vez de depositar su confianza en profesionales, debería ser posible, en cualquier momento, que cualquier presunto cliente consultase con otros clientes experimentados sobre la calidad del servicio prestado por un profesional mediante otra red de comunicación de intereses comunes fácilmente montada en una computadora o mediante muchos otros medios. Podría considerarse a tales redes como servicios de utilidad pública que permitiesen a los estudiantes elegir a sus profesores o a los pacientes, sus médicos. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Servicio de b\u00fasqueda de compa\u00f1ero","hid":"servicio_de_busqueda_de_companero","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":24,"range":"219020-232373"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit25" id="educadores_profesionales">Educadores profesionales</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Conforme los ciudadanos tengan nuevas posibilidades de elección, nuevas posibilidades de aprendizaje, su disposición a buscar directivos debiera aumentar. Podemos contar con que experimentarán más hondamente tanto su propia independencia como su necesidad de guía. Conforme estén liberados de la manipulación por parte de terceros, debieran aprender a beneficiarse de la disciplina que otros han adquirido durante toda su vida. El desescolarizar la educación debiera más bien aumentar, y no ahogar, la búsqueda de hombres de sabiduría práctica que estuviesen dispuestos a apoyar al recién llegado en su aventura educativa. Conforme los maestros en su arte abandonan la pretensión de ser informantes superiores o modelos de habilidades, comenzará a parecer verdadera la sabiduría superior que parecen poseer. +</p> + +<p> +Al aumentar la demanda de maestros debiera aumentar también la oferta. Conforme se desvanezca el maestro de escuela, se suscitarán condiciones que harán aparecer la vocación del educador independiente. Esto puede parecer casi contradictorio; a tal punto han llegado a ser complementarios escuelas y profesores. Sin embargo éste es exactamente el resultado a que tendería el desarrollo de los primeros servicios educativos —y lo que se precisaría para hacer posible el aprovecharlos plenamente—, pues los padres y otros “educadores naturales” necesitan un guía, las personas que aprenden necesitan ayuda, y las redes necesitan personas que las hagan funcionar. +</p> + +<p> +Los padres necesitan orientación para dirigir a sus hijos por el camino que conduce a la independencia educativa responsable. Los aprendices necesitan líderes experimentados cuando se topan con un terreno arduo. Estas dos necesidades son muy distintas: la primera es una necesidad de pedagogía, la segunda una necesidad de dirección intelectual en todas las demás ramas del conocimiento. La primera exige conocimiento del aprendizaje humano y de los recursos educativos, la segunda exige sabiduría fundada en la experiencia en cualquier clase de exploración. Ambos tipos de experiencia son indispensables para una empresa educativa eficaz. Las escuelas envasan estas funciones en un solo papel —y hacen que el ejercicio independiente de cualquiera de ellas se vuelva, si no algo lleno de desdoro, al menos sospechoso—. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho deberían distinguirse tres tipos de competencia educativa especial: una, crear y manejar los tipos de servicios o redes educativas esbozadas aquí; otra, guiar a estudiantes y padres en el uso de estas redes, y una tercera, actuar como <em>primus inter pares</em> al emprender difíciles viajes de exploración intelectual. Sólo las dos primeras pueden concebirse como ramas de una profesión independiente: administradores educativos y consejeros pedagógicos. No se precisaría mucha gente para proyectar y gestionar las redes que he estado describiendo, pero sí gente con un profundo entendimiento de la educación y la administración, con una perspectiva muy diferente y hasta opuesta a la de las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +Si bien una profesión educativa independiente de esta especie daría la bienvenida a muchas personas que las escuelas excluyen, excluiría asimismo a muchas que las escuelas declaran aptas. El establecimiento y gestión de redes educativas precisaría de algunos proyectistas y administradores, pero no en la cantidad ni del tipo que exige la administración de escuelas. La disciplina estudiantil, las relaciones públicas, la contratación, supervisión y despido de profesores no tendrían lugar ni equivalente en las redes que he estado describiendo. Tampoco la creación de currícula, la compra de libros de texto, el entretenimiento de lugares e instalaciones, ni la supervisión de competencias atléticas interescolares. La custodia de niños, el planteamiento de lecciones y la anotación de datos archivables, que ocupan ahora tanto tiempo de los profesores, tampoco figurarían en la gestión de las redes educativas. En cambio, para el funcionamiento de las tramas de aprendizaje se necesitarían algunas de las habilidades y actitudes que se esperan actualmente del personal de un museo, de una biblioteca, de una agencia para contratación de directivos o de un <em>maître d’hôtel</em>.[^n18] +</p> + +<p> +Los administradores educativos de hoy en día se preocupan de controlar a profesores y estudiantes de modo que queden satisfechos unos terceros —fideicomisarios, legislaturas y jefes de empresas—. Los constructores y administradores de las redes antedichas tendrían que demostrar tener genio para ponerse a sí mismos y a terceras personas donde no estorbasen a la gente, para facilitar encuentros entre estudiantes, modelos de habilidades, líderes educativos y objetos educativos. Muchas de las personas a las que hoy atrae la enseñanza son profundamente autoritarias y no serían capaces de hacerse cargo de esta tarea: construir servicios o bolsas de intercambio educativo significaría facilitar a la gente —en especial a los jóvenes— el ir en pos de metas que pudieren contradecir los ideales del gerente que hiciese posible tal empeño. +</p> + +<p> +Si pudiesen hacer su aparición las redes que he descrito, el recorrido educativo que siguiese cada estudiante sería cosa suya o propia, y sólo mirado retrospectivamente podría adquirir las características de un programa reconocible. El estudiante sensato buscaría periódicamente el consejo profesional: ayuda para fijarse una nueva meta, comprensión penetrante de las dificultades habidas, elección entre algunos métodos posibles. Incluso ahora, la mayoría de las personas admitirán que los servicios importantes que les prestaron sus profesores fueron consejos o asesoramiento de esta especie, dados en una reunión casual o durante una conversación personal. En un mundo desescolarizado, los pedagogos también harían valer sus métodos y serían capaces de realizar aquello que los profesores frustrados pretenden emprender hoy en día. +</p> + +<p> +Mientras los administradores de redes se concentrarían principalmente en la construcción y el mantenimiento de cambios que dieran acceso a recursos, el pedagogo ayudaría al estudiante a hallar el sendero que le pudiese conducir a mayor velocidad hacia su meta. Si un estudiante quisiese aprender cantonés hablado de un vecino chino, el pedagogo estaría a mano para juzgar el aprovechamiento y pericia de ambos y para ayudarles a elegir el libro de texto y los métodos más adecuados para sus talentos, caracteres y tiempo disponible para estudiar. Podría aconsejar al mecánico de aviación en ciernes sobre los mejores lugares para practicar como aprendiz. Podría recomendar libros o alguno que quisiese hallar compañeros con garra para debatir sobre historia de África. Al igual que el administrador de redes, el consejero pedagógico se vería a sí mismo como un educador profesional. El acceso a cualquiera de ambos podrían lograrlo las personas usando sus bonos educativos. +</p> + +<p> +El papel del iniciador o líder educativo, del maestro o “verdadero” líder es algo más elusivo que el de administrador profesional o de pedagogo. Esto se debe a que el liderazgo es en sí algo difícil de definir. En la práctica, una persona es un líder si la gente sigue su iniciativa y se convierten en aprendices de sus descubrimientos progresivos. Esto frecuentemente presupone una visión profética de normas enteramente nuevas —muy comprensibles en el presente— en las cuales el “error” actual se convertirá en “acierto”. En una sociedad que respetaría el derecho a convocar asambleas a través del sistema de búsqueda de compañero, la capacidad de tomar la iniciativa educativa sobre un tema específico sería tan amplia como el acceso mismo al aprendizaje. Pero, naturalmente, hay una enorme diferencia entre la iniciativa que toma alguien para convocar una provechosa reunión para debatir este ensayo y la capacidad de alguien para servir de líder en la exploración sistemática de sus implicaciones. +</p> + +<p> +El liderazgo tampoco depende del hecho de estar en lo cierto. Tal como señala Thomas Kuhn, en un periodo de paradigmas en constante variación, la mayoría de los más distinguidos líderes tiene la probabilidad de haber incurrido en error cuando se someten a una prueba retrospectiva. La condición de líder intelectual se funda en una disciplina intelectual y una imaginación superiores, y en la disposición a asociarse con otros en el ejercicio de aquéllas. Por ejemplo, el aprendiz puede pensar que existe una analogía entre el Movimiento Antiesclavista de Estados Unidos o la Revolución cubana y lo que está ocurriendo en Harlem. El educador que sea al mismo tiempo historiador podría mostrarle cómo advertir las fallas de dicha analogía. Puede recorrer de nuevo su camino como historiador. Puede invitar al aprendiz a participar en las investigaciones que realice. En ambos casos iniciará a su alumno en el aprendizaje de un arte crítico —que es escaso en la escuela— y que no puede comprarse ni con dinero ni con favores. +</p> + +<p> +La relación entre maestro y discípulo no se limita a la disciplina intelectual. Tiene su equivalente en las artes, en física, en religión, en psicoanálisis y en pedagogía. Encaja en el montañismo, en la platería y en política, en ebanistería y en administración de personal. Lo que es común en todas las verdaderas relaciones maestro-discípulo es el hecho de que ambos tienen conciencia de que su mutua relación es literalmente inapreciable y de maneras muy diferentes constituye un privilegio para ambos. +</p> + +<p> +Los charlatanes, los demagogos, los proselitistas, los maestros corrompidos, los sacerdotes simoniacos, los pillos, los taumaturgos y los mesías han demostrado ser capaces de asumir el papel de líderes y han demostrado así los peligros que para un discípulo tiene la dependencia respecto del maestro. Las diversas sociedades han adoptado diversas medidas para protegerse de estos maestros falsificados. Los hindúes se apoyaron en el sistema de castas. Los judíos orientales, en la condición de discípulo espiritual de los rabinos, los grandes periodos de la cristiandad en una vida ejemplar de virtud monástica, y otros periodos en el orden jerárquico. Nuestra sociedad confía en los certificados dados por escuelas. Es dudoso que ese procedimiento constituya una criba más eficaz, pero si se pretendiese que lo es, podría alegarse en contra que lo hace al costo de casi hacer desaparecer la condición de discípulo personal. +</p> + +<p> +En la práctica el límite entre el profesor de habilidades y los líderes educadores antes señalados será siempre confuso, y no hay razones prácticas para que no pueda lograrse el acceso a ciertos líderes descubriendo al “maestro” en el profesor rutinario que inicia a unos estudiantes en su disciplina. +</p> + +<p> +Por otra parte, lo que caracteriza la verdadera relación maestro-discípulo es su carácter de inapreciable. Aristóteles dice de ella: “Es un tipo de amistad moral, no fundada en términos fijos: hace un regalo, o hace lo que hace, como a un amigo”. Tomás de Aquino dice de este tipo de enseñanza que inevitablemente es un acto de amor y de compasión. Este tipo de enseñanza es siempre un lujo para el profesor y una forma de recreación (en griego, <em>schole</em>) para él y para su discípulo: una actividad significativa para ambos, sin propósito ulterior. +</p> + +<p> +Contar con que haya personas dotadas dispuestas a proveer una auténtica dirección intelectual es obviamente necesario incluso en nuestra sociedad, pero podría dictarse como norma ahora. Debemos construir primero una sociedad en la cual los actos profesionales mismos recuperen un valor más elevado que el de hacer cosas y manipular gente. En una sociedad así, la enseñanza exploratoria, inventiva, creativa, se contaría lógicamente entre las formas más elevadas del “ocio”. Pero no es necesario esperar hasta el advenimiento de la utopía. Incluso ahora, una de las consecuencias más importantes de la desescolarización y del establecimiento de sistemas para búsqueda de compañero sería la iniciativa que algunos “maestros” pudiesen tomar para congregar discípulos que congeniasen. Daría también, como hemos visto, oportunidades amplias para que los discípulos en potencia compartiesen informaciones o seleccionasen un maestro. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones que pervierten una profesión al meter en un solo paquete varios papeles por desempeñar. Los hospitales hacen cada vez más imposible la atención en el hogar —y luego justifican la hospitalización como un beneficio para el enfermo—. Simultáneamente, la legitimidad y las posibilidades de ejercer de un médico vienen a depender de modo creciente de su asociación con un hospital, si bien su dependencia es mucho menor que la de los profesores respecto de las escuelas. Igual cosa podría decirse de los tribunales, que atiborran sus calendarios conforme nuevas transacciones adquieren solemnidad legal, demorando así la justicia. En cada uno de estos casos el resultado es un servicio escaso a un coste mayor, y un mayor ingreso para los miembros menos competentes de la profesión. +</p> + +<p> +Mientras las profesiones más antiguas monopolicen los mayores ingresos y prestigio, será difícil reformarlas. La profesión de maestro de escuela debiera ser fácil de reformar, no sólo debido a su origen más reciente. La profesión educativa pretende ahora un monopolio global; reclama ser la única competente para impartir el aprendizaje no sólo a sus propios novicios sino también a los de otras profesiones. Esta expansión excesiva la hace vulnerable ante cualquier otra profesión que reclame el derecho a enseñar a sus propios aprendices. Los maestros de escuela están abrumadoramente mal pagados y frustrados por la estrecha fiscalización del sistema escolar. Los más emprendedores y dotados de entre ellos hallarían probablemente un trabajo más simpático, una mayor independencia y hasta mejores ingresos al especializarse como modelos de habilidades, administradores de redes o especialistas en orientación. +</p> + +<p> +Finalmente, es más fácil romper la dependencia del alumno matriculado respecto del profesor diplomado que su dependencia de otros profesionales —por ejemplo, que la de un paciente hospitalizado respecto de su médico—. Si las escuelas dejaran de ser obligatorias, aquellos profesores cuya satisfacción reside en el ejercicio de la autoridad pedagógica en el aula se quedarían sólo con los alumnos para quienes fuese atractivo ese estilo. La desaparición de nuestra actual estructura profesional podría comenzar con la deserción del maestro de escuela. +</p> + +<p> +La desaparición de las escuelas ocurriría inevitablemente —y ocurriría a velocidad sorprendente—. No puede postergarse por más tiempo, y no hace ninguna falta promoverlo vigorosamente, porque ya está ocurriendo. Lo que vale la pena es tratar de orientarla en una dirección prometedora, pues puede dirigirse en dos direcciones diametralmente opuestas. +</p> + +<p> +La primera sería la ampliación del mandato del pedagogo y su control creciente sobre la sociedad, incluso fuera de la escuela. Con la mejor intención y tan sólo ampliando la retórica usada hoy como en las aulas, la crisis actual de las escuelas podría proporcionar a los educadores la excusa para usar todas las redes de la sociedad contemporánea para enviarnos sus mensajes —para nuestro bien—. La desescolarización que no podemos detener, podría significar el advenimiento de un “mundo feliz” dominado por algunos bien intencionados administradores de instrucción programada. +</p> + +<p> +Por otra parte, el hecho de que tanto los gobiernos como los empleados, los contribuyentes, los pedagogos despiertos y los administradores escolares advierten con creciente claridad que la enseñanza graduada de currícula en pro de unos certificados se ha hecho perjudicial, podría ofrecer a grandes masas humanas una oportunidad única: la de preservar el derecho de tener un acceso parejo a los instrumentos tanto para aprender, como para competir con otros lo que saben o creen. Pero esto exigiría que la revolución educativa estuviese guiada por ciertas metas: +</p> + +<p> +<em>1.</em> Liberar el acceso a las cosas, mediante la abolición del control que hoy ejercen unas personas e instituciones sobre sus valores educativos. +</p> + +<p> +<em>2.</em> Liberar la coparticipación de habilidades al garantizar la libertad de enseñarlas o de ejercitarlas a pedido. +</p> + +<p> +<em>3.</em> Liberar los recursos críticos y creativos de la gente por medio de un regreso a la capacidad de las personas para convocar y organizar reuniones —capacidad crecientemente monopolizada por instituciones que afirman estar al servicio del público—. +</p> + +<p> +<em>4.</em> Liberar al individuo de la obligación de moldear sus expectativas según los servicios ofrecidos por cualquier profesión establecida —proporcionándole la oportunidad de aprovechar la experiencia de sus iguales y de confiarse al profesor, guía, consejero o curandero de su elección—. La desescolarización de la sociedad difuminará inevitablemente las distinciones entre economía, educación y política, sobre las que se funda ahora la estabilidad del orden mundial y de las naciones. +</p> + +<p> +Nuestra reseña de las instituciones educativas nos lleva a modificar nuestra imagen del hombre. La criatura que las escuelas necesitan como cliente no tiene ni la autonomía ni la motivación para crecer por su cuenta. Podemos reconocer la escolarización como la culminación de una empresa prometeica, y hablar acerca de su alternativa refiriéndonos a un mundo adecuado para que en él viva un hombre epimeteico. Ya que nos es posible imaginar el reemplazo del embudo escolástico por una trama de intercambios y hacer que el mundo vuelva a ser visible mediante múltiples posibilidades de comunicación, sólo nos queda, al final de este esfuerzo, esperar que la naturaleza epimeteica del hombre aparezca, porque este renacimiento no depende de nuestros proyectos ni de nuestra voluntad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Educadores profesionales","hid":"educadores_profesionales","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":25,"range":"232374-250439"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit26" id="renacimiento_del_hombre_epimeteico">Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Nuestra sociedad se parece a la máquina implacable que una vez vi en una juguetería neoyorquina consistía en un cofrecillo metálico con un interruptor que, al tocarlo se abría de golpe descubriendo una mano mecánica. Unos dedos cromados se estiraban hacia la tapa y la cerraban desde el interior. Era una caja; uno esperaba poder sacar algo de ella, pero no contenía sino un mecanismo para cerrarla. Este artilugio es lo opuesto a la “caja” de Pandora. +</p> + +<p> +La Pandora original, “la dadora de todo”, era una diosa de la Tierra en la Grecia prehistórica y matriarcal que dejó escapar todos los males de su ánfora (<em>pythos</em>). Pero cerró la tapa antes de que pudiera escapar la esperanza. La historia del hombre moderno comienza con la degradación del mito de Pandora y llega a su término con el cofrecillo que se cierra solo. Es la historia del empeño prometeico por forjar instituciones a fin de encerrar los males desencadenados. Es la historia de una esperanza que declina y de unas expectativas crecientes. +</p> + +<p> +Para comprender lo que esto significa debemos redescubrir la diferencia entre expectativa y esperanza. Esperanza, en su sentido vigoroso, significa fe confiada en la bondad de la naturaleza; mientras expectativa, tal como la emplearé aquí, significa fiarse en resultados planificados y controlados por el hombre. La esperanza centra el deseo en una persona de la que aguardamos un regalo. La expectativa promete una satisfacción que proviene de un proceso predecible que producirá aquello que tenemos el derecho de exigir. El <em>ethos</em> prometeico ha eclipsado actualmente la esperanza. La supervivencia de la raza humana depende de que se la descubra como fuerza social. +</p> + +<p> +La Pandora original fue enviada a la Tierra con un frasco que contenía todos los males; de las cosas buenas, contenía sólo la esperanza. El hombre primitivo vivía en este mundo de la esperanza. Para subsistir confiaba en la munificencia de la naturaleza, en los regalos de los dioses y en los instintos de su tribu. Los griegos del periodo clásico comenzaron a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. En la versión que dieron de Pandora, ésta soltó tanto males como bienes. La recordaban principalmente por los males que había desencadenado. Y, lo que es más significativo, olvidaron que “la dadora de todo” era también la custodia de la esperanza. +</p> + +<p> +Los griegos contaban la historia de dos hermanos, Prometeo y Epimeteo. El primero advirtió al segundo que no se metiera con Pandora. Éste, en cambio, casó con ella. En la Grecia clásica, al nombre Epimeteo, que significa “percepción tardía” o “visión ulterior”, se le daba el significado de “lerdo” o “tonto”. Para la época en que Hesíodo relataba el cuento en su forma clásica, los griegos se habían convertido en patriarcas moralistas y misóginos que se espantaban ante el pensamiento de la primera mujer. Construyeron una sociedad racional y autoritaria. Los hombres proyectaron instituciones mediante las cuales programaron enfrentarse a todos los males desencadenados. Llegaron a percatarse de su poder para conformar el mundo y hacerlo producir servicios que aprendieron también a esperar. Querían que sus artefactos moldearan sus propias necesidades y las exigencias futuras de sus hijos. Se convirtieron en legisladores, arquitectos y autores, hacedores de constituciones, ciudades y obras de arte que sirviesen de ejemplo para su progenie. El hombre primitivo contaba con la participación mística en ritos sagrados para iniciar a los individuos en las tradiciones de la sociedad, pero los griegos clásicos reconocieron como verdaderos hombres sólo a aquellos ciudadanos que permitían que la <em>paideia</em> (educación) los hiciera aptos para ingresar en las instituciones que sus mayores habían proyectado. +</p> + +<p> +El mito en desarrollo refleja la transición desde un mundo en que se <em>interpretaban</em> los sueños a un mundo en que <em>se hacían</em> oráculos. Desde tiempos inmemoriales, se había adorado a la diosa de la Tierra en las laderas del monte Parnaso, que era el centro y el ombligo de la tierra. Allí, en Delphos (de <em>delphys</em> , la matriz), dormía Gaia, hermana de Caos y de Eros. Su hijo, Pitón, el dragón, cuidaba sus sueños lunares y húmedos de rocío, hasta que Apolo, el dios del Sol, el arquitecto de Troya, se alzó al Oriente, mató al dragón y se apoderó de la cueva de Gaia. Los sacerdotes de Apolo se hicieron cargo del templo de la diosa. Emplearon a una doncella de la localidad, la sentaron en un trípode, sobre el ombligo humeante de la tierra, y la adormecieron con emanaciones. Luego pusieron sus declaraciones extáticas en hexámetros rimados de profecías que se cumplían por la misma influencia que ejercían. De todo el Peloponeso venían hombres a traer sus problemas ante Apolo. Se consultaba el oráculo sobre posibles alternativas sociales, tales como las medidas que se debían adoptar frente a una peste o una hambruna, sobre cuál era la constitución conveniente para Esparta o cuáles los emplazamientos propicios para ciudades que más tarde se llamaron Bizancio y Caledonia. La flecha que nunca yerra se convirtió en un símbolo de Apolo. Todo lo referente a él adquirió un fin determinado y útil. +</p> + +<p> +En la <em>República</em> , al describir el Estado ideal, Platón ya excluye la música popular. En las ciudades se permitiría sólo el arpa y la lira de Apolo, porque únicamente la armonía de éstas crea “la tensión de la necesidad y la tensión de la libertad, la tensión de lo infortunado y la tensión de lo afortunado, la tensión del valor y la tensión de la templanza, dignas del ciudadano”. Los habitantes de la ciudad se espantaron ante la flauta de Pan y su poder para despertar los instintos. Sólo “los pastores pueden tocar las flautas (de Pan) y esto sólo en el campo”. +</p> + +<p> +El hombre se hizo responsable de las leyes bajo las cuales quería vivir y de moldear el medio ambiente a su propia semejanza. La iniciación primitiva que daba la Madre Tierra a una vida mítica se transformó en la educación (<em>paideia</em>) del ciudadano que se sentiría a gusto en el foro. +</p> + +<p> +Para el primitivo, el mundo estaba regido por el destino, los hechos y la necesidad. Al robar el fuego de los dioses, Prometeo convirtió los hechos en problemas, puso en tela de juicio la necesidad y desafió al destino. El hombre clásico tramó un contexto civilizado para la perspectiva humana. Se percataba de que podía desafiar al trío destino-naturaleza-entorno, pero sólo bajo su propio riesgo. El hombre contemporáneo va aún más lejos; intenta crear el mundo a su semejanza, contribuir y planificar su entorno, y descubre entonces que sólo puede hacerlo a condición de rehacerse continuamente para ajustarse a él. Debemos enfrentarnos ahora al hecho de que es el hombre mismo el que está en juego. +</p> + +<p> +La vida en Nueva York produce una visión peculiar de lo que es y de lo que podría ser, y sin esta visión, la vida en Nueva York se hace imposible. En las calles de Nueva York, un niño jamás toca nada que no haya sido ideado, proyectado, planificado y vendido científicamente a alguien. Hasta los árboles están allí porque el Departamento de Parques así lo decidió. Los chistes que el niño escucha por televisión han sido programados a gran coste. La basura con que juega en las calles de Harlem está hecha de paquetes deshechos ideados para un tercero. Hasta los deseos y los temores están moldeados institucionalmente. El poder y la violencia están organizados y administrados: las pandillas, frente a la policía. El aprendizaje mismo se define como el consumo de una materia, que es el resultado de programas investigados, planificados y promocionados. Lo que allí haya de bueno, es el producto de alguna institución especializada. Sería tonto pedir algo que no pudiese producir alguna institución. El niño de la ciudad no puede esperar nada que esté más allá del posible desarrollo del proceso institucional. Hasta a su fantasía se le urge a producir ciencia ficción. Puede experimentar la sorpresa poética de lo no planificado sólo a través de sus encuentros con la “mugre”, el desatino o el fracaso: la cáscara de naranja en la cuneta, el charco en la calle, el quebrantamiento del orden, del programa o de la máquina son los únicos despegues para el vuelo de la fantasía creadora. El “viaje” se convierte en la única poesía al alcance de la mano. +</p> + +<p> +Como nada deseable hay que no haya sido planificado, el niño ciudadano pronto llega a la conclusión de que siempre podremos idear una institución para cada una de nuestras apetencias. Toma por descontado el poder del proceso para crear valor. Ya sea que la meta fuere juntarse con un compañero, integrar un barrio o adquirir habilidades de lectura, se la definirá de tal modo que su logro pueda proyectarse técnicamente. El hombre que sabe que nada que está en demanda deja de producirse llega pronto a esperar que nada de lo que se produce pueda carecer de demanda. Si puede proyectarse un vehículo lunar, también puede proyectarse la demanda de viajes a la Luna. No ir donde uno puede sería subversivo. Desenmascararía, mostrándola como una locura, la suposición de que cada demanda satisfecha trae consigo el descubrimiento de otra, mayor aún, e insatisfecha. Esa percepción detendría el progreso. No producir lo que es posible dejaría a la ley de las “expectativas crecientes” al descubierto, en calidad de eufemismo para expresar una brecha creciente de frustración, que es el motor de la sociedad, fundado en la coproducción de servicios y en la demanda creciente. +</p> + +<p> +El estado mental del habitante de la ciudad moderna aparece en la tradición mitológica sólo bajo la imagen del Infierno: Sísifo, que por un tiempo había encadenado a Tánatos (la muerte), debe empujar una pesada roca cerro arriba hasta el pináculo del Infierno, y la piedra siempre se escapa de sus manos cuando está a punto de llegar a la cima. Tántalo, a quien los dioses invitaron a compartir la comida olímpica, y que aprovechó la ocasión para robarles el secreto de la preparación de la ambrosía que todo lo cura, sufre hambre y sed eternas, de pie en un río cuyas aguas se le escapan y a la sombra de árboles cuyos frutos no alcanza. Un mundo de demandas siempre crecientes no sólo es malo; el único término adecuado para nombrarlo es “Infierno”. +</p> + +<p> +El hombre ha desarrollado la frustradora capacidad de pedir cualquier cosa porque no puede visualizar nada que una institución no pueda hacer por él. Rodeado por herramientas todopoderosas, el hombre queda reducido a ser instrumento de sus instrumentos. Cada una de las instituciones ideadas para exorcizar alguno de los males primordiales se ha convertido en un ataúd a prueba de errores y de cierre automático y hermético para el hombre. El hombre está atrapado en las cajas que fabrica para encerrar los males que Pandora dejó escapar. El oscurecimiento de la realidad por el <em>smog</em> producido por nuestras propias herramientas nos rodea. Súbitamente nos hallamos en la oscuridad de nuestra propia trampa. +</p> + +<p> +Hasta la realidad ha llegado a depender de la decisión humana. El mismo presidente que ordenó la ineficaz invasión de Camboya podría ordenar de igual manera el uso eficaz del átomo. El “interruptor Hiroshima” puede cortar hoy el ombligo de la tierra. El hombre ha adquirido el poder de hacer que Caos anonade a Eros y a Gaia. Esta nueva capacidad del hombre, el poder cortar el ombligo de la tierra, es un recuerdo constante de que nuestras instituciones no sólo crean sus propios fines, sino que tienen también el poder de señalar su propio fin y el nuestro. El absurdo de las instituciones modernas se evidencia en el caso de la institución militar. Las armas modernas pueden defender la libertad, la civilización y la vida únicamente aniquilándolas. En lenguaje militar, seguridad significa la capacidad de eliminar la Tierra. +</p> + +<p> +El absurdo subyacente en las instituciones no militares no es menos manifiesto. No hay en ellas un interruptor que active sus poderes destructores, pero tampoco lo necesitan. Sus dedos ya atenazan la tapa del mundo. Crean a mayor velocidad necesidades que satisfacciones, y en el proceso de tratar de satisfacer las necesidades que engendran, consumen la tierra. Esto vale para la agricultura y la manufactura, y no menos para la medicina y la educación. La agricultura moderna envenena y agota el suelo. La “revolución verde” puede, mediante nuevas semillas, triplicar la producción de una hectárea —pero sólo con un aumento proporcionalmente mayor de fertilizantes, insecticidas, agua y energía—. Fabricar estas cosas, como los demás bienes, contamina los océanos y la atmósfera y degrada recursos irreemplazables. Si la combustión continúa aumentando según los índices actuales, pronto consumiremos el oxígeno de la atmósfera sin poder reemplazarlo con igual presteza. No tenemos razones para creer que la fisión o la fusión puedan reemplazar la combustión sin peligros iguales o mayores. Los expertos en medicina reemplazan a las parteras y prometen convertir al hombre en otra cosa: genéticamente planificado, farmacológicamente endulzado y capaz de enfermedades más prolongadas. El ideal contemporáneo es un mundo panhigiénico: un mundo en el que todos los contactos entre los hombres, y entre los hombres y su mundo, sean el resultado de la previsión y la manipulación. La escuela se ha convertido en el proceso planificado que labra al hombre para un mundo planificado, en la trampa principal para entrampar al hombre en la trampa humana. Se supone que moldea a cada hombre a un nivel adecuado para desempeñar un papel en este juego mundial. De manera inexorable, cultivamos, elaboramos, producimos y escolarizamos el mundo hasta acabar con él. +</p> + +<p> +La institución militar es evidentemente absurda. Más difícil se hace enfrentar el absurdo de las instituciones no militares. Es aún más aterrorizante, precisamente porque funciona inexorablemente. Sabemos qué interruptor debe quedar abierto para evitar un holocausto atómico. No hay interruptor para detener un apocalipsis ecológico. +</p> + +<p> +En la antigüedad clásica, el hombre descubrió que el mundo podía forjarse según los planes del hombre, y, junto con este descubrimiento, advirtió que ello era inherentemente precario, dramático y cómico. Fueron creándose las instituciones democráticas y dentro de su estructura se supuso que el hombre era digno de confianza. Lo que se esperaba del debido proceso legal y la confianza en la naturaleza humana se mantenía en equilibrio recíproco. Se desarrollaron las profesiones tradicionales y con ellas las instituciones necesarias para el ejercicio de aquéllas. +</p> + +<p> +Subrepticiamente, la confianza en el proceso institucional ha reemplazado la dependencia respecto de la buena voluntad humana personal. El mundo ha perdido su dimensión humana y ha readquirido la necesidad de los tiempos primitivos. Pero mientras el caos de los bárbaros estaba constantemente ordenado en nombre de dioses misteriosos y antropomórficos, hoy en día la única razón que puede ofrecerse para que el mundo esté como está es la planificación del hombre. El hombre se ha convertido en el juguete de científicos, ingenieros y planificadores. +</p> + +<p> +Vemos esta lógica en otros y en nosotros mismos. Conozco una aldea mexicana en la que no pasa más de media docena de autos cada día. Un mexicano estaba jugando al dominó sobre la nueva carretera asfaltada frente a su casa —en donde probablemente se había sentado y había jugado desde muchacho—. Un coche pasó velozmente y lo mató. El turista que me informó del hecho estaba profundamente conmovido y, sin embargo, dijo: “Tenía que sucederle”. +</p> + +<p> +A primera vista, la observación del turista no difiere de la de un bosquimano que relata la muerte de algún fulano que se hubiera topado con un tabú y por consiguiente hubiera muerto. Pero las dos afirmaciones poseen significados diferentes. El primitivo puede culpar a alguna entidad trascendente, tremenda y ciega, mientras el turista está pasmado ante la inexorable lógica de la máquina. El primitivo no siente responsabilidad; el turista la siente, pero la niega. Tanto en el primitivo como en el turista están ausentes la modalidad clásica del drama, el estilo de la tragedia, la lógica del empeño individual y de la rebelión. El hombre primitivo no ha llegado a tener conciencia de ello, y el turista la ha perdido. El mito del bosquimano y el mito del norteamericano están compuestos ambos de fuerzas inertes, inhumanas. Ninguno de los dos experimenta una rebeldía trágica. Para el bosquimano, el suceso se ciñe a las leyes de la magia, para el norteamericano se ciñe a las leyes de la ciencia. El suceso le pone bajo el hechizo de las leyes de la mecánica, que para él gobiernan los sucesos físicos, sociales y psicológicos. +</p> + +<p> +El estado de ánimo de 1971 es propicio para un cambio importante de dirección en busca de un futuro esperanzador. A las metas institucionales las contradicen continuamente los resultados institucionales. El programa para la pobreza produce más pobres, la guerra en Asia acrecienta los Vietcong, la ayuda técnica engendra más subdesarrollo. Las clínicas para control de nacimientos incrementan los índices de supervivencia y provocan aumentos de población; las escuelas producen más desertores, y el atajar un tipo de contaminación suele aumentar otro tipo. +</p> + +<p> +Los consumidores se enfrentan al claro hecho de que cuanto más pueden comprar, tanto más engaño han de tragar. Hasta hace poco parecía lógico que pudiera echarse la culpa de esta inflación pandémica de disfunciones ya fuese al retraso de los descubrimientos científicos respecto de las exigencias tecnológicas, ya fuese a la perversidad de los enemigos étnicos, ideológicos o de clase. Han declinado las expectativas tanto respecto de un milenario científico como de una guerra que acabe con las guerras. +</p> + +<p> +Para el consumidor avezado no hay manera de regresar a una ingenua confianza en las tecnologías mágicas. Demasiadas personas han tenido la experiencia de computadoras que se descomponen, infecciones hospitalarias y saturación dondequiera que haya tráfico en la carretera, en el aire o en el teléfono. Hace apenas 10 años, la sabiduría convencional preveía una mejor vida fundada en los descubrimientos científicos. Ahora, los científicos asustan a los niños. Los viajes a la Luna proporcionan una fascinante demostración de que el fallo humano puede casi eliminarse entre los operarios de sistemas complejos —sin embargo, esto no mitiga los temores ante la posibilidad de que un fallo humano que consista en no consumir conforme a las instrucciones pueda escapar a todo control—. +</p> + +<p> +Para el reformador social tampoco hay modo de regresar a las premisas de la década de los años cuarenta. Se ha desvanecido la esperanza de que el problema de distribuir con justicia los bienes pueda evadirse creándolos en abundancia. El coste de la cesta mínima que satisfaga los gustos contemporáneos se ha ido a las nubes, y lo que hace que un gusto sea moderno es el hecho de que aparezca como anticuado antes de haber sido satisfecho. +</p> + +<p> +Los límites de los recursos de la tierra ya se han evidenciado. Ninguna nueva avenida de la ciencia o la tecnología podría proveer a cada hombre del mundo de los bienes y servicios de que disponen ahora los pobres de los países ricos. Por ejemplo, se precisaría extraer 100 veces las cantidades actuales de hierro, estaño, cobre y plomo para lograr esa meta, incluso con la alternativa tecnológica más “liviana”. +</p> + +<p> +Por fin, los profesores, médicos y trabajadores sociales caen en la cuenta de que sus diversos tratamientos profesionales tienen un aspecto —por lo menos— en común: crean nuevas demandas para los tratamientos profesionales que proporcionan, a una mayor rapidez con la que pueden proporcionar instituciones de servicio. +</p> + +<p> +Se está haciendo sospechosa no sólo una parte, sino la lógica misma de la sabiduría convencional. Incluso las leyes de la economía parecen poco convincentes fuera de los estrechos parámetros aplicables a la región social y geográfica en la que se encuentra la mayor parte del dinero. En efecto, el dinero es el circulante más barato, pero sólo en una economía encaminada hacia una eficiencia medida en términos monetarios. Tanto los países capitalistas como los comunistas en sus diversas formas están dedicados a medir la eficiencia en relación con el coste/beneficio expresado en dólares. El capitalismo se jacta de un nivel más elevado de vida para afirmar su superioridad. El comunismo hace alarde de una mayor tasa de crecimiento como índice de su triunfo final. Pero bajo cualquiera de ambas ideologías el coste total de aumentar la eficiencia se incrementa geométricamente. Las instituciones de mayor tamaño compiten con fiereza por los recursos que no están anotados en ningún inventario: el aire, el océano, el silencio, la luz del sol y la salud. Ponen en evidencia la escasez de estos recursos ante la opinión pública sólo cuando están casi irremediablemente degradados. Por doquiera, la naturaleza se vuelve ponzoñosa, la sociedad inhumana, la vida interior se ve invadida y la vocación personal ahogada. +</p> + +<p> +Una sociedad dedicada a la institucionalización de los valores identifica la producción de bienes y servicios con la demanda de los mismos. La educación que le hace a uno necesitar el producto está incluida en el precio del producto. La escuela es la agencia de publicidad que le hace a uno creer que necesita la sociedad tal y como está. En dicha sociedad el valor marginal ha llegado a ser constantemente autotrascendente. Obliga a los consumidores más grandes —son pocos— a competir por tener el poder de agotar la tierra, por llenarse sus propias panzas hinchadas, por disciplinar a los consumidores de menor tamaño, y por poner fuera de acción a quienes aún encuentran satisfacción en arreglárselas con lo que tienen. El <em>ethos</em> de la insaciabilidad es por tanto la fuente misma de la depredación física, de la polarización social y de la pasividad psicológica. +</p> + +<p> +Cuando los valores se han institucionalizado en procesos planificados y técnicamente construidos, los miembros de la sociedad moderna creen que la buena vida consiste en tener instituciones que definan los valores que tanto ellos como su sociedad creen que necesitan. El valor institucional puede definirse como el nivel de producción de una institución. El valor correspondiente del hombre se mide por su capacidad para consumir y degradar estas producciones institucionales y crear así una demanda nueva —y aún mayor—. El valor del hombre institucionalizado depende de su capacidad como incinerador. Para emplear una imagen, ha llegado a ser el ídolo de sus artesanías. El hombre se autodefiende ahora como el horno en que se queman los valores producidos por sus herramientas. Y no hay límites para su voracidad. Su acto es el acto de Prometeo llevado al extremo. +</p> + +<p> +El agotamiento y la contaminación de los recursos de la tierra es, por encima de todo, el resultado de una corrupción de la imagen que el hombre tiene de sí mismo, de una regresión en su conciencia. Algunos tienden a hablar acerca de una mutación de la conciencia colectiva que conduce a concebir al hombre como un organismo que no depende de la naturaleza y de las personas, sino más bien de instituciones. Esta institucionalización de valores esenciales, esta creencia en que un proceso planificado de tratamiento da finalmente unos resultados deseados por quien recibe el tratamiento, este <em>ethos</em> de consumidor, se halla en el núcleo mismo de la falacia prometeica. +</p> + +<p> +Los empeños por encontrar un nuevo equilibrio en el medio ambiente global dependen de la desinstitucionalización de los valores. La sospecha de que algo estructural anda mal en la visión del <em>homo faber</em> es común en una creciente minoría de países tanto capitalistas como comunistas y “subdesarrollados”. Esta sospecha es la característica compartida por una nueva élite. A ella pertenece gente de todas las clases, ingresos, creencias y civilizaciones. Se han vuelto suspicaces respecto de los mitos de la mayoría: de las utopías científicas, del diabolismo ideológico y de la expectativa de que la distribución de bienes y servicios se hará con igualdad. Comparten con la mayoría la sensación de estar atrapados, de percatarse de que la mayor parte de las nuevas pautas adoptadas por amplio consenso conducen a resultados que se oponen descaradamente a sus metas propuestas. No obstante, mientras la mayoría de los prometeicos astronautas en ciernes sigue evadiendo el problema fundamental, la minoría emergente se muestra crítica respecto del <em>deus ex machina</em> científico, de la panacea ideológica y de la cacería de diablos y brujas. Esta minoría comienza a dar forma a su sospecha de que nuestros constantes engaños nos atan a las instituciones contemporáneas como las cadenas ataban a Prometeo a su roca. La esperanza, la confianza y la ironía (<em>eironeia</em>) clásica deben conspirar para dejar al descubierto la falacia prometeica. +</p> + +<p> +Solía pensarse que Prometeo significaba “previsión” y aun llegó a traducirse por “aquel que hace avanzar la Estrella Polar”. Privó astutamente a los dioses del monopolio del fuego, enseñó a los hombres a usarlo para forjar el hierro, se convirtió en el dios de los tecnólogos y terminó con cadenas de hierro. +</p> + +<p> +La Pitonisa de Delfos fue reemplazada por una computadora que se cierne sobre cuadros de instrumentos y tarjetas perforadas. Los exámenes del oráculo cedieron el paso a los códigos de programación. El timonel humano entregó el rumbo a la máquina cibernética. Emerge la máquina definitiva para dirigir nuestros destinos. Los niños se imaginan volando en sus máquinas espaciales, lejos de una Tierra crepuscular. +</p> + +<p> +Mirando desde las perspectivas del Hombre de la Luna, Prometeo pudo reconocer a Gaia como el planeta de la Esperanza y como el Arco de la Humanidad. Un sentido nuevo de la finitud de la Tierra y una nueva nostalgia pueden ahora abrir los ojos del hombre y hacerle ver por qué su hermano Epimeteo, al desposar a Pandora, eligió desposar a la Tierra. +</p> + +<p> +Al llegar aquí el mito griego se convierte en esperanzada profecía, pues nos dice que el hijo de Prometeo fue Deucalión, el Timonel del Arca, quien, como Noé, navegó sobre el Diluvio para convertirse en el padre de la humanidad nueva que, con ayuda de Pirra, hija de Epimeteo y de Pandora, sacó de la tierra. Por ello nos es necesario comprender el sentido de ese Pithos que Pandora obtuvo de los dioses y que es el inverso de la Caja: nuestro Vaso y nuestra Arca. +</p> + +<p> +Necesitamos ahora un nombre para quienes valoran más la esperanza que las expectativas. Necesitamos un nombre para quienes aman más a la gente que a los productos, para aquellos que creen que +</p> +<pre class="code"> +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros.</pre> + +<p> +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que aman la tierra en la que podemos encontrarnos unos con otros, +</p> +<pre class="code"> +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés.</pre> + +<p> +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que colaboran con su hermano Prometeo en alumbrar el fuego y en dar forma al hierro, pero que lo hacen para acrecentar así su capacidad de entender y cuidar y ser guardián del prójimo, sabiendo que +</p> +<pre class="code"> +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes.</pre> + +<p> +[^n19] A esto hermanos y hermanas esperanzados sugiero llamarlos hombres epimeteicos. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico","hid":"renacimiento_del_hombre_epimeteico","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":26,"range":"250440-278450"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit27" id="apendiceuna_eleccion_que_hacer">Apéndice: una elección que hacer</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +De generación en generación nos hemos esforzado por llegar a la educación de un mundo mejor y para hacerlo hemos desarrollado sin cesar la escolaridad. Hasta ahora, la empresa se ha pagado con un fracaso. ¿Y qué hemos aprendido si no es a constreñir a los niños para que suban la escalera sin fin de la educación que, lejos de conducir a la igualdad buscada, sólo favorece al que se adelantó a los otros o al que tiene mejor salud o al que se beneficia de una mejor preparación? Peor aún, la enseñanza obligatoria parece minar la voluntad personal de aprender. Por último, al saber considerado como una mercancía, que hay que almacenar y distribuir, pronto se le considera como un bien sometido a las garantías de la propiedad individual y, por lo mismo, tiende a volverse escaso. +</p> + +<p> +Comenzamos a percibir que este esfuerzo por desarrollar la educación pública mediante una escolaridad obligatoria está a punto de perder su legitimidad desde el punto de vista social, pedagógico y económico. Frente a esta crisis, los espíritus críticos no se contentan ya con remedios clásicos, ¡sino que proponen unos mucho más violentos! Imaginan, por ejemplo, sistemas de crédito educativo que permitirían a cada uno comprar la educación de su elección en un mercado no controlado, o bien, proponen retirarle a las escuelas la responsabilidad en materia de educación para dársela a los medios modernos de información y al aprendizaje en los sitios de trabajo. Algunos, aislados, entrevén la necesidad de destruir los fundamentos institucionales de la escuela, como le sucedió a la Iglesia en el transcurso de los dos últimos siglos. Ciertos reformadores proponen reemplazar la escuela universal por nuevos y diferentes sistemas que pretenden preparar mejor para la vida en una sociedad moderna… En síntesis, estamos frente a una elección: podemos contentarnos con desmantelar las escuelas o podemos ir más lejos y desescolarizar por completo la sociedad. +</p> + +<p> +Todas esas proposiciones en favor de instituciones educativas nuevas se reparten, de hecho, en tres categorías: las reformas que llevan al “salón de clases” sin tocar el sistema escolar; luego, la dispersión de clases “liberadas” en toda la sociedad; por último, la transformación de la misma sociedad en un inmenso salón de clases. Pero estos tres enfoques del problema —clase reformada, liberada o que englobe al mundo entero— los consideramos como tres etapas de la escalada del proceso educativo a través de las cuales se afirmará la empresa de un control todavía más sutil y más invasor del que habrá reemplazado. +</p> + +<p> +Si por mi parte estoy convencido de que conviene poner un término al reino de la escuela (desenlace que, por otra parte, creo ineluctable), es porque me parece que esta desaparición de una convicción ilusoria nos debería llenar de esperanza. Sin embargo, no estoy por ello menos consciente de que, llegados a este término de la “era escolar”, podríamos muy bien entrar en la de una escuela totalitaria que sólo el nombre distinguiría del asilo de alienados o de un campo de concentración donde educación, corrección y reajuste serían por fin sinónimos. Creo, en consecuencia, que el desmantelamiento de la escuela nos fuerza a ver más allá de su inminente desaparición y nos constriñe a enfrentar las posibilidades fundamentales de elección en materia de educación: ya sea que elijamos trabajar en la constitución de un arsenal educativo aterrador, con el objeto de acrecentar de golpe la fuerza de una enseñanza que trata de un mundo sin cesar más ensombrecido, más amenazador para el hombre; ya sea que intentemos poner en orden las condiciones necesarias para el surgimiento de una nueva era donde la tecnología se pondrá al servicio de una sociedad más simple, más transparente, de suerte que todos los hombres puedan descubrir lo que los rodea y servirse de las herramientas que hoy en día dan forma a sus propias vidas. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Ap\u00e9ndice: una elecci\u00f3n que hacer","hid":"apendiceuna_eleccion_que_hacer","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":27,"range":"278451-282475"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit28" id="la_ensenanza_oculta_de_las_escuelas">La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Debemos distinguir entre “educación” y “escolaridad” si queremos ver surgir más claramente esa elección que se nos ofrece. Comprendo que conviene distinguir entre los objetivos humanistas del profesor y los efectos inherentes a la estructura inalterable de la escuela. Con toda seguridad esta estructura no es evidente a primera vista, pero sólo su existencia explica cierta forma de instrucción transmitida a todos y que escapa al control del docente o del consejo de profesores. En efecto, un mensaje se inscribe indeleble: sólo la escolaridad es capaz de preparar la entrada en la sociedad. Por ello, lo que no se enseña en la escuela se le retira su valor y, por lo mismo ¡lo que se aprende fuera de ella no vale la pena conocerse! Eso es lo que llamo la enseñanza oculta de las escuelas que define los límites en los cuales se efectúan los pretendidos cambios de programas. +</p> + +<p> +Sin defendernos de ella, esta enseñanza no varía de una escuela a otra ni de un lugar a otro. En todas partes los niños deben congregarse en grupos, según la edad; luego, alrededor de 30 toman su lugar frente a un profesor diplomado en razón de 150, incluso 1 000 horas, al año o más, No importa si el programa oficial intenta enseñar los principios del fascismo o del liberalismo, del catolicismo o del socialismo, o si pretende ponerse al servicio de una “liberación”, ya que en todos los casos la institución se arroga el derecho de definir las actividades propias que conducen a una “educación” legitima. Poco importa, igualmente, si el objetivo confesado de la escuela es producir ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o médicos, en la medida en que sin el diploma no se es un ciudadano verdadero o un doctor reconocido… Aunque todas las reuniones no se hagan en el mismo recinto, aunque incluso se consideren, de una manera o de otra, necesarias (cortar caña es trabajo del cañero; reformarse, el del prisionero, y seguir una parte del programa, el de los estudiantes), no hay en lo anterior ninguna diferencia. +</p> + +<p> +Nos enfrentamos a una especie de directiva secreta que quiere que los estudiantes aprendan antes que nada que la educación sólo tiene valor una vez que se adquirió en el seno de la universidad mediante un método graduado de consumo, y se le promete que el éxito social dependerá de la cantidad de saber consumido, Están convencidos de que vale mucho más instruirse a distancia de lo que es el mundo. El hecho de que la escolaridad imponga esta regla secreta en un programa educativo la distingue inmediatamente de otras formas de educación planificada. Todos los sistemas escolares del planeta tienen características comunes en relación con su rendimiento institucional y la razón de ello es ese “programa oculto” común a todas las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +Hay que entender bien que ese programa oculto modifica la concepción que tenemos de la adquisición del saber y hace de la actividad personal una mercancía de la que la escuela cree detentar el monopolio. A un bien de consumo le damos hoy en día el nombre de “educación”: un producto cuya fabricación la asegura una institución oficial llamada “escuela”. En consecuencia, henos ahí con el fin de medir la duración y el costo del tratamiento aplicado al estudiante (en Estados Unidos, el diplomado de una pequeña universidad regional y el de uno de los colegios de la “liga de la hieda”[^n20] tienen cubiertos los mismos 135 “créditos”,[^n21] ¡pero están plenamente conscientes de la diferente cotización de sus “títulos” en la bolsa de valores educativos!). +</p> + +<p> +En todos los países convertidos al ideal escolar, el saber se considera como un bien de primera necesidad, como un asunto de sobrevivencia y, de la misma forma, como una moneda de cambio más fácilmente convertible que los rublos y los dólares. Cuando hablamos de alienación estamos de tal manera habituados al vocabulario marxista que sólo pensamos frecuentemente en la del trabajador en relación con su trabajo desde la perspectiva de una sociedad de clases; hoy en día nos sería necesario reconocer otra forma de la alienación, la del hombre frente al saber cuando este último, transformado en producto de un servicio, hace de quien lo adquiere un consumidor. +</p> + +<p> +Entre más educación “consume” un ser humano, más hace fructificar su posesión y se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del conocimiento. La educación definió una nueva pirámide de clases, en la medida en que los grandes consumidores de saber —esos portadores de bonos del tesoro del conocimiento— pueden inmediatamente pretender dar servicios de un valor más eminente a su sociedad. Ellos representan las inversiones seguras en el portafolio del capital humano de una sociedad y sólo ellos tienen un pronto acceso a las herramientas más poderosas o menos extendidas de la producción. +</p> + +<p> +De esa manera, ese programa secreto definió implícitamente la naturaleza de la educación: permite medirla y establecer qué nivel de productividad da derecho a su consumo. Disponemos entonces de la posibilidad de justificar la creciente correlación entre los empleos y los privilegios que manan de ellos. En ciertas sociedades esos privilegios se conocerán bajo la forma de ingresos personales más considerables; en otras, será un acceso fácil a servicios todavía poco desarrollados o a una formación más favorecida, sin olvidar un creciente prestigio (por otra parte, en el momento mismo en que, en nombre de la educación, se reclaman crecientes privilegios, la fosa entre la formación y la competencia profesional se acrecienta, como lo muestran ciertos estudios, en particular el de Ivar Berg, <em>La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación</em>). +</p> + +<p> +Querer hacer pasar a todos los seres humanos por las etapas sucesivas de la adquisición del saber nos lleva a recordar la búsqueda de los alquimistas y a mirar bien ahí: en el “gran arte” del final de la Edad Media encontraremos con toda seguridad los orígenes profundos de la idea de escolaridad. Consideramos a justo título que Jan Amos Komensky fue uno de los grandes precursores de las teorías de la escuela moderna. Más conocido con el nombre de Comenius, Jan Amos era obispo de Moravia y se decía “pansofista” y pedagogo. En su <em>Didactica Magna</em> describe las escuelas como medios para “enseñar todo a todo el mundo” y podemos ver en él como un anteproyecto de la producción en la cadena del saber, ya que quería hacer la educación a la vez mejor y menos costosa, con el fin de permitir a todos el acceso a la condición de hombre. Pero sería insuficiente ver en Comenius una suerte de predecesor de nuestros expertos en métodos pedagógicos. Experto en alquimia, utilizaba su jerga para describir el arte de educar a los niños. Como se sabe, los alquimistas buscaban trasmutar el plomo vil, los elementos vulgares, en oro, haciendo pasar sus espíritus destilados por las 12 etapas del enriquecimiento. Es evidente que si veían en eso una manera de enriquecerse a sí mismos, pretendían trabajar en nombre del interés general, y sus sucesivos fracasos no los desalentaban, ya que su “ciencia” les permitía encontrar en ella las razones y justificar la continuación de sus esfuerzos. +</p> + +<p> +En esta perspectiva, la pedagogía abría un nuevo capítulo en la historia de la <em>Ars Magna</em> : la educación se volvía, en efecto, la búsqueda de una especie de método alquímico destinado a hacer surgir un nuevo tipo de hombre capaz de adaptarse a un medio creado por la magia científica. Y, al igual que en la alquimia, cualquiera que fuera la suma consagrada a cada generación para edificar escuelas, el resultado es que la mayoría de aquellos a los que se les enseña no responden a esa “afinación” y pronto hay que rechazarlos como no aptos para existir en un mundo concebido por el hombre. +</p> + +<p> +Los reformadores en materia de educación que admiten el fracaso de las escuelas se reparten en tres categorías. Los más respetables son seguramente los grandes maestros en alquimia que prometen mejores escuelas; los más seductores, esos magos populares que anuncian la transformación de cada cocina en un laboratorio alquímico; los más aterradores, esos nuevos “masones” del universo que buscan transformar el mundo en un vasto templo de la enseñanza. +</p> + +<p> +Veamos, en particular, entre esos maestros alquimistas del momento, a los directores de investigación que emplean o patrocinan las grandes fundaciones. Están persuadidos de que las escuelas, si pudieran de alguna manera mejorarse, se volverían empresas más económicamente viables que venderían un más vasto conjunto de servicios. En cuanto a aquellos cuyo interés se dirige hacia los programas, pretenden que éstos no están adaptados o están sobrepasados. De esa manera se conciben nuevos programas en los que se introducen mercancías al gusto del momento: cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación femenina, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. Se denuncia la pasividad (con toda seguridad es un mal) y, para remediarla, se concede a los estudiantes que ellos mismos decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y de qué manera. Algunos dicen que las escuelas son prisiones y, en consecuencia, se aconseja a los jefes de establecimientos dar su asentimiento a salidas educativas: un horizonte de pupitres y de muros se sustituye, por ejemplo, por una calle de Harlem cuidadosamente delimitada. Por último, la psicología está de moda y se instaura la terapia de grupos en el salón de clases. La escuela, que se consideraba el todo aprender de todos, se vuelve hoy en día el universo de todos los niños. +</p> + +<p> +Otros críticos se levantan para subrayar que las escuelas no utilizan suficientemente los recursos de la ciencia moderna. Surge el deseo de que los hombres de ciencia inventen algún medicamento que consuman los niños para que el instructor pueda modificar más fácilmente sus comportamientos. Se habla de transformar las escuelas en casinos educativos. Hay quienes quisieran “electrificar” el salón de clases y, por poco que crean ser buenos discípulos de McLuhan, helos ahí reemplazando el pizarrón y los manuales por <em>happenings</em> en los que se ofrece toda la batería de aparatos de comunicación. Si admiran a Skinner, afirman que la aplicación de sus teorías permitirá una acción más eficaz sobre el comportamiento de los estudiantes que la de los antiguos maestros, hoy pasados de moda. +</p> + +<p> +Que algunas de estas reformas tengan efectos felices, es innegable. La práctica de la escuela tradicional está en un fuerte proceso de disminución en las escuelas experimentales. A veces los padres tienen un sentimiento mayor de participación. Los alumnos designados por sus profesores para seguir cursillos de aprendizaje adquieren frecuentemente un mayor <em>savoir faire</em>[^n22] que el de sus camaradas que permanecen en clase (conocí niños que mejoraban sus conocimientos de español en el laboratorio de lengua, porque preferían jugar con los botones de las grabadoras que conversar con sus iguales puertorriqueños). Sin embargo, todas esas mejoras intervienen en límites estrechos y previsibles, ya que no llegan al programa oculto de las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +A algunos reformadores les gustaría liberarse de esa regla secreta de las escuelas públicas, pero sólo lo logran raras veces. Las escuelas “activas”, que conducen al desarrollo de otras escuelas del mismo tipo, sólo crean una engañosa ilusión: la liberación permanece como un espejismo, incluso si la constricción a los cursos obligatorios se interrumpe con frecuencia por periodos de ociosidad. Que se busque agradar a alguien para convencerlo de asistir a los cursos es, bien mirado, ¡más insidioso todavía que la obligación legal y el apoyo de la brigada de los menores! Mejor que una presencia consentida a disgusto, la que embauca lleva más fácilmente a creer en la necesidad del tratamiento educativo. El docente tolerante hace al alumno correr un creciente riesgo de sentirse incapaz de vivir fuera del refugio acolchado. +</p> + +<p> +¿En qué difiere la enseñanza suministrada en las nuevas escuelas? Aunque se facilite por el consenso de un grupo, más que por los decretos del cuerpo docente, se trata siempre de adquirir competencias que la sociedad reconoce, lo que no cambia en nada el problema. La apariencia cambia; la realidad profunda permanece. +</p> + +<p> +Para ser verdaderas escuelas de libertad, les sería necesario llenar dos condiciones. En primer lugar, deben administrarse de tal suerte que no permitan a la regla secreta de la enseñanza aplicarse, es decir, que los escolares, definidos como tales, ubicados frente a profesores reconocidos, no asistan a una sucesión de cursos graduados. En segundo lugar, esas escuelas deberían proporcionar un marco en el que todos los participantes, docentes y alumnos, puedan liberarse de los postulados sobre los que reposa, sin que lo sepamos, una sociedad escolarizada. A veces escuchamos enunciar la primera condición en los objetivos que se propone una escuela “activa”. En cuanto a la segunda, por lo general no se le pone atención, y ciertamente no es el objetivo de esas escuelas. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La ense\u00f1anza oculta de las escuelas","hid":"la_ensenanza_oculta_de_las_escuelas","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":28,"range":"282476-295759"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit29" id="los_postulados_secretos_de_la_educacion">Los postulados secretos de la educación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +No es necesario, en esta fase, distinguir entre la regla secreta y aquélla sobre la que, sin darnos cuenta, se funda la idea de la escolaridad. El programa oculto constituye una especie de ritual iniciático que podemos concebir como un preparativo para el ingreso en la sociedad moderna. Por intermedio de la escuela el programa adquiere su dimensión institucional. Detrás del velo de la ceremonia ritual, las contradicciones se encuentran disimuladas para los participantes. ¿Cómo, en efecto, conciliar el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad social fundada en el reconocimiento de un orden jerárquico que finalmente el rito impone? Pero una vez reconocidos en lo que son, los ritos ya no llegan a mantener la ilusión; ese fenómeno es aparente en el caso de la escolaridad. No obstante, la ceremonia reposa sobre postulados aceptados inconscientemente a los que las escuelas “privadas” podrían dar nuevo vigor. +</p> + +<p> +A primera vista, se nos reprochará que hagamos un juicio de orden general sobre las escuelas “activas” y más precisamente, en 1971, sobre las de Estados Unidos, las de Canadá y las de Alemania del Oeste en donde ellas parecen querer ser el más hermoso adorno de un renacimiento. A decir verdad, nuestra generalización sólo se dirige a las empresas experimentales que pretenden ser instituciones educativas. Para evitar cualquier menosprecio debemos examinar con más atención la relación que hay entre “educación” y “escolaridad”. +</p> + +<p> +Con mucha frecuencia olvidamos que la educación no es una invención antigua. Ese sustantivo se desconocía antes de la Reforma. En Francia se habla por vez primera de la educación de los niños en un manuscrito de 1498. Era el año en que Erasmo llegó a residir en Oxford, en que a Savonarola lo quemaron en Florencia, en que Durero trazaba los primeros apuntes de su <em>Apocalipsis</em> , que todavía hoy evoca con fuerza la atmósfera sombría, la impresión de un inminente desastre que pesaba sobre ese periodo. En inglés, la palabra <em>educación</em> apareció por primera vez en 1530. Ese año, Enrique VIII repudiaba a Catalina de Aragón y la Iglesia luterana se separaba de Roma con la dieta de Augsburgo. Hay que esperar todavía un siglo para que la idea de “educación” se manifieste en el imperio español. En 1611, Lope de Vega habla de la educación como de una novedad. Ese año, la universidad de San Marcos en Lima celebraba su 60 aniversario. Centros de saber existían antes de que la palabra “educación” formara parte del lenguaje familiar. Se “leía” a los autores clásicos; se estudiaba el derecho; no se enseñaba a vivir… +</p> + +<p> +En el siglo XVI, en el corazón de todas las disputas teológicas se encontraba la necesidad de encontrar justificaciones, de las que la política supo servirse bien para explicar las grandes masacres de la época. En la Iglesia, cismas intervinieron y se hizo posible sostener convicciones diferentes sobre el punto de saber en qué medida el hombre nace pecador, corrompido o sometido a la predestinación. Desde el siglo XVII, el acuerdo se rehizo sobre un punto: el hombre nace no apto para la vida social, en consecuencia es necesario prepararlo proponiéndole una educación. Así, la educación se volvió lo opuesto de la competencia adquirida en la vida cotidiana y terminó por significar un método de tratamiento más que el simple saber de hechos de la existencia y la capacidad de servirse de herramientas que dan forma a la vida concreta del hombre. Progresivamente la educación se transformó en un servicio que había que producir, para el bien de todos, mercancía intangible que se recibía de la misma manera en que la Iglesia visible había conferido anteriormente la gracia invisible. El hombre, nacido en la estupidez original, debía ahora presentar cartas de creencia a la sociedad. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela y la educación mantuvieron relaciones comparables a las de la Iglesia y la religión o, en una perspectiva más general, a las que se establecen entre el rito y el mito; el rito crea y sostiene al mito; detenta una función mitopoiética. El mito inspira el “programa” por el que se perpetúa. La educación representa a la vez todo un conjunto de justificaciones sobre el plano social y un concepto para el que no podemos encontrar análogos específicos en otras culturas (fuera de la teología cristiana). La educación por el método de la escolaridad distingue fundamentalmente a las escuelas de otras instituciones de enseñanza que existieron en otras épocas. Ése es un aspecto que no hay que despreciar si queremos hacer aparecer las insuficiencias de las “escuelas” llamadas privadas, no estructuradas o independientes. +</p> + +<p> +Con el fin de sobrepasar una simple reforma de la clase, una escuela activa debe todavía rechazar el programa secreto de la escolaridad descrito anteriormente. Una escuela activa ideal intentaría proporcionar una educación esforzándose en evitar que esa educación se utilice para establecer o justificar una estructura de clase y se vuelva un patrón maestro para medir al alumno con cierto rasero. Debería, en consecuencia, no someter a este último a una represión, a un control o intentar definirlo de cualquier manera. Pero mientras las escuelas activas intenten proporcionar una “educación general”, no están en condiciones de sobrepasar una concepción fundada en los postulados secretos de la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Entre sus principios, hay uno que Peter Schrag, en una perspectiva particular, definió como el “síndrome de inmigración”, que nos incita a tratar a todos los seres humanos como si fueran recién llegados que deben someterse a un proceso de naturalización. Sólo los consumidores garantizados del saber se admiten en la ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen iguales, sólo por el periodo de gestación en el seno del <em>Alma mater</em> podrán acceder a esta igualdad. +</p> + +<p> +Otro postulado conduce a creer que el hombre, nacido inmaduro, debe adquirir su “madurez” en el transcurso del primer periodo de su existencia para después formar parte de una sociedad civilizada. Esta idea de una “maduración” es, con toda seguridad, contraria a otra convicción que define al hombre como el mamífero que, por el mecanismo de la evolución y con el concurso de la selección natural entre sus maestros primates, adquirió el carácter específico de permanecer durante toda su vida “inmaduro” —lo que constituye su “gracia” particular—. Pero, en conformidad con la fijación ideológica sobre la madurez, nos persuadimos de que es necesario, después de su nacimiento, mantener al ser humano apartado de su medio natural y hacerlo pasar por una matriz social para que adquiera las cualidades necesarias para la vida cotidiana. Las escuelas activas son capaces de llenar esta función frecuentemente mucho mejor que escuelas de un modelo menos atractivo. +</p> + +<p> +Los establecimientos educativos liberados comparten con quienes lo son menos otra característica: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la educación. Ponen una institución <em>in loco parentis</em>. Perpetúan la idea de que la enseñanza, si se realiza fuera del círculo familiar, debe estar asegurada por una “agencia” cuyo docente es sólo un representante. En una sociedad escolarizada, la misma familia se reduce a ser sólo una “agencia de aculturación”. En cuanto a los organismos educativos que emplean profesores para promover la política de su consejo administrativo, se vuelven instrumentos al servicio de una despersonalización de las relaciones entre personas privadas. +</p> + +<p> +Naturalmente, numerosas escuelas activas funcionan sin profesores acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una amenaza seria para los sindicatos de maestros, pero, no por ello, ponen en peligro la estructura social fundada en un reconocimiento de las profesiones. Una escuela en la que los miembros del consejo administrativo eligen y nombran a los profesores, sin preocuparse de saber si detentan certificados, una licencia o una credencial sindical, no atenta contra la legitimidad de la profesión de enseñante; no más que una encargada de un prostíbulo clandestino, en un país donde un trabajo así, para ser legal, debe hacerse bajo el control de la policía, ¡no cuestiona la legitimidad de la profesión más antigua del mundo! +</p> + +<p> +La mayoría de los que enseñan en escuelas activas no tienen la oportunidad de trabajar en su nombre. Aseguran la tarea de la enseñanza en nombre de un consejo; en nombre de sus alumnos asumen la función menos evidente de la enseñanza y sirven a la educación bajo su aspecto casi místico en nombre de toda “la sociedad”. La mejor prueba de ello es que pasan todavía más tiempo que sus colegas de la enseñanza pública reuniéndose en comisiones con el objeto de planificar el método por el cual la escuela debería educar. La duración de esas reuniones ha incitado a muchos docentes de alma generosa, una vez que sus ilusiones se han disipado, a pasar de la escuela pública a la enseñanza privada, para luego ir todavía más allá… +</p> + +<p> +Todos los establecimientos de enseñaza pretenden “formar hombres” en una tarea de mejoramiento del futuro, pero no les permiten cumplirla antes de que hayan adquirido una sólida tolerancia frente a las maneras de vivir de sus mayores. Es siempre una educación que prepara para la vida, más que adquirida en la vida cotidiana. Muy pocas escuelas activas pueden evitar esa trampa. Sin embargo, hay que reconocer que contribuyen a la aparición de un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán sus diplomas sobre la sociedad, sino más bien porque los padres que eligen educar a sus hijos sin beneficiarse de los servicios de enseñanza “ordenados según la regla” pertenecen frecuentemente a una minoría radical, y porque el interés que aportan a ese problema, el gusto que tienen de educar a sus hijos, los mantiene en su modo de vida. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Los postulados secretos de la educaci\u00f3n","hid":"los_postulados_secretos_de_la_educacion","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":29,"range":"295760-305742"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit30" id="las_influencias_ocultas_en_el_mercado_de_la_educacion">Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La especie más peligrosa entre los reformadores en materia de educación es la que pretende demostrar que el saber puede producirse y venderse de manera mucho más eficaz en un mercado libre que en el que controla la escuela. Pretenden que una capacidad puede fácilmente adquirirse por medio de un modelo, aunque el aprendiz considere poco esta adquisición como de interés evidente. Afirman también que un sistema de asignación individualizado proporciona un poder de compra más igualitario en materia de educación. Piden, por último, que se distinga entre el método de adquisición y el que mide los resultados (lo que me parece una necesidad muy evidente). Pero sería erróneo creer que la instauración de un mercado abierto del saber representaría una solución opuesta a la de hoy en día. +</p> + +<p> +Esta sustitución aboliría, ciertamente, lo que llamamos el programa secreto de la escolaridad (el hecho de que hay que seguir a determinadas edades programas graduados). Un mercado abierto daría, en primer lugar, la impresión de que vamos al encuentro de esos principios en los que reposa una sociedad escolarizada: el “síndrome de la inmigración”, el monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el rito de la integración progresiva. Pero, por lo mismo, un mercado libre de educación proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables ocasiones para influir en secreto, con el fin de encerrar a cada hombre en los múltiples y pequeños compartimentos que una tecnocracia todavía más desarrollada podría crear. +</p> + +<p> +La confianza puesta desde hace decenios en la escolarización del ser humano ha hecho del saber una mercancía de una especie particular. Como lo hemos visto, todos consideran ahora el saber como un artículo de primera necesidad y, al mismo tiempo, como la moneda de cambio más preciosa de la sociedad. Esta transformación del saber en bien de consumo se refleja, igualmente, en nuestro comportamiento de todos los días, incluso en el lenguaje familiar. Así, verbos que describen una actividad personal, como “aprender”, “alojarse”, “sanarse”, nos hacen irresistiblemente pensar en servicios cuya distribución está más o menos asegurada. Pensamos que es necesario resolver los problemas de la habitación, de los cuidados médicos, etc., sin recordar un solo instante que los hombres podrían curarse o edificar sus casas por ellos mismos. Todo es cuestión de servicios y el adolescente, en lugar de aprender, por ejemplo, a ocuparse de su abuela, aprende a manifestarse frente al asilo de ancianos donde no hay camas disponibles. ¿El desmantelamiento de la escuela sería, pues, suficiente para conducir a la desaparición de esas actitudes? (Mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución norteamericana se continuaba exigiendo la filiación a una Iglesia como condición para cualquier candidatura a un puesto oficial). Con mayor razón, ¿el cierre de las escuelas permitiría evitar que tuviéramos acceso a baterías de pruebas para medir el nivel de educación? Si ése no es el caso, esta nueva situación conduciría a la obligación, para cada uno, de adquirir un mínimo de mercancías en el depósito del saber. La ambición de medir científicamente el valor de cada hombre se vincula sin dificultad con el sueño del alquimista de hacer a todo hombre “educable” con el fin de guiarlo hacia una humanidad “verdadera”. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado libre, llegaremos a un entorno sometido al control de los terapeutas-pedagogos, a una matriz universal donde cada hombre se alimentaría con fluidos elegidos. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas limitan por ahora la competencia del profesor al salón de clases. No le permiten reivindicar la existencia del hombre para una región. Desde esta perspectiva, renunciar a la escuela haría desaparecer esta frágil barrera y conferiría una legitimidad semejante a la invasión pedagógica de la vida privada de cada uno. Podría conducir a una lucha encarnizada por la adquisición del saber en un mercado libre del conocimiento y a la edificación, bajo apariencias igualitarias, de una meritocracia. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones (ni incluso las más eficaces) que pretenden hacer de la información, de la comprensión y de la sabiduría rasgos d comportamiento susceptibles de contrastarse (y medirlos conduce a detentar la llave que abre las puertas del éxito y del poder). El sistema chino, por ejemplo, ofrecía, en el plano de la educación, una estimulante eficacia definiendo una clase relativamente abierta, cuyos privilegios dependían de la adquisición de un saber mesurable. Alrededor de 2 000 años antes de Cristo, parece que el emperador de China interrogaba cada tres años a sus administradores. Después de tres veces, les daba responsabilidades mayores o los echaba para siempre. Algunos 1 000 años más tarde, el primer emperador Chang estableció un verdadero examen para sus funcionarios. Música, tiro con arco y aritmética constituían los temas impuestos. Cada tres años, los concursos se abrían a los candidatos. Uno sobre 100 lograba franquear las tres series de pruebas que le conferían sucesivamente los títulos de “genio en hierbas”, de “perfecto letrado” y de “dispuesto para el servicio del emperador”. La selección era, pues, muy severa, y se le dedicaba la mayor importancia a los examinadores; así, por ejemplo, en el segundo nivel, en el que era necesario redactar una composición, el texto del candidato lo volvía a copiar un secretario antes de dárselo al jurado, a fin de que sus miembros no pudieran reconocer la caligrafía del autor. +</p> + +<p> +Más tarde, la promoción a rango de mandarín no daba necesariamente derecho a uno de los puestos deseados. Permitía solamente participar en el sorteo de esos empleos. Ninguna escuela apareció en China antes de la época de las luchas con los poderes europeos. El caso del imperio chino es único entre las grandes naciones, ya que no poseía ni Iglesia oficial ni sistema escolar, pero pudo durante cerca de 3 000 años reclutar su élite gubernamental sin fundar una vasta aristocracia hereditaria. El acceso a esa élite estaba reservado a la familia del emperador y a los que pasaban los exámenes. +</p> + +<p> +Voltaire y sus contemporáneos elogiaron el sistema chino, donde la promoción se fundaba en las pruebas dadas de un saber. Los exámenes de ingreso en la administración aparecieron en Francia en 1791; después, Napoleón los abolió. ¿Qué habría sucedido si, para propagar las ideas de la Revolución, se hubiera elegido el mandarinato en lugar del sistema escolar que inevitablemente sostiene al nacionalismo y a la disciplina militar? De hecho, Napoleón se erigió en el defensor de la escuela politécnica y del colegio de pensionados… Más que inspirarse en el mandarinato, las instituciones educativas se calcaron del modelo jesuita de la promoción ritual en el interior de una estructura jerárquica cerrada; de esa forma, las sociedades occidentales eligieron legitimar a sus élites. +</p> + +<p> +Los jefes de establecimientos escolares se volvieron, de alguna forma, los abades de una cadena mundial de monasterios en donde todos se dedicaron a acumular conocimientos que les permitieran acceder a la tierra prometida, paraíso terrestre sometido a las leyes del envejecimiento planificado que se desborda sin cesar. Eso nos recuerda el esfuerzo de los calvinistas que arrasaron todos los monasterios para, finalmente, transformar Ginebra en un vasto claustro. Tenemos, por lo tanto, razones para temer que el desmantelamiento de la escuela permita la aparición de una fábrica del saber a escala mundial. A menos que transformemos la idea que nos hemos hecho de la enseñanza o del saber, la desaparición de la escuela corre el riesgo de conducir a una situación donde, de un lado, se utilizará el sistema del mandarinato para separar el aprendizaje del saber de la prueba de control y, del otro, la sociedad se comprometerá a proporcionar la terapéutica necesaria a cualquier hombre para que pueda entrar en la “edad de oro”. +</p> + +<p> +Ni los alquimistas, ni los magos, ni los masones pueden resolver el problema que nos plantea la crisis de la enseñanza, La desescolarización de nuestra concepción del mundo exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza, a la vez, ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa porque busca hacer del hombre un ser social sometiéndolo a un tratamiento con métodos técnicos apropiados. +</p> + +<p> +Adherirse al <em>ethos</em> tecnocrático nos conduce a querer poner en marcha todo lo que es técnicamente realizable, poco importa si sus beneficiarios son forzosamente poco numerosos o si no experimentan su deseo. Sobre todo la privatización o la frustración de la mayoría de los seres humanos nunca entran en la línea de cuenta. Si, por ejemplo, es posible concebir el tratamiento mediante la bomba de cobalto, es necesario que la ciudad de Tegucigalpa disponga de aparatos adaptados en cada uno de sus dos grandes hospitales. Con todos esos créditos puestos ahí se habría podido luchar en toda Honduras contra la proliferación de parásitos… Las velocidades supersónicas sugieren que conviene inmediatamente acelerar los viajes de algunos. ¿Los vuelos a Marte? ¡Se encontrará siempre una razón para que parezcan indispensables! En el <em>ethos</em> tecnocrático la pobreza está modernizada: ¿existían soluciones antiguas? Nuevos monopolios vienen a prohibirlas. A la penuria de los bienes de primera necesidad se agrega la conciencia de la diferencia sin cesar cada vez más grande entre los servicios técnicamente realizables y los que en la práctica son accesibles a las mayorías. +</p> + +<p> +Un profesor se vuelve “educador” desde el momento en que se incorpora a ese <em>ethos</em> tecnocrático. Actúa inmediatamente como si la educación fuera una empresa tecnológica concebida para insertar al hombre en el entorno que crea el “progreso” de la ciencia. Se niega a ver la evidencia: el envejecimiento de todos los bienes programados se paga muy caro (el costo de la formación del personal capaz de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas es sin cesar más alto). Parece olvidar que el precio creciente de las herramientas tiene consecuencias igualmente graves en el plano de la educación: en el momento mismo en que los horarios de trabajo disminuyen, se vuelve imposible el aprendizaje en los lugares de empleo donde se ha hecho de él el privilegio de un pequeño número. En todo el mundo el precio del coste de la educación de los hombres para la sociedad crece más rápidamente que la productividad de la economía en su conjunto, mientras menos y menos hombres experimentan el sentimiento de hacerse razonablemente útiles a la comunidad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educaci\u00f3n","hid":"las_influencias_ocultas_en_el_mercado_de_la_educacion","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":30,"range":"305743-316534"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit31" id="la_escuela_instrumento_del_progreso_technocratico">La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Educar para una sociedad de consumo resulta en formar consumidores. La reforma de la clase, su desaparición o su crecimiento no son ni más ni menos que métodos que, a pesar de sus diferencias aparentes, se dirigen a la formación de consumidores de bienes inmediatamente pasados de moda. La sobrevivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden definir constantemente la dicha del hombre asimilado al consumo de los productos más recientes depende de las instituciones educativas (desde las escuelas hasta las agencias publicitarias) que transforman la educación en un medio de control social. +</p> + +<p> +En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, las considerables inversiones en materia de enseñanza hacen más evidentes las contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En esos países, el aumento ideológico del progreso ilimitado reposa en la idea de que el efecto igualitario de una formación permanente contrabalancea la influencia inversa de la regla del envejecimiento perpetuo. La legitimidad de la sociedad industrial depende de la credibilidad de la escuela, cualquiera que sea el partido en el poder. En tales condiciones, el público manifiesta un interés súbito por libros como el reporte de Charles Silberman a la comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el título <em>Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)</em> ; esta investigación inspira confianza en la medida en que la acusación que el autor lanza contra la escuela está apoyada sólidamente. Pero tales estudios se dirigen a salvar el sistema tratando de corregir sus fallas más evidentes. Por lo mismo, pueden suscitar un nuevo ascenso de esperanzas engañosas. +</p> + +<p> +Por todas partes crecientes inversiones consagradas a las escuelas vuelven la absurdidad de la empresa escolar más evidente. Puede parecer paradójico que los pobres sean sus primeras víctimas. En el fondo, eso es lo que muestra el reporte de la comisión de encuestas Wright en Ontario: a propósito de la enseñanza superior, los miembros de la comisión señalan que las capas pobres de la población las subvencionaban desde el punto de vista de la imposición de manera desproporcionada, ya que los ricos eran casi los únicos beneficiarios. +</p> + +<p> +Esta observación podría inmediatamente hacerse en otra parte. En la URSS, un sistema de cuota aplicado durante muchos decenios parece favorecer la admisión a la universidad de los hijos de los trabajadores a expensas de las hijas e hijos de universitarios. Actualmente estos últimos son sobrerrepresentados en las clases superiores y terminales de la enseñanza rusa y en una proporción todavía más grande que en Estados Unidos. +</p> + +<p> +El 8 de marzo de 1971, el juez Warren E. Burger hacía público el veredicto unánime de la corte en el caso Griggs contra la sociedad Duke Power. Fundándose en la voluntad expresada por el Congreso en el artículo que concierne a la igualdad de oportunidades en la ley de 1964, la corte resolvió por unanimidad que cualquier “diploma” exigido a un candidato por un empleo (o cualquier prueba seguida) debía “medir al hombre en relación con un trabajo dado” y no “al hombre mismo en un plano abstracto”. Además, correspondía al empresario probar que sus exigencias en materia de diplomas constituía una “medida razonable de la calificación requerida”. Mediante estas consideraciones, los jueces querían evitar que las pruebas y diplomas exigidos no se utilizaran en provecho de una discriminación racial, pero la lógica del razonamiento podría también aplicarse a cualquier exigencia de un “ <em>pedigree</em> educativo” en materia de empleo. Es tiempo de formar causa contra la “gran estafa de la formación profesional” denunciada tan justamente por Ivar Berg. +</p> + +<p> +En los países pobres, las escuelas sirven para justificar el atraso económico de una nación: a la mayoría de los ciudadanos se le mantiene apartada de los magros medios modernos de producción y de consumo, pero todos sueñan con beneficiarse de los favores de la economía franqueando el umbral de una escuela. La repartición jerárquica de los privilegios y del poder ya no depende, en nuestros días y en el plano de la legitimidad, de una descendencia de ancestros, de la herencia, del favor del príncipe, incluso de una lucha sin cuartel en el mercado económico o en el campo de batalla. Su verdadera legitimidad la encuentra en una forma más sutil del capitalismo donde la institución encargada de conferirla se encuentra en la escolaridad obligatoria. Quien aprovechó los servicios de la escuela vuelve entonces al subprivilegiado responsable de su desgracia: es un mal consumidor del saber. Esta justificación de la desigualdad social no resiste siempre el examen de los hechos y los regímenes populares tienen cada vez más dificultades para disimular las contradicciones entre la propaganda y la realidad. +</p> + +<p> +Desde hace 10 años, Cuba se esfuerza por promover el crecimiento rápido de la educación popular dando confianza a la mano de obra disponible sin tomar en cuenta la calificación profesional. Al principio, el éxito de esta campaña (en particular la disminución espectacular del número de analfabetos) se ha citado como prueba de que las tasas de crecimiento limitadas de los otros sistemas escolares latinoamericanos eran imputables a la corrupción, al militarismo y a la economía de mercado capitalista. +</p> + +<p> +Sin embargo, la lógica de la escolarización se hace sentir manifiestamente a consecuencia de los esfuerzos de Castro por “reproducir” al hombre nuevo mediante la escuela. Incluso si los estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en la zafra y sostienen activamente los ideales igualitarios del <em>compañero</em> Fidel, la universidad cultiva cada año una nueva cosecha de consumidores conscientes de su saber, prontos a acceder a nuevos niveles de consumo. Al mismo tiempo, el doctor Castro debe enfrentarse a la evidencia de que el sistema escolar nunca producirá suficiente mano de obra técnica diplomada. Esos diplomados que obtienen los nuevos empleos destruyen por su conservadurismo los resultados conseguidos por los cuadros no diplomados que llegaron a su posición mediante una formación en el taller. No basta con acusar a los docentes para explicar los fracasos de un gobierno revolucionario que quiere con todas sus fuerzas una institucionalización de la mano de obra siguiendo un programa secreto que garantice la producción de una burguesía universal. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La escuela instrumento del progreso technocr\u00e1tico","hid":"la_escuela_instrumento_del_progreso_technocratico","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":31,"range":"316535-323067"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit32" id="ensenar_instruirse_responsabilidades_personales">Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Contra esta voluntad de adquirir privilegios y poder que poseen quienes detentan la competencia profesional en nombre de sus pretendidos derechos, no sabríamos imaginar una revolución sin acusar a la concepción misma de la adquisición del saber. Lo que nos conduce, en primer lugar, a considerar la cuestión de la responsabilidad en ese ámbito, ya se trate de enseñar o de instruir. Dar a conocer una mercancía sólo se consigue si imaginamos que resulta de la acción institucional o que satisface objetivos institucionales +</p> + +<p> +Para disipar este mal encantamiento, el hombre debe volver a encontrar el sentido de su responsabilidad personal cuando aprende o enseña. De esa forma se pondrá un término a esta nueva alienación donde vivir e instruirse no se toparán. +</p> + +<p> +Recobrar el poder de aprender o de enseñar tiene como consecuencia que el profesor, al tomar el riesgo de inmiscuirse en la vida privada de otros, debe asumir la responsabilidad de sus resultados; de la misma manera, el estudiante que se pone bajo la influencia de un profesor debe sentirse responsable de su propia educación. En esa perspectiva, las instituciones educativas —si realmente son necesarias— irán teniendo el aspecto de centros abiertos a todos, donde cada uno pueda encontrar lo que busca, donde uno, por ejemplo, tenga acceso a un piano, el otro, a un horno de cerámica o a registros, libros, diapositivas, etc. Hoy en día, las escuelas, los estudios de televisión y otros sitios similares están concebidos para que los profesionales los utilicen. Desescolarizar la sociedad quiere decir, ante todo, rechazar el estatus profesional del oficio que, por orden de antigüedad, viene, justo después, del más viejo del mundo, por el que entiendo la enseñanza. La calificación de los profesores constituye ahora una traba al derecho a la palabra, de igual forma que la estructura corporativa y la credencial profesional de los periodistas representan una traba al derecho de la libertad de información. La regla de la presencia obligatoria es contraria a la libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad sólo sabría concebirse como una mutación cultural por la que un pueblo vuelve a encontrar el poder de gozar de sus libertades constitucionales. +</p> + +<p> +Instruirse, enseñar, concierne a hombres que saben que nacieron libres y que no tienen, para adquirir esa libertad, que recurrir a un tratamiento apropiado. ¿Cuándo, por lo general, aprendemos? Cuando hacemos lo que nos interesa. ¿No somos, la mayor parte de nosotros, curiosos? Queremos comprender, darle un sentido a lo que se encuentra frente a nosotros, a lo que nos concierne. ¿No somos capaces de una relación personal con otros a menos de que seamos embrutecidos por un trabajo inhumano o fascinados por el ideal escolar? +</p> + +<p> +El hecho de que los habitantes de países ricos apenas se instruyan por sí mismos no constituye una prueba de lo contrario. Es más bien la consecuencia de una vida en un entorno donde paradójicamente no encuentran nada que aprender en la medida en que su medio está en gran parte “programado”. Están sin cesar frustrados por la estructura de una sociedad contemporánea en la que lo real, sobre lo que las decisiones podrían apoyarse, se ha vuelto de una naturaleza inasible. Viven, efectivamente, en un medio donde las herramientas que sería posible utilizar con fines creadores se vuelven productos de lujo, donde los canales de comunicación pertenecen a algunos que únicamente pueden hablar a la multitud. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Ense\u00f1ar instruirse responsabilidades personales","hid":"ensenar_instruirse_responsabilidades_personales","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":32,"range":"323068-326648"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit33" id="una_tecnologia_nueva_mas_que_una_nueva_educacion">Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Un mito moderno quisiera hacemos creer que el sentimiento de impotencia que hoy en día experimenta la mayoría de los hombres sería consecuencia de la tecnología capaz de crear solamente vastos sistemas. Pero no es sólo la tecnología la que inventa esos sistemas, la que crea herramientas inmensamente poderosas, la que teje canales de comunicación en sentido único; por el contrario, mejor utilizada, la tecnología podría proporcionar a cada hombre la posibilidad de entender mejor su medio, de trabajarlo con sus propias manos, de comunicar mejor que en el pasado. Esta utilización de la tecnología, contrariamente a las tendencias actuales, constituye la verdadera alternativa al problema de la educación. +</p> + +<p> +Para que un hombre pueda crecer, lo que necesita es el libre acceso a las cosas, a los sitios, a los métodos, a los acontecimientos, a los documentos. Tiene necesidad de ver, de tocar, de manipular, gustoso de asir todo lo que le rodea en un medio que no esté desprovisto de sentido. Ese acceso se le rehúsa hoy en día. Cuando el saber se ha vuelto un producto, adquiere la protección que se dispensa a la propiedad privada, De esa forma, un principio que se concibió para preservar la vida personal de cada uno se utiliza para justificar las prohibiciones que se lanzan contra aquellos que no portan los documentos necesarios. En las escuelas los profesores conservan sus propios conocimientos, a menos que esos conocimientos se inserten en el programa del momento. Los media informan, pero omiten todo lo que se considera impropio para la difusión. Los especialistas se encierran en su jerga y se necesitan vulgarizadores para asegurar su traducción. Los cuerpos profesionales protegen los diplomas y la burocracia los secretos. Todas las profesiones detentan el poder de echar de su ámbito a las personas no autorizadas; sucede lo mismo con las instituciones y las naciones. +</p> + +<p> +Ni la estructura política ni la estructura profesional de nuestras sociedades, tanto en el Oeste como en el Este, podrían resistir la desaparición de estas prohibiciones, el trastrocamiento de esta posibilidad de tener a capas enteras de la población apartadas de lo que podría servirles. El acceso a los hechos que preconizamos no se satisface con una simple operación “etiquetas-verdad”. Es necesario construir este acceso a la realidad (y todo lo que pedimos de la publicidad es una garantía que no sea mentirosa). El acceso a la realidad constituye la alternativa fundamental en materia de educación frente a un sistema de enseñanza que sólo se propone hablar de él. +</p> + +<p> +Abolir el derecho al secreto profesional (incluso cuando la opinión del hombre profesional es que ese secreto sirve al bien común) representa, como hemos querido demostrarlo, un objetivo político mucho más radical que la reivindicación tradicional de nacionalizar o de controlar democráticamente las herramientas de producción. La socialización de las herramientas, sin la socialización efectiva de los conocimientos técnicos, tiende a poner el “capital del saber” en la posición que anteriormente ocupaba el financiero. Si el tecnócrata pretende apoderarse del poder es que él detenta una parte capital en la sociedad del saber secreto y reservado al pequeño número. Para proteger el valor de sus acciones y para aumentarlo, imagina una vasta organización que hace difícil, incluso imposible, el acceso al saber técnico. +</p> + +<p> +El hombre motivado necesita un tiempo relativamente corto para adquirir una capacidad que quiere utilizar —lo que tendemos a olvidar en una sociedad donde los profesores monopolizan la posibilidad de acceder a cualquier actividad y detentan el poder de acusar de charlatanería a todos aquellos que no se someten—. ¿En las industrias y en la investigación se requieren muchas capacidades que sean tan terribles, complejas y peligrosas como manejar un coche? Ese saber se adquiere muy pronto con la ayuda de un igual. No todos los seres están dotados para el ejercicio de la lógica matemática, pero quienes lo están hacen progresos rápidos desafiándose mutuamente en partidos de juegos educativos. En Cuernavaca uno de 20 niños es capaz de vencerme en esos juegos después de 15 días de entrenamiento. En cuatro meses, la gran mayoría de los adultos que vinieron a nuestro centro a aprender español llegaron a un nivel de conocimiento suficiente para atacar problemas abstractos. +</p> + +<p> +Una primera etapa de acceso a conocimientos consistiría en encontrar ventajas diversas para aquellos que, poseedores de una capacidad, quisieran compartirla. Eso, inevitablemente, chocaría con intereses de grupos profesionales y sindicatos. Esta multiplicidad de posibles aprendizajes tiene, sin embargo, con qué seducirnos. ¿Está prohibido imaginar a alguien que sabe a la vez conducir, reparar el teléfono, instalar plomería, actuar como partera y dibujar planos arquitectónicos? A esos, como decimos, se opondrían los grupos de interés y los consumidores disciplinados, diciendo muy alto que el público no podría prescindir de una garantía profesional (argumento cuya validez es cada vez menos evidente a los ojos de las asociaciones de defensa del consumidor). Debemos tomar mucho más en serio la objeción que los economistas harían de esta socialización de las capacidades: el “progreso”, dirían, se frenaría si el saber (títulos, capacidades y todo lo demás…) se democratiza. La mejor respuesta ¿no sería mostrar las tasas de crecimiento de los absurdos en materia económica que engendra el sistema escolar? +</p> + +<p> +Poder aproximar a quienes están deseosos de compartir sus conocimientos no es garantía de que haya adquisición de un saber. Dicho acceso está limitado no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos y el de los sindicatos, sino también por una tecnología de penuria. Las capacidades que hoy en día valen son las que se aplican al funcionamiento de “herramientas” concebidas de tal manera que no puedan generalizarse. Efectivamente, esas “herramientas” sirven para producir bienes o servicios de los que todos quieren gozar, pero esto último sólo se concede a un pequeño número y sólo pocos saben utilizarlas. Únicamente algunos privilegiados, por ejemplo, sobre el conjunto de los que sufren una determinada enfermedad, pueden beneficiarse de los descubrimientos de una investigación médica compleja, y todavía son menos los médicos que obtienen los conocimientos necesarios para utilizar dichas tecnologías. +</p> + +<p> +Sin embargo, la investigación médica ha permitido crear un maletín de auxilios que permite a los enfermeros de la armada, después de sólo algunos meses de formación, obtener en el campo de batalla resultados muy superiores a los de los verdaderos médicos de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A un nivel todavía más inmediato, ¿no podría cualquier campesina aprender a reconocer y a curar las enfermedades infecciosas más comunes si investigadores médicos prepararan los remedios y las instrucciones necesarias para un determinado sector geográfico? +</p> + +<p> +Todos estos ejemplos buscan ilustrar el hecho de que simples consideraciones educativas bastan para exigir una importante reducción de la importancia dada a las profesiones que se oponen a las relaciones entre los hombres de ciencia y la mayoría de quienes quieren tener acceso a esta ciencia. Si se prestara atención a esta demanda, todos los hombres podrían aprender a utilizar las herramientas de ayer, vueltas más eficaces y más durables gracias a la ciencia de hoy, para crear el mundo de mañana. +</p> + +<p> +Por desgracia, es la tendencia contraria la que impera. Conozco una zona costera de América del Sur donde la mayoría de los habitantes viven de la pesca. Disponen de pequeñas embarcaciones y la introducción del motor auxiliar ha representado para ellos una verdadera revolución, de consecuencias a veces dramáticas. En el sector que estudié, la mitad de los motores comprados entre 1945 y 1950 funcionan todavía gracias a constante mantenimiento; por el contrario, los que se compraron en 1965 ya no funcionan porque no se concibieron para repararse. El progreso técnico proporciona a la mayoría de los seres humanos instrumentos inútiles, demasiado costosos, privándolos de las herramientas más simples que necesitan. +</p> + +<p> +Desde 1940, considerables progresos se han realizado en el ámbito de los materiales metálicos, plásticos y de fibrocemento que se utilizan en la construcción, lo que debería darle a muchos seres humanos la posibilidad de construir sus propias casas. Pero en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, mientras que en 1948 más de 30% de las habitaciones individuales las habían construido sus propietarios, a fines de 1960 ese porcentaje había caído a menos de 20 puntos. +</p> + +<p> +El descenso del nivel de las capacidades por efecto de lo que se llama el “desarrollo económico” es aún más visible en América Latina. Ahí, la mayoría de los habitantes construyen todavía ellos mismos sus casas. Utilizan frecuentemente adobe y cal, materiales cuya utilidad es muy alta en clima cálido y húmedo. En otros sitios edifican casas con placas de chapa, cartón y otros desperdicios de la civilización industrial… En lugar de proporcionar a los habitantes herramientas simples y elementos estandarizados, sólidos, fácilmente reemplazables o reparables, los gobernantes de esos países se lanzaron a una política de producción masiva de habitaciones de interés social. Es, sin embargo, evidente que ninguno de ellos puede darse el lujo de proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas a la mayoría de los habitantes. Por todas partes esta política prohibí a las masas adquirir los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para la construcción de casas más decentes. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Una tecnolog\u00eda nueva m\u00e1s que una nueva educaci\u00f3n","hid":"una_tecnologia_nueva_mas_que_una_nueva_educacion","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":33,"range":"326649-336502"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit34" id="una_pobreza_libremente_consentida">Una pobreza libremente consentida</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Darse cuenta de las posibilidades de educación nos permite ver que cualquier sociedad posindustrial debe disponer de un herramental de base cuya misma naturaleza no permita el desarrollo del control tecnocrático. Debemos, en efecto, esforzarnos por hacer surgir una sociedad donde el saber científico pueda estar, de alguna forma, abierto a las herramientas útiles, a las piezas de ensamble en unidades de dimensiones limitadas, para que sean comprensibles a los hombres. Dicho herramental permite asociarse para cumplir una tarea o, como todo mil usos lo sabe instintivamente, descubrirlas sirviéndose de ellas para nuevas posibilidades de uso. Por la combinación de posibilidades de acceso siempre abiertas a lo que sucede a nuestro alrededor y por los límites impuestos al poder de las herramientas será posible visualizar una “economía de subsistencia” capaz de utilizar las ventajas de la ciencia moderna. +</p> + +<p> +Desarrollar dicha economía servirá a los intereses de la aplastante mayoría de los habitantes de países pobres, pero también es la única alternativa posible en los países ricos frente a la creciente contaminación, la explotación, la construcción de un mundo cada vez más ensombrecido. Como lo hemos señalado, derribar el mito del “producto nacional bruto” no se concibe sin atacar al mismo tiempo el de la “educación nacional bruta” (que conduce a la capitalización de la mano de obra). Una economía igualitaria no podría existir en una sociedad en la que el derecho de producir lo confieren las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +Construir una economía de subsistencia moderna no depende de invenciones científicas nuevas. Su edificación pasa por una elección deliberada del conjunto de la sociedad que debe definir límites fundamentales al desarrollo de las burocracias y de las tecnocracias. +</p> + +<p> +Estos límites pueden definirse de diferente manera, pero su utilidad dependerá de que se tomen en cuenta las verdaderas dimensiones de la existencia. (La posición del Congreso contra el desarrollo del transporte supersónico va en buena dirección.) Estas restricciones que se impondría voluntariamente la sociedad deben dirigirse a problemas simples, accesibles a todos; podríamos aquí retomar el ejemplo de los aviones supersónicos. Lo que guiaría la elección sería la conciencia de la necesidad de un disfrute igual de los frutos del saber científico. Los franceses dicen que se necesitarían mil años para enseñarle a un país a ocuparse de una vaca; no se necesitarían dos generaciones para ayudar a todos los habitantes de América Latina o de África a utilizar (o a reparar) motores auxiliares de vehículos simplificados, de bombas, de maletines médicos, de construcciones de hormigón, si la concepción de esos equipamientos no cambiara casi cada año. Obtener igual provecho de las adquisiciones de la técnica conduciría, sin duda, a una vida donde el gozo estaría presente, gozo, con sentido, de las relaciones establecidas entre los hombres, y como al mismo tiempo los hombres vivirían en un medio en donde el absurdo ya no tendría sitio, el derecho igual a los bienes de la sociedad se confundiría finalmente con la igualdad en materia de educación. +</p> + +<p> +Hoy en día es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre la austeridad. La razón que por costumbre se da para explicar la impotencia actual de la mayoría se sitúa en una perspectiva (económica o política) de clases, y por lo general no nos damos cuenta de que las nuevas estructuras de clase impuestas por una sociedad escolarizada son más fácilmente controladas por los intereses establecidos. Sin duda alguna, una organización imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad definió un conjunto social en el interior del cual una minoría posee una influencia desproporcionada sobre la opinión de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática, el poder de un pequeño número de “capitalistas del saber” es capaz de impedir la formación de una verdadera opinión pública por el control de las técnicas científicas y de los medios de comunicación entre los hombres. +</p> + +<p> +Las garantías constitucionales dadas a la libertad de expresión, de prensa, de reunión, se dirigían a asegurar el acceso del gobierno por el pueblo. La electrónica moderna, las prensas offset, las computadoras, los teléfonos podrían representar un equipamiento capaz de dar un sentido completamente nuevo a esas libertades. Por desgracia, todas esas conquistas técnicas se utilizan para acrecentar el poder de los banqueros del conocimiento, en lugar de servir para tejer las verdaderas redes que proporcionarían oportunidades iguales de encuentro a la mayoría de los seres humanos. +</p> + +<p> +Desescolarizar la estructura social y cultural exige utilizar la tecnología para hacer posible una política de participación. Sobre la base de una coalición de la mayoría se podrían determinar los límites del secreto y del poder creciente sin que exista dictadura. +</p> + +<p> +Necesitamos un entorno nuevo en el cual crecer para conocer una sociedad sin clases o entraremos en el “mundo feliz” donde el <em>big brother</em>[^n23] estará ahí para educarnos a todos. +</p> + +<p> +[^n01:] Penrose B. Jackson, <em>Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968</em> , U. S. Office of Education, Office of Program and Planning Evaluation, junio de 1969.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n02:] En español en el original.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n03:] <em>Agua</em> , <em>tierra</em> , <em>casa</em> son algunas de las palabras generadoras que Paulo Freire incluye en la relación educador-educando.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n04:] <em>Atomic Ballistic Missile</em>. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n05:] Respecto a las historias paralelas del capitalismo moderno y la niñez moderna véase Philippe Ariès, <em>L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime,</em> Seuil, 1973.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n06:] Agency for International Development: organismo del Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n07:] El autor se refiere a las Enmiendas a la Constitución de Estados Unidos (1971), que establecen, respectivamente: <em>a)</em> las libertades de religión, expresión, reunión y de ser oídos para pedir justicia, y <em>b)</em> de no ser llamado a responder por delitos graves sin ser declarado reo, de no ser condenado dos veces a muerte por una misma causa, ni a testimoniar contra sí mismo, de no ser privado de la libertad o de las propiedades sin un debido proceso legal, ni a ser expropiado sin justa compensación. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n08:] Buen riesgo: en el lenguaje de los aseguradores, el que tiene muy pocas oportunidades de concretarse en una pérdida. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n09:] Culto creado por indígenas de Nueva Guinea, que atribuye un origen mágico a los artículos occidentales (aviones, radios, relojes, plásticos, etc.). (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n10:] <em>Truant officer</em>. El que lleva a la escuela a quienes deben cumplir con la instrucción legal obligatoria. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n11:] <em>Ética a Nicómaco</em> , 1140.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n12:] Este capítulo fue presentado originalmente en una sesión de la American Educational Research Association, en la ciudad de Nueva York, el 6 de febrero de 1971.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n13:] Véase Joel Spring, <em>Education and the Rise of the Corporate State</em> , Cuaderno núm. 50, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, México, 1971.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n14:] Equivalente a los grados primero, segundo y tercero de secundaria, o los antiguos tres primeros años de bachillerato —cuando había seis—. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n15:] En francés, en el original.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n16:] Office of Economic Opportunity, organismo oficial en Estados Unidos. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n17:] Lenguaje usado en informática para fines comerciales. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n18:] En el francés, en el original.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n19:] Las tres citas provienen de “People” (“Gente”), del libro <em>Poemas escogidos</em> de Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Traducidos por Robin Milner-Gulland y Peter Levi, y con una introducción de los traductores. Publicado por E. P. Dutton & Co., 1962, y reimpreso con su autorización.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n20:] Las 14 más célebres universidades de Estados Unidos constituyen esta “liga de la hiedra” <em>(ivy league)</em>. (Son miembros de ella, por ejemplo, Yale, Harvard, Princeton…) Es una asociación sin objetivo definido, pero que conserva la tradición de grandeza. Saca su nombre de la hiedra que recubre los edificios más antiguos. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n21:] El hecho de asistir a los cursos representa cierto número de créditos por semestre. Para tener acceso al diploma es necesario haber cubierto un número de 135 en cuatro años. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n22:] En francés, en el original. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n23:] Alusiones al libro de Aldous Huxley, <em>Un mundo feliz</em> , y al de George Orwell, <em>1984.</em>] +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Una pobreza libremente consentida","hid":"una_pobreza_libremente_consentida","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":34,"range":"336503-"} -->
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No 34-35, Archipiélago";}i:2;i:14896;}i:2566;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:25:". No 34-35, Archipiélago";}i:2;i:14896;}i:2567;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:14921;}i:2568;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14922;}i:2569;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14922;}i:2570;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14922;}i:2571;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14922;}i:2572;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:14922;}i:2573;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14922;}i:2574;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:14922;}i:2575;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:81:"1998 - And do not lead us into diagnosis, but deliver us of the pursuit of health";}i:2;i:14925;}i:2576;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:81:"1998 - And do not lead us into diagnosis, but deliver us of the pursuit of health";}i:2;i:14925;}i:2577;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:15006;}i:2578;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15007;}i:2579;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15007;}i:2580;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:15007;}i:2581;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15007;}i:2582;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:15007;}i:2583;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:28:"1999 - The Conditional Human";}i:2;i:15010;}i:2584;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:28:"1999 - The Conditional Human";}i:2;i:15010;}i:2585;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15038;}i:2586;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15038;}i:2587;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15038;}i:2588;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:4;i:3;s:2:" + +";}i:2;i:15038;}i:2589;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15040;}i:2590;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:15:"Other resources";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:15040;}i:2;i:15040;}i:2591;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:15040;}i:2592;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:19:" +## Other resources";}i:2;i:15040;}i:2593;a:3:{i:0;s:10:"listu_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15060;}i:2594;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:15060;}i:2595;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15060;}i:2596;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:1;i:3;s:4:" + +* ";}i:2;i:15060;}i:2597;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"internallink";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:15:"en:videos:index";i:1;s:6:"Videos";}i:2;i:15064;}i:2598;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:15090;}i:2599;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15091;}i:2600;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15091;}i:2601;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:15091;}i:2602;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15091;}i:2603;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:15091;}i:2604;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:137:"1969 - A conversation with Ivan Illich. Illich, Ivan, 1926-2002; WCNY-TV (Television station) Syracuse, N.Y. Interviewer: Carl Illenberg.";}i:2;i:15094;}i:2605;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:137:"1969 - A conversation with Ivan Illich. Illich, Ivan, 1926-2002; WCNY-TV (Television station) Syracuse, N.Y. Interviewer: Carl Illenberg.";}i:2;i:15094;}i:2606;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:15231;}i:2607;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15232;}i:2608;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15232;}i:2609;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;i:1;}i:2;i:15232;}i:2610;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15232;}i:2611;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:15232;}i:2612;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:40:"1970 - The Institutionalization of Truth";}i:2;i:15235;}i:2613;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:40:"1970 - The Institutionalization of Truth";}i:2;i:15235;}i:2614;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15275;}i:2615;a:3:{i:0;s:10:"listu_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15275;}i:2616;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:15275;}i:2617;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15275;}i:2618;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:5:" + * ";}i:2;i:15275;}i:2619;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:122:"This is a videotape of a lecture (about 55 minutes) delivered in the spring of 1970 at York University in Toronto, Canada.";}i:2;i:15280;}i:2620;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:122:"This is a videotape of a lecture (about 55 minutes) delivered in the spring of 1970 at York University in Toronto, Canada.";}i:2;i:15280;}i:2621;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15402;}i:2622;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15402;}i:2623;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15402;}i:2624;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15402;}i:2625;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15402;}i:2626;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:15402;}i:2627;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15403;}i:2628;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"Audios";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:15403;}i:2;i:15403;}i:2629;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:15403;}i:2630;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:11:" +### Audios";}i:2;i:15403;}i:2631;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15415;}i:2632;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:9:"Available";i:1;i:4;i:2;i:15415;}i:2;i:15415;}i:2633;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:4;}i:2;i:15415;}i:2634;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:15:" +#### Available";}i:2;i:15415;}i:2635;a:3:{i:0;s:10:"listu_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15431;}i:2636;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:15431;}i:2637;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15431;}i:2638;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:1;i:3;s:4:" + +* ";}i:2;i:15431;}i:2639;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:7:"1968 - ";}i:2;i:15435;}i:2640;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"1968 - ";}i:2;i:15435;}i:2641;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteopening";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15442;}i:2642;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:61:"Yesterday I Could Not Sleep Because Yesterday I Wrote My Name";}i:2;i:15443;}i:2643;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:61:"Yesterday I Could Not Sleep Because Yesterday I Wrote My Name";}i:2;i:15443;}i:2644;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"entity";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:3:"...";}i:2;i:15504;}i:2645;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteclosing";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15507;}i:2646;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:120:" Sept. 30, 1968. Tape No. AS7915-7916/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 00:42:00";}i:2;i:15508;}i:2647;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:120:" Sept. 30, 1968. Tape No. AS7915-7916/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 00:42:00";}i:2;i:15508;}i:2648;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:15628;}i:2649;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15629;}i:2650;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15629;}i:2651;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:15629;}i:2652;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15629;}i:2653;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:15629;}i:2654;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:153:"1968 - Education in Developing Countries, Sept. 30, 1968. Tape AS17029/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 1:30:00.";}i:2;i:15632;}i:2655;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:153:"1968 - Education in Developing Countries, Sept. 30, 1968. Tape AS17029/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 1:30:00.";}i:2;i:15632;}i:2656;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:15785;}i:2657;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15786;}i:2658;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15786;}i:2659;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:15786;}i:2660;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15786;}i:2661;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:15786;}i:2662;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:139:"1969 - A Privileged Place. Apr. 25, 1969. - Tape No. AS8075/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 21:09";}i:2;i:15789;}i:2663;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:139:"1969 - A Privileged Place. Apr. 25, 1969. - Tape No. AS8075/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 21:09";}i:2;i:15789;}i:2664;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:15928;}i:2665;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15929;}i:2666;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15929;}i:2667;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:15929;}i:2668;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15929;}i:2669;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:15929;}i:2670;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:138:"1973 - Retooling Society, Feb. 26, 1973. Tape No. A20644/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:34:43";}i:2;i:15932;}i:2671;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:138:"1973 - Retooling Society, Feb. 26, 1973. Tape No. A20644/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:34:43";}i:2;i:15932;}i:2672;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:16070;}i:2673;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16071;}i:2674;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16071;}i:2675;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:16071;}i:2676;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16071;}i:2677;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:16071;}i:2678;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:152:"1976 - Reflections on Medical Nemesis, Apr. 20, 1976. Tape No. AS20944/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:05:53";}i:2;i:16074;}i:2679;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:152:"1976 - Reflections on Medical Nemesis, Apr. 20, 1976. Tape No. AS20944/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:05:53";}i:2;i:16074;}i:2680;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:16226;}i:2681;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16227;}i:2682;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16227;}i:2683;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:16227;}i:2684;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16227;}i:2685;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:16227;}i:2686;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:16:"1976 - Lecture: ";}i:2;i:16230;}i:2687;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:16:"1976 - Lecture: ";}i:2;i:16230;}i:2688;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteopening";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16246;}i:2689;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:32:"The Art of Dying (Ars Moriendi),";}i:2;i:16247;}i:2690;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:32:"The Art of Dying (Ars Moriendi),";}i:2;i:16247;}i:2691;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteclosing";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16279;}i:2692;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:42:" Apr. 21, 1976. Tape No. A5838/R7. 1:34:40";}i:2;i:16280;}i:2693;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:42:" Apr. 21, 1976. Tape No. A5838/R7. 1:34:40";}i:2;i:16280;}i:2694;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:16322;}i:2695;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16323;}i:2696;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16323;}i:2697;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:16323;}i:2698;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16323;}i:2699;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:16323;}i:2700;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:205:"1981 - In Conversation with Ivan Illich (2 tapes), Apr. 23-24, 1981. Tape No. AS21511-21512/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:48:19 (Tape 1) and 2:22:32 (Tape 2).";}i:2;i:16326;}i:2701;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:205:"1981 - In Conversation with Ivan Illich (2 tapes), Apr. 23-24, 1981. Tape No. AS21511-21512/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:48:19 (Tape 1) and 2:22:32 (Tape 2).";}i:2;i:16326;}i:2702;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:16531;}i:2703;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16532;}i:2704;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16532;}i:2705;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:16532;}i:2706;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16532;}i:2707;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:16532;}i:2708;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:96:"1989 - Cayley, David (1989): Part Moon Part Travelling Salesman: Conversations with Ivan Illich.";}i:2;i:16535;}i:2709;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:96:"1989 - Cayley, David (1989): Part Moon Part Travelling Salesman: Conversations with Ivan Illich.";}i:2;i:16535;}i:2710;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" +";}i:2;i:16631;}i:2711;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16632;}i:2712;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16632;}i:2713;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:16632;}i:2714;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16632;}i:2715;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:2;i:3;s:3:" +* ";}i:2;i:16632;}i:2716;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:104:"2002 - Cayley, David; (Illich, Ivan) (2000/2002): The corruption of christianity. Ivan Illich on Gospel,";}i:2;i:16635;}i:2717;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:104:"2002 - Cayley, David; (Illich, Ivan) (2000/2002): The corruption of christianity. Ivan Illich on Gospel,";}i:2;i:16635;}i:2718;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:20:" +Church and Society.";}i:2;i:16739;}i:2719;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:19:"Church and Society.";}i:2;i:16740;}i:2720;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16759;}i:2721;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16759;}i:2722;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16759;}i:2723;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:4;i:3;s:2:" + +";}i:2;i:16759;}i:2724;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16761;}i:2725;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:9:"Requested";i:1;i:4;i:2;i:16761;}i:2;i:16761;}i:2726;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:4;}i:2;i:16761;}i:2727;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:15:" +#### Requested";}i:2;i:16761;}i:2728;a:3:{i:0;s:10:"listu_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16776;}i:2729;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"listitem_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:16776;}i:2730;a:3:{i:0;s:16:"listcontent_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16776;}i:2731;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:1;i:3;s:4:" + +* ";}i:2;i:16776;}i:2732;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:183:"1971 - John Wilkinson - Discussions with Ivan Illich in Mexico [?], (4 tapes), 1971. Tape No. AS10964-10967/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: ?";}i:2;i:16780;}i:2733;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:16:"markdowku_ulists";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:3;i:3;s:183:"1971 - John Wilkinson - Discussions with Ivan Illich in Mexico [?], (4 tapes), 1971. Tape No. AS10964-10967/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/c/c04924934d7510f4d4101be9d99da008.xhtml b/data/cache/c/c04924934d7510f4d4101be9d99da008.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2612cff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/c/c04924934d7510f4d4101be9d99da008.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,1149 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="english">English</h1> +<div class="level1"> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"English","hid":"english","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":1,"range":"1-12"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit2" id="original_books_series">Original books series</h2> +<div class="level2"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1951 - Die philosophischen Grundlagen der Geschichtsschreibung bei Arnold Joseph +Toynbee <em>(The Philosophical Foundations of Historiography in Arnold Joseph Toynbee's Work)</em> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:awareness:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:book:awareness:index" data-wiki-id="en:book:awareness:index">1970 - Celebration Of Awareness</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:deschooling:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:book:deschooling:index" data-wiki-id="en:book:deschooling:index">1970 - Deschooling Society</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:church:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:church:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:church:index">1970 - The Church, Change and Development</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:conviviality:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:book:conviviality:index" data-wiki-id="en:book:conviviality:index">1973 - Tools for Conviviality</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:energy:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:book:energy:index" data-wiki-id="en:book:energy:index">1973 - Energy And Equity</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:medical:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:medical:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:medical:index">1975 - Medical Nemesis-The Expropriation Of Health</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:unemployment:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:book:unemployment:index" data-wiki-id="en:book:unemployment:index">1978 - The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:shadow:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:shadow:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:shadow:index">1981 - Shadow Work</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:gender:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:book:gender:index" data-wiki-id="en:book:gender:index">1982 - Gender </a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:school:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:school:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:school:index">1984 - School into Museum</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:h20:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:h20:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:h20:index">1985 - H2O And The Waters Of Forgetfulness</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:abc:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:abc:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:abc:index">1988 - ABC-The Alphabetization Of The Popular Mind</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:mirror:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:mirror:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:mirror:index">1992 - In The Mirror Of The Past-Lectures And Addresses, 1978-1990</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:book:vineyard:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:book:vineyard:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:book:vineyard:index">1993 - In The Vineyard Of The Text-A Commentary To Hugh's Didascalicon</a></div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Original books series","hid":"original_books_series","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":2,"range":"13-1192"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit3" id="compilations">Compilations</h3> +<div class="level3"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:1977:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:1977:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:1977:index">1977 - Toward A History Of Needs</a> <sup><a href="#fn__1" id="fnt__1" class="fn_top">1)</a></sup> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:1977b:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:1977b:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:1977b:index">1977 - Disabling professions</a> <sup><a href="#fn__2" id="fnt__2" class="fn_top">2)</a></sup></div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Compilations","hid":"compilations","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":3,"range":"1193-1477"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit4" id="articles">Articles</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Articles","hid":"articles","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":4,"range":"1478-1490"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit5" id="s">1950's</h3> +<div class="level3"> +<ul> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1953 - Basic Policies for Courses of Missionary Formation</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Requested at: <a href="https://findingaids.library.uic.edu/sc/MSICUI89.xml" class="urlextern" title="https://findingaids.library.uic.edu/sc/MSICUI89.xml" rel="ugc nofollow">https://findingaids.library.uic.edu/sc/MSICUI89.xml</a> +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:article:1955-the_american_parish:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1955-the_american_parish:index" data-wiki-id="en:article:1955-the_american_parish:index">1955 - The American Parish</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1955 - Can a Catholic Get a Divorce?</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"> in Integrity, vol. 9, n. 7, aprile 1955, pp. 7-10;</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Obras Completas Italianas 1 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1955 - Sacred Virginity +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1956 - Puerto Ricans in New York</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">En Celebration</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Otro titulo: Puerto Ricans in New York +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1956 - Rehearsal for Death +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1958 - The End of Human Life</div> +</li> +</ul> + +<p> +1958 - The Pastoral Care of Puerto Rican Migrants in New York +</p> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"> in Social Compass, vol. 5, nn. 5-6, marzo 1958, pp. 256-260.</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"> in Obras Completas Italianas 1</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"1950's","hid":"s","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":5,"range":"1491-2190"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit6" id="s1">1960's</h3> +<div class="level3"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1960 - Missionary Silence +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:article:1961-bootcamp_for_urbanites:index" class="wikilink2" title="en:article:1961-bootcamp_for_urbanites:index" rel="nofollow" data-wiki-id="en:article:1961-bootcamp_for_urbanites:index">1961 - Boot Camp for Urbanites</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1961 - Brazil</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Data for DECISION in Latin America, novembre 1961,</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Obras Completas Italianas 1 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1961 - Spiritual Poverty and the Missionary Character +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1962 - The Lay Missionary in Latin America +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1962 - Education and Economic Development</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Data for DECISION in Latin America, maggio/giugno/luglio 1962,</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Obras Completas Italianas 1 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1963 - The Predicament of the Church and the Task of the Religious Orders +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1964 - Religion and the Universities: An Invitation to Discussion</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li"> in CIF Reports, vol. 2, febbraio 1964, poi in «CIDOC Cuaderno No. 37», 1969, pp. 16-18,</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Obras Completas Italianas 1 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1964 - A Note from the Publisher</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in CIF Reports, vol. 2, n. 10, marzo 1964, pp. 3-4; poi in «CIDOC Cuaderno No. 37», 1969, pp. 10/3-4. I</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Obras Completas Italianas 1 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1964 - The Education of Submarginal People</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Joseph P. Fitzpatrick (a c. di), Educational Planning and Socio-Economic Development in Latin America, «Sondeos No. 9», 1966, pp. 159-161.</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Obras Completas Italianas 1 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1965 - Dear Father Kevane +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1966 - Concerning Aesthetic and Religious Experience +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:index" data-wiki-id="en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:index">1968 - The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1967 - Dear Mary: Letter to an American Volunteer +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1967 - Yankee, Go Home: The American Do-Gooder in South America +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1967 - The Church, Change and Development +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1967 - The Seamy Side of Charity</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">the powerless church</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Las sombras de la caridad +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1967 - The Vanishing Clergyman</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">the powerless church</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">la metamorfosis del clero +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1967 - To be perfectly frank +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1967 - The Secular City and the Structure of Religious Life: A Discussion Outline</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Cuernavaca 1967, in CIDOC Informa, gennaio-giugno 1968, «CIDOC Cuaderno No. 20», vol. 6, 1968, pp. 51a/1-9.</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">in Obras Completas Italianas 1 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1968 - Violence: A Mirror for Americans +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1968 - La escuela, esa vieja y gorda vaca sagrada</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">1969 - Commencement at the University of Puerto Rico</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">1968 - To Hell with Good Intentions +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1969 - Between Jail and Campus: The Chaplain’s Halfway House +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1969 - The need for counterfoil research. Address to the Canadian Institute of Public Affairs at Couchiching</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">En CIDOC DOC</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"1960's","hid":"s1","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":6,"range":"2191-4608"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit7" id="s2">1970's</h3> +<div class="level3"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1970 - Mission and Midwifery, Part I: Missionary Formation Based on Missiology +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1970 - Mission and Midwifery, Part II: Selection and Formation of the Missionary +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1970 - Missionary Poverty +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1970 - Missionary Silence</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1970 - Beecher Lectures</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Cuadernos CIDOC ; No.1002 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1970 - Ivan Illich Writes Pope Paul +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1970 - A Call to Celebration +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - Abolishing schools 1</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In New York Times, May 3, 1971. page 37. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - Draft for an address to the American Educational Research Association meeting in New York</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">February 6, 1971. CIDOC, Doc. A/E 71/282. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1971 - The Powerless Church +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1971 - De-schooling the Teaching Orders +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - Por qué debemos abolir la trata escolar</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Cuaderno 66 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - Contra la religión de la escuela</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Cuaderno 66 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - The Alternative to Schooling</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Saturday Review”. 19 June 1971 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1971 - The Breakdown of Schools: A Problem or a Symptom? +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1971 - Society and Imagination +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>1971 - The Evolution of the School</strong> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>1971 - The Roots of Human Liberation</strong> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>1971 - This Book Is About Schools</strong> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - The institutionalization of truth</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">En Tradition and revolution, Lionel Rubinoff (solicitado a Harvard) +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1972 - How Will We Pass on Christianity? +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1972 - Foreword to Letters from the desert +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>1972 - Education: Knowledge Capitalism</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">CIDOC. No. 39, +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1972 - A Center Conference: Toward a Society without Schools</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">CIDOC DOCUMENTA Alternatives in Education V. 2, +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1972 - Identity and the nature of revolution</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In Latin America: The Dynamics of Social Change: <a href="https://hollis.harvard.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=01HVD_ALMA211929995010003941&context=L&vid=HVD2&lang=en_US&search_scope=everything&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=everything&query=any,contains,Latin%20America:%20The%20Dynamics%20of%20Social%20Change&offset=0" class="urlextern" title="https://hollis.harvard.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=01HVD_ALMA211929995010003941&context=L&vid=HVD2&lang=en_US&search_scope=everything&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=everything&query=any,contains,Latin%20America:%20The%20Dynamics%20of%20Social%20Change&offset=0" rel="ugc nofollow">https://hollis.harvard.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=01HVD_ALMA211929995010003941&context=L&vid=HVD2&lang=en_US&search_scope=everything&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=everything&query=any,contains,Latin%20America:%20The%20Dynamics%20of%20Social%20Change&offset=0</a> +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>1972 - Hacía una sociedad convivencial</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li"> In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 1021 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1972 - Institutional Inversion</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 1017 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1972 - Mr Chief Justice Burger and the disestablishment of schooling</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">in CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 76 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1972 - Anglo American Law and a convivial society</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 82 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1972 - Gradual change or violent revolution in Latin America? +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - After Deschooling, What?</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li"> Un Mundo sin escuelas +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"> <strong>1973 - An Expansion of the Concept of Alienation</strong> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1973 - La necesidad de un techno común; el control social de latecnología. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 0 Maintaining a Wattage Threshold.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: “The New York Times”.; p. 33 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - Limits of Therapy</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li"> Preparatory Documents for 1974 CIDOC +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - Herramientas para la convivencia</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 1027 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1973 - La escuela y la represion de nuestros hijos +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - National Health Insurance and the People's</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - On the Political Uses of Natural Death</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - Para reencontrar la vida</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - Recycling the World</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1973 - The illusion of unlimited Health Insurance</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC Documenta I/V, Julio 1971 - Agosto 1972. In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 82 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1974 - Discurso en el Colegio de Abogados de San Juan, Puerto Rico, el 15 de abril de 1974</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC DOCUMENTA I/V +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1974 - Lima Discourse +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1974 - The Annual Encyclopaedia Brittanica Lecture, Edinburgh +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1975 - Crisis en la didáctica, 2a parte. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1975 - Introduction</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 90 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1975 - La educación autocrítica</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">and Paulo Freire +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1975 - Pilgrims of the Obvious: A Conversation with Ivan Illich and Paulo Freire</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: “Risk” +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1975 - The industrialization of medicine</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: “Ciba Found Symp” +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1975 - The medicalization of life</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: “Journal of Medical Ethics. The Journal of the Society for the Study of Medical Ethics” +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1975 - The Recovery of Health</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: “Cross Currents” +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1976 - Political Inversion</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">Included in “Imprisoned in the Global Classroom” +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1976 - Medicine Is a Major Threat to Health</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">[Co-author: Keen, Sam.] In: “Psychology Today” +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1976 - The age of professional dominance</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">[A draft.] In: “TECNO-POLITICA”. Doc. Cuernavaca, (México) +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1977 - Factors in Contemporary Medicine +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1978 - Alternativas de la educacion</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: Coleccion Afluente. Ed. Apex: Buenos Aires; 116 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1978 - In Lieu of Education</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: Illich, Ivan: Toward a history of needs +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1978 - Tantalizing Needs</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: Illich, Ivan: Toward a history of needs +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1978 - Introduction</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: Doctors on trial. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1978 - Taught Mother Tongue</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Other name: Taught mother language and vernacular tongue</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In the book “Multilingualism and mother-tongue education” with Debi Prasanna Pattanayak +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1978 - Introduction to “The Inverse of Managed Health”</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">[Co-author: Illich, Ivan.] In: “Social Alternatives”. with Borremans, Valentina +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index" data-wiki-id="en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index">1978 - The Message of Bapu’s Hut</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1979 - Preface</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In: Borremanns,Valentina: Guide to convivial tools +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1979 - The New Frontier for Arrogance: Colonization of the Informal Sector +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1979 - Vernacular Values and Education +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1979 - The Educational Sphere</div> +<ul> +<li class="level3"><div class="li">In Mirror</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"1970's","hid":"s2","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":7,"range":"4609-9784"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit8" id="s3">1980's</h3> +<div class="level3"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1980 - Alternativas del desarrollo. In: “El Viejo Topo”. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1980 - Los profesionales de la impotencia.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Construcción, Arquitectura y Urbanismo”. 61, Col. Of. de Arquitectos Téc. y Aparejadores de Cataluña: Barcelona; +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1980 - Hugh - or, Science by People +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1980 - The De-linking of Peace and Development</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1981 - Multilingualism and mother-tongue education (with Pattanayak, Debi Prasanna) +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1981 - On Education</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “New Education”. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1981 - La guerra contra la subsistencia: antología.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: Coleccion “Esta America”.</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Otro titulo: La represión del ámbito vernáculo. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1982 - Medicalization and primary care</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners”. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1982 - Silence is a Commons.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In mirror</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Otro titulo: La sociedad gestionada mediante computadoras +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Draft for a lecture in Berlin +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1983 - I Too Have Decided to Keep Silent</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1984 - Dwelling</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1984 - Eco Paedagogics and the Commons</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Education”. no. 2, 6, p. 29-34 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1985 - In the vineyard of text</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">(primero en aleman?) +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1985 - Twelve Years after Medical Nemesis: A Plea for Body History</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Escribir la historia del cuerpo doce años después de Nemesis médica. In: “Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura”. No 15, Archipiélago: Barcelona; p +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1986 - Education as a problem of scarcity of means +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1986 - A plea for body history +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1986 - A Plea for Research on Lay Literacy</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:article:1986-disvalue:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1986-disvalue:index" data-wiki-id="en:article:1986-disvalue:index">1986 - Disvalue</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1987 - El género del espacio. El hogar vernáculo</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Av. Arquitectura y vivienda”. 12, Soc.Estatal de Gestión para la Rehabilitación y Construcción de la Vivienda: Madrid +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1987 - Hospitality and Pain. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1987 - Computer Literacy and the Cybernetic Dream.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1987 - Medical Ethics: A Call to De-bunk Bio-ethics.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1988 - Needs +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1988 - The Educational Enterprise in the Light of the Gospel +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1988 - Alternatives to Economics: Toward a History of Waste</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1989 - Posthumous Longevity. An open letter to a cloistered community of Benedictine nuns, 1989. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1989 - The Institutional Construction of a New Fetish: Human Life</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In Mirror +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1989 - The Shadow that the Future Throws +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1989 - Commentary on Robert J. Fox</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"1980's","hid":"s3","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":8,"range":"9785-12114"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit9" id="s4">1990's</h3> +<div class="level3"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - A-mortality +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - Introduction to A-mortality +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - Drugs +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - Declaration On Soil +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - Health as One's Own Responsibility - No, Thank You! +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - Mnemosyne: The Mold of Memory. 'The Object of Objects: An Elegy for the Anchored Text' +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - The Loudspeaker on the Tower +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1990 - The Sad Loss of Gender +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1991 - Comment: The Last Modern Century +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1991 - Preface In: Arney, William Ray: Experts in the Age of Systems +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1991 - Mente letrada versus mente informática</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura”. No 7 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1991 - Text and University - on the idea and history of a unique institution +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1991 - The Earthy Virtue of Place +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1992 - Autostop +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1992 - The loss of world and flesh +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1993 - Guarding the Eye in the Age of Show. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1993 - Lectio divina. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1993 - To Honor Jaques Ellul. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1994 - An Address to “Master Jacques” +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>1994 - Blasphemy: A Radical Critique of Technological Culture</strong> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1994 - Coping with sickness +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1994 - Brave New Biocracy: Health Care From Womb to Tomb +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1994 - La ilusión fundamental</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura”. No 18-19, Archipiélago: +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1994 - Pathogenesis, Immunity and the Quality of Health Care. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1994 - The Wisdom of Leopold Kohr +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1994 - Unhappy paradoxes of medicine +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1995 - Death Undefeated: From Medicine to Medicalisation to Systematisation +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1995 - Statements by Jacques Ellul and Ivan Illich</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Technology in Society”. no. 2, 1995, volume 17, p. 231-235 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1995 - The Scopic Past and the Ethics of the Gaze. A plea for the historical study of ocular perception +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives:index" data-wiki-id="en:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives:index">1995 - Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives"</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1996 - Education in the Perspective of the Dropout</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Bulletin of Science, Technology andSociety”. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1996 - Health</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society”. no. 5/6, 1996, v +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1996 - Living Off the Waste of Development.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “New Perspectives Quarterly” no. 3, June 1996, 13, p. 10-11 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1996 - Philosophy… Artifacts… Friendship - and the History of the Gaze +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1996 - Speed? What Speed?</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Same: “From Fast to Quick” +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1997 - The Image of Objectivity +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1997 - To Hell with Life +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1997 - Beauty in Proportion</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Resurgence: an international forum for ecological and spiritual thinking”. Issue 185, +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1997 - Homo educandus lost. Education and Technology: Asking the Right Questions +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1997 - Slow Is Beautiful. In: “New Perspectives Quarterly”</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Gardels, Nathan ed.; issue 1, volume 14 +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1997 - The Immorality of Bioethics +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:article:1998-conspiracy:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1998-conspiracy:index" data-wiki-id="en:article:1998-conspiracy:index">1998 - The Cultivation of Conspiracy</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1998 - La reindinvicación de la casa</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">In: “Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura”. No 34-35, Archipiélago +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1998 - And do not lead us into diagnosis, but deliver us of the pursuit of health +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1999 - The Conditional Human</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"1990's","hid":"s4","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":9,"range":"12115-15039"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit10" id="other_resources">Other resources</h2> +<div class="level2"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><a href="/en:videos:index" class="wikilink1" title="en:videos:index" data-wiki-id="en:videos:index">Videos</a> +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1969 - A conversation with Ivan Illich. Illich, Ivan, 1926-2002; WCNY-TV (Television station) Syracuse, N.Y. Interviewer: Carl Illenberg. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1970 - The Institutionalization of Truth</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">This is a videotape of a lecture (about 55 minutes) delivered in the spring of 1970 at York University in Toronto, Canada.</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Other resources","hid":"other_resources","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":10,"range":"15040-15402"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit11" id="audios">Audios</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +</div> + +<h4 id="available">Available</h4> +<div class="level4"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1968 - “Yesterday I Could Not Sleep Because Yesterday I Wrote My Name…” Sept. 30, 1968. Tape No. AS7915-7916/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 00:42:00 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1968 - Education in Developing Countries, Sept. 30, 1968. Tape AS17029/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 1:30:00. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1969 - A Privileged Place. Apr. 25, 1969. - Tape No. AS8075/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 21:09 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1973 - Retooling Society, Feb. 26, 1973. Tape No. A20644/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:34:43 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1976 - Reflections on Medical Nemesis, Apr. 20, 1976. Tape No. AS20944/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:05:53 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1976 - Lecture: “The Art of Dying (Ars Moriendi),” Apr. 21, 1976. Tape No. A5838/R7. 1:34:40 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1981 - In Conversation with Ivan Illich (2 tapes), Apr. 23-24, 1981. Tape No. AS21511-21512/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:48:19 (Tape 1) and 2:22:32 (Tape 2). +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1989 - Cayley, David (1989): Part Moon Part Travelling Salesman: Conversations with Ivan Illich. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">2002 - Cayley, David; (Illich, Ivan) (2000/2002): The corruption of christianity. Ivan Illich on Gospel, +Church and Society.</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> + +<h4 id="requested">Requested</h4> +<div class="level4"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1971 - John Wilkinson - Discussions with Ivan Illich in Mexico [?], (4 tapes), 1971. Tape No. AS10964-10967/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: ? +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - Telephone Conversation with Ivan Illich</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Requested to <a href="http://www.johnohliger.org/contact.html" class="urlextern" title="http://www.johnohliger.org/contact.html" rel="ugc nofollow">Chris Wagner</a> from John Ohliger Institue on 26/1/2022.</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Audio-tape of an amplified long distance telephone conversation with Illich made on April 16, 1971. For about 35 minutes students and faculty at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio questioned Illich in Cuernavaca, Mexico about his ideas on deschooling. (For information on availability write to John Ohliger at the address on the last page of this bibliography.)</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> + +<h4 id="missing">Missing</h4> +<div class="level4"> +<ul> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1970 - Alternatives in Education</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Available here: <a href="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106571535506196" class="urlextern" title="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106571535506196" rel="ugc nofollow">https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106571535506196</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Audiotape. About two hours. (Order at 775.00 from Reg Herman, Managing Editor, Conucenas, P.O. Box 250, Station F, Toronto 5, Ontario, Canada: This is a tape of a lecture delivered by Illich at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education on December 2, 1970. The chairman of the meeting announced that he hnd been informed by Illich that this was the last time he would talk on education and that he now hone: to move on to other things and leave the problems of education to other people or people he had managed to convert. Approximately the last half of the tare is devoted to a question and answer session with the audience. The tape is seven inch, 3 3/b i.p.s. half-track. +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - Disestablishing education. Los Angeles, Calif. : Pacifica Tape Library. 2 cassettes (101 min.)</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Available at: <a href="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106673061806196" class="urlextern" title="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106673061806196" rel="ugc nofollow">https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106673061806196</a> +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - Ivan Illich on educational alternatives. CBC.</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Available at: <a href="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106005915006196" class="urlextern" title="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106005915006196" rel="ugc nofollow">https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106005915006196</a> +</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1975 - What Education Expresses. Pacifica Tape Library: Los Angeles; Audiocassette (Other/3553) +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1986 - On Literacy. Teach'em: Chicago; Audiocassette (Other/3549) +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1989 - The STS Curriculum. Infotainment Inc.: Ottawa, ON; Videocassette (Other/3550) +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">Illich, Ivan (19??): Askese des Blicks. In: Reihe Autobahn Universität. Vortrag auf Cassette. Carl-Auer-Systeme Verlag: Heidelberg; (Other/2504) +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li">1971 - Goodman, Paul; Illich, Ivan (19??): Authenticity and Change. Living Library Corporation: New York;Audiocassette (Other/3539)</div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Available here: <a href="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106590271806196" class="urlextern" title="https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106590271806196" rel="ugc nofollow">https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106590271806196</a></div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Audios","hid":"audios","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":11,"range":"15403-19419"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit12" id="interviews_in_text">Interviews (in text)</h3> +<div class="level3"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1972 - Barry Schwartz: Deschooling, an interview with Ivan Illich. In: “Affirmative Education” +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1976 - De Santana, Hubert (1976): Interview with Ivan Illich. In: “Maclean's”. p. 8-9 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1977 - Illich, Ivan (1977): Revolting Development: An Exchange with Ivan Illich. In: “International Development +Review”. no. 4, 19, p. 303-315 +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1987 - Interview with Douglas Lummis +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1996 - Land of Found Friends: Conversation among Ivan Illich, Jerry Brown, and Carl Mitcham. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1997 - Twenty-Six Years Later: Majid Rahnema in conversation with Ivan Illich. (D/4042/135-0) +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">1989 - Cayley, David (1989): Part Moon Part Travelling Salesman: Conversations with Ivan Illich. +</div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li">2002 - Cayley, David; (Illich, Ivan) (2000/2002): The corruption of christianity. Ivan Illich on Gospel, +Church and Society. +</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Interviews (in text)","hid":"interviews_in_text","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":12,"range":"19420-"} --><div class="footnotes"> +<div class="fn"><sup><a href="#fnt__1" id="fn__1" class="fn_bot">1)</a></sup> +<div class="content">includes “Energy And Equity” and “The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies”</div></div> +<div class="fn"><sup><a href="#fnt__2" id="fn__2" class="fn_bot">2)</a></sup> +<div class="content">includes only on text of Illich and from other authors</div></div> +</div> diff --git a/data/cache/d/d223e1439188e478349d52476506c22e.js b/data/cache/d/d223e1439188e478349d52476506c22e.js new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f569245 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/d/d223e1439188e478349d52476506c22e.js @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +/*! jQuery v3.5.1 | (c) JS Foundation and other contributors | jquery.org/license */ +!function(e,t){"use strict";"object"==typeof 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0)},_setOptionDisabled:function(t){this._super(t),this.element.attr("aria-disabled",t),this._toggleClass(null,"ui-state-disabled",!!t),this._toggleClass(this.headers.add(this.headers.next()),null,"ui-state-disabled",!!t)},_keydown:function(e){if(!e.altKey&&!e.ctrlKey){var i=t.ui.keyCode,s=this.headers.length,n=this.headers.index(e.target),o=!1;switch(e.keyCode){case i.RIGHT:case i.DOWN:o=this.headers[(n+1)%s];break;case i.LEFT:case i.UP:o=this.headers[(n-1+s)%s];break;case i.SPACE:case i.ENTER:this._eventHandler(e);break;case i.HOME:o=this.headers[0];break;case i.END:o=this.headers[s-1]}o&&(t(e.target).attr("tabIndex",-1),t(o).attr("tabIndex",0),t(o).trigger("focus"),e.preventDefault())}},_panelKeyDown:function(e){e.keyCode===t.ui.keyCode.UP&&e.ctrlKey&&t(e.currentTarget).prev().trigger("focus")},refresh:function(){var e=this.options;this._processPanels(),e.active===!1&&e.collapsible===!0||!this.headers.length?(e.active=!1,this.active=t()):e.active===!1?this._activate(0):this.active.length&&!t.contains(this.element[0],this.active[0])?this.headers.length===this.headers.find(".ui-state-disabled").length?(e.active=!1,this.active=t()):this._activate(Math.max(0,e.active-1)):e.active=this.headers.index(this.active),this._destroyIcons(),this._refresh()},_processPanels:function(){var t=this.headers,e=this.panels;this.headers=this.element.find(this.options.header),this._addClass(this.headers,"ui-accordion-header ui-accordion-header-collapsed","ui-state-default"),this.panels=this.headers.next().filter(":not(.ui-accordion-content-active)").hide(),this._addClass(this.panels,"ui-accordion-content","ui-helper-reset ui-widget-content"),e&&(this._off(t.not(this.headers)),this._off(e.not(this.panels)))},_refresh:function(){var e,i=this.options,s=i.heightStyle,n=this.element.parent();this.active=this._findActive(i.active),this._addClass(this.active,"ui-accordion-header-active","ui-state-active")._removeClass(this.active,"ui-accordion-header-collapsed"),this._addClass(this.active.next(),"ui-accordion-content-active"),this.active.next().show(),this.headers.attr("role","tab").each(function(){var e=t(this),i=e.uniqueId().attr("id"),s=e.next(),n=s.uniqueId().attr("id");e.attr("aria-controls",n),s.attr("aria-labelledby",i)}).next().attr("role","tabpanel"),this.headers.not(this.active).attr({"aria-selected":"false","aria-expanded":"false",tabIndex:-1}).next().attr({"aria-hidden":"true"}).hide(),this.active.length?this.active.attr({"aria-selected":"true","aria-expanded":"true",tabIndex:0}).next().attr({"aria-hidden":"false"}):this.headers.eq(0).attr("tabIndex",0),this._createIcons(),this._setupEvents(i.event),"fill"===s?(e=n.height(),this.element.siblings(":visible").each(function(){var i=t(this),s=i.css("position");"absolute"!==s&&"fixed"!==s&&(e-=i.outerHeight(!0))}),this.headers.each(function(){e-=t(this).outerHeight(!0)}),this.headers.next().each(function(){t(this).height(Math.max(0,e-t(this).innerHeight()+t(this).height()))}).css("overflow","auto")):"auto"===s&&(e=0,this.headers.next().each(function(){var i=t(this).is(":visible");i||t(this).show(),e=Math.max(e,t(this).css("height","").height()),i||t(this).hide()}).height(e))},_activate:function(e){var i=this._findActive(e)[0];i!==this.active[0]&&(i=i||this.active[0],this._eventHandler({target:i,currentTarget:i,preventDefault:t.noop}))},_findActive:function(e){return"number"==typeof e?this.headers.eq(e):t()},_setupEvents:function(e){var i={keydown:"_keydown"};e&&t.each(e.split(" 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i,s,n=this.options,o=this.active,a=t(e.currentTarget),r=a[0]===o[0],h=r&&n.collapsible,l=h?t():a.next(),c=o.next(),u={oldHeader:o,oldPanel:c,newHeader:h?t():a,newPanel:l};e.preventDefault(),r&&!n.collapsible||this._trigger("beforeActivate",e,u)===!1||(n.active=h?!1:this.headers.index(a),this.active=r?t():a,this._toggle(u),this._removeClass(o,"ui-accordion-header-active","ui-state-active"),n.icons&&(i=o.children(".ui-accordion-header-icon"),this._removeClass(i,null,n.icons.activeHeader)._addClass(i,null,n.icons.header)),r||(this._removeClass(a,"ui-accordion-header-collapsed")._addClass(a,"ui-accordion-header-active","ui-state-active"),n.icons&&(s=a.children(".ui-accordion-header-icon"),this._removeClass(s,null,n.icons.header)._addClass(s,null,n.icons.activeHeader)),this._addClass(a.next(),"ui-accordion-content-active")))},_toggle:function(e){var i=e.newPanel,s=this.prevShow.length?this.prevShow:e.oldPanel;this.prevShow.add(this.prevHide).stop(!0,!0),this.prevShow=i,this.prevHide=s,this.options.animate?this._animate(i,s,e):(s.hide(),i.show(),this._toggleComplete(e)),s.attr({"aria-hidden":"true"}),s.prev().attr({"aria-selected":"false","aria-expanded":"false"}),i.length&&s.length?s.prev().attr({tabIndex:-1,"aria-expanded":"false"}):i.length&&this.headers.filter(function(){return 0===parseInt(t(this).attr("tabIndex"),10)}).attr("tabIndex",-1),i.attr("aria-hidden","false").prev().attr({"aria-selected":"true","aria-expanded":"true",tabIndex:0})},_animate:function(t,e,i){var s,n,o,a=this,r=0,h=t.css("box-sizing"),l=t.length&&(!e.length||t.index()<e.index()),c=this.options.animate||{},u=l&&c.down||c,d=function(){a._toggleComplete(i)};return"number"==typeof u&&(o=u),"string"==typeof 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e||(e=t.body),e.nodeName||(e=t.body),e},t.widget("ui.menu",{version:"1.12.1",defaultElement:"<ul>",delay:300,options:{icons:{submenu:"ui-icon-caret-1-e"},items:"> *",menus:"ul",position:{my:"left top",at:"right top"},role:"menu",blur:null,focus:null,select:null},_create:function(){this.activeMenu=this.element,this.mouseHandled=!1,this.element.uniqueId().attr({role:this.options.role,tabIndex:0}),this._addClass("ui-menu","ui-widget ui-widget-content"),this._on({"mousedown .ui-menu-item":function(t){t.preventDefault()},"click .ui-menu-item":function(e){var i=t(e.target),s=t(t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0]));!this.mouseHandled&&i.not(".ui-state-disabled").length&&(this.select(e),e.isPropagationStopped()||(this.mouseHandled=!0),i.has(".ui-menu").length?this.expand(e):!this.element.is(":focus")&&s.closest(".ui-menu").length&&(this.element.trigger("focus",[!0]),this.active&&1===this.active.parents(".ui-menu").length&&clearTimeout(this.timer)))},"mouseenter 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t.ui.keyCode.ESCAPE:this.collapse(e);break;default:a=!1,s=this.previousFilter||"",o=!1,n=e.keyCode>=96&&105>=e.keyCode?""+(e.keyCode-96):String.fromCharCode(e.keyCode),clearTimeout(this.filterTimer),n===s?o=!0:n=s+n,i=this._filterMenuItems(n),i=o&&-1!==i.index(this.active.next())?this.active.nextAll(".ui-menu-item"):i,i.length||(n=String.fromCharCode(e.keyCode),i=this._filterMenuItems(n)),i.length?(this.focus(e,i),this.previousFilter=n,this.filterTimer=this._delay(function(){delete this.previousFilter},1e3)):delete this.previousFilter}a&&e.preventDefault()},_activate:function(t){this.active&&!this.active.is(".ui-state-disabled")&&(this.active.children("[aria-haspopup='true']").length?this.expand(t):this.select(t))},refresh:function(){var e,i,s,n,o,a=this,r=this.options.icons.submenu,h=this.element.find(this.options.menus);this._toggleClass("ui-menu-icons",null,!!this.element.find(".ui-icon").length),s=h.filter(":not(.ui-menu)").hide().attr({role:this.options.role,"aria-hidden":"true","aria-expanded":"false"}).each(function(){var e=t(this),i=e.prev(),s=t("<span>").data("ui-menu-submenu-caret",!0);a._addClass(s,"ui-menu-icon","ui-icon "+r),i.attr("aria-haspopup","true").prepend(s),e.attr("aria-labelledby",i.attr("id"))}),this._addClass(s,"ui-menu","ui-widget ui-widget-content ui-front"),e=h.add(this.element),i=e.find(this.options.items),i.not(".ui-menu-item").each(function(){var e=t(this);a._isDivider(e)&&a._addClass(e,"ui-menu-divider","ui-widget-content")}),n=i.not(".ui-menu-item, .ui-menu-divider"),o=n.children().not(".ui-menu").uniqueId().attr({tabIndex:-1,role:this._itemRole()}),this._addClass(n,"ui-menu-item")._addClass(o,"ui-menu-item-wrapper"),i.filter(".ui-state-disabled").attr("aria-disabled","true"),this.active&&!t.contains(this.element[0],this.active[0])&&this.blur()},_itemRole:function(){return{menu:"menuitem",listbox:"option"}[this.options.role]},_setOption:function(t,e){if("icons"===t){var i=this.element.find(".ui-menu-icon");this._removeClass(i,null,this.options.icons.submenu)._addClass(i,null,e.submenu)}this._super(t,e)},_setOptionDisabled:function(t){this._super(t),this.element.attr("aria-disabled",t+""),this._toggleClass(null,"ui-state-disabled",!!t)},focus:function(t,e){var i,s,n;this.blur(t,t&&"focus"===t.type),this._scrollIntoView(e),this.active=e.first(),s=this.active.children(".ui-menu-item-wrapper"),this._addClass(s,null,"ui-state-active"),this.options.role&&this.element.attr("aria-activedescendant",s.attr("id")),n=this.active.parent().closest(".ui-menu-item").children(".ui-menu-item-wrapper"),this._addClass(n,null,"ui-state-active"),t&&"keydown"===t.type?this._close():this.timer=this._delay(function(){this._close()},this.delay),i=e.children(".ui-menu"),i.length&&t&&/^mouse/.test(t.type)&&this._startOpening(i),this.activeMenu=e.parent(),this._trigger("focus",t,{item:e})},_scrollIntoView:function(e){var i,s,n,o,a,r;this._hasScroll()&&(i=parseFloat(t.css(this.activeMenu[0],"borderTopWidth"))||0,s=parseFloat(t.css(this.activeMenu[0],"paddingTop"))||0,n=e.offset().top-this.activeMenu.offset().top-i-s,o=this.activeMenu.scrollTop(),a=this.activeMenu.height(),r=e.outerHeight(),0>n?this.activeMenu.scrollTop(o+n):n+r>a&&this.activeMenu.scrollTop(o+n-a+r))},blur:function(t,e){e||clearTimeout(this.timer),this.active&&(this._removeClass(this.active.children(".ui-menu-item-wrapper"),null,"ui-state-active"),this._trigger("blur",t,{item:this.active}),this.active=null)},_startOpening:function(t){clearTimeout(this.timer),"true"===t.attr("aria-hidden")&&(this.timer=this._delay(function(){this._close(),this._open(t)},this.delay))},_open:function(e){var i=t.extend({of:this.active},this.options.position);clearTimeout(this.timer),this.element.find(".ui-menu").not(e.parents(".ui-menu")).hide().attr("aria-hidden","true"),e.show().removeAttr("aria-hidden").attr("aria-expanded","true").position(i)},collapseAll:function(e,i){clearTimeout(this.timer),this.timer=this._delay(function(){var s=i?this.element:t(e&&e.target).closest(this.element.find(".ui-menu"));s.length||(s=this.element),this._close(s),this.blur(e),this._removeClass(s.find(".ui-state-active"),null,"ui-state-active"),this.activeMenu=s},this.delay)},_close:function(t){t||(t=this.active?this.active.parent():this.element),t.find(".ui-menu").hide().attr("aria-hidden","true").attr("aria-expanded","false")},_closeOnDocumentClick:function(e){return!t(e.target).closest(".ui-menu").length},_isDivider:function(t){return!/[^\-\u2014\u2013\s]/.test(t.text())},collapse:function(t){var e=this.active&&this.active.parent().closest(".ui-menu-item",this.element);e&&e.length&&(this._close(),this.focus(t,e))},expand:function(t){var e=this.active&&this.active.children(".ui-menu ").find(this.options.items).first();e&&e.length&&(this._open(e.parent()),this._delay(function(){this.focus(t,e)}))},next:function(t){this._move("next","first",t)},previous:function(t){this._move("prev","last",t)},isFirstItem:function(){return this.active&&!this.active.prevAll(".ui-menu-item").length},isLastItem:function(){return this.active&&!this.active.nextAll(".ui-menu-item").length},_move:function(t,e,i){var s;this.active&&(s="first"===t||"last"===t?this.active["first"===t?"prevAll":"nextAll"](".ui-menu-item").eq(-1):this.active[t+"All"](".ui-menu-item").eq(0)),s&&s.length&&this.active||(s=this.activeMenu.find(this.options.items)[e]()),this.focus(i,s)},nextPage:function(e){var i,s,n;return this.active?(this.isLastItem()||(this._hasScroll()?(s=this.active.offset().top,n=this.element.height(),this.active.nextAll(".ui-menu-item").each(function(){return i=t(this),0>i.offset().top-s-n}),this.focus(e,i)):this.focus(e,this.activeMenu.find(this.options.items)[this.active?"last":"first"]())),void 0):(this.next(e),void 0)},previousPage:function(e){var i,s,n;return this.active?(this.isFirstItem()||(this._hasScroll()?(s=this.active.offset().top,n=this.element.height(),this.active.prevAll(".ui-menu-item").each(function(){return i=t(this),i.offset().top-s+n>0}),this.focus(e,i)):this.focus(e,this.activeMenu.find(this.options.items).first())),void 0):(this.next(e),void 0)},_hasScroll:function(){return this.element.outerHeight()<this.element.prop("scrollHeight")},select:function(e){this.active=this.active||t(e.target).closest(".ui-menu-item");var i={item:this.active};this.active.has(".ui-menu").length||this.collapseAll(e,!0),this._trigger("select",e,i)},_filterMenuItems:function(e){var i=e.replace(/[\-\[\]{}()*+?.,\\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&"),s=RegExp("^"+i,"i");return this.activeMenu.find(this.options.items).filter(".ui-menu-item").filter(function(){return s.test(t.trim(t(this).children(".ui-menu-item-wrapper").text()))})}}),t.widget("ui.autocomplete",{version:"1.12.1",defaultElement:"<input>",options:{appendTo:null,autoFocus:!1,delay:300,minLength:1,position:{my:"left top",at:"left bottom",collision:"none"},source:null,change:null,close:null,focus:null,open:null,response:null,search:null,select:null},requestIndex:0,pending:0,_create:function(){var e,i,s,n=this.element[0].nodeName.toLowerCase(),o="textarea"===n,a="input"===n; +this.isMultiLine=o||!a&&this._isContentEditable(this.element),this.valueMethod=this.element[o||a?"val":"text"],this.isNewMenu=!0,this._addClass("ui-autocomplete-input"),this.element.attr("autocomplete","off"),this._on(this.element,{keydown:function(n){if(this.element.prop("readOnly"))return e=!0,s=!0,i=!0,void 0;e=!1,s=!1,i=!1;var o=t.ui.keyCode;switch(n.keyCode){case o.PAGE_UP:e=!0,this._move("previousPage",n);break;case o.PAGE_DOWN:e=!0,this._move("nextPage",n);break;case o.UP:e=!0,this._keyEvent("previous",n);break;case o.DOWN:e=!0,this._keyEvent("next",n);break;case o.ENTER:this.menu.active&&(e=!0,n.preventDefault(),this.menu.select(n));break;case o.TAB:this.menu.active&&this.menu.select(n);break;case o.ESCAPE:this.menu.element.is(":visible")&&(this.isMultiLine||this._value(this.term),this.close(n),n.preventDefault());break;default:i=!0,this._searchTimeout(n)}},keypress:function(s){if(e)return e=!1,(!this.isMultiLine||this.menu.element.is(":visible"))&&s.preventDefault(),void 0;if(!i){var n=t.ui.keyCode;switch(s.keyCode){case n.PAGE_UP:this._move("previousPage",s);break;case n.PAGE_DOWN:this._move("nextPage",s);break;case n.UP:this._keyEvent("previous",s);break;case n.DOWN:this._keyEvent("next",s)}}},input:function(t){return s?(s=!1,t.preventDefault(),void 0):(this._searchTimeout(t),void 0)},focus:function(){this.selectedItem=null,this.previous=this._value()},blur:function(t){return this.cancelBlur?(delete this.cancelBlur,void 0):(clearTimeout(this.searching),this.close(t),this._change(t),void 0)}}),this._initSource(),this.menu=t("<ul>").appendTo(this._appendTo()).menu({role:null}).hide().menu("instance"),this._addClass(this.menu.element,"ui-autocomplete","ui-front"),this._on(this.menu.element,{mousedown:function(e){e.preventDefault(),this.cancelBlur=!0,this._delay(function(){delete this.cancelBlur,this.element[0]!==t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0])&&this.element.trigger("focus")})},menufocus:function(e,i){var s,n;return this.isNewMenu&&(this.isNewMenu=!1,e.originalEvent&&/^mouse/.test(e.originalEvent.type))?(this.menu.blur(),this.document.one("mousemove",function(){t(e.target).trigger(e.originalEvent)}),void 0):(n=i.item.data("ui-autocomplete-item"),!1!==this._trigger("focus",e,{item:n})&&e.originalEvent&&/^key/.test(e.originalEvent.type)&&this._value(n.value),s=i.item.attr("aria-label")||n.value,s&&t.trim(s).length&&(this.liveRegion.children().hide(),t("<div>").text(s).appendTo(this.liveRegion)),void 0)},menuselect:function(e,i){var s=i.item.data("ui-autocomplete-item"),n=this.previous;this.element[0]!==t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0])&&(this.element.trigger("focus"),this.previous=n,this._delay(function(){this.previous=n,this.selectedItem=s})),!1!==this._trigger("select",e,{item:s})&&this._value(s.value),this.term=this._value(),this.close(e),this.selectedItem=s}}),this.liveRegion=t("<div>",{role:"status","aria-live":"assertive","aria-relevant":"additions"}).appendTo(this.document[0].body),this._addClass(this.liveRegion,null,"ui-helper-hidden-accessible"),this._on(this.window,{beforeunload:function(){this.element.removeAttr("autocomplete")}})},_destroy:function(){clearTimeout(this.searching),this.element.removeAttr("autocomplete"),this.menu.element.remove(),this.liveRegion.remove()},_setOption:function(t,e){this._super(t,e),"source"===t&&this._initSource(),"appendTo"===t&&this.menu.element.appendTo(this._appendTo()),"disabled"===t&&e&&this.xhr&&this.xhr.abort()},_isEventTargetInWidget:function(e){var i=this.menu.element[0];return e.target===this.element[0]||e.target===i||t.contains(i,e.target)},_closeOnClickOutside:function(t){this._isEventTargetInWidget(t)||this.close()},_appendTo:function(){var e=this.options.appendTo;return e&&(e=e.jquery||e.nodeType?t(e):this.document.find(e).eq(0)),e&&e[0]||(e=this.element.closest(".ui-front, dialog")),e.length||(e=this.document[0].body),e},_initSource:function(){var e,i,s=this;t.isArray(this.options.source)?(e=this.options.source,this.source=function(i,s){s(t.ui.autocomplete.filter(e,i.term))}):"string"==typeof this.options.source?(i=this.options.source,this.source=function(e,n){s.xhr&&s.xhr.abort(),s.xhr=t.ajax({url:i,data:e,dataType:"json",success:function(t){n(t)},error:function(){n([])}})}):this.source=this.options.source},_searchTimeout:function(t){clearTimeout(this.searching),this.searching=this._delay(function(){var e=this.term===this._value(),i=this.menu.element.is(":visible"),s=t.altKey||t.ctrlKey||t.metaKey||t.shiftKey;(!e||e&&!i&&!s)&&(this.selectedItem=null,this.search(null,t))},this.options.delay)},search:function(t,e){return t=null!=t?t:this._value(),this.term=this._value(),t.length<this.options.minLength?this.close(e):this._trigger("search",e)!==!1?this._search(t):void 0},_search:function(t){this.pending++,this._addClass("ui-autocomplete-loading"),this.cancelSearch=!1,this.source({term:t},this._response())},_response:function(){var e=++this.requestIndex;return t.proxy(function(t){e===this.requestIndex&&this.__response(t),this.pending--,this.pending||this._removeClass("ui-autocomplete-loading")},this)},__response:function(t){t&&(t=this._normalize(t)),this._trigger("response",null,{content:t}),!this.options.disabled&&t&&t.length&&!this.cancelSearch?(this._suggest(t),this._trigger("open")):this._close()},close:function(t){this.cancelSearch=!0,this._close(t)},_close:function(t){this._off(this.document,"mousedown"),this.menu.element.is(":visible")&&(this.menu.element.hide(),this.menu.blur(),this.isNewMenu=!0,this._trigger("close",t))},_change:function(t){this.previous!==this._value()&&this._trigger("change",t,{item:this.selectedItem})},_normalize:function(e){return e.length&&e[0].label&&e[0].value?e:t.map(e,function(e){return"string"==typeof e?{label:e,value:e}:t.extend({},e,{label:e.label||e.value,value:e.value||e.label})})},_suggest:function(e){var i=this.menu.element.empty();this._renderMenu(i,e),this.isNewMenu=!0,this.menu.refresh(),i.show(),this._resizeMenu(),i.position(t.extend({of:this.element},this.options.position)),this.options.autoFocus&&this.menu.next(),this._on(this.document,{mousedown:"_closeOnClickOutside"})},_resizeMenu:function(){var t=this.menu.element;t.outerWidth(Math.max(t.width("").outerWidth()+1,this.element.outerWidth()))},_renderMenu:function(e,i){var s=this;t.each(i,function(t,i){s._renderItemData(e,i)})},_renderItemData:function(t,e){return this._renderItem(t,e).data("ui-autocomplete-item",e)},_renderItem:function(e,i){return t("<li>").append(t("<div>").text(i.label)).appendTo(e)},_move:function(t,e){return this.menu.element.is(":visible")?this.menu.isFirstItem()&&/^previous/.test(t)||this.menu.isLastItem()&&/^next/.test(t)?(this.isMultiLine||this._value(this.term),this.menu.blur(),void 0):(this.menu[t](e),void 0):(this.search(null,e),void 0)},widget:function(){return this.menu.element},_value:function(){return this.valueMethod.apply(this.element,arguments)},_keyEvent:function(t,e){(!this.isMultiLine||this.menu.element.is(":visible"))&&(this._move(t,e),e.preventDefault())},_isContentEditable:function(t){if(!t.length)return!1;var e=t.prop("contentEditable");return"inherit"===e?this._isContentEditable(t.parent()):"true"===e}}),t.extend(t.ui.autocomplete,{escapeRegex:function(t){return t.replace(/[\-\[\]{}()*+?.,\\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&")},filter:function(e,i){var s=RegExp(t.ui.autocomplete.escapeRegex(i),"i");return t.grep(e,function(t){return s.test(t.label||t.value||t)})}}),t.widget("ui.autocomplete",t.ui.autocomplete,{options:{messages:{noResults:"No search results.",results:function(t){return t+(t>1?" results are":" result is")+" available, use up and down arrow keys to navigate."}}},__response:function(e){var i;this._superApply(arguments),this.options.disabled||this.cancelSearch||(i=e&&e.length?this.options.messages.results(e.length):this.options.messages.noResults,this.liveRegion.children().hide(),t("<div>").text(i).appendTo(this.liveRegion))}}),t.ui.autocomplete;var g=/ui-corner-([a-z]){2,6}/g;t.widget("ui.controlgroup",{version:"1.12.1",defaultElement:"<div>",options:{direction:"horizontal",disabled:null,onlyVisible:!0,items:{button:"input[type=button], input[type=submit], input[type=reset], button, a",controlgroupLabel:".ui-controlgroup-label",checkboxradio:"input[type='checkbox'], input[type='radio']",selectmenu:"select",spinner:".ui-spinner-input"}},_create:function(){this._enhance()},_enhance:function(){this.element.attr("role","toolbar"),this.refresh()},_destroy:function(){this._callChildMethod("destroy"),this.childWidgets.removeData("ui-controlgroup-data"),this.element.removeAttr("role"),this.options.items.controlgroupLabel&&this.element.find(this.options.items.controlgroupLabel).find(".ui-controlgroup-label-contents").contents().unwrap()},_initWidgets:function(){var e=this,i=[];t.each(this.options.items,function(s,n){var o,a={};return n?"controlgroupLabel"===s?(o=e.element.find(n),o.each(function(){var e=t(this);e.children(".ui-controlgroup-label-contents").length||e.contents().wrapAll("<span class='ui-controlgroup-label-contents'></span>")}),e._addClass(o,null,"ui-widget ui-widget-content ui-state-default"),i=i.concat(o.get()),void 0):(t.fn[s]&&(a=e["_"+s+"Options"]?e["_"+s+"Options"]("middle"):{classes:{}},e.element.find(n).each(function(){var n=t(this),o=n[s]("instance"),r=t.widget.extend({},a);if("button"!==s||!n.parent(".ui-spinner").length){o||(o=n[s]()[s]("instance")),o&&(r.classes=e._resolveClassesValues(r.classes,o)),n[s](r);var h=n[s]("widget");t.data(h[0],"ui-controlgroup-data",o?o:n[s]("instance")),i.push(h[0])}})),void 0):void 0}),this.childWidgets=t(t.unique(i)),this._addClass(this.childWidgets,"ui-controlgroup-item")},_callChildMethod:function(e){this.childWidgets.each(function(){var i=t(this),s=i.data("ui-controlgroup-data");s&&s[e]&&s[e]()})},_updateCornerClass:function(t,e){var i="ui-corner-top ui-corner-bottom ui-corner-left ui-corner-right ui-corner-all",s=this._buildSimpleOptions(e,"label").classes.label;this._removeClass(t,null,i),this._addClass(t,null,s)},_buildSimpleOptions:function(t,e){var i="vertical"===this.options.direction,s={classes:{}};return s.classes[e]={middle:"",first:"ui-corner-"+(i?"top":"left"),last:"ui-corner-"+(i?"bottom":"right"),only:"ui-corner-all"}[t],s},_spinnerOptions:function(t){var e=this._buildSimpleOptions(t,"ui-spinner");return e.classes["ui-spinner-up"]="",e.classes["ui-spinner-down"]="",e},_buttonOptions:function(t){return this._buildSimpleOptions(t,"ui-button")},_checkboxradioOptions:function(t){return this._buildSimpleOptions(t,"ui-checkboxradio-label")},_selectmenuOptions:function(t){var e="vertical"===this.options.direction;return{width:e?"auto":!1,classes:{middle:{"ui-selectmenu-button-open":"","ui-selectmenu-button-closed":""},first:{"ui-selectmenu-button-open":"ui-corner-"+(e?"top":"tl"),"ui-selectmenu-button-closed":"ui-corner-"+(e?"top":"left")},last:{"ui-selectmenu-button-open":e?"":"ui-corner-tr","ui-selectmenu-button-closed":"ui-corner-"+(e?"bottom":"right")},only:{"ui-selectmenu-button-open":"ui-corner-top","ui-selectmenu-button-closed":"ui-corner-all"}}[t]}},_resolveClassesValues:function(e,i){var s={};return t.each(e,function(n){var o=i.options.classes[n]||"";o=t.trim(o.replace(g,"")),s[n]=(o+" "+e[n]).replace(/\s+/g," ")}),s},_setOption:function(t,e){return"direction"===t&&this._removeClass("ui-controlgroup-"+this.options.direction),this._super(t,e),"disabled"===t?(this._callChildMethod(e?"disable":"enable"),void 0):(this.refresh(),void 0)},refresh:function(){var e,i=this;this._addClass("ui-controlgroup ui-controlgroup-"+this.options.direction),"horizontal"===this.options.direction&&this._addClass(null,"ui-helper-clearfix"),this._initWidgets(),e=this.childWidgets,this.options.onlyVisible&&(e=e.filter(":visible")),e.length&&(t.each(["first","last"],function(t,s){var n=e[s]().data("ui-controlgroup-data");if(n&&i["_"+n.widgetName+"Options"]){var o=i["_"+n.widgetName+"Options"](1===e.length?"only":s);o.classes=i._resolveClassesValues(o.classes,n),n.element[n.widgetName](o)}else i._updateCornerClass(e[s](),s)}),this._callChildMethod("refresh"))}}),t.widget("ui.checkboxradio",[t.ui.formResetMixin,{version:"1.12.1",options:{disabled:null,label:null,icon:!0,classes:{"ui-checkboxradio-label":"ui-corner-all","ui-checkboxradio-icon":"ui-corner-all"}},_getCreateOptions:function(){var e,i,s=this,n=this._super()||{};return this._readType(),i=this.element.labels(),this.label=t(i[i.length-1]),this.label.length||t.error("No label found for checkboxradio widget"),this.originalLabel="",this.label.contents().not(this.element[0]).each(function(){s.originalLabel+=3===this.nodeType?t(this).text():this.outerHTML}),this.originalLabel&&(n.label=this.originalLabel),e=this.element[0].disabled,null!=e&&(n.disabled=e),n},_create:function(){var t=this.element[0].checked;this._bindFormResetHandler(),null==this.options.disabled&&(this.options.disabled=this.element[0].disabled),this._setOption("disabled",this.options.disabled),this._addClass("ui-checkboxradio","ui-helper-hidden-accessible"),this._addClass(this.label,"ui-checkboxradio-label","ui-button ui-widget"),"radio"===this.type&&this._addClass(this.label,"ui-checkboxradio-radio-label"),this.options.label&&this.options.label!==this.originalLabel?this._updateLabel():this.originalLabel&&(this.options.label=this.originalLabel),this._enhance(),t&&(this._addClass(this.label,"ui-checkboxradio-checked","ui-state-active"),this.icon&&this._addClass(this.icon,null,"ui-state-hover")),this._on({change:"_toggleClasses",focus:function(){this._addClass(this.label,null,"ui-state-focus ui-visual-focus")},blur:function(){this._removeClass(this.label,null,"ui-state-focus ui-visual-focus")}})},_readType:function(){var e=this.element[0].nodeName.toLowerCase();this.type=this.element[0].type,"input"===e&&/radio|checkbox/.test(this.type)||t.error("Can't create checkboxradio on element.nodeName="+e+" and element.type="+this.type)},_enhance:function(){this._updateIcon(this.element[0].checked)},widget:function(){return this.label},_getRadioGroup:function(){var e,i=this.element[0].name,s="input[name='"+t.ui.escapeSelector(i)+"']";return i?(e=this.form.length?t(this.form[0].elements).filter(s):t(s).filter(function(){return 0===t(this).form().length}),e.not(this.element)):t([])},_toggleClasses:function(){var e=this.element[0].checked;this._toggleClass(this.label,"ui-checkboxradio-checked","ui-state-active",e),this.options.icon&&"checkbox"===this.type&&this._toggleClass(this.icon,null,"ui-icon-check ui-state-checked",e)._toggleClass(this.icon,null,"ui-icon-blank",!e),"radio"===this.type&&this._getRadioGroup().each(function(){var e=t(this).checkboxradio("instance");e&&e._removeClass(e.label,"ui-checkboxradio-checked","ui-state-active")})},_destroy:function(){this._unbindFormResetHandler(),this.icon&&(this.icon.remove(),this.iconSpace.remove())},_setOption:function(t,e){return"label"!==t||e?(this._super(t,e),"disabled"===t?(this._toggleClass(this.label,null,"ui-state-disabled",e),this.element[0].disabled=e,void 0):(this.refresh(),void 0)):void 0},_updateIcon:function(e){var i="ui-icon ui-icon-background ";this.options.icon?(this.icon||(this.icon=t("<span>"),this.iconSpace=t("<span> </span>"),this._addClass(this.iconSpace,"ui-checkboxradio-icon-space")),"checkbox"===this.type?(i+=e?"ui-icon-check ui-state-checked":"ui-icon-blank",this._removeClass(this.icon,null,e?"ui-icon-blank":"ui-icon-check")):i+="ui-icon-blank",this._addClass(this.icon,"ui-checkboxradio-icon",i),e||this._removeClass(this.icon,null,"ui-icon-check ui-state-checked"),this.icon.prependTo(this.label).after(this.iconSpace)):void 0!==this.icon&&(this.icon.remove(),this.iconSpace.remove(),delete this.icon)},_updateLabel:function(){var t=this.label.contents().not(this.element[0]);this.icon&&(t=t.not(this.icon[0])),this.iconSpace&&(t=t.not(this.iconSpace[0])),t.remove(),this.label.append(this.options.label)},refresh:function(){var t=this.element[0].checked,e=this.element[0].disabled;this._updateIcon(t),this._toggleClass(this.label,"ui-checkboxradio-checked","ui-state-active",t),null!==this.options.label&&this._updateLabel(),e!==this.options.disabled&&this._setOptions({disabled:e})}}]),t.ui.checkboxradio,t.widget("ui.button",{version:"1.12.1",defaultElement:"<button>",options:{classes:{"ui-button":"ui-corner-all"},disabled:null,icon:null,iconPosition:"beginning",label:null,showLabel:!0},_getCreateOptions:function(){var t,e=this._super()||{};return this.isInput=this.element.is("input"),t=this.element[0].disabled,null!=t&&(e.disabled=t),this.originalLabel=this.isInput?this.element.val():this.element.html(),this.originalLabel&&(e.label=this.originalLabel),e},_create:function(){!this.option.showLabel&!this.options.icon&&(this.options.showLabel=!0),null==this.options.disabled&&(this.options.disabled=this.element[0].disabled||!1),this.hasTitle=!!this.element.attr("title"),this.options.label&&this.options.label!==this.originalLabel&&(this.isInput?this.element.val(this.options.label):this.element.html(this.options.label)),this._addClass("ui-button","ui-widget"),this._setOption("disabled",this.options.disabled),this._enhance(),this.element.is("a")&&this._on({keyup:function(e){e.keyCode===t.ui.keyCode.SPACE&&(e.preventDefault(),this.element[0].click?this.element[0].click():this.element.trigger("click"))}})},_enhance:function(){this.element.is("button")||this.element.attr("role","button"),this.options.icon&&(this._updateIcon("icon",this.options.icon),this._updateTooltip())},_updateTooltip:function(){this.title=this.element.attr("title"),this.options.showLabel||this.title||this.element.attr("title",this.options.label)},_updateIcon:function(e,i){var s="iconPosition"!==e,n=s?this.options.iconPosition:i,o="top"===n||"bottom"===n;this.icon?s&&this._removeClass(this.icon,null,this.options.icon):(this.icon=t("<span>"),this._addClass(this.icon,"ui-button-icon","ui-icon"),this.options.showLabel||this._addClass("ui-button-icon-only")),s&&this._addClass(this.icon,null,i),this._attachIcon(n),o?(this._addClass(this.icon,null,"ui-widget-icon-block"),this.iconSpace&&this.iconSpace.remove()):(this.iconSpace||(this.iconSpace=t("<span> </span>"),this._addClass(this.iconSpace,"ui-button-icon-space")),this._removeClass(this.icon,null,"ui-wiget-icon-block"),this._attachIconSpace(n))},_destroy:function(){this.element.removeAttr("role"),this.icon&&this.icon.remove(),this.iconSpace&&this.iconSpace.remove(),this.hasTitle||this.element.removeAttr("title")},_attachIconSpace:function(t){this.icon[/^(?:end|bottom)/.test(t)?"before":"after"](this.iconSpace)},_attachIcon:function(t){this.element[/^(?:end|bottom)/.test(t)?"append":"prepend"](this.icon)},_setOptions:function(t){var e=void 0===t.showLabel?this.options.showLabel:t.showLabel,i=void 0===t.icon?this.options.icon:t.icon;e||i||(t.showLabel=!0),this._super(t)},_setOption:function(t,e){"icon"===t&&(e?this._updateIcon(t,e):this.icon&&(this.icon.remove(),this.iconSpace&&this.iconSpace.remove())),"iconPosition"===t&&this._updateIcon(t,e),"showLabel"===t&&(this._toggleClass("ui-button-icon-only",null,!e),this._updateTooltip()),"label"===t&&(this.isInput?this.element.val(e):(this.element.html(e),this.icon&&(this._attachIcon(this.options.iconPosition),this._attachIconSpace(this.options.iconPosition)))),this._super(t,e),"disabled"===t&&(this._toggleClass(null,"ui-state-disabled",e),this.element[0].disabled=e,e&&this.element.blur())},refresh:function(){var t=this.element.is("input, button")?this.element[0].disabled:this.element.hasClass("ui-button-disabled");t!==this.options.disabled&&this._setOptions({disabled:t}),this._updateTooltip()}}),t.uiBackCompat!==!1&&(t.widget("ui.button",t.ui.button,{options:{text:!0,icons:{primary:null,secondary:null}},_create:function(){this.options.showLabel&&!this.options.text&&(this.options.showLabel=this.options.text),!this.options.showLabel&&this.options.text&&(this.options.text=this.options.showLabel),this.options.icon||!this.options.icons.primary&&!this.options.icons.secondary?this.options.icon&&(this.options.icons.primary=this.options.icon):this.options.icons.primary?this.options.icon=this.options.icons.primary:(this.options.icon=this.options.icons.secondary,this.options.iconPosition="end"),this._super()},_setOption:function(t,e){return"text"===t?(this._super("showLabel",e),void 0):("showLabel"===t&&(this.options.text=e),"icon"===t&&(this.options.icons.primary=e),"icons"===t&&(e.primary?(this._super("icon",e.primary),this._super("iconPosition","beginning")):e.secondary&&(this._super("icon",e.secondary),this._super("iconPosition","end"))),this._superApply(arguments),void 0)}}),t.fn.button=function(e){return function(){return!this.length||this.length&&"INPUT"!==this[0].tagName||this.length&&"INPUT"===this[0].tagName&&"checkbox"!==this.attr("type")&&"radio"!==this.attr("type")?e.apply(this,arguments):(t.ui.checkboxradio||t.error("Checkboxradio widget missing"),0===arguments.length?this.checkboxradio({icon:!1}):this.checkboxradio.apply(this,arguments))}}(t.fn.button),t.fn.buttonset=function(){return t.ui.controlgroup||t.error("Controlgroup widget missing"),"option"===arguments[0]&&"items"===arguments[1]&&arguments[2]?this.controlgroup.apply(this,[arguments[0],"items.button",arguments[2]]):"option"===arguments[0]&&"items"===arguments[1]?this.controlgroup.apply(this,[arguments[0],"items.button"]):("object"==typeof arguments[0]&&arguments[0].items&&(arguments[0].items={button:arguments[0].items}),this.controlgroup.apply(this,arguments))}),t.ui.button,t.extend(t.ui,{datepicker:{version:"1.12.1"}});var m;t.extend(s.prototype,{markerClassName:"hasDatepicker",maxRows:4,_widgetDatepicker:function(){return this.dpDiv},setDefaults:function(t){return a(this._defaults,t||{}),this},_attachDatepicker:function(e,i){var s,n,o;s=e.nodeName.toLowerCase(),n="div"===s||"span"===s,e.id||(this.uuid+=1,e.id="dp"+this.uuid),o=this._newInst(t(e),n),o.settings=t.extend({},i||{}),"input"===s?this._connectDatepicker(e,o):n&&this._inlineDatepicker(e,o)},_newInst:function(e,i){var s=e[0].id.replace(/([^A-Za-z0-9_\-])/g,"\\\\$1");return{id:s,input:e,selectedDay:0,selectedMonth:0,selectedYear:0,drawMonth:0,drawYear:0,inline:i,dpDiv:i?n(t("<div class='"+this._inlineClass+" ui-datepicker ui-widget ui-widget-content ui-helper-clearfix ui-corner-all'></div>")):this.dpDiv}},_connectDatepicker:function(e,i){var s=t(e);i.append=t([]),i.trigger=t([]),s.hasClass(this.markerClassName)||(this._attachments(s,i),s.addClass(this.markerClassName).on("keydown",this._doKeyDown).on("keypress",this._doKeyPress).on("keyup",this._doKeyUp),this._autoSize(i),t.data(e,"datepicker",i),i.settings.disabled&&this._disableDatepicker(e))},_attachments:function(e,i){var s,n,o,a=this._get(i,"appendText"),r=this._get(i,"isRTL");i.append&&i.append.remove(),a&&(i.append=t("<span class='"+this._appendClass+"'>"+a+"</span>"),e[r?"before":"after"](i.append)),e.off("focus",this._showDatepicker),i.trigger&&i.trigger.remove(),s=this._get(i,"showOn"),("focus"===s||"both"===s)&&e.on("focus",this._showDatepicker),("button"===s||"both"===s)&&(n=this._get(i,"buttonText"),o=this._get(i,"buttonImage"),i.trigger=t(this._get(i,"buttonImageOnly")?t("<img/>").addClass(this._triggerClass).attr({src:o,alt:n,title:n}):t("<button type='button'></button>").addClass(this._triggerClass).html(o?t("<img/>").attr({src:o,alt:n,title:n}):n)),e[r?"before":"after"](i.trigger),i.trigger.on("click",function(){return t.datepicker._datepickerShowing&&t.datepicker._lastInput===e[0]?t.datepicker._hideDatepicker():t.datepicker._datepickerShowing&&t.datepicker._lastInput!==e[0]?(t.datepicker._hideDatepicker(),t.datepicker._showDatepicker(e[0])):t.datepicker._showDatepicker(e[0]),!1}))},_autoSize:function(t){if(this._get(t,"autoSize")&&!t.inline){var e,i,s,n,o=new Date(2009,11,20),a=this._get(t,"dateFormat");a.match(/[DM]/)&&(e=function(t){for(i=0,s=0,n=0;t.length>n;n++)t[n].length>i&&(i=t[n].length,s=n);return s},o.setMonth(e(this._get(t,a.match(/MM/)?"monthNames":"monthNamesShort"))),o.setDate(e(this._get(t,a.match(/DD/)?"dayNames":"dayNamesShort"))+20-o.getDay())),t.input.attr("size",this._formatDate(t,o).length)}},_inlineDatepicker:function(e,i){var s=t(e);s.hasClass(this.markerClassName)||(s.addClass(this.markerClassName).append(i.dpDiv),t.data(e,"datepicker",i),this._setDate(i,this._getDefaultDate(i),!0),this._updateDatepicker(i),this._updateAlternate(i),i.settings.disabled&&this._disableDatepicker(e),i.dpDiv.css("display","block"))},_dialogDatepicker:function(e,i,s,n,o){var r,h,l,c,u,d=this._dialogInst;return d||(this.uuid+=1,r="dp"+this.uuid,this._dialogInput=t("<input type='text' id='"+r+"' style='position: absolute; top: -100px; width: 0px;'/>"),this._dialogInput.on("keydown",this._doKeyDown),t("body").append(this._dialogInput),d=this._dialogInst=this._newInst(this._dialogInput,!1),d.settings={},t.data(this._dialogInput[0],"datepicker",d)),a(d.settings,n||{}),i=i&&i.constructor===Date?this._formatDate(d,i):i,this._dialogInput.val(i),this._pos=o?o.length?o:[o.pageX,o.pageY]:null,this._pos||(h=document.documentElement.clientWidth,l=document.documentElement.clientHeight,c=document.documentElement.scrollLeft||document.body.scrollLeft,u=document.documentElement.scrollTop||document.body.scrollTop,this._pos=[h/2-100+c,l/2-150+u]),this._dialogInput.css("left",this._pos[0]+20+"px").css("top",this._pos[1]+"px"),d.settings.onSelect=s,this._inDialog=!0,this.dpDiv.addClass(this._dialogClass),this._showDatepicker(this._dialogInput[0]),t.blockUI&&t.blockUI(this.dpDiv),t.data(this._dialogInput[0],"datepicker",d),this},_destroyDatepicker:function(e){var i,s=t(e),n=t.data(e,"datepicker");s.hasClass(this.markerClassName)&&(i=e.nodeName.toLowerCase(),t.removeData(e,"datepicker"),"input"===i?(n.append.remove(),n.trigger.remove(),s.removeClass(this.markerClassName).off("focus",this._showDatepicker).off("keydown",this._doKeyDown).off("keypress",this._doKeyPress).off("keyup",this._doKeyUp)):("div"===i||"span"===i)&&s.removeClass(this.markerClassName).empty(),m===n&&(m=null))},_enableDatepicker:function(e){var i,s,n=t(e),o=t.data(e,"datepicker");n.hasClass(this.markerClassName)&&(i=e.nodeName.toLowerCase(),"input"===i?(e.disabled=!1,o.trigger.filter("button").each(function(){this.disabled=!1}).end().filter("img").css({opacity:"1.0",cursor:""})):("div"===i||"span"===i)&&(s=n.children("."+this._inlineClass),s.children().removeClass("ui-state-disabled"),s.find("select.ui-datepicker-month, select.ui-datepicker-year").prop("disabled",!1)),this._disabledInputs=t.map(this._disabledInputs,function(t){return t===e?null:t}))},_disableDatepicker:function(e){var i,s,n=t(e),o=t.data(e,"datepicker");n.hasClass(this.markerClassName)&&(i=e.nodeName.toLowerCase(),"input"===i?(e.disabled=!0,o.trigger.filter("button").each(function(){this.disabled=!0}).end().filter("img").css({opacity:"0.5",cursor:"default"})):("div"===i||"span"===i)&&(s=n.children("."+this._inlineClass),s.children().addClass("ui-state-disabled"),s.find("select.ui-datepicker-month, select.ui-datepicker-year").prop("disabled",!0)),this._disabledInputs=t.map(this._disabledInputs,function(t){return t===e?null:t}),this._disabledInputs[this._disabledInputs.length]=e)},_isDisabledDatepicker:function(t){if(!t)return!1;for(var e=0;this._disabledInputs.length>e;e++)if(this._disabledInputs[e]===t)return!0;return!1},_getInst:function(e){try{return t.data(e,"datepicker")}catch(i){throw"Missing instance data for this datepicker"}},_optionDatepicker:function(e,i,s){var n,o,r,h,l=this._getInst(e);return 2===arguments.length&&"string"==typeof i?"defaults"===i?t.extend({},t.datepicker._defaults):l?"all"===i?t.extend({},l.settings):this._get(l,i):null:(n=i||{},"string"==typeof i&&(n={},n[i]=s),l&&(this._curInst===l&&this._hideDatepicker(),o=this._getDateDatepicker(e,!0),r=this._getMinMaxDate(l,"min"),h=this._getMinMaxDate(l,"max"),a(l.settings,n),null!==r&&void 0!==n.dateFormat&&void 0===n.minDate&&(l.settings.minDate=this._formatDate(l,r)),null!==h&&void 0!==n.dateFormat&&void 0===n.maxDate&&(l.settings.maxDate=this._formatDate(l,h)),"disabled"in n&&(n.disabled?this._disableDatepicker(e):this._enableDatepicker(e)),this._attachments(t(e),l),this._autoSize(l),this._setDate(l,o),this._updateAlternate(l),this._updateDatepicker(l)),void 0)},_changeDatepicker:function(t,e,i){this._optionDatepicker(t,e,i)},_refreshDatepicker:function(t){var e=this._getInst(t);e&&this._updateDatepicker(e)},_setDateDatepicker:function(t,e){var i=this._getInst(t);i&&(this._setDate(i,e),this._updateDatepicker(i),this._updateAlternate(i))},_getDateDatepicker:function(t,e){var i=this._getInst(t);return i&&!i.inline&&this._setDateFromField(i,e),i?this._getDate(i):null},_doKeyDown:function(e){var i,s,n,o=t.datepicker._getInst(e.target),a=!0,r=o.dpDiv.is(".ui-datepicker-rtl");if(o._keyEvent=!0,t.datepicker._datepickerShowing)switch(e.keyCode){case 9:t.datepicker._hideDatepicker(),a=!1;break;case 13:return n=t("td."+t.datepicker._dayOverClass+":not(."+t.datepicker._currentClass+")",o.dpDiv),n[0]&&t.datepicker._selectDay(e.target,o.selectedMonth,o.selectedYear,n[0]),i=t.datepicker._get(o,"onSelect"),i?(s=t.datepicker._formatDate(o),i.apply(o.input?o.input[0]:null,[s,o])):t.datepicker._hideDatepicker(),!1;case 27:t.datepicker._hideDatepicker();break;case 33:t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,e.ctrlKey?-t.datepicker._get(o,"stepBigMonths"):-t.datepicker._get(o,"stepMonths"),"M");break;case 34:t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,e.ctrlKey?+t.datepicker._get(o,"stepBigMonths"):+t.datepicker._get(o,"stepMonths"),"M");break;case 35:(e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey)&&t.datepicker._clearDate(e.target),a=e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey;break;case 36:(e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey)&&t.datepicker._gotoToday(e.target),a=e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey;break;case 37:(e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey)&&t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,r?1:-1,"D"),a=e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey,e.originalEvent.altKey&&t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,e.ctrlKey?-t.datepicker._get(o,"stepBigMonths"):-t.datepicker._get(o,"stepMonths"),"M");break;case 38:(e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey)&&t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,-7,"D"),a=e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey;break;case 39:(e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey)&&t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,r?-1:1,"D"),a=e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey,e.originalEvent.altKey&&t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,e.ctrlKey?+t.datepicker._get(o,"stepBigMonths"):+t.datepicker._get(o,"stepMonths"),"M");break;case 40:(e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey)&&t.datepicker._adjustDate(e.target,7,"D"),a=e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey;break;default:a=!1}else 36===e.keyCode&&e.ctrlKey?t.datepicker._showDatepicker(this):a=!1;a&&(e.preventDefault(),e.stopPropagation())},_doKeyPress:function(e){var i,s,n=t.datepicker._getInst(e.target);return t.datepicker._get(n,"constrainInput")?(i=t.datepicker._possibleChars(t.datepicker._get(n,"dateFormat")),s=String.fromCharCode(null==e.charCode?e.keyCode:e.charCode),e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey||" ">s||!i||i.indexOf(s)>-1):void 0},_doKeyUp:function(e){var i,s=t.datepicker._getInst(e.target);if(s.input.val()!==s.lastVal)try{i=t.datepicker.parseDate(t.datepicker._get(s,"dateFormat"),s.input?s.input.val():null,t.datepicker._getFormatConfig(s)),i&&(t.datepicker._setDateFromField(s),t.datepicker._updateAlternate(s),t.datepicker._updateDatepicker(s))}catch(n){}return!0},_showDatepicker:function(e){if(e=e.target||e,"input"!==e.nodeName.toLowerCase()&&(e=t("input",e.parentNode)[0]),!t.datepicker._isDisabledDatepicker(e)&&t.datepicker._lastInput!==e){var s,n,o,r,h,l,c;s=t.datepicker._getInst(e),t.datepicker._curInst&&t.datepicker._curInst!==s&&(t.datepicker._curInst.dpDiv.stop(!0,!0),s&&t.datepicker._datepickerShowing&&t.datepicker._hideDatepicker(t.datepicker._curInst.input[0])),n=t.datepicker._get(s,"beforeShow"),o=n?n.apply(e,[e,s]):{},o!==!1&&(a(s.settings,o),s.lastVal=null,t.datepicker._lastInput=e,t.datepicker._setDateFromField(s),t.datepicker._inDialog&&(e.value=""),t.datepicker._pos||(t.datepicker._pos=t.datepicker._findPos(e),t.datepicker._pos[1]+=e.offsetHeight),r=!1,t(e).parents().each(function(){return r|="fixed"===t(this).css("position"),!r}),h={left:t.datepicker._pos[0],top:t.datepicker._pos[1]},t.datepicker._pos=null,s.dpDiv.empty(),s.dpDiv.css({position:"absolute",display:"block",top:"-1000px"}),t.datepicker._updateDatepicker(s),h=t.datepicker._checkOffset(s,h,r),s.dpDiv.css({position:t.datepicker._inDialog&&t.blockUI?"static":r?"fixed":"absolute",display:"none",left:h.left+"px",top:h.top+"px"}),s.inline||(l=t.datepicker._get(s,"showAnim"),c=t.datepicker._get(s,"duration"),s.dpDiv.css("z-index",i(t(e))+1),t.datepicker._datepickerShowing=!0,t.effects&&t.effects.effect[l]?s.dpDiv.show(l,t.datepicker._get(s,"showOptions"),c):s.dpDiv[l||"show"](l?c:null),t.datepicker._shouldFocusInput(s)&&s.input.trigger("focus"),t.datepicker._curInst=s)) +}},_updateDatepicker:function(e){this.maxRows=4,m=e,e.dpDiv.empty().append(this._generateHTML(e)),this._attachHandlers(e);var i,s=this._getNumberOfMonths(e),n=s[1],a=17,r=e.dpDiv.find("."+this._dayOverClass+" a");r.length>0&&o.apply(r.get(0)),e.dpDiv.removeClass("ui-datepicker-multi-2 ui-datepicker-multi-3 ui-datepicker-multi-4").width(""),n>1&&e.dpDiv.addClass("ui-datepicker-multi-"+n).css("width",a*n+"em"),e.dpDiv[(1!==s[0]||1!==s[1]?"add":"remove")+"Class"]("ui-datepicker-multi"),e.dpDiv[(this._get(e,"isRTL")?"add":"remove")+"Class"]("ui-datepicker-rtl"),e===t.datepicker._curInst&&t.datepicker._datepickerShowing&&t.datepicker._shouldFocusInput(e)&&e.input.trigger("focus"),e.yearshtml&&(i=e.yearshtml,setTimeout(function(){i===e.yearshtml&&e.yearshtml&&e.dpDiv.find("select.ui-datepicker-year:first").replaceWith(e.yearshtml),i=e.yearshtml=null},0))},_shouldFocusInput:function(t){return t.input&&t.input.is(":visible")&&!t.input.is(":disabled")&&!t.input.is(":focus")},_checkOffset:function(e,i,s){var n=e.dpDiv.outerWidth(),o=e.dpDiv.outerHeight(),a=e.input?e.input.outerWidth():0,r=e.input?e.input.outerHeight():0,h=document.documentElement.clientWidth+(s?0:t(document).scrollLeft()),l=document.documentElement.clientHeight+(s?0:t(document).scrollTop());return i.left-=this._get(e,"isRTL")?n-a:0,i.left-=s&&i.left===e.input.offset().left?t(document).scrollLeft():0,i.top-=s&&i.top===e.input.offset().top+r?t(document).scrollTop():0,i.left-=Math.min(i.left,i.left+n>h&&h>n?Math.abs(i.left+n-h):0),i.top-=Math.min(i.top,i.top+o>l&&l>o?Math.abs(o+r):0),i},_findPos:function(e){for(var i,s=this._getInst(e),n=this._get(s,"isRTL");e&&("hidden"===e.type||1!==e.nodeType||t.expr.filters.hidden(e));)e=e[n?"previousSibling":"nextSibling"];return i=t(e).offset(),[i.left,i.top]},_hideDatepicker:function(e){var i,s,n,o,a=this._curInst;!a||e&&a!==t.data(e,"datepicker")||this._datepickerShowing&&(i=this._get(a,"showAnim"),s=this._get(a,"duration"),n=function(){t.datepicker._tidyDialog(a)},t.effects&&(t.effects.effect[i]||t.effects[i])?a.dpDiv.hide(i,t.datepicker._get(a,"showOptions"),s,n):a.dpDiv["slideDown"===i?"slideUp":"fadeIn"===i?"fadeOut":"hide"](i?s:null,n),i||n(),this._datepickerShowing=!1,o=this._get(a,"onClose"),o&&o.apply(a.input?a.input[0]:null,[a.input?a.input.val():"",a]),this._lastInput=null,this._inDialog&&(this._dialogInput.css({position:"absolute",left:"0",top:"-100px"}),t.blockUI&&(t.unblockUI(),t("body").append(this.dpDiv))),this._inDialog=!1)},_tidyDialog:function(t){t.dpDiv.removeClass(this._dialogClass).off(".ui-datepicker-calendar")},_checkExternalClick:function(e){if(t.datepicker._curInst){var i=t(e.target),s=t.datepicker._getInst(i[0]);(i[0].id!==t.datepicker._mainDivId&&0===i.parents("#"+t.datepicker._mainDivId).length&&!i.hasClass(t.datepicker.markerClassName)&&!i.closest("."+t.datepicker._triggerClass).length&&t.datepicker._datepickerShowing&&(!t.datepicker._inDialog||!t.blockUI)||i.hasClass(t.datepicker.markerClassName)&&t.datepicker._curInst!==s)&&t.datepicker._hideDatepicker()}},_adjustDate:function(e,i,s){var n=t(e),o=this._getInst(n[0]);this._isDisabledDatepicker(n[0])||(this._adjustInstDate(o,i+("M"===s?this._get(o,"showCurrentAtPos"):0),s),this._updateDatepicker(o))},_gotoToday:function(e){var i,s=t(e),n=this._getInst(s[0]);this._get(n,"gotoCurrent")&&n.currentDay?(n.selectedDay=n.currentDay,n.drawMonth=n.selectedMonth=n.currentMonth,n.drawYear=n.selectedYear=n.currentYear):(i=new Date,n.selectedDay=i.getDate(),n.drawMonth=n.selectedMonth=i.getMonth(),n.drawYear=n.selectedYear=i.getFullYear()),this._notifyChange(n),this._adjustDate(s)},_selectMonthYear:function(e,i,s){var n=t(e),o=this._getInst(n[0]);o["selected"+("M"===s?"Month":"Year")]=o["draw"+("M"===s?"Month":"Year")]=parseInt(i.options[i.selectedIndex].value,10),this._notifyChange(o),this._adjustDate(n)},_selectDay:function(e,i,s,n){var o,a=t(e);t(n).hasClass(this._unselectableClass)||this._isDisabledDatepicker(a[0])||(o=this._getInst(a[0]),o.selectedDay=o.currentDay=t("a",n).html(),o.selectedMonth=o.currentMonth=i,o.selectedYear=o.currentYear=s,this._selectDate(e,this._formatDate(o,o.currentDay,o.currentMonth,o.currentYear)))},_clearDate:function(e){var i=t(e);this._selectDate(i,"")},_selectDate:function(e,i){var s,n=t(e),o=this._getInst(n[0]);i=null!=i?i:this._formatDate(o),o.input&&o.input.val(i),this._updateAlternate(o),s=this._get(o,"onSelect"),s?s.apply(o.input?o.input[0]:null,[i,o]):o.input&&o.input.trigger("change"),o.inline?this._updateDatepicker(o):(this._hideDatepicker(),this._lastInput=o.input[0],"object"!=typeof o.input[0]&&o.input.trigger("focus"),this._lastInput=null)},_updateAlternate:function(e){var i,s,n,o=this._get(e,"altField");o&&(i=this._get(e,"altFormat")||this._get(e,"dateFormat"),s=this._getDate(e),n=this.formatDate(i,s,this._getFormatConfig(e)),t(o).val(n))},noWeekends:function(t){var e=t.getDay();return[e>0&&6>e,""]},iso8601Week:function(t){var e,i=new Date(t.getTime());return i.setDate(i.getDate()+4-(i.getDay()||7)),e=i.getTime(),i.setMonth(0),i.setDate(1),Math.floor(Math.round((e-i)/864e5)/7)+1},parseDate:function(e,i,s){if(null==e||null==i)throw"Invalid arguments";if(i="object"==typeof i?""+i:i+"",""===i)return null;var n,o,a,r,h=0,l=(s?s.shortYearCutoff:null)||this._defaults.shortYearCutoff,c="string"!=typeof l?l:(new Date).getFullYear()%100+parseInt(l,10),u=(s?s.dayNamesShort:null)||this._defaults.dayNamesShort,d=(s?s.dayNames:null)||this._defaults.dayNames,p=(s?s.monthNamesShort:null)||this._defaults.monthNamesShort,f=(s?s.monthNames:null)||this._defaults.monthNames,g=-1,m=-1,_=-1,v=-1,b=!1,y=function(t){var i=e.length>n+1&&e.charAt(n+1)===t;return i&&n++,i},w=function(t){var e=y(t),s="@"===t?14:"!"===t?20:"y"===t&&e?4:"o"===t?3:2,n="y"===t?s:1,o=RegExp("^\\d{"+n+","+s+"}"),a=i.substring(h).match(o);if(!a)throw"Missing number at position "+h;return h+=a[0].length,parseInt(a[0],10)},k=function(e,s,n){var o=-1,a=t.map(y(e)?n:s,function(t,e){return[[e,t]]}).sort(function(t,e){return-(t[1].length-e[1].length)});if(t.each(a,function(t,e){var s=e[1];return i.substr(h,s.length).toLowerCase()===s.toLowerCase()?(o=e[0],h+=s.length,!1):void 0}),-1!==o)return o+1;throw"Unknown name at position "+h},x=function(){if(i.charAt(h)!==e.charAt(n))throw"Unexpected literal at position "+h;h++};for(n=0;e.length>n;n++)if(b)"'"!==e.charAt(n)||y("'")?x():b=!1;else switch(e.charAt(n)){case"d":_=w("d");break;case"D":k("D",u,d);break;case"o":v=w("o");break;case"m":m=w("m");break;case"M":m=k("M",p,f);break;case"y":g=w("y");break;case"@":r=new Date(w("@")),g=r.getFullYear(),m=r.getMonth()+1,_=r.getDate();break;case"!":r=new Date((w("!")-this._ticksTo1970)/1e4),g=r.getFullYear(),m=r.getMonth()+1,_=r.getDate();break;case"'":y("'")?x():b=!0;break;default:x()}if(i.length>h&&(a=i.substr(h),!/^\s+/.test(a)))throw"Extra/unparsed characters found in date: "+a;if(-1===g?g=(new Date).getFullYear():100>g&&(g+=(new Date).getFullYear()-(new Date).getFullYear()%100+(c>=g?0:-100)),v>-1)for(m=1,_=v;;){if(o=this._getDaysInMonth(g,m-1),o>=_)break;m++,_-=o}if(r=this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(g,m-1,_)),r.getFullYear()!==g||r.getMonth()+1!==m||r.getDate()!==_)throw"Invalid date";return r},ATOM:"yy-mm-dd",COOKIE:"D, dd M yy",ISO_8601:"yy-mm-dd",RFC_822:"D, d M y",RFC_850:"DD, dd-M-y",RFC_1036:"D, d M y",RFC_1123:"D, d M yy",RFC_2822:"D, d M yy",RSS:"D, d M y",TICKS:"!",TIMESTAMP:"@",W3C:"yy-mm-dd",_ticksTo1970:1e7*60*60*24*(718685+Math.floor(492.5)-Math.floor(19.7)+Math.floor(4.925)),formatDate:function(t,e,i){if(!e)return"";var s,n=(i?i.dayNamesShort:null)||this._defaults.dayNamesShort,o=(i?i.dayNames:null)||this._defaults.dayNames,a=(i?i.monthNamesShort:null)||this._defaults.monthNamesShort,r=(i?i.monthNames:null)||this._defaults.monthNames,h=function(e){var i=t.length>s+1&&t.charAt(s+1)===e;return i&&s++,i},l=function(t,e,i){var s=""+e;if(h(t))for(;i>s.length;)s="0"+s;return s},c=function(t,e,i,s){return h(t)?s[e]:i[e]},u="",d=!1;if(e)for(s=0;t.length>s;s++)if(d)"'"!==t.charAt(s)||h("'")?u+=t.charAt(s):d=!1;else switch(t.charAt(s)){case"d":u+=l("d",e.getDate(),2);break;case"D":u+=c("D",e.getDay(),n,o);break;case"o":u+=l("o",Math.round((new Date(e.getFullYear(),e.getMonth(),e.getDate()).getTime()-new Date(e.getFullYear(),0,0).getTime())/864e5),3);break;case"m":u+=l("m",e.getMonth()+1,2);break;case"M":u+=c("M",e.getMonth(),a,r);break;case"y":u+=h("y")?e.getFullYear():(10>e.getFullYear()%100?"0":"")+e.getFullYear()%100;break;case"@":u+=e.getTime();break;case"!":u+=1e4*e.getTime()+this._ticksTo1970;break;case"'":h("'")?u+="'":d=!0;break;default:u+=t.charAt(s)}return u},_possibleChars:function(t){var e,i="",s=!1,n=function(i){var s=t.length>e+1&&t.charAt(e+1)===i;return s&&e++,s};for(e=0;t.length>e;e++)if(s)"'"!==t.charAt(e)||n("'")?i+=t.charAt(e):s=!1;else switch(t.charAt(e)){case"d":case"m":case"y":case"@":i+="0123456789";break;case"D":case"M":return null;case"'":n("'")?i+="'":s=!0;break;default:i+=t.charAt(e)}return i},_get:function(t,e){return void 0!==t.settings[e]?t.settings[e]:this._defaults[e]},_setDateFromField:function(t,e){if(t.input.val()!==t.lastVal){var i=this._get(t,"dateFormat"),s=t.lastVal=t.input?t.input.val():null,n=this._getDefaultDate(t),o=n,a=this._getFormatConfig(t);try{o=this.parseDate(i,s,a)||n}catch(r){s=e?"":s}t.selectedDay=o.getDate(),t.drawMonth=t.selectedMonth=o.getMonth(),t.drawYear=t.selectedYear=o.getFullYear(),t.currentDay=s?o.getDate():0,t.currentMonth=s?o.getMonth():0,t.currentYear=s?o.getFullYear():0,this._adjustInstDate(t)}},_getDefaultDate:function(t){return this._restrictMinMax(t,this._determineDate(t,this._get(t,"defaultDate"),new Date))},_determineDate:function(e,i,s){var n=function(t){var e=new Date;return e.setDate(e.getDate()+t),e},o=function(i){try{return t.datepicker.parseDate(t.datepicker._get(e,"dateFormat"),i,t.datepicker._getFormatConfig(e))}catch(s){}for(var n=(i.toLowerCase().match(/^c/)?t.datepicker._getDate(e):null)||new 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Date(J.getFullYear(),J.getMonth()-U[0]*U[1]+1,J.getDate())),e=Q&&Q>e?Q:e;this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(te,Z,1))>e;)Z--,0>Z&&(Z=11,te--);for(t.drawMonth=Z,t.drawYear=te,i=this._get(t,"prevText"),i=K?this.formatDate(i,this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(te,Z-$,1)),this._getFormatConfig(t)):i,s=this._canAdjustMonth(t,-1,te,Z)?"<a class='ui-datepicker-prev ui-corner-all' data-handler='prev' data-event='click' title='"+i+"'><span class='ui-icon ui-icon-circle-triangle-"+(Y?"e":"w")+"'>"+i+"</span></a>":q?"":"<a class='ui-datepicker-prev ui-corner-all ui-state-disabled' title='"+i+"'><span class='ui-icon ui-icon-circle-triangle-"+(Y?"e":"w")+"'>"+i+"</span></a>",n=this._get(t,"nextText"),n=K?this.formatDate(n,this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(te,Z+$,1)),this._getFormatConfig(t)):n,o=this._canAdjustMonth(t,1,te,Z)?"<a class='ui-datepicker-next ui-corner-all' data-handler='next' data-event='click' title='"+n+"'><span class='ui-icon 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ui-helper-clearfix"+I+"'>"+(/all|left/.test(I)&&0===k?Y?o:s:"")+(/all|right/.test(I)&&0===k?Y?s:o:"")+this._generateMonthYearHeader(t,Z,te,Q,J,k>0||C>0,f,g)+"</div><table class='ui-datepicker-calendar'><thead>"+"<tr>",P=u?"<th class='ui-datepicker-week-col'>"+this._get(t,"weekHeader")+"</th>":"",w=0;7>w;w++)M=(w+c)%7,P+="<th scope='col'"+((w+c+6)%7>=5?" class='ui-datepicker-week-end'":"")+">"+"<span title='"+d[M]+"'>"+p[M]+"</span></th>";for(T+=P+"</tr></thead><tbody>",S=this._getDaysInMonth(te,Z),te===t.selectedYear&&Z===t.selectedMonth&&(t.selectedDay=Math.min(t.selectedDay,S)),H=(this._getFirstDayOfMonth(te,Z)-c+7)%7,z=Math.ceil((H+S)/7),O=X?this.maxRows>z?this.maxRows:z:z,this.maxRows=O,A=this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(te,Z,1-H)),N=0;O>N;N++){for(T+="<tr>",W=u?"<td class='ui-datepicker-week-col'>"+this._get(t,"calculateWeek")(A)+"</td>":"",w=0;7>w;w++)E=m?m.apply(t.input?t.input[0]:null,[A]):[!0,""],F=A.getMonth()!==Z,L=F&&!v||!E[0]||Q&&Q>A||J&&A>J,W+="<td class='"+((w+c+6)%7>=5?" ui-datepicker-week-end":"")+(F?" ui-datepicker-other-month":"")+(A.getTime()===D.getTime()&&Z===t.selectedMonth&&t._keyEvent||b.getTime()===A.getTime()&&b.getTime()===D.getTime()?" "+this._dayOverClass:"")+(L?" "+this._unselectableClass+" ui-state-disabled":"")+(F&&!_?"":" "+E[1]+(A.getTime()===G.getTime()?" 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class='ui-datepicker-month'>"+a[e]+"</span>";else{for(h=s&&s.getFullYear()===i,l=n&&n.getFullYear()===i,y+="<select class='ui-datepicker-month' data-handler='selectMonth' data-event='change'>",c=0;12>c;c++)(!h||c>=s.getMonth())&&(!l||n.getMonth()>=c)&&(y+="<option value='"+c+"'"+(c===e?" selected='selected'":"")+">"+r[c]+"</option>");y+="</select>"}if(v||(b+=y+(!o&&m&&_?"":" ")),!t.yearshtml)if(t.yearshtml="",o||!_)b+="<span class='ui-datepicker-year'>"+i+"</span>";else{for(u=this._get(t,"yearRange").split(":"),d=(new Date).getFullYear(),p=function(t){var e=t.match(/c[+\-].*/)?i+parseInt(t.substring(1),10):t.match(/[+\-].*/)?d+parseInt(t,10):parseInt(t,10);return isNaN(e)?d:e},f=p(u[0]),g=Math.max(f,p(u[1]||"")),f=s?Math.max(f,s.getFullYear()):f,g=n?Math.min(g,n.getFullYear()):g,t.yearshtml+="<select class='ui-datepicker-year' data-handler='selectYear' data-event='change'>";g>=f;f++)t.yearshtml+="<option value='"+f+"'"+(f===i?" selected='selected'":"")+">"+f+"</option>";t.yearshtml+="</select>",b+=t.yearshtml,t.yearshtml=null}return b+=this._get(t,"yearSuffix"),v&&(b+=(!o&&m&&_?"":" ")+y),b+="</div>"},_adjustInstDate:function(t,e,i){var s=t.selectedYear+("Y"===i?e:0),n=t.selectedMonth+("M"===i?e:0),o=Math.min(t.selectedDay,this._getDaysInMonth(s,n))+("D"===i?e:0),a=this._restrictMinMax(t,this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(s,n,o)));t.selectedDay=a.getDate(),t.drawMonth=t.selectedMonth=a.getMonth(),t.drawYear=t.selectedYear=a.getFullYear(),("M"===i||"Y"===i)&&this._notifyChange(t)},_restrictMinMax:function(t,e){var i=this._getMinMaxDate(t,"min"),s=this._getMinMaxDate(t,"max"),n=i&&i>e?i:e;return s&&n>s?s:n},_notifyChange:function(t){var e=this._get(t,"onChangeMonthYear");e&&e.apply(t.input?t.input[0]:null,[t.selectedYear,t.selectedMonth+1,t])},_getNumberOfMonths:function(t){var e=this._get(t,"numberOfMonths");return null==e?[1,1]:"number"==typeof e?[1,e]:e},_getMinMaxDate:function(t,e){return this._determineDate(t,this._get(t,e+"Date"),null)},_getDaysInMonth:function(t,e){return 32-this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(t,e,32)).getDate()},_getFirstDayOfMonth:function(t,e){return new Date(t,e,1).getDay()},_canAdjustMonth:function(t,e,i,s){var n=this._getNumberOfMonths(t),o=this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(i,s+(0>e?e:n[0]*n[1]),1));return 0>e&&o.setDate(this._getDaysInMonth(o.getFullYear(),o.getMonth())),this._isInRange(t,o)},_isInRange:function(t,e){var i,s,n=this._getMinMaxDate(t,"min"),o=this._getMinMaxDate(t,"max"),a=null,r=null,h=this._get(t,"yearRange");return h&&(i=h.split(":"),s=(new Date).getFullYear(),a=parseInt(i[0],10),r=parseInt(i[1],10),i[0].match(/[+\-].*/)&&(a+=s),i[1].match(/[+\-].*/)&&(r+=s)),(!n||e.getTime()>=n.getTime())&&(!o||e.getTime()<=o.getTime())&&(!a||e.getFullYear()>=a)&&(!r||r>=e.getFullYear())},_getFormatConfig:function(t){var e=this._get(t,"shortYearCutoff");return e="string"!=typeof e?e:(new Date).getFullYear()%100+parseInt(e,10),{shortYearCutoff:e,dayNamesShort:this._get(t,"dayNamesShort"),dayNames:this._get(t,"dayNames"),monthNamesShort:this._get(t,"monthNamesShort"),monthNames:this._get(t,"monthNames")}},_formatDate:function(t,e,i,s){e||(t.currentDay=t.selectedDay,t.currentMonth=t.selectedMonth,t.currentYear=t.selectedYear);var n=e?"object"==typeof e?e:this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(s,i,e)):this._daylightSavingAdjust(new Date(t.currentYear,t.currentMonth,t.currentDay));return this.formatDate(this._get(t,"dateFormat"),n,this._getFormatConfig(t))}}),t.fn.datepicker=function(e){if(!this.length)return this;t.datepicker.initialized||(t(document).on("mousedown",t.datepicker._checkExternalClick),t.datepicker.initialized=!0),0===t("#"+t.datepicker._mainDivId).length&&t("body").append(t.datepicker.dpDiv);var i=Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments,1);return"string"!=typeof e||"isDisabled"!==e&&"getDate"!==e&&"widget"!==e?"option"===e&&2===arguments.length&&"string"==typeof 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this.mouseDelayMet},_mouseStart:function(){},_mouseDrag:function(){},_mouseStop:function(){},_mouseCapture:function(){return!0}}),t.ui.plugin={add:function(e,i,s){var n,o=t.ui[e].prototype;for(n in s)o.plugins[n]=o.plugins[n]||[],o.plugins[n].push([i,s[n]])},call:function(t,e,i,s){var n,o=t.plugins[e];if(o&&(s||t.element[0].parentNode&&11!==t.element[0].parentNode.nodeType))for(n=0;o.length>n;n++)t.options[o[n][0]]&&o[n][1].apply(t.element,i)}},t.ui.safeBlur=function(e){e&&"body"!==e.nodeName.toLowerCase()&&t(e).trigger("blur")},t.widget("ui.draggable",t.ui.mouse,{version:"1.12.1",widgetEventPrefix:"drag",options:{addClasses:!0,appendTo:"parent",axis:!1,connectToSortable:!1,containment:!1,cursor:"auto",cursorAt:!1,grid:!1,handle:!1,helper:"original",iframeFix:!1,opacity:!1,refreshPositions:!1,revert:!1,revertDuration:500,scope:"default",scroll:!0,scrollSensitivity:20,scrollSpeed:20,snap:!1,snapMode:"both",snapTolerance:20,stack:!1,zIndex:!1,drag:null,start:null,stop:null},_create:function(){"original"===this.options.helper&&this._setPositionRelative(),this.options.addClasses&&this._addClass("ui-draggable"),this._setHandleClassName(),this._mouseInit()},_setOption:function(t,e){this._super(t,e),"handle"===t&&(this._removeHandleClassName(),this._setHandleClassName())},_destroy:function(){return(this.helper||this.element).is(".ui-draggable-dragging")?(this.destroyOnClear=!0,void 0):(this._removeHandleClassName(),this._mouseDestroy(),void 0)},_mouseCapture:function(e){var i=this.options;return this.helper||i.disabled||t(e.target).closest(".ui-resizable-handle").length>0?!1:(this.handle=this._getHandle(e),this.handle?(this._blurActiveElement(e),this._blockFrames(i.iframeFix===!0?"iframe":i.iframeFix),!0):!1)},_blockFrames:function(e){this.iframeBlocks=this.document.find(e).map(function(){var e=t(this);return t("<div>").css("position","absolute").appendTo(e.parent()).outerWidth(e.outerWidth()).outerHeight(e.outerHeight()).offset(e.offset())[0]})},_unblockFrames:function(){this.iframeBlocks&&(this.iframeBlocks.remove(),delete this.iframeBlocks)},_blurActiveElement:function(e){var i=t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0]),s=t(e.target);s.closest(i).length||t.ui.safeBlur(i)},_mouseStart:function(e){var i=this.options;return this.helper=this._createHelper(e),this._addClass(this.helper,"ui-draggable-dragging"),this._cacheHelperProportions(),t.ui.ddmanager&&(t.ui.ddmanager.current=this),this._cacheMargins(),this.cssPosition=this.helper.css("position"),this.scrollParent=this.helper.scrollParent(!0),this.offsetParent=this.helper.offsetParent(),this.hasFixedAncestor=this.helper.parents().filter(function(){return"fixed"===t(this).css("position")}).length>0,this.positionAbs=this.element.offset(),this._refreshOffsets(e),this.originalPosition=this.position=this._generatePosition(e,!1),this.originalPageX=e.pageX,this.originalPageY=e.pageY,i.cursorAt&&this._adjustOffsetFromHelper(i.cursorAt),this._setContainment(),this._trigger("start",e)===!1?(this._clear(),!1):(this._cacheHelperProportions(),t.ui.ddmanager&&!i.dropBehaviour&&t.ui.ddmanager.prepareOffsets(this,e),this._mouseDrag(e,!0),t.ui.ddmanager&&t.ui.ddmanager.dragStart(this,e),!0)},_refreshOffsets:function(t){this.offset={top:this.positionAbs.top-this.margins.top,left:this.positionAbs.left-this.margins.left,scroll:!1,parent:this._getParentOffset(),relative:this._getRelativeOffset()},this.offset.click={left:t.pageX-this.offset.left,top:t.pageY-this.offset.top}},_mouseDrag:function(e,i){if(this.hasFixedAncestor&&(this.offset.parent=this._getParentOffset()),this.position=this._generatePosition(e,!0),this.positionAbs=this._convertPositionTo("absolute"),!i){var s=this._uiHash();if(this._trigger("drag",e,s)===!1)return this._mouseUp(new t.Event("mouseup",e)),!1;this.position=s.position}return this.helper[0].style.left=this.position.left+"px",this.helper[0].style.top=this.position.top+"px",t.ui.ddmanager&&t.ui.ddmanager.drag(this,e),!1},_mouseStop:function(e){var i=this,s=!1;return t.ui.ddmanager&&!this.options.dropBehaviour&&(s=t.ui.ddmanager.drop(this,e)),this.dropped&&(s=this.dropped,this.dropped=!1),"invalid"===this.options.revert&&!s||"valid"===this.options.revert&&s||this.options.revert===!0||t.isFunction(this.options.revert)&&this.options.revert.call(this.element,s)?t(this.helper).animate(this.originalPosition,parseInt(this.options.revertDuration,10),function(){i._trigger("stop",e)!==!1&&i._clear()}):this._trigger("stop",e)!==!1&&this._clear(),!1},_mouseUp:function(e){return this._unblockFrames(),t.ui.ddmanager&&t.ui.ddmanager.dragStop(this,e),this.handleElement.is(e.target)&&this.element.trigger("focus"),t.ui.mouse.prototype._mouseUp.call(this,e)},cancel:function(){return this.helper.is(".ui-draggable-dragging")?this._mouseUp(new t.Event("mouseup",{target:this.element[0]})):this._clear(),this},_getHandle:function(e){return this.options.handle?!!t(e.target).closest(this.element.find(this.options.handle)).length:!0},_setHandleClassName:function(){this.handleElement=this.options.handle?this.element.find(this.options.handle):this.element,this._addClass(this.handleElement,"ui-draggable-handle")},_removeHandleClassName:function(){this._removeClass(this.handleElement,"ui-draggable-handle")},_createHelper:function(e){var i=this.options,s=t.isFunction(i.helper),n=s?t(i.helper.apply(this.element[0],[e])):"clone"===i.helper?this.element.clone().removeAttr("id"):this.element;return n.parents("body").length||n.appendTo("parent"===i.appendTo?this.element[0].parentNode:i.appendTo),s&&n[0]===this.element[0]&&this._setPositionRelative(),n[0]===this.element[0]||/(fixed|absolute)/.test(n.css("position"))||n.css("position","absolute"),n},_setPositionRelative:function(){/^(?:r|a|f)/.test(this.element.css("position"))||(this.element[0].style.position="relative")},_adjustOffsetFromHelper:function(e){"string"==typeof e&&(e=e.split(" ")),t.isArray(e)&&(e={left:+e[0],top:+e[1]||0}),"left"in e&&(this.offset.click.left=e.left+this.margins.left),"right"in e&&(this.offset.click.left=this.helperProportions.width-e.right+this.margins.left),"top"in e&&(this.offset.click.top=e.top+this.margins.top),"bottom"in e&&(this.offset.click.top=this.helperProportions.height-e.bottom+this.margins.top)},_isRootNode:function(t){return/(html|body)/i.test(t.tagName)||t===this.document[0]},_getParentOffset:function(){var e=this.offsetParent.offset(),i=this.document[0];return"absolute"===this.cssPosition&&this.scrollParent[0]!==i&&t.contains(this.scrollParent[0],this.offsetParent[0])&&(e.left+=this.scrollParent.scrollLeft(),e.top+=this.scrollParent.scrollTop()),this._isRootNode(this.offsetParent[0])&&(e={top:0,left:0}),{top:e.top+(parseInt(this.offsetParent.css("borderTopWidth"),10)||0),left:e.left+(parseInt(this.offsetParent.css("borderLeftWidth"),10)||0)}},_getRelativeOffset:function(){if("relative"!==this.cssPosition)return{top:0,left:0};var t=this.element.position(),e=this._isRootNode(this.scrollParent[0]);return{top:t.top-(parseInt(this.helper.css("top"),10)||0)+(e?0:this.scrollParent.scrollTop()),left:t.left-(parseInt(this.helper.css("left"),10)||0)+(e?0:this.scrollParent.scrollLeft())} +},_cacheMargins:function(){this.margins={left:parseInt(this.element.css("marginLeft"),10)||0,top:parseInt(this.element.css("marginTop"),10)||0,right:parseInt(this.element.css("marginRight"),10)||0,bottom:parseInt(this.element.css("marginBottom"),10)||0}},_cacheHelperProportions:function(){this.helperProportions={width:this.helper.outerWidth(),height:this.helper.outerHeight()}},_setContainment:function(){var e,i,s,n=this.options,o=this.document[0];return this.relativeContainer=null,n.containment?"window"===n.containment?(this.containment=[t(window).scrollLeft()-this.offset.relative.left-this.offset.parent.left,t(window).scrollTop()-this.offset.relative.top-this.offset.parent.top,t(window).scrollLeft()+t(window).width()-this.helperProportions.width-this.margins.left,t(window).scrollTop()+(t(window).height()||o.body.parentNode.scrollHeight)-this.helperProportions.height-this.margins.top],void 0):"document"===n.containment?(this.containment=[0,0,t(o).width()-this.helperProportions.width-this.margins.left,(t(o).height()||o.body.parentNode.scrollHeight)-this.helperProportions.height-this.margins.top],void 0):n.containment.constructor===Array?(this.containment=n.containment,void 0):("parent"===n.containment&&(n.containment=this.helper[0].parentNode),i=t(n.containment),s=i[0],s&&(e=/(scroll|auto)/.test(i.css("overflow")),this.containment=[(parseInt(i.css("borderLeftWidth"),10)||0)+(parseInt(i.css("paddingLeft"),10)||0),(parseInt(i.css("borderTopWidth"),10)||0)+(parseInt(i.css("paddingTop"),10)||0),(e?Math.max(s.scrollWidth,s.offsetWidth):s.offsetWidth)-(parseInt(i.css("borderRightWidth"),10)||0)-(parseInt(i.css("paddingRight"),10)||0)-this.helperProportions.width-this.margins.left-this.margins.right,(e?Math.max(s.scrollHeight,s.offsetHeight):s.offsetHeight)-(parseInt(i.css("borderBottomWidth"),10)||0)-(parseInt(i.css("paddingBottom"),10)||0)-this.helperProportions.height-this.margins.top-this.margins.bottom],this.relativeContainer=i),void 0):(this.containment=null,void 0)},_convertPositionTo:function(t,e){e||(e=this.position);var i="absolute"===t?1:-1,s=this._isRootNode(this.scrollParent[0]);return{top:e.top+this.offset.relative.top*i+this.offset.parent.top*i-("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.offset.scroll.top:s?0:this.offset.scroll.top)*i,left:e.left+this.offset.relative.left*i+this.offset.parent.left*i-("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.offset.scroll.left:s?0:this.offset.scroll.left)*i}},_generatePosition:function(t,e){var i,s,n,o,a=this.options,r=this._isRootNode(this.scrollParent[0]),h=t.pageX,l=t.pageY;return r&&this.offset.scroll||(this.offset.scroll={top:this.scrollParent.scrollTop(),left:this.scrollParent.scrollLeft()}),e&&(this.containment&&(this.relativeContainer?(s=this.relativeContainer.offset(),i=[this.containment[0]+s.left,this.containment[1]+s.top,this.containment[2]+s.left,this.containment[3]+s.top]):i=this.containment,t.pageX-this.offset.click.left<i[0]&&(h=i[0]+this.offset.click.left),t.pageY-this.offset.click.top<i[1]&&(l=i[1]+this.offset.click.top),t.pageX-this.offset.click.left>i[2]&&(h=i[2]+this.offset.click.left),t.pageY-this.offset.click.top>i[3]&&(l=i[3]+this.offset.click.top)),a.grid&&(n=a.grid[1]?this.originalPageY+Math.round((l-this.originalPageY)/a.grid[1])*a.grid[1]:this.originalPageY,l=i?n-this.offset.click.top>=i[1]||n-this.offset.click.top>i[3]?n:n-this.offset.click.top>=i[1]?n-a.grid[1]:n+a.grid[1]:n,o=a.grid[0]?this.originalPageX+Math.round((h-this.originalPageX)/a.grid[0])*a.grid[0]:this.originalPageX,h=i?o-this.offset.click.left>=i[0]||o-this.offset.click.left>i[2]?o:o-this.offset.click.left>=i[0]?o-a.grid[0]:o+a.grid[0]:o),"y"===a.axis&&(h=this.originalPageX),"x"===a.axis&&(l=this.originalPageY)),{top:l-this.offset.click.top-this.offset.relative.top-this.offset.parent.top+("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.offset.scroll.top:r?0:this.offset.scroll.top),left:h-this.offset.click.left-this.offset.relative.left-this.offset.parent.left+("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.offset.scroll.left:r?0:this.offset.scroll.left)}},_clear:function(){this._removeClass(this.helper,"ui-draggable-dragging"),this.helper[0]===this.element[0]||this.cancelHelperRemoval||this.helper.remove(),this.helper=null,this.cancelHelperRemoval=!1,this.destroyOnClear&&this.destroy()},_trigger:function(e,i,s){return s=s||this._uiHash(),t.ui.plugin.call(this,e,[i,s,this],!0),/^(drag|start|stop)/.test(e)&&(this.positionAbs=this._convertPositionTo("absolute"),s.offset=this.positionAbs),t.Widget.prototype._trigger.call(this,e,i,s)},plugins:{},_uiHash:function(){return{helper:this.helper,position:this.position,originalPosition:this.originalPosition,offset:this.positionAbs}}}),t.ui.plugin.add("draggable","connectToSortable",{start:function(e,i,s){var n=t.extend({},i,{item:s.element});s.sortables=[],t(s.options.connectToSortable).each(function(){var i=t(this).sortable("instance");i&&!i.options.disabled&&(s.sortables.push(i),i.refreshPositions(),i._trigger("activate",e,n))})},stop:function(e,i,s){var n=t.extend({},i,{item:s.element});s.cancelHelperRemoval=!1,t.each(s.sortables,function(){var t=this;t.isOver?(t.isOver=0,s.cancelHelperRemoval=!0,t.cancelHelperRemoval=!1,t._storedCSS={position:t.placeholder.css("position"),top:t.placeholder.css("top"),left:t.placeholder.css("left")},t._mouseStop(e),t.options.helper=t.options._helper):(t.cancelHelperRemoval=!0,t._trigger("deactivate",e,n))})},drag:function(e,i,s){t.each(s.sortables,function(){var n=!1,o=this;o.positionAbs=s.positionAbs,o.helperProportions=s.helperProportions,o.offset.click=s.offset.click,o._intersectsWith(o.containerCache)&&(n=!0,t.each(s.sortables,function(){return this.positionAbs=s.positionAbs,this.helperProportions=s.helperProportions,this.offset.click=s.offset.click,this!==o&&this._intersectsWith(this.containerCache)&&t.contains(o.element[0],this.element[0])&&(n=!1),n})),n?(o.isOver||(o.isOver=1,s._parent=i.helper.parent(),o.currentItem=i.helper.appendTo(o.element).data("ui-sortable-item",!0),o.options._helper=o.options.helper,o.options.helper=function(){return i.helper[0]},e.target=o.currentItem[0],o._mouseCapture(e,!0),o._mouseStart(e,!0,!0),o.offset.click.top=s.offset.click.top,o.offset.click.left=s.offset.click.left,o.offset.parent.left-=s.offset.parent.left-o.offset.parent.left,o.offset.parent.top-=s.offset.parent.top-o.offset.parent.top,s._trigger("toSortable",e),s.dropped=o.element,t.each(s.sortables,function(){this.refreshPositions()}),s.currentItem=s.element,o.fromOutside=s),o.currentItem&&(o._mouseDrag(e),i.position=o.position)):o.isOver&&(o.isOver=0,o.cancelHelperRemoval=!0,o.options._revert=o.options.revert,o.options.revert=!1,o._trigger("out",e,o._uiHash(o)),o._mouseStop(e,!0),o.options.revert=o.options._revert,o.options.helper=o.options._helper,o.placeholder&&o.placeholder.remove(),i.helper.appendTo(s._parent),s._refreshOffsets(e),i.position=s._generatePosition(e,!0),s._trigger("fromSortable",e),s.dropped=!1,t.each(s.sortables,function(){this.refreshPositions()}))})}}),t.ui.plugin.add("draggable","cursor",{start:function(e,i,s){var n=t("body"),o=s.options;n.css("cursor")&&(o._cursor=n.css("cursor")),n.css("cursor",o.cursor)},stop:function(e,i,s){var n=s.options;n._cursor&&t("body").css("cursor",n._cursor)}}),t.ui.plugin.add("draggable","opacity",{start:function(e,i,s){var n=t(i.helper),o=s.options;n.css("opacity")&&(o._opacity=n.css("opacity")),n.css("opacity",o.opacity)},stop:function(e,i,s){var n=s.options;n._opacity&&t(i.helper).css("opacity",n._opacity)}}),t.ui.plugin.add("draggable","scroll",{start:function(t,e,i){i.scrollParentNotHidden||(i.scrollParentNotHidden=i.helper.scrollParent(!1)),i.scrollParentNotHidden[0]!==i.document[0]&&"HTML"!==i.scrollParentNotHidden[0].tagName&&(i.overflowOffset=i.scrollParentNotHidden.offset())},drag:function(e,i,s){var n=s.options,o=!1,a=s.scrollParentNotHidden[0],r=s.document[0];a!==r&&"HTML"!==a.tagName?(n.axis&&"x"===n.axis||(s.overflowOffset.top+a.offsetHeight-e.pageY<n.scrollSensitivity?a.scrollTop=o=a.scrollTop+n.scrollSpeed:e.pageY-s.overflowOffset.top<n.scrollSensitivity&&(a.scrollTop=o=a.scrollTop-n.scrollSpeed)),n.axis&&"y"===n.axis||(s.overflowOffset.left+a.offsetWidth-e.pageX<n.scrollSensitivity?a.scrollLeft=o=a.scrollLeft+n.scrollSpeed:e.pageX-s.overflowOffset.left<n.scrollSensitivity&&(a.scrollLeft=o=a.scrollLeft-n.scrollSpeed))):(n.axis&&"x"===n.axis||(e.pageY-t(r).scrollTop()<n.scrollSensitivity?o=t(r).scrollTop(t(r).scrollTop()-n.scrollSpeed):t(window).height()-(e.pageY-t(r).scrollTop())<n.scrollSensitivity&&(o=t(r).scrollTop(t(r).scrollTop()+n.scrollSpeed))),n.axis&&"y"===n.axis||(e.pageX-t(r).scrollLeft()<n.scrollSensitivity?o=t(r).scrollLeft(t(r).scrollLeft()-n.scrollSpeed):t(window).width()-(e.pageX-t(r).scrollLeft())<n.scrollSensitivity&&(o=t(r).scrollLeft(t(r).scrollLeft()+n.scrollSpeed)))),o!==!1&&t.ui.ddmanager&&!n.dropBehaviour&&t.ui.ddmanager.prepareOffsets(s,e)}}),t.ui.plugin.add("draggable","snap",{start:function(e,i,s){var n=s.options;s.snapElements=[],t(n.snap.constructor!==String?n.snap.items||":data(ui-draggable)":n.snap).each(function(){var e=t(this),i=e.offset();this!==s.element[0]&&s.snapElements.push({item:this,width:e.outerWidth(),height:e.outerHeight(),top:i.top,left:i.left})})},drag:function(e,i,s){var n,o,a,r,h,l,c,u,d,p,f=s.options,g=f.snapTolerance,m=i.offset.left,_=m+s.helperProportions.width,v=i.offset.top,b=v+s.helperProportions.height;for(d=s.snapElements.length-1;d>=0;d--)h=s.snapElements[d].left-s.margins.left,l=h+s.snapElements[d].width,c=s.snapElements[d].top-s.margins.top,u=c+s.snapElements[d].height,h-g>_||m>l+g||c-g>b||v>u+g||!t.contains(s.snapElements[d].item.ownerDocument,s.snapElements[d].item)?(s.snapElements[d].snapping&&s.options.snap.release&&s.options.snap.release.call(s.element,e,t.extend(s._uiHash(),{snapItem:s.snapElements[d].item})),s.snapElements[d].snapping=!1):("inner"!==f.snapMode&&(n=g>=Math.abs(c-b),o=g>=Math.abs(u-v),a=g>=Math.abs(h-_),r=g>=Math.abs(l-m),n&&(i.position.top=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:c-s.helperProportions.height,left:0}).top),o&&(i.position.top=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:u,left:0}).top),a&&(i.position.left=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:0,left:h-s.helperProportions.width}).left),r&&(i.position.left=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:0,left:l}).left)),p=n||o||a||r,"outer"!==f.snapMode&&(n=g>=Math.abs(c-v),o=g>=Math.abs(u-b),a=g>=Math.abs(h-m),r=g>=Math.abs(l-_),n&&(i.position.top=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:c,left:0}).top),o&&(i.position.top=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:u-s.helperProportions.height,left:0}).top),a&&(i.position.left=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:0,left:h}).left),r&&(i.position.left=s._convertPositionTo("relative",{top:0,left:l-s.helperProportions.width}).left)),!s.snapElements[d].snapping&&(n||o||a||r||p)&&s.options.snap.snap&&s.options.snap.snap.call(s.element,e,t.extend(s._uiHash(),{snapItem:s.snapElements[d].item})),s.snapElements[d].snapping=n||o||a||r||p)}}),t.ui.plugin.add("draggable","stack",{start:function(e,i,s){var n,o=s.options,a=t.makeArray(t(o.stack)).sort(function(e,i){return(parseInt(t(e).css("zIndex"),10)||0)-(parseInt(t(i).css("zIndex"),10)||0)});a.length&&(n=parseInt(t(a[0]).css("zIndex"),10)||0,t(a).each(function(e){t(this).css("zIndex",n+e)}),this.css("zIndex",n+a.length))}}),t.ui.plugin.add("draggable","zIndex",{start:function(e,i,s){var n=t(i.helper),o=s.options;n.css("zIndex")&&(o._zIndex=n.css("zIndex")),n.css("zIndex",o.zIndex)},stop:function(e,i,s){var n=s.options;n._zIndex&&t(i.helper).css("zIndex",n._zIndex)}}),t.ui.draggable,t.widget("ui.resizable",t.ui.mouse,{version:"1.12.1",widgetEventPrefix:"resize",options:{alsoResize:!1,animate:!1,animateDuration:"slow",animateEasing:"swing",aspectRatio:!1,autoHide:!1,classes:{"ui-resizable-se":"ui-icon ui-icon-gripsmall-diagonal-se"},containment:!1,ghost:!1,grid:!1,handles:"e,s,se",helper:!1,maxHeight:null,maxWidth:null,minHeight:10,minWidth:10,zIndex:90,resize:null,start:null,stop:null},_num:function(t){return parseFloat(t)||0},_isNumber:function(t){return!isNaN(parseFloat(t))},_hasScroll:function(e,i){if("hidden"===t(e).css("overflow"))return!1;var s=i&&"left"===i?"scrollLeft":"scrollTop",n=!1;return e[s]>0?!0:(e[s]=1,n=e[s]>0,e[s]=0,n)},_create:function(){var e,i=this.options,s=this;this._addClass("ui-resizable"),t.extend(this,{_aspectRatio:!!i.aspectRatio,aspectRatio:i.aspectRatio,originalElement:this.element,_proportionallyResizeElements:[],_helper:i.helper||i.ghost||i.animate?i.helper||"ui-resizable-helper":null}),this.element[0].nodeName.match(/^(canvas|textarea|input|select|button|img)$/i)&&(this.element.wrap(t("<div class='ui-wrapper' style='overflow: hidden;'></div>").css({position:this.element.css("position"),width:this.element.outerWidth(),height:this.element.outerHeight(),top:this.element.css("top"),left:this.element.css("left")})),this.element=this.element.parent().data("ui-resizable",this.element.resizable("instance")),this.elementIsWrapper=!0,e={marginTop:this.originalElement.css("marginTop"),marginRight:this.originalElement.css("marginRight"),marginBottom:this.originalElement.css("marginBottom"),marginLeft:this.originalElement.css("marginLeft")},this.element.css(e),this.originalElement.css("margin",0),this.originalResizeStyle=this.originalElement.css("resize"),this.originalElement.css("resize","none"),this._proportionallyResizeElements.push(this.originalElement.css({position:"static",zoom:1,display:"block"})),this.originalElement.css(e),this._proportionallyResize()),this._setupHandles(),i.autoHide&&t(this.element).on("mouseenter",function(){i.disabled||(s._removeClass("ui-resizable-autohide"),s._handles.show())}).on("mouseleave",function(){i.disabled||s.resizing||(s._addClass("ui-resizable-autohide"),s._handles.hide())}),this._mouseInit()},_destroy:function(){this._mouseDestroy();var 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e=this.options.appendTo;return e&&(e.jquery||e.nodeType)?t(e):this.document.find(e||"body").eq(0)},_destroy:function(){var t,e=this.originalPosition;this._untrackInstance(),this._destroyOverlay(),this.element.removeUniqueId().css(this.originalCss).detach(),this.uiDialog.remove(),this.originalTitle&&this.element.attr("title",this.originalTitle),t=e.parent.children().eq(e.index),t.length&&t[0]!==this.element[0]?t.before(this.element):e.parent.append(this.element)},widget:function(){return this.uiDialog +},disable:t.noop,enable:t.noop,close:function(e){var i=this;this._isOpen&&this._trigger("beforeClose",e)!==!1&&(this._isOpen=!1,this._focusedElement=null,this._destroyOverlay(),this._untrackInstance(),this.opener.filter(":focusable").trigger("focus").length||t.ui.safeBlur(t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0])),this._hide(this.uiDialog,this.options.hide,function(){i._trigger("close",e)}))},isOpen:function(){return this._isOpen},moveToTop:function(){this._moveToTop()},_moveToTop:function(e,i){var s=!1,n=this.uiDialog.siblings(".ui-front:visible").map(function(){return+t(this).css("z-index")}).get(),o=Math.max.apply(null,n);return o>=+this.uiDialog.css("z-index")&&(this.uiDialog.css("z-index",o+1),s=!0),s&&!i&&this._trigger("focus",e),s},open:function(){var e=this;return this._isOpen?(this._moveToTop()&&this._focusTabbable(),void 0):(this._isOpen=!0,this.opener=t(t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0])),this._size(),this._position(),this._createOverlay(),this._moveToTop(null,!0),this.overlay&&this.overlay.css("z-index",this.uiDialog.css("z-index")-1),this._show(this.uiDialog,this.options.show,function(){e._focusTabbable(),e._trigger("focus")}),this._makeFocusTarget(),this._trigger("open"),void 0)},_focusTabbable:function(){var t=this._focusedElement;t||(t=this.element.find("[autofocus]")),t.length||(t=this.element.find(":tabbable")),t.length||(t=this.uiDialogButtonPane.find(":tabbable")),t.length||(t=this.uiDialogTitlebarClose.filter(":tabbable")),t.length||(t=this.uiDialog),t.eq(0).trigger("focus")},_keepFocus:function(e){function i(){var e=t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0]),i=this.uiDialog[0]===e||t.contains(this.uiDialog[0],e);i||this._focusTabbable()}e.preventDefault(),i.call(this),this._delay(i)},_createWrapper:function(){this.uiDialog=t("<div>").hide().attr({tabIndex:-1,role:"dialog"}).appendTo(this._appendTo()),this._addClass(this.uiDialog,"ui-dialog","ui-widget ui-widget-content ui-front"),this._on(this.uiDialog,{keydown:function(e){if(this.options.closeOnEscape&&!e.isDefaultPrevented()&&e.keyCode&&e.keyCode===t.ui.keyCode.ESCAPE)return e.preventDefault(),this.close(e),void 0;if(e.keyCode===t.ui.keyCode.TAB&&!e.isDefaultPrevented()){var i=this.uiDialog.find(":tabbable"),s=i.filter(":first"),n=i.filter(":last");e.target!==n[0]&&e.target!==this.uiDialog[0]||e.shiftKey?e.target!==s[0]&&e.target!==this.uiDialog[0]||!e.shiftKey||(this._delay(function(){n.trigger("focus")}),e.preventDefault()):(this._delay(function(){s.trigger("focus")}),e.preventDefault())}},mousedown:function(t){this._moveToTop(t)&&this._focusTabbable()}}),this.element.find("[aria-describedby]").length||this.uiDialog.attr({"aria-describedby":this.element.uniqueId().attr("id")})},_createTitlebar:function(){var e;this.uiDialogTitlebar=t("<div>"),this._addClass(this.uiDialogTitlebar,"ui-dialog-titlebar","ui-widget-header ui-helper-clearfix"),this._on(this.uiDialogTitlebar,{mousedown:function(e){t(e.target).closest(".ui-dialog-titlebar-close")||this.uiDialog.trigger("focus")}}),this.uiDialogTitlebarClose=t("<button type='button'></button>").button({label:t("<a>").text(this.options.closeText).html(),icon:"ui-icon-closethick",showLabel:!1}).appendTo(this.uiDialogTitlebar),this._addClass(this.uiDialogTitlebarClose,"ui-dialog-titlebar-close"),this._on(this.uiDialogTitlebarClose,{click:function(t){t.preventDefault(),this.close(t)}}),e=t("<span>").uniqueId().prependTo(this.uiDialogTitlebar),this._addClass(e,"ui-dialog-title"),this._title(e),this.uiDialogTitlebar.prependTo(this.uiDialog),this.uiDialog.attr({"aria-labelledby":e.attr("id")})},_title:function(t){this.options.title?t.text(this.options.title):t.html(" ")},_createButtonPane:function(){this.uiDialogButtonPane=t("<div>"),this._addClass(this.uiDialogButtonPane,"ui-dialog-buttonpane","ui-widget-content ui-helper-clearfix"),this.uiButtonSet=t("<div>").appendTo(this.uiDialogButtonPane),this._addClass(this.uiButtonSet,"ui-dialog-buttonset"),this._createButtons()},_createButtons:function(){var e=this,i=this.options.buttons;return this.uiDialogButtonPane.remove(),this.uiButtonSet.empty(),t.isEmptyObject(i)||t.isArray(i)&&!i.length?(this._removeClass(this.uiDialog,"ui-dialog-buttons"),void 0):(t.each(i,function(i,s){var n,o;s=t.isFunction(s)?{click:s,text:i}:s,s=t.extend({type:"button"},s),n=s.click,o={icon:s.icon,iconPosition:s.iconPosition,showLabel:s.showLabel,icons:s.icons,text:s.text},delete s.click,delete s.icon,delete s.iconPosition,delete s.showLabel,delete s.icons,"boolean"==typeof s.text&&delete s.text,t("<button></button>",s).button(o).appendTo(e.uiButtonSet).on("click",function(){n.apply(e.element[0],arguments)})}),this._addClass(this.uiDialog,"ui-dialog-buttons"),this.uiDialogButtonPane.appendTo(this.uiDialog),void 0)},_makeDraggable:function(){function e(t){return{position:t.position,offset:t.offset}}var i=this,s=this.options;this.uiDialog.draggable({cancel:".ui-dialog-content, .ui-dialog-titlebar-close",handle:".ui-dialog-titlebar",containment:"document",start:function(s,n){i._addClass(t(this),"ui-dialog-dragging"),i._blockFrames(),i._trigger("dragStart",s,e(n))},drag:function(t,s){i._trigger("drag",t,e(s))},stop:function(n,o){var a=o.offset.left-i.document.scrollLeft(),r=o.offset.top-i.document.scrollTop();s.position={my:"left top",at:"left"+(a>=0?"+":"")+a+" "+"top"+(r>=0?"+":"")+r,of:i.window},i._removeClass(t(this),"ui-dialog-dragging"),i._unblockFrames(),i._trigger("dragStop",n,e(o))}})},_makeResizable:function(){function e(t){return{originalPosition:t.originalPosition,originalSize:t.originalSize,position:t.position,size:t.size}}var i=this,s=this.options,n=s.resizable,o=this.uiDialog.css("position"),a="string"==typeof n?n:"n,e,s,w,se,sw,ne,nw";this.uiDialog.resizable({cancel:".ui-dialog-content",containment:"document",alsoResize:this.element,maxWidth:s.maxWidth,maxHeight:s.maxHeight,minWidth:s.minWidth,minHeight:this._minHeight(),handles:a,start:function(s,n){i._addClass(t(this),"ui-dialog-resizing"),i._blockFrames(),i._trigger("resizeStart",s,e(n))},resize:function(t,s){i._trigger("resize",t,e(s))},stop:function(n,o){var a=i.uiDialog.offset(),r=a.left-i.document.scrollLeft(),h=a.top-i.document.scrollTop();s.height=i.uiDialog.height(),s.width=i.uiDialog.width(),s.position={my:"left top",at:"left"+(r>=0?"+":"")+r+" "+"top"+(h>=0?"+":"")+h,of:i.window},i._removeClass(t(this),"ui-dialog-resizing"),i._unblockFrames(),i._trigger("resizeStop",n,e(o))}}).css("position",o)},_trackFocus:function(){this._on(this.widget(),{focusin:function(e){this._makeFocusTarget(),this._focusedElement=t(e.target)}})},_makeFocusTarget:function(){this._untrackInstance(),this._trackingInstances().unshift(this)},_untrackInstance:function(){var e=this._trackingInstances(),i=t.inArray(this,e);-1!==i&&e.splice(i,1)},_trackingInstances:function(){var t=this.document.data("ui-dialog-instances");return t||(t=[],this.document.data("ui-dialog-instances",t)),t},_minHeight:function(){var t=this.options;return"auto"===t.height?t.minHeight:Math.min(t.minHeight,t.height)},_position:function(){var t=this.uiDialog.is(":visible");t||this.uiDialog.show(),this.uiDialog.position(this.options.position),t||this.uiDialog.hide()},_setOptions:function(e){var i=this,s=!1,n={};t.each(e,function(t,e){i._setOption(t,e),t in i.sizeRelatedOptions&&(s=!0),t in i.resizableRelatedOptions&&(n[t]=e)}),s&&(this._size(),this._position()),this.uiDialog.is(":data(ui-resizable)")&&this.uiDialog.resizable("option",n)},_setOption:function(e,i){var s,n,o=this.uiDialog;"disabled"!==e&&(this._super(e,i),"appendTo"===e&&this.uiDialog.appendTo(this._appendTo()),"buttons"===e&&this._createButtons(),"closeText"===e&&this.uiDialogTitlebarClose.button({label:t("<a>").text(""+this.options.closeText).html()}),"draggable"===e&&(s=o.is(":data(ui-draggable)"),s&&!i&&o.draggable("destroy"),!s&&i&&this._makeDraggable()),"position"===e&&this._position(),"resizable"===e&&(n=o.is(":data(ui-resizable)"),n&&!i&&o.resizable("destroy"),n&&"string"==typeof i&&o.resizable("option","handles",i),n||i===!1||this._makeResizable()),"title"===e&&this._title(this.uiDialogTitlebar.find(".ui-dialog-title")))},_size:function(){var t,e,i,s=this.options;this.element.show().css({width:"auto",minHeight:0,maxHeight:"none",height:0}),s.minWidth>s.width&&(s.width=s.minWidth),t=this.uiDialog.css({height:"auto",width:s.width}).outerHeight(),e=Math.max(0,s.minHeight-t),i="number"==typeof s.maxHeight?Math.max(0,s.maxHeight-t):"none","auto"===s.height?this.element.css({minHeight:e,maxHeight:i,height:"auto"}):this.element.height(Math.max(0,s.height-t)),this.uiDialog.is(":data(ui-resizable)")&&this.uiDialog.resizable("option","minHeight",this._minHeight())},_blockFrames:function(){this.iframeBlocks=this.document.find("iframe").map(function(){var e=t(this);return t("<div>").css({position:"absolute",width:e.outerWidth(),height:e.outerHeight()}).appendTo(e.parent()).offset(e.offset())[0]})},_unblockFrames:function(){this.iframeBlocks&&(this.iframeBlocks.remove(),delete this.iframeBlocks)},_allowInteraction:function(e){return t(e.target).closest(".ui-dialog").length?!0:!!t(e.target).closest(".ui-datepicker").length},_createOverlay:function(){if(this.options.modal){var e=!0;this._delay(function(){e=!1}),this.document.data("ui-dialog-overlays")||this._on(this.document,{focusin:function(t){e||this._allowInteraction(t)||(t.preventDefault(),this._trackingInstances()[0]._focusTabbable())}}),this.overlay=t("<div>").appendTo(this._appendTo()),this._addClass(this.overlay,null,"ui-widget-overlay ui-front"),this._on(this.overlay,{mousedown:"_keepFocus"}),this.document.data("ui-dialog-overlays",(this.document.data("ui-dialog-overlays")||0)+1)}},_destroyOverlay:function(){if(this.options.modal&&this.overlay){var t=this.document.data("ui-dialog-overlays")-1;t?this.document.data("ui-dialog-overlays",t):(this._off(this.document,"focusin"),this.document.removeData("ui-dialog-overlays")),this.overlay.remove(),this.overlay=null}}}),t.uiBackCompat!==!1&&t.widget("ui.dialog",t.ui.dialog,{options:{dialogClass:""},_createWrapper:function(){this._super(),this.uiDialog.addClass(this.options.dialogClass)},_setOption:function(t,e){"dialogClass"===t&&this.uiDialog.removeClass(this.options.dialogClass).addClass(e),this._superApply(arguments)}}),t.ui.dialog,t.widget("ui.droppable",{version:"1.12.1",widgetEventPrefix:"drop",options:{accept:"*",addClasses:!0,greedy:!1,scope:"default",tolerance:"intersect",activate:null,deactivate:null,drop:null,out:null,over:null},_create:function(){var e,i=this.options,s=i.accept;this.isover=!1,this.isout=!0,this.accept=t.isFunction(s)?s:function(t){return t.is(s)},this.proportions=function(){return arguments.length?(e=arguments[0],void 0):e?e:e={width:this.element[0].offsetWidth,height:this.element[0].offsetHeight}},this._addToManager(i.scope),i.addClasses&&this._addClass("ui-droppable")},_addToManager:function(e){t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[e]=t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[e]||[],t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[e].push(this)},_splice:function(t){for(var e=0;t.length>e;e++)t[e]===this&&t.splice(e,1)},_destroy:function(){var e=t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[this.options.scope];this._splice(e)},_setOption:function(e,i){if("accept"===e)this.accept=t.isFunction(i)?i:function(t){return t.is(i)};else if("scope"===e){var s=t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[this.options.scope];this._splice(s),this._addToManager(i)}this._super(e,i)},_activate:function(e){var i=t.ui.ddmanager.current;this._addActiveClass(),i&&this._trigger("activate",e,this.ui(i))},_deactivate:function(e){var i=t.ui.ddmanager.current;this._removeActiveClass(),i&&this._trigger("deactivate",e,this.ui(i))},_over:function(e){var i=t.ui.ddmanager.current;i&&(i.currentItem||i.element)[0]!==this.element[0]&&this.accept.call(this.element[0],i.currentItem||i.element)&&(this._addHoverClass(),this._trigger("over",e,this.ui(i)))},_out:function(e){var i=t.ui.ddmanager.current;i&&(i.currentItem||i.element)[0]!==this.element[0]&&this.accept.call(this.element[0],i.currentItem||i.element)&&(this._removeHoverClass(),this._trigger("out",e,this.ui(i)))},_drop:function(e,i){var s=i||t.ui.ddmanager.current,n=!1;return s&&(s.currentItem||s.element)[0]!==this.element[0]?(this.element.find(":data(ui-droppable)").not(".ui-draggable-dragging").each(function(){var i=t(this).droppable("instance");return i.options.greedy&&!i.options.disabled&&i.options.scope===s.options.scope&&i.accept.call(i.element[0],s.currentItem||s.element)&&v(s,t.extend(i,{offset:i.element.offset()}),i.options.tolerance,e)?(n=!0,!1):void 0}),n?!1:this.accept.call(this.element[0],s.currentItem||s.element)?(this._removeActiveClass(),this._removeHoverClass(),this._trigger("drop",e,this.ui(s)),this.element):!1):!1},ui:function(t){return{draggable:t.currentItem||t.element,helper:t.helper,position:t.position,offset:t.positionAbs}},_addHoverClass:function(){this._addClass("ui-droppable-hover")},_removeHoverClass:function(){this._removeClass("ui-droppable-hover")},_addActiveClass:function(){this._addClass("ui-droppable-active")},_removeActiveClass:function(){this._removeClass("ui-droppable-active")}});var v=t.ui.intersect=function(){function t(t,e,i){return t>=e&&e+i>t}return function(e,i,s,n){if(!i.offset)return!1;var o=(e.positionAbs||e.position.absolute).left+e.margins.left,a=(e.positionAbs||e.position.absolute).top+e.margins.top,r=o+e.helperProportions.width,h=a+e.helperProportions.height,l=i.offset.left,c=i.offset.top,u=l+i.proportions().width,d=c+i.proportions().height;switch(s){case"fit":return o>=l&&u>=r&&a>=c&&d>=h;case"intersect":return o+e.helperProportions.width/2>l&&u>r-e.helperProportions.width/2&&a+e.helperProportions.height/2>c&&d>h-e.helperProportions.height/2;case"pointer":return t(n.pageY,c,i.proportions().height)&&t(n.pageX,l,i.proportions().width);case"touch":return(a>=c&&d>=a||h>=c&&d>=h||c>a&&h>d)&&(o>=l&&u>=o||r>=l&&u>=r||l>o&&r>u);default:return!1}}}();t.ui.ddmanager={current:null,droppables:{"default":[]},prepareOffsets:function(e,i){var s,n,o=t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[e.options.scope]||[],a=i?i.type:null,r=(e.currentItem||e.element).find(":data(ui-droppable)").addBack();t:for(s=0;o.length>s;s++)if(!(o[s].options.disabled||e&&!o[s].accept.call(o[s].element[0],e.currentItem||e.element))){for(n=0;r.length>n;n++)if(r[n]===o[s].element[0]){o[s].proportions().height=0;continue t}o[s].visible="none"!==o[s].element.css("display"),o[s].visible&&("mousedown"===a&&o[s]._activate.call(o[s],i),o[s].offset=o[s].element.offset(),o[s].proportions({width:o[s].element[0].offsetWidth,height:o[s].element[0].offsetHeight}))}},drop:function(e,i){var s=!1;return t.each((t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[e.options.scope]||[]).slice(),function(){this.options&&(!this.options.disabled&&this.visible&&v(e,this,this.options.tolerance,i)&&(s=this._drop.call(this,i)||s),!this.options.disabled&&this.visible&&this.accept.call(this.element[0],e.currentItem||e.element)&&(this.isout=!0,this.isover=!1,this._deactivate.call(this,i)))}),s},dragStart:function(e,i){e.element.parentsUntil("body").on("scroll.droppable",function(){e.options.refreshPositions||t.ui.ddmanager.prepareOffsets(e,i)})},drag:function(e,i){e.options.refreshPositions&&t.ui.ddmanager.prepareOffsets(e,i),t.each(t.ui.ddmanager.droppables[e.options.scope]||[],function(){if(!this.options.disabled&&!this.greedyChild&&this.visible){var s,n,o,a=v(e,this,this.options.tolerance,i),r=!a&&this.isover?"isout":a&&!this.isover?"isover":null;r&&(this.options.greedy&&(n=this.options.scope,o=this.element.parents(":data(ui-droppable)").filter(function(){return t(this).droppable("instance").options.scope===n}),o.length&&(s=t(o[0]).droppable("instance"),s.greedyChild="isover"===r)),s&&"isover"===r&&(s.isover=!1,s.isout=!0,s._out.call(s,i)),this[r]=!0,this["isout"===r?"isover":"isout"]=!1,this["isover"===r?"_over":"_out"].call(this,i),s&&"isout"===r&&(s.isout=!1,s.isover=!0,s._over.call(s,i)))}})},dragStop:function(e,i){e.element.parentsUntil("body").off("scroll.droppable"),e.options.refreshPositions||t.ui.ddmanager.prepareOffsets(e,i)}},t.uiBackCompat!==!1&&t.widget("ui.droppable",t.ui.droppable,{options:{hoverClass:!1,activeClass:!1},_addActiveClass:function(){this._super(),this.options.activeClass&&this.element.addClass(this.options.activeClass)},_removeActiveClass:function(){this._super(),this.options.activeClass&&this.element.removeClass(this.options.activeClass)},_addHoverClass:function(){this._super(),this.options.hoverClass&&this.element.addClass(this.options.hoverClass)},_removeHoverClass:function(){this._super(),this.options.hoverClass&&this.element.removeClass(this.options.hoverClass)}}),t.ui.droppable,t.widget("ui.progressbar",{version:"1.12.1",options:{classes:{"ui-progressbar":"ui-corner-all","ui-progressbar-value":"ui-corner-left","ui-progressbar-complete":"ui-corner-right"},max:100,value:0,change:null,complete:null},min:0,_create:function(){this.oldValue=this.options.value=this._constrainedValue(),this.element.attr({role:"progressbar","aria-valuemin":this.min}),this._addClass("ui-progressbar","ui-widget ui-widget-content"),this.valueDiv=t("<div>").appendTo(this.element),this._addClass(this.valueDiv,"ui-progressbar-value","ui-widget-header"),this._refreshValue()},_destroy:function(){this.element.removeAttr("role aria-valuemin aria-valuemax aria-valuenow"),this.valueDiv.remove()},value:function(t){return void 0===t?this.options.value:(this.options.value=this._constrainedValue(t),this._refreshValue(),void 0)},_constrainedValue:function(t){return void 0===t&&(t=this.options.value),this.indeterminate=t===!1,"number"!=typeof t&&(t=0),this.indeterminate?!1:Math.min(this.options.max,Math.max(this.min,t))},_setOptions:function(t){var e=t.value;delete t.value,this._super(t),this.options.value=this._constrainedValue(e),this._refreshValue()},_setOption:function(t,e){"max"===t&&(e=Math.max(this.min,e)),this._super(t,e)},_setOptionDisabled:function(t){this._super(t),this.element.attr("aria-disabled",t),this._toggleClass(null,"ui-state-disabled",!!t)},_percentage:function(){return this.indeterminate?100:100*(this.options.value-this.min)/(this.options.max-this.min)},_refreshValue:function(){var e=this.options.value,i=this._percentage();this.valueDiv.toggle(this.indeterminate||e>this.min).width(i.toFixed(0)+"%"),this._toggleClass(this.valueDiv,"ui-progressbar-complete",null,e===this.options.max)._toggleClass("ui-progressbar-indeterminate",null,this.indeterminate),this.indeterminate?(this.element.removeAttr("aria-valuenow"),this.overlayDiv||(this.overlayDiv=t("<div>").appendTo(this.valueDiv),this._addClass(this.overlayDiv,"ui-progressbar-overlay"))):(this.element.attr({"aria-valuemax":this.options.max,"aria-valuenow":e}),this.overlayDiv&&(this.overlayDiv.remove(),this.overlayDiv=null)),this.oldValue!==e&&(this.oldValue=e,this._trigger("change")),e===this.options.max&&this._trigger("complete")}}),t.widget("ui.selectable",t.ui.mouse,{version:"1.12.1",options:{appendTo:"body",autoRefresh:!0,distance:0,filter:"*",tolerance:"touch",selected:null,selecting:null,start:null,stop:null,unselected:null,unselecting:null},_create:function(){var e=this;this._addClass("ui-selectable"),this.dragged=!1,this.refresh=function(){e.elementPos=t(e.element[0]).offset(),e.selectees=t(e.options.filter,e.element[0]),e._addClass(e.selectees,"ui-selectee"),e.selectees.each(function(){var i=t(this),s=i.offset(),n={left:s.left-e.elementPos.left,top:s.top-e.elementPos.top};t.data(this,"selectable-item",{element:this,$element:i,left:n.left,top:n.top,right:n.left+i.outerWidth(),bottom:n.top+i.outerHeight(),startselected:!1,selected:i.hasClass("ui-selected"),selecting:i.hasClass("ui-selecting"),unselecting:i.hasClass("ui-unselecting")})})},this.refresh(),this._mouseInit(),this.helper=t("<div>"),this._addClass(this.helper,"ui-selectable-helper")},_destroy:function(){this.selectees.removeData("selectable-item"),this._mouseDestroy()},_mouseStart:function(e){var i=this,s=this.options;this.opos=[e.pageX,e.pageY],this.elementPos=t(this.element[0]).offset(),this.options.disabled||(this.selectees=t(s.filter,this.element[0]),this._trigger("start",e),t(s.appendTo).append(this.helper),this.helper.css({left:e.pageX,top:e.pageY,width:0,height:0}),s.autoRefresh&&this.refresh(),this.selectees.filter(".ui-selected").each(function(){var s=t.data(this,"selectable-item");s.startselected=!0,e.metaKey||e.ctrlKey||(i._removeClass(s.$element,"ui-selected"),s.selected=!1,i._addClass(s.$element,"ui-unselecting"),s.unselecting=!0,i._trigger("unselecting",e,{unselecting:s.element}))}),t(e.target).parents().addBack().each(function(){var s,n=t.data(this,"selectable-item");return n?(s=!e.metaKey&&!e.ctrlKey||!n.$element.hasClass("ui-selected"),i._removeClass(n.$element,s?"ui-unselecting":"ui-selected")._addClass(n.$element,s?"ui-selecting":"ui-unselecting"),n.unselecting=!s,n.selecting=s,n.selected=s,s?i._trigger("selecting",e,{selecting:n.element}):i._trigger("unselecting",e,{unselecting:n.element}),!1):void 0}))},_mouseDrag:function(e){if(this.dragged=!0,!this.options.disabled){var i,s=this,n=this.options,o=this.opos[0],a=this.opos[1],r=e.pageX,h=e.pageY;return o>r&&(i=r,r=o,o=i),a>h&&(i=h,h=a,a=i),this.helper.css({left:o,top:a,width:r-o,height:h-a}),this.selectees.each(function(){var i=t.data(this,"selectable-item"),l=!1,c={};i&&i.element!==s.element[0]&&(c.left=i.left+s.elementPos.left,c.right=i.right+s.elementPos.left,c.top=i.top+s.elementPos.top,c.bottom=i.bottom+s.elementPos.top,"touch"===n.tolerance?l=!(c.left>r||o>c.right||c.top>h||a>c.bottom):"fit"===n.tolerance&&(l=c.left>o&&r>c.right&&c.top>a&&h>c.bottom),l?(i.selected&&(s._removeClass(i.$element,"ui-selected"),i.selected=!1),i.unselecting&&(s._removeClass(i.$element,"ui-unselecting"),i.unselecting=!1),i.selecting||(s._addClass(i.$element,"ui-selecting"),i.selecting=!0,s._trigger("selecting",e,{selecting:i.element}))):(i.selecting&&((e.metaKey||e.ctrlKey)&&i.startselected?(s._removeClass(i.$element,"ui-selecting"),i.selecting=!1,s._addClass(i.$element,"ui-selected"),i.selected=!0):(s._removeClass(i.$element,"ui-selecting"),i.selecting=!1,i.startselected&&(s._addClass(i.$element,"ui-unselecting"),i.unselecting=!0),s._trigger("unselecting",e,{unselecting:i.element}))),i.selected&&(e.metaKey||e.ctrlKey||i.startselected||(s._removeClass(i.$element,"ui-selected"),i.selected=!1,s._addClass(i.$element,"ui-unselecting"),i.unselecting=!0,s._trigger("unselecting",e,{unselecting:i.element})))))}),!1}},_mouseStop:function(e){var i=this;return this.dragged=!1,t(".ui-unselecting",this.element[0]).each(function(){var s=t.data(this,"selectable-item");i._removeClass(s.$element,"ui-unselecting"),s.unselecting=!1,s.startselected=!1,i._trigger("unselected",e,{unselected:s.element})}),t(".ui-selecting",this.element[0]).each(function(){var s=t.data(this,"selectable-item");i._removeClass(s.$element,"ui-selecting")._addClass(s.$element,"ui-selected"),s.selecting=!1,s.selected=!0,s.startselected=!0,i._trigger("selected",e,{selected:s.element})}),this._trigger("stop",e),this.helper.remove(),!1}}),t.widget("ui.selectmenu",[t.ui.formResetMixin,{version:"1.12.1",defaultElement:"<select>",options:{appendTo:null,classes:{"ui-selectmenu-button-open":"ui-corner-top","ui-selectmenu-button-closed":"ui-corner-all"},disabled:null,icons:{button:"ui-icon-triangle-1-s"},position:{my:"left top",at:"left bottom",collision:"none"},width:!1,change:null,close:null,focus:null,open:null,select:null},_create:function(){var e=this.element.uniqueId().attr("id");this.ids={element:e,button:e+"-button",menu:e+"-menu"},this._drawButton(),this._drawMenu(),this._bindFormResetHandler(),this._rendered=!1,this.menuItems=t()},_drawButton:function(){var e,i=this,s=this._parseOption(this.element.find("option:selected"),this.element[0].selectedIndex);this.labels=this.element.labels().attr("for",this.ids.button),this._on(this.labels,{click:function(t){this.button.focus(),t.preventDefault()}}),this.element.hide(),this.button=t("<span>",{tabindex:this.options.disabled?-1:0,id:this.ids.button,role:"combobox","aria-expanded":"false","aria-autocomplete":"list","aria-owns":this.ids.menu,"aria-haspopup":"true",title:this.element.attr("title")}).insertAfter(this.element),this._addClass(this.button,"ui-selectmenu-button ui-selectmenu-button-closed","ui-button ui-widget"),e=t("<span>").appendTo(this.button),this._addClass(e,"ui-selectmenu-icon","ui-icon "+this.options.icons.button),this.buttonItem=this._renderButtonItem(s).appendTo(this.button),this.options.width!==!1&&this._resizeButton(),this._on(this.button,this._buttonEvents),this.button.one("focusin",function(){i._rendered||i._refreshMenu()})},_drawMenu:function(){var e=this;this.menu=t("<ul>",{"aria-hidden":"true","aria-labelledby":this.ids.button,id:this.ids.menu}),this.menuWrap=t("<div>").append(this.menu),this._addClass(this.menuWrap,"ui-selectmenu-menu","ui-front"),this.menuWrap.appendTo(this._appendTo()),this.menuInstance=this.menu.menu({classes:{"ui-menu":"ui-corner-bottom"},role:"listbox",select:function(t,i){t.preventDefault(),e._setSelection(),e._select(i.item.data("ui-selectmenu-item"),t)},focus:function(t,i){var s=i.item.data("ui-selectmenu-item");null!=e.focusIndex&&s.index!==e.focusIndex&&(e._trigger("focus",t,{item:s}),e.isOpen||e._select(s,t)),e.focusIndex=s.index,e.button.attr("aria-activedescendant",e.menuItems.eq(s.index).attr("id"))}}).menu("instance"),this.menuInstance._off(this.menu,"mouseleave"),this.menuInstance._closeOnDocumentClick=function(){return!1},this.menuInstance._isDivider=function(){return!1}},refresh:function(){this._refreshMenu(),this.buttonItem.replaceWith(this.buttonItem=this._renderButtonItem(this._getSelectedItem().data("ui-selectmenu-item")||{})),null===this.options.width&&this._resizeButton()},_refreshMenu:function(){var t,e=this.element.find("option");this.menu.empty(),this._parseOptions(e),this._renderMenu(this.menu,this.items),this.menuInstance.refresh(),this.menuItems=this.menu.find("li").not(".ui-selectmenu-optgroup").find(".ui-menu-item-wrapper"),this._rendered=!0,e.length&&(t=this._getSelectedItem(),this.menuInstance.focus(null,t),this._setAria(t.data("ui-selectmenu-item")),this._setOption("disabled",this.element.prop("disabled")))},open:function(t){this.options.disabled||(this._rendered?(this._removeClass(this.menu.find(".ui-state-active"),null,"ui-state-active"),this.menuInstance.focus(null,this._getSelectedItem())):this._refreshMenu(),this.menuItems.length&&(this.isOpen=!0,this._toggleAttr(),this._resizeMenu(),this._position(),this._on(this.document,this._documentClick),this._trigger("open",t)))},_position:function(){this.menuWrap.position(t.extend({of:this.button},this.options.position))},close:function(t){this.isOpen&&(this.isOpen=!1,this._toggleAttr(),this.range=null,this._off(this.document),this._trigger("close",t))},widget:function(){return this.button},menuWidget:function(){return this.menu},_renderButtonItem:function(e){var i=t("<span>");return this._setText(i,e.label),this._addClass(i,"ui-selectmenu-text"),i},_renderMenu:function(e,i){var s=this,n="";t.each(i,function(i,o){var a;o.optgroup!==n&&(a=t("<li>",{text:o.optgroup}),s._addClass(a,"ui-selectmenu-optgroup","ui-menu-divider"+(o.element.parent("optgroup").prop("disabled")?" ui-state-disabled":"")),a.appendTo(e),n=o.optgroup),s._renderItemData(e,o)})},_renderItemData:function(t,e){return this._renderItem(t,e).data("ui-selectmenu-item",e)},_renderItem:function(e,i){var s=t("<li>"),n=t("<div>",{title:i.element.attr("title")});return i.disabled&&this._addClass(s,null,"ui-state-disabled"),this._setText(n,i.label),s.append(n).appendTo(e)},_setText:function(t,e){e?t.text(e):t.html(" ")},_move:function(t,e){var i,s,n=".ui-menu-item";this.isOpen?i=this.menuItems.eq(this.focusIndex).parent("li"):(i=this.menuItems.eq(this.element[0].selectedIndex).parent("li"),n+=":not(.ui-state-disabled)"),s="first"===t||"last"===t?i["first"===t?"prevAll":"nextAll"](n).eq(-1):i[t+"All"](n).eq(0),s.length&&this.menuInstance.focus(e,s)},_getSelectedItem:function(){return this.menuItems.eq(this.element[0].selectedIndex).parent("li")},_toggle:function(t){this[this.isOpen?"close":"open"](t)},_setSelection:function(){var t;this.range&&(window.getSelection?(t=window.getSelection(),t.removeAllRanges(),t.addRange(this.range)):this.range.select(),this.button.focus())},_documentClick:{mousedown:function(e){this.isOpen&&(t(e.target).closest(".ui-selectmenu-menu, #"+t.ui.escapeSelector(this.ids.button)).length||this.close(e))}},_buttonEvents:{mousedown:function(){var t;window.getSelection?(t=window.getSelection(),t.rangeCount&&(this.range=t.getRangeAt(0))):this.range=document.selection.createRange()},click:function(t){this._setSelection(),this._toggle(t)},keydown:function(e){var i=!0;switch(e.keyCode){case t.ui.keyCode.TAB:case t.ui.keyCode.ESCAPE:this.close(e),i=!1;break;case t.ui.keyCode.ENTER:this.isOpen&&this._selectFocusedItem(e);break;case t.ui.keyCode.UP:e.altKey?this._toggle(e):this._move("prev",e);break;case t.ui.keyCode.DOWN:e.altKey?this._toggle(e):this._move("next",e);break;case t.ui.keyCode.SPACE:this.isOpen?this._selectFocusedItem(e):this._toggle(e);break;case t.ui.keyCode.LEFT:this._move("prev",e);break;case t.ui.keyCode.RIGHT:this._move("next",e);break;case t.ui.keyCode.HOME:case t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_UP:this._move("first",e);break;case t.ui.keyCode.END:case t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_DOWN:this._move("last",e);break;default:this.menu.trigger(e),i=!1}i&&e.preventDefault()}},_selectFocusedItem:function(t){var e=this.menuItems.eq(this.focusIndex).parent("li");e.hasClass("ui-state-disabled")||this._select(e.data("ui-selectmenu-item"),t)},_select:function(t,e){var i=this.element[0].selectedIndex;this.element[0].selectedIndex=t.index,this.buttonItem.replaceWith(this.buttonItem=this._renderButtonItem(t)),this._setAria(t),this._trigger("select",e,{item:t}),t.index!==i&&this._trigger("change",e,{item:t}),this.close(e)},_setAria:function(t){var e=this.menuItems.eq(t.index).attr("id");this.button.attr({"aria-labelledby":e,"aria-activedescendant":e}),this.menu.attr("aria-activedescendant",e)},_setOption:function(t,e){if("icons"===t){var i=this.button.find("span.ui-icon");this._removeClass(i,null,this.options.icons.button)._addClass(i,null,e.button)}this._super(t,e),"appendTo"===t&&this.menuWrap.appendTo(this._appendTo()),"width"===t&&this._resizeButton()},_setOptionDisabled:function(t){this._super(t),this.menuInstance.option("disabled",t),this.button.attr("aria-disabled",t),this._toggleClass(this.button,null,"ui-state-disabled",t),this.element.prop("disabled",t),t?(this.button.attr("tabindex",-1),this.close()):this.button.attr("tabindex",0)},_appendTo:function(){var e=this.options.appendTo;return e&&(e=e.jquery||e.nodeType?t(e):this.document.find(e).eq(0)),e&&e[0]||(e=this.element.closest(".ui-front, dialog")),e.length||(e=this.document[0].body),e},_toggleAttr:function(){this.button.attr("aria-expanded",this.isOpen),this._removeClass(this.button,"ui-selectmenu-button-"+(this.isOpen?"closed":"open"))._addClass(this.button,"ui-selectmenu-button-"+(this.isOpen?"open":"closed"))._toggleClass(this.menuWrap,"ui-selectmenu-open",null,this.isOpen),this.menu.attr("aria-hidden",!this.isOpen)},_resizeButton:function(){var t=this.options.width;return t===!1?(this.button.css("width",""),void 0):(null===t&&(t=this.element.show().outerWidth(),this.element.hide()),this.button.outerWidth(t),void 0)},_resizeMenu:function(){this.menu.outerWidth(Math.max(this.button.outerWidth(),this.menu.width("").outerWidth()+1))},_getCreateOptions:function(){var t=this._super();return t.disabled=this.element.prop("disabled"),t},_parseOptions:function(e){var i=this,s=[];e.each(function(e,n){s.push(i._parseOption(t(n),e))}),this.items=s},_parseOption:function(t,e){var i=t.parent("optgroup");return{element:t,index:e,value:t.val(),label:t.text(),optgroup:i.attr("label")||"",disabled:i.prop("disabled")||t.prop("disabled")}},_destroy:function(){this._unbindFormResetHandler(),this.menuWrap.remove(),this.button.remove(),this.element.show(),this.element.removeUniqueId(),this.labels.attr("for",this.ids.element)}}]),t.widget("ui.slider",t.ui.mouse,{version:"1.12.1",widgetEventPrefix:"slide",options:{animate:!1,classes:{"ui-slider":"ui-corner-all","ui-slider-handle":"ui-corner-all","ui-slider-range":"ui-corner-all ui-widget-header"},distance:0,max:100,min:0,orientation:"horizontal",range:!1,step:1,value:0,values:null,change:null,slide:null,start:null,stop:null},numPages:5,_create:function(){this._keySliding=!1,this._mouseSliding=!1,this._animateOff=!0,this._handleIndex=null,this._detectOrientation(),this._mouseInit(),this._calculateNewMax(),this._addClass("ui-slider ui-slider-"+this.orientation,"ui-widget ui-widget-content"),this._refresh(),this._animateOff=!1 +},_refresh:function(){this._createRange(),this._createHandles(),this._setupEvents(),this._refreshValue()},_createHandles:function(){var e,i,s=this.options,n=this.element.find(".ui-slider-handle"),o="<span tabindex='0'></span>",a=[];for(i=s.values&&s.values.length||1,n.length>i&&(n.slice(i).remove(),n=n.slice(0,i)),e=n.length;i>e;e++)a.push(o);this.handles=n.add(t(a.join("")).appendTo(this.element)),this._addClass(this.handles,"ui-slider-handle","ui-state-default"),this.handle=this.handles.eq(0),this.handles.each(function(e){t(this).data("ui-slider-handle-index",e).attr("tabIndex",0)})},_createRange:function(){var e=this.options;e.range?(e.range===!0&&(e.values?e.values.length&&2!==e.values.length?e.values=[e.values[0],e.values[0]]:t.isArray(e.values)&&(e.values=e.values.slice(0)):e.values=[this._valueMin(),this._valueMin()]),this.range&&this.range.length?(this._removeClass(this.range,"ui-slider-range-min ui-slider-range-max"),this.range.css({left:"",bottom:""})):(this.range=t("<div>").appendTo(this.element),this._addClass(this.range,"ui-slider-range")),("min"===e.range||"max"===e.range)&&this._addClass(this.range,"ui-slider-range-"+e.range)):(this.range&&this.range.remove(),this.range=null)},_setupEvents:function(){this._off(this.handles),this._on(this.handles,this._handleEvents),this._hoverable(this.handles),this._focusable(this.handles)},_destroy:function(){this.handles.remove(),this.range&&this.range.remove(),this._mouseDestroy()},_mouseCapture:function(e){var i,s,n,o,a,r,h,l,c=this,u=this.options;return u.disabled?!1:(this.elementSize={width:this.element.outerWidth(),height:this.element.outerHeight()},this.elementOffset=this.element.offset(),i={x:e.pageX,y:e.pageY},s=this._normValueFromMouse(i),n=this._valueMax()-this._valueMin()+1,this.handles.each(function(e){var i=Math.abs(s-c.values(e));(n>i||n===i&&(e===c._lastChangedValue||c.values(e)===u.min))&&(n=i,o=t(this),a=e)}),r=this._start(e,a),r===!1?!1:(this._mouseSliding=!0,this._handleIndex=a,this._addClass(o,null,"ui-state-active"),o.trigger("focus"),h=o.offset(),l=!t(e.target).parents().addBack().is(".ui-slider-handle"),this._clickOffset=l?{left:0,top:0}:{left:e.pageX-h.left-o.width()/2,top:e.pageY-h.top-o.height()/2-(parseInt(o.css("borderTopWidth"),10)||0)-(parseInt(o.css("borderBottomWidth"),10)||0)+(parseInt(o.css("marginTop"),10)||0)},this.handles.hasClass("ui-state-hover")||this._slide(e,a,s),this._animateOff=!0,!0))},_mouseStart:function(){return!0},_mouseDrag:function(t){var e={x:t.pageX,y:t.pageY},i=this._normValueFromMouse(e);return this._slide(t,this._handleIndex,i),!1},_mouseStop:function(t){return this._removeClass(this.handles,null,"ui-state-active"),this._mouseSliding=!1,this._stop(t,this._handleIndex),this._change(t,this._handleIndex),this._handleIndex=null,this._clickOffset=null,this._animateOff=!1,!1},_detectOrientation:function(){this.orientation="vertical"===this.options.orientation?"vertical":"horizontal"},_normValueFromMouse:function(t){var e,i,s,n,o;return"horizontal"===this.orientation?(e=this.elementSize.width,i=t.x-this.elementOffset.left-(this._clickOffset?this._clickOffset.left:0)):(e=this.elementSize.height,i=t.y-this.elementOffset.top-(this._clickOffset?this._clickOffset.top:0)),s=i/e,s>1&&(s=1),0>s&&(s=0),"vertical"===this.orientation&&(s=1-s),n=this._valueMax()-this._valueMin(),o=this._valueMin()+s*n,this._trimAlignValue(o)},_uiHash:function(t,e,i){var s={handle:this.handles[t],handleIndex:t,value:void 0!==e?e:this.value()};return this._hasMultipleValues()&&(s.value=void 0!==e?e:this.values(t),s.values=i||this.values()),s},_hasMultipleValues:function(){return this.options.values&&this.options.values.length},_start:function(t,e){return this._trigger("start",t,this._uiHash(e))},_slide:function(t,e,i){var s,n,o=this.value(),a=this.values();this._hasMultipleValues()&&(n=this.values(e?0:1),o=this.values(e),2===this.options.values.length&&this.options.range===!0&&(i=0===e?Math.min(n,i):Math.max(n,i)),a[e]=i),i!==o&&(s=this._trigger("slide",t,this._uiHash(e,i,a)),s!==!1&&(this._hasMultipleValues()?this.values(e,i):this.value(i)))},_stop:function(t,e){this._trigger("stop",t,this._uiHash(e))},_change:function(t,e){this._keySliding||this._mouseSliding||(this._lastChangedValue=e,this._trigger("change",t,this._uiHash(e)))},value:function(t){return arguments.length?(this.options.value=this._trimAlignValue(t),this._refreshValue(),this._change(null,0),void 0):this._value()},values:function(e,i){var s,n,o;if(arguments.length>1)return this.options.values[e]=this._trimAlignValue(i),this._refreshValue(),this._change(null,e),void 0;if(!arguments.length)return this._values();if(!t.isArray(arguments[0]))return this._hasMultipleValues()?this._values(e):this.value();for(s=this.options.values,n=arguments[0],o=0;s.length>o;o+=1)s[o]=this._trimAlignValue(n[o]),this._change(null,o);this._refreshValue()},_setOption:function(e,i){var s,n=0;switch("range"===e&&this.options.range===!0&&("min"===i?(this.options.value=this._values(0),this.options.values=null):"max"===i&&(this.options.value=this._values(this.options.values.length-1),this.options.values=null)),t.isArray(this.options.values)&&(n=this.options.values.length),this._super(e,i),e){case"orientation":this._detectOrientation(),this._removeClass("ui-slider-horizontal ui-slider-vertical")._addClass("ui-slider-"+this.orientation),this._refreshValue(),this.options.range&&this._refreshRange(i),this.handles.css("horizontal"===i?"bottom":"left","");break;case"value":this._animateOff=!0,this._refreshValue(),this._change(null,0),this._animateOff=!1;break;case"values":for(this._animateOff=!0,this._refreshValue(),s=n-1;s>=0;s--)this._change(null,s);this._animateOff=!1;break;case"step":case"min":case"max":this._animateOff=!0,this._calculateNewMax(),this._refreshValue(),this._animateOff=!1;break;case"range":this._animateOff=!0,this._refresh(),this._animateOff=!1}},_setOptionDisabled:function(t){this._super(t),this._toggleClass(null,"ui-state-disabled",!!t)},_value:function(){var t=this.options.value;return t=this._trimAlignValue(t)},_values:function(t){var e,i,s;if(arguments.length)return e=this.options.values[t],e=this._trimAlignValue(e);if(this._hasMultipleValues()){for(i=this.options.values.slice(),s=0;i.length>s;s+=1)i[s]=this._trimAlignValue(i[s]);return i}return[]},_trimAlignValue:function(t){if(this._valueMin()>=t)return this._valueMin();if(t>=this._valueMax())return this._valueMax();var e=this.options.step>0?this.options.step:1,i=(t-this._valueMin())%e,s=t-i;return 2*Math.abs(i)>=e&&(s+=i>0?e:-e),parseFloat(s.toFixed(5))},_calculateNewMax:function(){var t=this.options.max,e=this._valueMin(),i=this.options.step,s=Math.round((t-e)/i)*i;t=s+e,t>this.options.max&&(t-=i),this.max=parseFloat(t.toFixed(this._precision()))},_precision:function(){var t=this._precisionOf(this.options.step);return null!==this.options.min&&(t=Math.max(t,this._precisionOf(this.options.min))),t},_precisionOf:function(t){var e=""+t,i=e.indexOf(".");return-1===i?0:e.length-i-1},_valueMin:function(){return this.options.min},_valueMax:function(){return this.max},_refreshRange:function(t){"vertical"===t&&this.range.css({width:"",left:""}),"horizontal"===t&&this.range.css({height:"",bottom:""})},_refreshValue:function(){var e,i,s,n,o,a=this.options.range,r=this.options,h=this,l=this._animateOff?!1:r.animate,c={};this._hasMultipleValues()?this.handles.each(function(s){i=100*((h.values(s)-h._valueMin())/(h._valueMax()-h._valueMin())),c["horizontal"===h.orientation?"left":"bottom"]=i+"%",t(this).stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"](c,r.animate),h.options.range===!0&&("horizontal"===h.orientation?(0===s&&h.range.stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"]({left:i+"%"},r.animate),1===s&&h.range[l?"animate":"css"]({width:i-e+"%"},{queue:!1,duration:r.animate})):(0===s&&h.range.stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"]({bottom:i+"%"},r.animate),1===s&&h.range[l?"animate":"css"]({height:i-e+"%"},{queue:!1,duration:r.animate}))),e=i}):(s=this.value(),n=this._valueMin(),o=this._valueMax(),i=o!==n?100*((s-n)/(o-n)):0,c["horizontal"===this.orientation?"left":"bottom"]=i+"%",this.handle.stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"](c,r.animate),"min"===a&&"horizontal"===this.orientation&&this.range.stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"]({width:i+"%"},r.animate),"max"===a&&"horizontal"===this.orientation&&this.range.stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"]({width:100-i+"%"},r.animate),"min"===a&&"vertical"===this.orientation&&this.range.stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"]({height:i+"%"},r.animate),"max"===a&&"vertical"===this.orientation&&this.range.stop(1,1)[l?"animate":"css"]({height:100-i+"%"},r.animate))},_handleEvents:{keydown:function(e){var i,s,n,o,a=t(e.target).data("ui-slider-handle-index");switch(e.keyCode){case t.ui.keyCode.HOME:case t.ui.keyCode.END:case t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_UP:case t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_DOWN:case t.ui.keyCode.UP:case t.ui.keyCode.RIGHT:case t.ui.keyCode.DOWN:case t.ui.keyCode.LEFT:if(e.preventDefault(),!this._keySliding&&(this._keySliding=!0,this._addClass(t(e.target),null,"ui-state-active"),i=this._start(e,a),i===!1))return}switch(o=this.options.step,s=n=this._hasMultipleValues()?this.values(a):this.value(),e.keyCode){case t.ui.keyCode.HOME:n=this._valueMin();break;case t.ui.keyCode.END:n=this._valueMax();break;case t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_UP:n=this._trimAlignValue(s+(this._valueMax()-this._valueMin())/this.numPages);break;case t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_DOWN:n=this._trimAlignValue(s-(this._valueMax()-this._valueMin())/this.numPages);break;case t.ui.keyCode.UP:case t.ui.keyCode.RIGHT:if(s===this._valueMax())return;n=this._trimAlignValue(s+o);break;case t.ui.keyCode.DOWN:case t.ui.keyCode.LEFT:if(s===this._valueMin())return;n=this._trimAlignValue(s-o)}this._slide(e,a,n)},keyup:function(e){var i=t(e.target).data("ui-slider-handle-index");this._keySliding&&(this._keySliding=!1,this._stop(e,i),this._change(e,i),this._removeClass(t(e.target),null,"ui-state-active"))}}}),t.widget("ui.sortable",t.ui.mouse,{version:"1.12.1",widgetEventPrefix:"sort",ready:!1,options:{appendTo:"parent",axis:!1,connectWith:!1,containment:!1,cursor:"auto",cursorAt:!1,dropOnEmpty:!0,forcePlaceholderSize:!1,forceHelperSize:!1,grid:!1,handle:!1,helper:"original",items:"> *",opacity:!1,placeholder:!1,revert:!1,scroll:!0,scrollSensitivity:20,scrollSpeed:20,scope:"default",tolerance:"intersect",zIndex:1e3,activate:null,beforeStop:null,change:null,deactivate:null,out:null,over:null,receive:null,remove:null,sort:null,start:null,stop:null,update:null},_isOverAxis:function(t,e,i){return t>=e&&e+i>t},_isFloating:function(t){return/left|right/.test(t.css("float"))||/inline|table-cell/.test(t.css("display"))},_create:function(){this.containerCache={},this._addClass("ui-sortable"),this.refresh(),this.offset=this.element.offset(),this._mouseInit(),this._setHandleClassName(),this.ready=!0},_setOption:function(t,e){this._super(t,e),"handle"===t&&this._setHandleClassName()},_setHandleClassName:function(){var e=this;this._removeClass(this.element.find(".ui-sortable-handle"),"ui-sortable-handle"),t.each(this.items,function(){e._addClass(this.instance.options.handle?this.item.find(this.instance.options.handle):this.item,"ui-sortable-handle")})},_destroy:function(){this._mouseDestroy();for(var t=this.items.length-1;t>=0;t--)this.items[t].item.removeData(this.widgetName+"-item");return this},_mouseCapture:function(e,i){var s=null,n=!1,o=this;return this.reverting?!1:this.options.disabled||"static"===this.options.type?!1:(this._refreshItems(e),t(e.target).parents().each(function(){return t.data(this,o.widgetName+"-item")===o?(s=t(this),!1):void 0}),t.data(e.target,o.widgetName+"-item")===o&&(s=t(e.target)),s?!this.options.handle||i||(t(this.options.handle,s).find("*").addBack().each(function(){this===e.target&&(n=!0)}),n)?(this.currentItem=s,this._removeCurrentsFromItems(),!0):!1:!1)},_mouseStart:function(e,i,s){var n,o,a=this.options;if(this.currentContainer=this,this.refreshPositions(),this.helper=this._createHelper(e),this._cacheHelperProportions(),this._cacheMargins(),this.scrollParent=this.helper.scrollParent(),this.offset=this.currentItem.offset(),this.offset={top:this.offset.top-this.margins.top,left:this.offset.left-this.margins.left},t.extend(this.offset,{click:{left:e.pageX-this.offset.left,top:e.pageY-this.offset.top},parent:this._getParentOffset(),relative:this._getRelativeOffset()}),this.helper.css("position","absolute"),this.cssPosition=this.helper.css("position"),this.originalPosition=this._generatePosition(e),this.originalPageX=e.pageX,this.originalPageY=e.pageY,a.cursorAt&&this._adjustOffsetFromHelper(a.cursorAt),this.domPosition={prev:this.currentItem.prev()[0],parent:this.currentItem.parent()[0]},this.helper[0]!==this.currentItem[0]&&this.currentItem.hide(),this._createPlaceholder(),a.containment&&this._setContainment(),a.cursor&&"auto"!==a.cursor&&(o=this.document.find("body"),this.storedCursor=o.css("cursor"),o.css("cursor",a.cursor),this.storedStylesheet=t("<style>*{ cursor: "+a.cursor+" !important; }</style>").appendTo(o)),a.opacity&&(this.helper.css("opacity")&&(this._storedOpacity=this.helper.css("opacity")),this.helper.css("opacity",a.opacity)),a.zIndex&&(this.helper.css("zIndex")&&(this._storedZIndex=this.helper.css("zIndex")),this.helper.css("zIndex",a.zIndex)),this.scrollParent[0]!==this.document[0]&&"HTML"!==this.scrollParent[0].tagName&&(this.overflowOffset=this.scrollParent.offset()),this._trigger("start",e,this._uiHash()),this._preserveHelperProportions||this._cacheHelperProportions(),!s)for(n=this.containers.length-1;n>=0;n--)this.containers[n]._trigger("activate",e,this._uiHash(this));return t.ui.ddmanager&&(t.ui.ddmanager.current=this),t.ui.ddmanager&&!a.dropBehaviour&&t.ui.ddmanager.prepareOffsets(this,e),this.dragging=!0,this._addClass(this.helper,"ui-sortable-helper"),this._mouseDrag(e),!0},_mouseDrag:function(e){var i,s,n,o,a=this.options,r=!1;for(this.position=this._generatePosition(e),this.positionAbs=this._convertPositionTo("absolute"),this.lastPositionAbs||(this.lastPositionAbs=this.positionAbs),this.options.scroll&&(this.scrollParent[0]!==this.document[0]&&"HTML"!==this.scrollParent[0].tagName?(this.overflowOffset.top+this.scrollParent[0].offsetHeight-e.pageY<a.scrollSensitivity?this.scrollParent[0].scrollTop=r=this.scrollParent[0].scrollTop+a.scrollSpeed:e.pageY-this.overflowOffset.top<a.scrollSensitivity&&(this.scrollParent[0].scrollTop=r=this.scrollParent[0].scrollTop-a.scrollSpeed),this.overflowOffset.left+this.scrollParent[0].offsetWidth-e.pageX<a.scrollSensitivity?this.scrollParent[0].scrollLeft=r=this.scrollParent[0].scrollLeft+a.scrollSpeed:e.pageX-this.overflowOffset.left<a.scrollSensitivity&&(this.scrollParent[0].scrollLeft=r=this.scrollParent[0].scrollLeft-a.scrollSpeed)):(e.pageY-this.document.scrollTop()<a.scrollSensitivity?r=this.document.scrollTop(this.document.scrollTop()-a.scrollSpeed):this.window.height()-(e.pageY-this.document.scrollTop())<a.scrollSensitivity&&(r=this.document.scrollTop(this.document.scrollTop()+a.scrollSpeed)),e.pageX-this.document.scrollLeft()<a.scrollSensitivity?r=this.document.scrollLeft(this.document.scrollLeft()-a.scrollSpeed):this.window.width()-(e.pageX-this.document.scrollLeft())<a.scrollSensitivity&&(r=this.document.scrollLeft(this.document.scrollLeft()+a.scrollSpeed))),r!==!1&&t.ui.ddmanager&&!a.dropBehaviour&&t.ui.ddmanager.prepareOffsets(this,e)),this.positionAbs=this._convertPositionTo("absolute"),this.options.axis&&"y"===this.options.axis||(this.helper[0].style.left=this.position.left+"px"),this.options.axis&&"x"===this.options.axis||(this.helper[0].style.top=this.position.top+"px"),i=this.items.length-1;i>=0;i--)if(s=this.items[i],n=s.item[0],o=this._intersectsWithPointer(s),o&&s.instance===this.currentContainer&&n!==this.currentItem[0]&&this.placeholder[1===o?"next":"prev"]()[0]!==n&&!t.contains(this.placeholder[0],n)&&("semi-dynamic"===this.options.type?!t.contains(this.element[0],n):!0)){if(this.direction=1===o?"down":"up","pointer"!==this.options.tolerance&&!this._intersectsWithSides(s))break;this._rearrange(e,s),this._trigger("change",e,this._uiHash());break}return this._contactContainers(e),t.ui.ddmanager&&t.ui.ddmanager.drag(this,e),this._trigger("sort",e,this._uiHash()),this.lastPositionAbs=this.positionAbs,!1},_mouseStop:function(e,i){if(e){if(t.ui.ddmanager&&!this.options.dropBehaviour&&t.ui.ddmanager.drop(this,e),this.options.revert){var s=this,n=this.placeholder.offset(),o=this.options.axis,a={};o&&"x"!==o||(a.left=n.left-this.offset.parent.left-this.margins.left+(this.offsetParent[0]===this.document[0].body?0:this.offsetParent[0].scrollLeft)),o&&"y"!==o||(a.top=n.top-this.offset.parent.top-this.margins.top+(this.offsetParent[0]===this.document[0].body?0:this.offsetParent[0].scrollTop)),this.reverting=!0,t(this.helper).animate(a,parseInt(this.options.revert,10)||500,function(){s._clear(e)})}else this._clear(e,i);return!1}},cancel:function(){if(this.dragging){this._mouseUp(new t.Event("mouseup",{target:null})),"original"===this.options.helper?(this.currentItem.css(this._storedCSS),this._removeClass(this.currentItem,"ui-sortable-helper")):this.currentItem.show();for(var e=this.containers.length-1;e>=0;e--)this.containers[e]._trigger("deactivate",null,this._uiHash(this)),this.containers[e].containerCache.over&&(this.containers[e]._trigger("out",null,this._uiHash(this)),this.containers[e].containerCache.over=0)}return this.placeholder&&(this.placeholder[0].parentNode&&this.placeholder[0].parentNode.removeChild(this.placeholder[0]),"original"!==this.options.helper&&this.helper&&this.helper[0].parentNode&&this.helper.remove(),t.extend(this,{helper:null,dragging:!1,reverting:!1,_noFinalSort:null}),this.domPosition.prev?t(this.domPosition.prev).after(this.currentItem):t(this.domPosition.parent).prepend(this.currentItem)),this},serialize:function(e){var i=this._getItemsAsjQuery(e&&e.connected),s=[];return e=e||{},t(i).each(function(){var i=(t(e.item||this).attr(e.attribute||"id")||"").match(e.expression||/(.+)[\-=_](.+)/);i&&s.push((e.key||i[1]+"[]")+"="+(e.key&&e.expression?i[1]:i[2]))}),!s.length&&e.key&&s.push(e.key+"="),s.join("&")},toArray:function(e){var i=this._getItemsAsjQuery(e&&e.connected),s=[];return e=e||{},i.each(function(){s.push(t(e.item||this).attr(e.attribute||"id")||"")}),s},_intersectsWith:function(t){var e=this.positionAbs.left,i=e+this.helperProportions.width,s=this.positionAbs.top,n=s+this.helperProportions.height,o=t.left,a=o+t.width,r=t.top,h=r+t.height,l=this.offset.click.top,c=this.offset.click.left,u="x"===this.options.axis||s+l>r&&h>s+l,d="y"===this.options.axis||e+c>o&&a>e+c,p=u&&d;return"pointer"===this.options.tolerance||this.options.forcePointerForContainers||"pointer"!==this.options.tolerance&&this.helperProportions[this.floating?"width":"height"]>t[this.floating?"width":"height"]?p:e+this.helperProportions.width/2>o&&a>i-this.helperProportions.width/2&&s+this.helperProportions.height/2>r&&h>n-this.helperProportions.height/2},_intersectsWithPointer:function(t){var e,i,s="x"===this.options.axis||this._isOverAxis(this.positionAbs.top+this.offset.click.top,t.top,t.height),n="y"===this.options.axis||this._isOverAxis(this.positionAbs.left+this.offset.click.left,t.left,t.width),o=s&&n;return o?(e=this._getDragVerticalDirection(),i=this._getDragHorizontalDirection(),this.floating?"right"===i||"down"===e?2:1:e&&("down"===e?2:1)):!1},_intersectsWithSides:function(t){var e=this._isOverAxis(this.positionAbs.top+this.offset.click.top,t.top+t.height/2,t.height),i=this._isOverAxis(this.positionAbs.left+this.offset.click.left,t.left+t.width/2,t.width),s=this._getDragVerticalDirection(),n=this._getDragHorizontalDirection();return this.floating&&n?"right"===n&&i||"left"===n&&!i:s&&("down"===s&&e||"up"===s&&!e)},_getDragVerticalDirection:function(){var t=this.positionAbs.top-this.lastPositionAbs.top;return 0!==t&&(t>0?"down":"up")},_getDragHorizontalDirection:function(){var t=this.positionAbs.left-this.lastPositionAbs.left;return 0!==t&&(t>0?"right":"left")},refresh:function(t){return this._refreshItems(t),this._setHandleClassName(),this.refreshPositions(),this},_connectWith:function(){var t=this.options;return t.connectWith.constructor===String?[t.connectWith]:t.connectWith},_getItemsAsjQuery:function(e){function i(){r.push(this)}var s,n,o,a,r=[],h=[],l=this._connectWith();if(l&&e)for(s=l.length-1;s>=0;s--)for(o=t(l[s],this.document[0]),n=o.length-1;n>=0;n--)a=t.data(o[n],this.widgetFullName),a&&a!==this&&!a.options.disabled&&h.push([t.isFunction(a.options.items)?a.options.items.call(a.element):t(a.options.items,a.element).not(".ui-sortable-helper").not(".ui-sortable-placeholder"),a]);for(h.push([t.isFunction(this.options.items)?this.options.items.call(this.element,null,{options:this.options,item:this.currentItem}):t(this.options.items,this.element).not(".ui-sortable-helper").not(".ui-sortable-placeholder"),this]),s=h.length-1;s>=0;s--)h[s][0].each(i);return t(r)},_removeCurrentsFromItems:function(){var e=this.currentItem.find(":data("+this.widgetName+"-item)");this.items=t.grep(this.items,function(t){for(var i=0;e.length>i;i++)if(e[i]===t.item[0])return!1;return!0})},_refreshItems:function(e){this.items=[],this.containers=[this];var i,s,n,o,a,r,h,l,c=this.items,u=[[t.isFunction(this.options.items)?this.options.items.call(this.element[0],e,{item:this.currentItem}):t(this.options.items,this.element),this]],d=this._connectWith();if(d&&this.ready)for(i=d.length-1;i>=0;i--)for(n=t(d[i],this.document[0]),s=n.length-1;s>=0;s--)o=t.data(n[s],this.widgetFullName),o&&o!==this&&!o.options.disabled&&(u.push([t.isFunction(o.options.items)?o.options.items.call(o.element[0],e,{item:this.currentItem}):t(o.options.items,o.element),o]),this.containers.push(o));for(i=u.length-1;i>=0;i--)for(a=u[i][1],r=u[i][0],s=0,l=r.length;l>s;s++)h=t(r[s]),h.data(this.widgetName+"-item",a),c.push({item:h,instance:a,width:0,height:0,left:0,top:0})},refreshPositions:function(e){this.floating=this.items.length?"x"===this.options.axis||this._isFloating(this.items[0].item):!1,this.offsetParent&&this.helper&&(this.offset.parent=this._getParentOffset());var i,s,n,o;for(i=this.items.length-1;i>=0;i--)s=this.items[i],s.instance!==this.currentContainer&&this.currentContainer&&s.item[0]!==this.currentItem[0]||(n=this.options.toleranceElement?t(this.options.toleranceElement,s.item):s.item,e||(s.width=n.outerWidth(),s.height=n.outerHeight()),o=n.offset(),s.left=o.left,s.top=o.top);if(this.options.custom&&this.options.custom.refreshContainers)this.options.custom.refreshContainers.call(this);else for(i=this.containers.length-1;i>=0;i--)o=this.containers[i].element.offset(),this.containers[i].containerCache.left=o.left,this.containers[i].containerCache.top=o.top,this.containers[i].containerCache.width=this.containers[i].element.outerWidth(),this.containers[i].containerCache.height=this.containers[i].element.outerHeight();return this},_createPlaceholder:function(e){e=e||this;var i,s=e.options;s.placeholder&&s.placeholder.constructor!==String||(i=s.placeholder,s.placeholder={element:function(){var s=e.currentItem[0].nodeName.toLowerCase(),n=t("<"+s+">",e.document[0]);return e._addClass(n,"ui-sortable-placeholder",i||e.currentItem[0].className)._removeClass(n,"ui-sortable-helper"),"tbody"===s?e._createTrPlaceholder(e.currentItem.find("tr").eq(0),t("<tr>",e.document[0]).appendTo(n)):"tr"===s?e._createTrPlaceholder(e.currentItem,n):"img"===s&&n.attr("src",e.currentItem.attr("src")),i||n.css("visibility","hidden"),n},update:function(t,n){(!i||s.forcePlaceholderSize)&&(n.height()||n.height(e.currentItem.innerHeight()-parseInt(e.currentItem.css("paddingTop")||0,10)-parseInt(e.currentItem.css("paddingBottom")||0,10)),n.width()||n.width(e.currentItem.innerWidth()-parseInt(e.currentItem.css("paddingLeft")||0,10)-parseInt(e.currentItem.css("paddingRight")||0,10)))}}),e.placeholder=t(s.placeholder.element.call(e.element,e.currentItem)),e.currentItem.after(e.placeholder),s.placeholder.update(e,e.placeholder)},_createTrPlaceholder:function(e,i){var s=this;e.children().each(function(){t("<td> </td>",s.document[0]).attr("colspan",t(this).attr("colspan")||1).appendTo(i)})},_contactContainers:function(e){var i,s,n,o,a,r,h,l,c,u,d=null,p=null;for(i=this.containers.length-1;i>=0;i--)if(!t.contains(this.currentItem[0],this.containers[i].element[0]))if(this._intersectsWith(this.containers[i].containerCache)){if(d&&t.contains(this.containers[i].element[0],d.element[0]))continue;d=this.containers[i],p=i}else this.containers[i].containerCache.over&&(this.containers[i]._trigger("out",e,this._uiHash(this)),this.containers[i].containerCache.over=0);if(d)if(1===this.containers.length)this.containers[p].containerCache.over||(this.containers[p]._trigger("over",e,this._uiHash(this)),this.containers[p].containerCache.over=1);else{for(n=1e4,o=null,c=d.floating||this._isFloating(this.currentItem),a=c?"left":"top",r=c?"width":"height",u=c?"pageX":"pageY",s=this.items.length-1;s>=0;s--)t.contains(this.containers[p].element[0],this.items[s].item[0])&&this.items[s].item[0]!==this.currentItem[0]&&(h=this.items[s].item.offset()[a],l=!1,e[u]-h>this.items[s][r]/2&&(l=!0),n>Math.abs(e[u]-h)&&(n=Math.abs(e[u]-h),o=this.items[s],this.direction=l?"up":"down"));if(!o&&!this.options.dropOnEmpty)return;if(this.currentContainer===this.containers[p])return this.currentContainer.containerCache.over||(this.containers[p]._trigger("over",e,this._uiHash()),this.currentContainer.containerCache.over=1),void 0;o?this._rearrange(e,o,null,!0):this._rearrange(e,null,this.containers[p].element,!0),this._trigger("change",e,this._uiHash()),this.containers[p]._trigger("change",e,this._uiHash(this)),this.currentContainer=this.containers[p],this.options.placeholder.update(this.currentContainer,this.placeholder),this.containers[p]._trigger("over",e,this._uiHash(this)),this.containers[p].containerCache.over=1}},_createHelper:function(e){var i=this.options,s=t.isFunction(i.helper)?t(i.helper.apply(this.element[0],[e,this.currentItem])):"clone"===i.helper?this.currentItem.clone():this.currentItem;return s.parents("body").length||t("parent"!==i.appendTo?i.appendTo:this.currentItem[0].parentNode)[0].appendChild(s[0]),s[0]===this.currentItem[0]&&(this._storedCSS={width:this.currentItem[0].style.width,height:this.currentItem[0].style.height,position:this.currentItem.css("position"),top:this.currentItem.css("top"),left:this.currentItem.css("left")}),(!s[0].style.width||i.forceHelperSize)&&s.width(this.currentItem.width()),(!s[0].style.height||i.forceHelperSize)&&s.height(this.currentItem.height()),s},_adjustOffsetFromHelper:function(e){"string"==typeof e&&(e=e.split(" ")),t.isArray(e)&&(e={left:+e[0],top:+e[1]||0}),"left"in e&&(this.offset.click.left=e.left+this.margins.left),"right"in e&&(this.offset.click.left=this.helperProportions.width-e.right+this.margins.left),"top"in e&&(this.offset.click.top=e.top+this.margins.top),"bottom"in e&&(this.offset.click.top=this.helperProportions.height-e.bottom+this.margins.top)},_getParentOffset:function(){this.offsetParent=this.helper.offsetParent();var e=this.offsetParent.offset();return"absolute"===this.cssPosition&&this.scrollParent[0]!==this.document[0]&&t.contains(this.scrollParent[0],this.offsetParent[0])&&(e.left+=this.scrollParent.scrollLeft(),e.top+=this.scrollParent.scrollTop()),(this.offsetParent[0]===this.document[0].body||this.offsetParent[0].tagName&&"html"===this.offsetParent[0].tagName.toLowerCase()&&t.ui.ie)&&(e={top:0,left:0}),{top:e.top+(parseInt(this.offsetParent.css("borderTopWidth"),10)||0),left:e.left+(parseInt(this.offsetParent.css("borderLeftWidth"),10)||0)}},_getRelativeOffset:function(){if("relative"===this.cssPosition){var t=this.currentItem.position();return{top:t.top-(parseInt(this.helper.css("top"),10)||0)+this.scrollParent.scrollTop(),left:t.left-(parseInt(this.helper.css("left"),10)||0)+this.scrollParent.scrollLeft()}}return{top:0,left:0}},_cacheMargins:function(){this.margins={left:parseInt(this.currentItem.css("marginLeft"),10)||0,top:parseInt(this.currentItem.css("marginTop"),10)||0}},_cacheHelperProportions:function(){this.helperProportions={width:this.helper.outerWidth(),height:this.helper.outerHeight()}},_setContainment:function(){var e,i,s,n=this.options;"parent"===n.containment&&(n.containment=this.helper[0].parentNode),("document"===n.containment||"window"===n.containment)&&(this.containment=[0-this.offset.relative.left-this.offset.parent.left,0-this.offset.relative.top-this.offset.parent.top,"document"===n.containment?this.document.width():this.window.width()-this.helperProportions.width-this.margins.left,("document"===n.containment?this.document.height()||document.body.parentNode.scrollHeight:this.window.height()||this.document[0].body.parentNode.scrollHeight)-this.helperProportions.height-this.margins.top]),/^(document|window|parent)$/.test(n.containment)||(e=t(n.containment)[0],i=t(n.containment).offset(),s="hidden"!==t(e).css("overflow"),this.containment=[i.left+(parseInt(t(e).css("borderLeftWidth"),10)||0)+(parseInt(t(e).css("paddingLeft"),10)||0)-this.margins.left,i.top+(parseInt(t(e).css("borderTopWidth"),10)||0)+(parseInt(t(e).css("paddingTop"),10)||0)-this.margins.top,i.left+(s?Math.max(e.scrollWidth,e.offsetWidth):e.offsetWidth)-(parseInt(t(e).css("borderLeftWidth"),10)||0)-(parseInt(t(e).css("paddingRight"),10)||0)-this.helperProportions.width-this.margins.left,i.top+(s?Math.max(e.scrollHeight,e.offsetHeight):e.offsetHeight)-(parseInt(t(e).css("borderTopWidth"),10)||0)-(parseInt(t(e).css("paddingBottom"),10)||0)-this.helperProportions.height-this.margins.top])},_convertPositionTo:function(e,i){i||(i=this.position);var s="absolute"===e?1:-1,n="absolute"!==this.cssPosition||this.scrollParent[0]!==this.document[0]&&t.contains(this.scrollParent[0],this.offsetParent[0])?this.scrollParent:this.offsetParent,o=/(html|body)/i.test(n[0].tagName);return{top:i.top+this.offset.relative.top*s+this.offset.parent.top*s-("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.scrollParent.scrollTop():o?0:n.scrollTop())*s,left:i.left+this.offset.relative.left*s+this.offset.parent.left*s-("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.scrollParent.scrollLeft():o?0:n.scrollLeft())*s}},_generatePosition:function(e){var i,s,n=this.options,o=e.pageX,a=e.pageY,r="absolute"!==this.cssPosition||this.scrollParent[0]!==this.document[0]&&t.contains(this.scrollParent[0],this.offsetParent[0])?this.scrollParent:this.offsetParent,h=/(html|body)/i.test(r[0].tagName);return"relative"!==this.cssPosition||this.scrollParent[0]!==this.document[0]&&this.scrollParent[0]!==this.offsetParent[0]||(this.offset.relative=this._getRelativeOffset()),this.originalPosition&&(this.containment&&(e.pageX-this.offset.click.left<this.containment[0]&&(o=this.containment[0]+this.offset.click.left),e.pageY-this.offset.click.top<this.containment[1]&&(a=this.containment[1]+this.offset.click.top),e.pageX-this.offset.click.left>this.containment[2]&&(o=this.containment[2]+this.offset.click.left),e.pageY-this.offset.click.top>this.containment[3]&&(a=this.containment[3]+this.offset.click.top)),n.grid&&(i=this.originalPageY+Math.round((a-this.originalPageY)/n.grid[1])*n.grid[1],a=this.containment?i-this.offset.click.top>=this.containment[1]&&i-this.offset.click.top<=this.containment[3]?i:i-this.offset.click.top>=this.containment[1]?i-n.grid[1]:i+n.grid[1]:i,s=this.originalPageX+Math.round((o-this.originalPageX)/n.grid[0])*n.grid[0],o=this.containment?s-this.offset.click.left>=this.containment[0]&&s-this.offset.click.left<=this.containment[2]?s:s-this.offset.click.left>=this.containment[0]?s-n.grid[0]:s+n.grid[0]:s)),{top:a-this.offset.click.top-this.offset.relative.top-this.offset.parent.top+("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.scrollParent.scrollTop():h?0:r.scrollTop()),left:o-this.offset.click.left-this.offset.relative.left-this.offset.parent.left+("fixed"===this.cssPosition?-this.scrollParent.scrollLeft():h?0:r.scrollLeft())}},_rearrange:function(t,e,i,s){i?i[0].appendChild(this.placeholder[0]):e.item[0].parentNode.insertBefore(this.placeholder[0],"down"===this.direction?e.item[0]:e.item[0].nextSibling),this.counter=this.counter?++this.counter:1;var n=this.counter; +this._delay(function(){n===this.counter&&this.refreshPositions(!s)})},_clear:function(t,e){function i(t,e,i){return function(s){i._trigger(t,s,e._uiHash(e))}}this.reverting=!1;var s,n=[];if(!this._noFinalSort&&this.currentItem.parent().length&&this.placeholder.before(this.currentItem),this._noFinalSort=null,this.helper[0]===this.currentItem[0]){for(s in this._storedCSS)("auto"===this._storedCSS[s]||"static"===this._storedCSS[s])&&(this._storedCSS[s]="");this.currentItem.css(this._storedCSS),this._removeClass(this.currentItem,"ui-sortable-helper")}else this.currentItem.show();for(this.fromOutside&&!e&&n.push(function(t){this._trigger("receive",t,this._uiHash(this.fromOutside))}),!this.fromOutside&&this.domPosition.prev===this.currentItem.prev().not(".ui-sortable-helper")[0]&&this.domPosition.parent===this.currentItem.parent()[0]||e||n.push(function(t){this._trigger("update",t,this._uiHash())}),this!==this.currentContainer&&(e||(n.push(function(t){this._trigger("remove",t,this._uiHash())}),n.push(function(t){return function(e){t._trigger("receive",e,this._uiHash(this))}}.call(this,this.currentContainer)),n.push(function(t){return function(e){t._trigger("update",e,this._uiHash(this))}}.call(this,this.currentContainer)))),s=this.containers.length-1;s>=0;s--)e||n.push(i("deactivate",this,this.containers[s])),this.containers[s].containerCache.over&&(n.push(i("out",this,this.containers[s])),this.containers[s].containerCache.over=0);if(this.storedCursor&&(this.document.find("body").css("cursor",this.storedCursor),this.storedStylesheet.remove()),this._storedOpacity&&this.helper.css("opacity",this._storedOpacity),this._storedZIndex&&this.helper.css("zIndex","auto"===this._storedZIndex?"":this._storedZIndex),this.dragging=!1,e||this._trigger("beforeStop",t,this._uiHash()),this.placeholder[0].parentNode.removeChild(this.placeholder[0]),this.cancelHelperRemoval||(this.helper[0]!==this.currentItem[0]&&this.helper.remove(),this.helper=null),!e){for(s=0;n.length>s;s++)n[s].call(this,t);this._trigger("stop",t,this._uiHash())}return this.fromOutside=!1,!this.cancelHelperRemoval},_trigger:function(){t.Widget.prototype._trigger.apply(this,arguments)===!1&&this.cancel()},_uiHash:function(e){var i=e||this;return{helper:i.helper,placeholder:i.placeholder||t([]),position:i.position,originalPosition:i.originalPosition,offset:i.positionAbs,item:i.currentItem,sender:e?e.element:null}}}),t.widget("ui.spinner",{version:"1.12.1",defaultElement:"<input>",widgetEventPrefix:"spin",options:{classes:{"ui-spinner":"ui-corner-all","ui-spinner-down":"ui-corner-br","ui-spinner-up":"ui-corner-tr"},culture:null,icons:{down:"ui-icon-triangle-1-s",up:"ui-icon-triangle-1-n"},incremental:!0,max:null,min:null,numberFormat:null,page:10,step:1,change:null,spin:null,start:null,stop:null},_create:function(){this._setOption("max",this.options.max),this._setOption("min",this.options.min),this._setOption("step",this.options.step),""!==this.value()&&this._value(this.element.val(),!0),this._draw(),this._on(this._events),this._refresh(),this._on(this.window,{beforeunload:function(){this.element.removeAttr("autocomplete")}})},_getCreateOptions:function(){var e=this._super(),i=this.element;return t.each(["min","max","step"],function(t,s){var n=i.attr(s);null!=n&&n.length&&(e[s]=n)}),e},_events:{keydown:function(t){this._start(t)&&this._keydown(t)&&t.preventDefault()},keyup:"_stop",focus:function(){this.previous=this.element.val()},blur:function(t){return this.cancelBlur?(delete this.cancelBlur,void 0):(this._stop(),this._refresh(),this.previous!==this.element.val()&&this._trigger("change",t),void 0)},mousewheel:function(t,e){if(e){if(!this.spinning&&!this._start(t))return!1;this._spin((e>0?1:-1)*this.options.step,t),clearTimeout(this.mousewheelTimer),this.mousewheelTimer=this._delay(function(){this.spinning&&this._stop(t)},100),t.preventDefault()}},"mousedown .ui-spinner-button":function(e){function i(){var e=this.element[0]===t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0]);e||(this.element.trigger("focus"),this.previous=s,this._delay(function(){this.previous=s}))}var s;s=this.element[0]===t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0])?this.previous:this.element.val(),e.preventDefault(),i.call(this),this.cancelBlur=!0,this._delay(function(){delete this.cancelBlur,i.call(this)}),this._start(e)!==!1&&this._repeat(null,t(e.currentTarget).hasClass("ui-spinner-up")?1:-1,e)},"mouseup .ui-spinner-button":"_stop","mouseenter .ui-spinner-button":function(e){return t(e.currentTarget).hasClass("ui-state-active")?this._start(e)===!1?!1:(this._repeat(null,t(e.currentTarget).hasClass("ui-spinner-up")?1:-1,e),void 0):void 0},"mouseleave .ui-spinner-button":"_stop"},_enhance:function(){this.uiSpinner=this.element.attr("autocomplete","off").wrap("<span>").parent().append("<a></a><a></a>")},_draw:function(){this._enhance(),this._addClass(this.uiSpinner,"ui-spinner","ui-widget ui-widget-content"),this._addClass("ui-spinner-input"),this.element.attr("role","spinbutton"),this.buttons=this.uiSpinner.children("a").attr("tabIndex",-1).attr("aria-hidden",!0).button({classes:{"ui-button":""}}),this._removeClass(this.buttons,"ui-corner-all"),this._addClass(this.buttons.first(),"ui-spinner-button ui-spinner-up"),this._addClass(this.buttons.last(),"ui-spinner-button ui-spinner-down"),this.buttons.first().button({icon:this.options.icons.up,showLabel:!1}),this.buttons.last().button({icon:this.options.icons.down,showLabel:!1}),this.buttons.height()>Math.ceil(.5*this.uiSpinner.height())&&this.uiSpinner.height()>0&&this.uiSpinner.height(this.uiSpinner.height())},_keydown:function(e){var i=this.options,s=t.ui.keyCode;switch(e.keyCode){case s.UP:return this._repeat(null,1,e),!0;case s.DOWN:return this._repeat(null,-1,e),!0;case s.PAGE_UP:return this._repeat(null,i.page,e),!0;case s.PAGE_DOWN:return this._repeat(null,-i.page,e),!0}return!1},_start:function(t){return this.spinning||this._trigger("start",t)!==!1?(this.counter||(this.counter=1),this.spinning=!0,!0):!1},_repeat:function(t,e,i){t=t||500,clearTimeout(this.timer),this.timer=this._delay(function(){this._repeat(40,e,i)},t),this._spin(e*this.options.step,i)},_spin:function(t,e){var i=this.value()||0;this.counter||(this.counter=1),i=this._adjustValue(i+t*this._increment(this.counter)),this.spinning&&this._trigger("spin",e,{value:i})===!1||(this._value(i),this.counter++)},_increment:function(e){var i=this.options.incremental;return i?t.isFunction(i)?i(e):Math.floor(e*e*e/5e4-e*e/500+17*e/200+1):1},_precision:function(){var t=this._precisionOf(this.options.step);return null!==this.options.min&&(t=Math.max(t,this._precisionOf(this.options.min))),t},_precisionOf:function(t){var e=""+t,i=e.indexOf(".");return-1===i?0:e.length-i-1},_adjustValue:function(t){var e,i,s=this.options;return e=null!==s.min?s.min:0,i=t-e,i=Math.round(i/s.step)*s.step,t=e+i,t=parseFloat(t.toFixed(this._precision())),null!==s.max&&t>s.max?s.max:null!==s.min&&s.min>t?s.min:t},_stop:function(t){this.spinning&&(clearTimeout(this.timer),clearTimeout(this.mousewheelTimer),this.counter=0,this.spinning=!1,this._trigger("stop",t))},_setOption:function(t,e){var i,s,n;return"culture"===t||"numberFormat"===t?(i=this._parse(this.element.val()),this.options[t]=e,this.element.val(this._format(i)),void 0):(("max"===t||"min"===t||"step"===t)&&"string"==typeof e&&(e=this._parse(e)),"icons"===t&&(s=this.buttons.first().find(".ui-icon"),this._removeClass(s,null,this.options.icons.up),this._addClass(s,null,e.up),n=this.buttons.last().find(".ui-icon"),this._removeClass(n,null,this.options.icons.down),this._addClass(n,null,e.down)),this._super(t,e),void 0)},_setOptionDisabled:function(t){this._super(t),this._toggleClass(this.uiSpinner,null,"ui-state-disabled",!!t),this.element.prop("disabled",!!t),this.buttons.button(t?"disable":"enable")},_setOptions:r(function(t){this._super(t)}),_parse:function(t){return"string"==typeof t&&""!==t&&(t=window.Globalize&&this.options.numberFormat?Globalize.parseFloat(t,10,this.options.culture):+t),""===t||isNaN(t)?null:t},_format:function(t){return""===t?"":window.Globalize&&this.options.numberFormat?Globalize.format(t,this.options.numberFormat,this.options.culture):t},_refresh:function(){this.element.attr({"aria-valuemin":this.options.min,"aria-valuemax":this.options.max,"aria-valuenow":this._parse(this.element.val())})},isValid:function(){var t=this.value();return null===t?!1:t===this._adjustValue(t)},_value:function(t,e){var i;""!==t&&(i=this._parse(t),null!==i&&(e||(i=this._adjustValue(i)),t=this._format(i))),this.element.val(t),this._refresh()},_destroy:function(){this.element.prop("disabled",!1).removeAttr("autocomplete role aria-valuemin aria-valuemax aria-valuenow"),this.uiSpinner.replaceWith(this.element)},stepUp:r(function(t){this._stepUp(t)}),_stepUp:function(t){this._start()&&(this._spin((t||1)*this.options.step),this._stop())},stepDown:r(function(t){this._stepDown(t)}),_stepDown:function(t){this._start()&&(this._spin((t||1)*-this.options.step),this._stop())},pageUp:r(function(t){this._stepUp((t||1)*this.options.page)}),pageDown:r(function(t){this._stepDown((t||1)*this.options.page)}),value:function(t){return arguments.length?(r(this._value).call(this,t),void 0):this._parse(this.element.val())},widget:function(){return this.uiSpinner}}),t.uiBackCompat!==!1&&t.widget("ui.spinner",t.ui.spinner,{_enhance:function(){this.uiSpinner=this.element.attr("autocomplete","off").wrap(this._uiSpinnerHtml()).parent().append(this._buttonHtml())},_uiSpinnerHtml:function(){return"<span>"},_buttonHtml:function(){return"<a></a><a></a>"}}),t.ui.spinner,t.widget("ui.tabs",{version:"1.12.1",delay:300,options:{active:null,classes:{"ui-tabs":"ui-corner-all","ui-tabs-nav":"ui-corner-all","ui-tabs-panel":"ui-corner-bottom","ui-tabs-tab":"ui-corner-top"},collapsible:!1,event:"click",heightStyle:"content",hide:null,show:null,activate:null,beforeActivate:null,beforeLoad:null,load:null},_isLocal:function(){var t=/#.*$/;return function(e){var i,s;i=e.href.replace(t,""),s=location.href.replace(t,"");try{i=decodeURIComponent(i)}catch(n){}try{s=decodeURIComponent(s)}catch(n){}return e.hash.length>1&&i===s}}(),_create:function(){var e=this,i=this.options;this.running=!1,this._addClass("ui-tabs","ui-widget ui-widget-content"),this._toggleClass("ui-tabs-collapsible",null,i.collapsible),this._processTabs(),i.active=this._initialActive(),t.isArray(i.disabled)&&(i.disabled=t.unique(i.disabled.concat(t.map(this.tabs.filter(".ui-state-disabled"),function(t){return e.tabs.index(t)}))).sort()),this.active=this.options.active!==!1&&this.anchors.length?this._findActive(i.active):t(),this._refresh(),this.active.length&&this.load(i.active)},_initialActive:function(){var e=this.options.active,i=this.options.collapsible,s=location.hash.substring(1);return null===e&&(s&&this.tabs.each(function(i,n){return t(n).attr("aria-controls")===s?(e=i,!1):void 0}),null===e&&(e=this.tabs.index(this.tabs.filter(".ui-tabs-active"))),(null===e||-1===e)&&(e=this.tabs.length?0:!1)),e!==!1&&(e=this.tabs.index(this.tabs.eq(e)),-1===e&&(e=i?!1:0)),!i&&e===!1&&this.anchors.length&&(e=0),e},_getCreateEventData:function(){return{tab:this.active,panel:this.active.length?this._getPanelForTab(this.active):t()}},_tabKeydown:function(e){var i=t(t.ui.safeActiveElement(this.document[0])).closest("li"),s=this.tabs.index(i),n=!0;if(!this._handlePageNav(e)){switch(e.keyCode){case t.ui.keyCode.RIGHT:case t.ui.keyCode.DOWN:s++;break;case t.ui.keyCode.UP:case t.ui.keyCode.LEFT:n=!1,s--;break;case t.ui.keyCode.END:s=this.anchors.length-1;break;case t.ui.keyCode.HOME:s=0;break;case t.ui.keyCode.SPACE:return e.preventDefault(),clearTimeout(this.activating),this._activate(s),void 0;case t.ui.keyCode.ENTER:return e.preventDefault(),clearTimeout(this.activating),this._activate(s===this.options.active?!1:s),void 0;default:return}e.preventDefault(),clearTimeout(this.activating),s=this._focusNextTab(s,n),e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey||(i.attr("aria-selected","false"),this.tabs.eq(s).attr("aria-selected","true"),this.activating=this._delay(function(){this.option("active",s)},this.delay))}},_panelKeydown:function(e){this._handlePageNav(e)||e.ctrlKey&&e.keyCode===t.ui.keyCode.UP&&(e.preventDefault(),this.active.trigger("focus"))},_handlePageNav:function(e){return e.altKey&&e.keyCode===t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_UP?(this._activate(this._focusNextTab(this.options.active-1,!1)),!0):e.altKey&&e.keyCode===t.ui.keyCode.PAGE_DOWN?(this._activate(this._focusNextTab(this.options.active+1,!0)),!0):void 0},_findNextTab:function(e,i){function s(){return e>n&&(e=0),0>e&&(e=n),e}for(var n=this.tabs.length-1;-1!==t.inArray(s(),this.options.disabled);)e=i?e+1:e-1;return e},_focusNextTab:function(t,e){return t=this._findNextTab(t,e),this.tabs.eq(t).trigger("focus"),t},_setOption:function(t,e){return"active"===t?(this._activate(e),void 0):(this._super(t,e),"collapsible"===t&&(this._toggleClass("ui-tabs-collapsible",null,e),e||this.options.active!==!1||this._activate(0)),"event"===t&&this._setupEvents(e),"heightStyle"===t&&this._setupHeightStyle(e),void 0)},_sanitizeSelector:function(t){return t?t.replace(/[!"$%&'()*+,.\/:;<=>?@\[\]\^`{|}~]/g,"\\$&"):""},refresh:function(){var e=this.options,i=this.tablist.children(":has(a[href])");e.disabled=t.map(i.filter(".ui-state-disabled"),function(t){return 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item=target.parentNode;self._handler.cancel(item.qqFileId);qq.remove(item);}});}});qq.UploadDropZone=function(o){this._options={element:null,onEnter:function(e){},onLeave:function(e){},onLeaveNotDescendants:function(e){},onDrop:function(e){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._disableDropOutside();this._attachEvents();};qq.UploadDropZone.prototype={_disableDropOutside:function(e){if(!qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled){qq.attach(document,'dragover',function(e){if(e.dataTransfer){e.dataTransfer.dropEffect='none';e.preventDefault();}});qq.UploadDropZone.dropOutsideDisabled=true;}},_attachEvents:function(){var self=this;qq.attach(self._element,'dragover',function(e){if(!self._isValidFileDrag(e))return;var 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dt&&dt.effectAllowed!='none'&&(dt.files||(!isWebkit&&dt.types.contains&&dt.types.contains('Files')));}};qq.UploadButton=function(o){this._options={element:null,multiple:false,name:'file',onChange:function(input){},hoverClass:'qq-upload-button-hover',focusClass:'qq-upload-button-focus'};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;qq.css(this._element,{position:'relative',overflow:'hidden',direction:'ltr'});this._input=this._createInput();};qq.UploadButton.prototype={getInput:function(){return this._input;},reset:function(){if(this._input.parentNode){qq.remove(this._input);}qq.removeClass(this._element,this._options.focusClass);this._input=this._createInput();},_createInput:function(){var input=document.createElement("input");if(this._options.multiple){input.setAttribute("multiple","multiple");}input.setAttribute("type","file");input.setAttribute("name",this._options.name);qq.css(input,{position:'absolute',right:0,top:0,fontFamily:'Arial',fontSize:'118px',margin:0,padding:0,cursor:'pointer',opacity:0});this._element.appendChild(input);var self=this;qq.attach(input,'change',function(){self._options.onChange(input);});qq.attach(input,'mouseover',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'mouseout',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.hoverClass);});qq.attach(input,'focus',function(){qq.addClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});qq.attach(input,'blur',function(){qq.removeClass(self._element,self._options.focusClass);});if(window.attachEvent){input.setAttribute('tabIndex',"-1");}return input;}};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract=function(o){this._options={debug:false,action:'/upload.php',maxConnections:999,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){},onComplete:function(id,fileName,response){},onCancel:function(id,fileName){}};qq.extend(this._options,o);this._queue=[];this._params=[];};qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype={log:function(str){if(this._options.debug&&window.console)console.log('[uploader] '+str);},add:function(file){},upload:function(id,params){var len=this._queue.push(id);var copy={};qq.extend(copy,params);this._params[id]=copy;if(len<=this._options.maxConnections){this._upload(id,this._params[id]);}},cancel:function(id){this._cancel(id);this._dequeue(id);},cancelAll:function(){for(var i=0;i<this._queue.length;i++){this._cancel(this._queue[i]);}this._queue=[];},getName:function(id){},getSize:function(id){},getQueue:function(){return this._queue;},_upload:function(id){},_cancel:function(id){},_dequeue:function(id){var i=qq.indexOf(this._queue,id);this._queue.splice(i,1);var max=this._options.maxConnections;if(this._queue.length>=max&&i<max){var nextId=this._queue[max-1];this._upload(nextId,this._params[nextId]);}}};qq.UploadHandlerForm=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._inputs={};};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{add:function(fileInput){fileInput.setAttribute('name','qqfile');var id='qq-upload-handler-iframe'+qq.getUniqueId();this._inputs[id]=fileInput;if(fileInput.parentNode){qq.remove(fileInput);}return id;},getName:function(id){return this._inputs[id].value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));delete this._inputs[id];var iframe=document.getElementById(id);if(iframe){iframe.setAttribute('src','javascript:false;');qq.remove(iframe);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;},_attachLoadEvent:function(iframe,callback){qq.attach(iframe,'load',function(){if(!iframe.parentNode){return;}if(iframe.contentDocument&&iframe.contentDocument.body&&iframe.contentDocument.body.innerHTML=="false"){return;}callback();});},_getIframeContentJSON:function(iframe){var doc=iframe.contentDocument?iframe.contentDocument:iframe.contentWindow.document,response;this.log("converting iframe's innerHTML to JSON");this.log("innerHTML = "+doc.body.innerHTML);try{response=eval("("+doc.body.innerHTML+")");}catch(err){response={};}return response;},_createIframe:function(id){var iframe=qq.toElement('<iframe src="javascript:false;" name="'+id+'" />');iframe.setAttribute('id',id);iframe.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(iframe);return iframe;},_createForm:function(iframe,params){var form=qq.toElement('<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"></form>');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);form.setAttribute('action',queryString);form.setAttribute('target',iframe.name);form.style.display='none';document.body.appendChild(form);return form;}});qq.UploadHandlerXhr=function(o){qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.apply(this,arguments);this._files=[];this._xhrs=[];this._loaded=[];};qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported=function(){var input=document.createElement('input');input.type='file';return('multiple'in input&&typeof File!="undefined"&&typeof(new XMLHttpRequest()).upload!="undefined");};qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,qq.UploadHandlerAbstract.prototype);qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{add:function(file){if(!(file instanceof File)){throw new Error('Passed obj in not a File (in qq.UploadHandlerXhr)');}return this._files.push(file)-1;},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},getLoaded:function(id){return this._loaded[id]||0;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_onComplete:function(id,xhr){if(!this._files[id])return;var name=this.getName(id);var size=this.getSize(id);this._options.onProgress(id,name,size,size);if(xhr.status==200){this.log("xhr - server response received");this.log("responseText = "+xhr.responseText);var response;try{response=eval("("+xhr.responseText+")");}catch(err){response={};}this._options.onComplete(id,name,response);}else{this._options.onComplete(id,name,{});}this._files[id]=null;this._xhrs[id]=null;this._dequeue(id);},_cancel:function(id){this._options.onCancel(id,this.getName(id));this._files[id]=null;if(this._xhrs[id]){this._xhrs[id].abort();this._xhrs[id]=null;}}});qq.extend(qq.FileUploader.prototype,{_createUploadHandler:function(){var self=this,handlerClass;if(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.isSupported()){handlerClass='UploadHandlerXhr';}else{handlerClass='UploadHandlerForm';}var handler=new qq[handlerClass]({debug:this._options.debug,action:this._options.action,maxConnections:this._options.maxConnections,onProgress:function(id,fileName,loaded,total){self._onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);self._options.onProgress(id,fileName,loaded,total);},onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){self._onComplete(id,fileName,result);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,result);},onCancel:function(id,fileName){self._onCancel(id,fileName);self._options.onCancel(id,fileName);},onUpload:function(){self._onUpload();}});return handler;},_onUpload:function(){this._handler.uploadAll(this._options.params);},_uploadFile:function(fileContainer){var id=this._handler.add(fileContainer);var fileName=this._handler.getName(id);if(this._options.onSubmit(id,fileName)!==false){this._onSubmit(id,fileName);}},_addToList:function(id,fileName){var item=qq.toElement(this._options.fileTemplate);item.qqFileId=id;var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,fileName);this._find(item,'size').style.display='none';var nameElement=this._find(item,'nameInput');fileName=fileName.toLowerCase();fileName=fileName.replace(/([ !"#$%&\'()+,\/;<=>?@[\]^`{|}~:]+)/g,'_');fileName=fileName.replace(/^_+/,'');nameElement.value=fileName;nameElement.id='mediamanager__upload_item'+id;this._listElement.appendChild(item);}});qq.FileUploaderExtended=function(o){qq.FileUploaderBasic.apply(this,arguments);qq.extend(this._options,{element:null,listElement:null,template:'<div class="qq-uploader">'+'<div class="qq-upload-drop-area"><span>'+LANG.media_drop+'</span></div>'+'<div class="qq-upload-button">'+LANG.media_select+'</div>'+'<ul class="qq-upload-list"></ul>'+'<div class="qq-action-container">'+' <button class="qq-upload-action" type="submit" id="mediamanager__upload_button">'+LANG.media_upload_btn+'</button>'+' <label class="qq-overwrite-check"><input type="checkbox" value="1" name="ow" class="dw__ow"> <span>'+LANG.media_overwrt+'</span></label>'+'</div>'+'</div>',fileTemplate:'<li>'+'<span class="qq-upload-file hidden"></span>'+' <input class="qq-upload-name-input edit" type="text" value="" />'+' <span class="qq-upload-spinner hidden"></span>'+' <span class="qq-upload-size"></span>'+' <a class="qq-upload-cancel" href="#">'+LANG.media_cancel+'</a>'+' <span class="qq-upload-failed-text error">Failed</span>'+'</li>',classes:{button:'qq-upload-button',drop:'qq-upload-drop-area',dropActive:'qq-upload-drop-area-active',list:'qq-upload-list',nameInput:'qq-upload-name-input',overwriteInput:'qq-overwrite-check',uploadButton:'qq-upload-action',file:'qq-upload-file',spinner:'qq-upload-spinner',size:'qq-upload-size',cancel:'qq-upload-cancel',success:'qq-upload-success',fail:'qq-upload-fail',failedText:'qq-upload-failed-text'}});qq.extend(this._options,o);this._element=this._options.element;this._element.innerHTML=this._options.template;this._listElement=this._options.listElement||this._find(this._element,'list');this._classes=this._options.classes;this._button=this._createUploadButton(this._find(this._element,'button'));this._bindCancelEvent();this._bindUploadEvent();this._setupDragDrop();};qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,qq.FileUploader.prototype);qq.extend(qq.FileUploaderExtended.prototype,{_bindUploadEvent:function(){var self=this,list=this._listElement;qq.attach(document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_button'),'click',function(e){e=e||window.event;var target=e.target||e.srcElement;qq.preventDefault(e);self._handler._options.onUpload();jQuery(".qq-upload-name-input").each(function(i){jQuery(this).prop('disabled',true);});});},_onComplete:function(id,fileName,result){this._filesInProgress--;var item=this._getItemByFileId(id);qq.remove(this._find(item,'cancel'));qq.remove(this._find(item,'spinner'));var nameInput=this._find(item,'nameInput');var fileElement=this._find(item,'file');qq.setText(fileElement,nameInput.value);qq.removeClass(fileElement,'hidden');qq.remove(nameInput);jQuery('.qq-upload-button, #mediamanager__upload_button').remove();jQuery('.dw__ow').parent().hide();jQuery('.qq-upload-drop-area').remove();if(result.success){qq.addClass(item,this._classes.success);$link='<a href="'+result.link+'" id="h_:'+result.id+'" class="select">'+nameInput.value+'</a>';jQuery(fileElement).html($link);}else{qq.addClass(item,this._classes.fail);var fail=this._find(item,'failedText');if(result.error)qq.setText(fail,result.error);}if(document.getElementById('media__content')&&!document.getElementById('mediamanager__done_form')){var action=document.location.href;var i=action.indexOf('?');if(i)action=action.substr(0,i);var button='<form method="post" action="'+action+'" id="mediamanager__done_form"><div>';button+='<input type="hidden" value="'+result.ns+'" name="ns">';button+='<input type="hidden" value="1" name="recent">';button+='<button type="submit">'+LANG.media_done_btn+'</button></div></form>';jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').append(button);}}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerForm.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._inputs[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.value.replace(/.*(\/|\\)/,"");}else{return null;}}},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._inputs){this.upload(key,params);}},_upload:function(id,params){var input=this._inputs[id];if(!input){throw new Error('file with passed id was not added, or already uploaded or cancelled');}var fileName=this.getName(id);var iframe=this._createIframe(id);var form=this._createForm(iframe,params);form.appendChild(input);var nameInput=qq.toElement('<input name="mediaid" value="'+fileName+'" type="text">');form.appendChild(nameInput);var checked=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var owCheckbox=jQuery('.dw__ow').clone();owCheckbox.attr('checked',checked);jQuery(form).append(owCheckbox);var self=this;this._attachLoadEvent(iframe,function(){self.log('iframe loaded');var response=self._getIframeContentJSON(iframe);self._options.onComplete(id,fileName,response);self._dequeue(id);delete self._inputs[id];setTimeout(function(){qq.remove(iframe);},1);});form.submit();qq.remove(form);return id;}});qq.extend(qq.UploadHandlerXhr.prototype,{uploadAll:function(params){this._uploadAll(params);},getName:function(id){var file=this._files[id];var name=document.getElementById('mediamanager__upload_item'+id);if(name!=null){return name.value;}else{if(file!=null){return file.fileName!=null?file.fileName:file.name;}else{return null;}}},getSize:function(id){var file=this._files[id];if(file==null)return null;return file.fileSize!=null?file.fileSize:file.size;},_upload:function(id,params){var file=this._files[id],name=this.getName(id),size=this.getSize(id);if(name==null||size==null)return;this._loaded[id]=0;var xhr=this._xhrs[id]=new XMLHttpRequest();var self=this;xhr.upload.onprogress=function(e){if(e.lengthComputable){self._loaded[id]=e.loaded;self._options.onProgress(id,name,e.loaded,e.total);}};xhr.onreadystatechange=function(){if(xhr.readyState==4){self._onComplete(id,xhr);}};params=params||{};params['qqfile']=name;params['ow']=jQuery('.dw__ow').is(':checked');var queryString=qq.obj2url(params,this._options.action);xhr.open("POST",queryString,true);xhr.setRequestHeader("X-Requested-With","XMLHttpRequest");xhr.setRequestHeader("X-File-Name",encodeURIComponent(name));xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type","application/octet-stream");xhr.send(file);},_uploadAll:function(params){jQuery(".qq-upload-spinner").each(function(i){jQuery(this).removeClass('hidden');});for(key in this._files){this.upload(key,params);}}});function substr_replace(str,replace,start,length){var a2,b1;a2=(start<0?str.length:0)+start;if(typeof length==='undefined'){length=str.length-a2;}else if(length<0&&start<0&&length<=start){length=0;}b1=(length<0?str.length:a2)+length;return str.substring(0,a2)+replace+str.substring(b1);}function bind(fnc){var Aps=Array.prototype.slice,static_args=Aps.call(arguments,1);return function(){return fnc.apply(this,static_args.concat(Aps.call(arguments,0)));};}function logError(e,file){if(window.console&&console.error){console.error('The error "%s: %s" occurred in file "%s". '+'If this is in a plugin try updating or disabling the plugin, '+'if this is in a template try updating the template or switching to the "dokuwiki" template.',e.name,e.message,file);if(e.stack){console.error(e.stack);}}}var timer={_cur_id:0,_handlers:{},execDispatch:function(id){timer._handlers[id]();},add:function(func,timeout){var id=++timer._cur_id;timer._handlers[id]=func;return window.setTimeout('timer.execDispatch('+id+')',timeout);}};function Delay(func,timeout){this.func=func;if(timeout){this.timeout=timeout;}}Delay.prototype={func:null,timeout:500,delTimer:function(){if(this.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(this.timer);this.timer=null;}},start:function(){DEPRECATED('don\'t use the Delay object, use window.timeout with a callback instead');this.delTimer();var _this=this;this.timer=timer.add(function(){_this.exec.call(_this);},this.timeout);this._data={_this:arguments[0],_params:Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments,2)};},exec:function(){this.delTimer();this.func.call(this._data._this,this._data._params);}};var DokuCookie={data:{},name:'DOKU_PREFS',setValue:function(key,val){var text=[],_this=this;this.init();if(val===false){delete this.data[key];}else{val=val+"";this.data[key]=val;}jQuery.each(_this.data,function(key,val){if(_this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)){text.push(encodeURIComponent(key)+'#'+encodeURIComponent(val));}});jQuery.cookie(this.name,text.join('#'),{expires:365,path:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.path,secure:DOKU_COOKIE_PARAM.secure});},getValue:function(key,def){this.init();return this.data.hasOwnProperty(key)?this.data[key]:def;},init:function(){var text,parts,i;if(!jQuery.isEmptyObject(this.data)){return;}text=jQuery.cookie(this.name);if(text){parts=text.split('#');for(i=0;i<parts.length;i+=2){this.data[decodeURIComponent(parts[i])]=decodeURIComponent(parts[i+1]);}}}};if('function'===typeof jQuery&&'function'===typeof jQuery.noConflict){jQuery.noConflict();}var clientPC=navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase();var is_macos=navigator.appVersion.indexOf('Mac')!=-1;var is_gecko=((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('khtml')==-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));var is_safari=((clientPC.indexOf('applewebkit')!=-1)&&(clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));var is_khtml=(navigator.vendor=='KDE'||(document.childNodes&&!document.all&&!navigator.taintEnabled));if(clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1){var is_opera=true;var is_opera_preseven=(window.opera&&!document.childNodes);var is_opera_seven=(window.opera&&document.childNodes);}function closePopups(){jQuery('div.JSpopup').hide();}jQuery(function(){jQuery(document).on('click',closePopups);});jQuery.fn.dw_qsearch=function(overrides){var dw_qsearch={output:'#qsearch__out',$inObj:this,$outObj:null,timer:null,curRequest:null,init:function(){var do_qsearch;dw_qsearch.$outObj=jQuery(dw_qsearch.output);if(dw_qsearch.$inObj.length===0||dw_qsearch.$outObj.length===0){return;}do_qsearch=function(){if(dw_qsearch.curRequest!=null){dw_qsearch.curRequest.abort();}var value=dw_qsearch.getSearchterm();if(value===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').addClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'qsearch',q:encodeURI(value)},dw_qsearch.onCompletion,'html');};dw_qsearch.$inObj.on('keyup',function(){if(dw_qsearch.timer){window.clearTimeout(dw_qsearch.timer);dw_qsearch.timer=null;}dw_qsearch.timer=window.setTimeout(do_qsearch,500);});dw_qsearch.$outObj.on('click',dw_qsearch.clear_results);},getSearchterm:function(){return dw_qsearch.$inObj.val();},clear_results:function(){dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.$outObj.hide();dw_qsearch.$outObj.text('');},onCompletion:function(data){var max,$links,too_big;dw_qsearch.$inObj.parents('form').removeClass('searching');dw_qsearch.curRequest=null;if(data===''){dw_qsearch.clear_results();return;}dw_qsearch.$outObj .html(data).show().css('white-space','nowrap');dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','visible');$links=dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('a');max=dw_qsearch.$outObj[0].clientWidth;if(document.documentElement.dir==='rtl'){max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-left'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetLeft<0;};}else{max-=parseInt(dw_qsearch.$outObj.css('padding-right'));too_big=function(l){return l.offsetWidth+l.offsetLeft>max;};}$links.each(function(){var start,length,replace,nsL,nsR,eli,runaway;if(!too_big(this)){return;}nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');eli=0;runaway=0;while((nsR-nsL>3)&&too_big(this)&&runaway++<500){if(eli!==0){if((eli-nsL)>(nsR-eli)){start=eli-2;length=2;}else{start=eli+1;length=1;}replace='';}else{start=Math.floor(nsL+((nsR-nsL)/2));length=1;replace='…';}this.textContent=substr_replace(this.textContent,replace,start,length);eli=this.textContent.indexOf('…');nsL=this.textContent.indexOf('(');nsR=this.textContent.indexOf(')');}});dw_qsearch.$outObj.find('li').css('overflow','hidden').css('text-overflow','ellipsis');}};jQuery.extend(dw_qsearch,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_qsearch.init();}return dw_qsearch;};jQuery(function(){jQuery('#qsearch__in').dw_qsearch({output:'#qsearch__out'});});jQuery(function(){'use strict';var $searchForm=jQuery('.search-results-form');if(!$searchForm.length){return;}var $toggleAssistanceButton=jQuery('<button>').addClass('toggleAssistant').attr('type','button').attr('aria-expanded','false').text(LANG.search_toggle_tools).prependTo($searchForm.find('fieldset'));$toggleAssistanceButton.on('click',function(){jQuery('.advancedOptions').toggle(0,function(){var $me=jQuery(this);if($me.attr('aria-hidden')){$me.removeAttr('aria-hidden');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','true');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','on');}else{$me.attr('aria-hidden','true');$toggleAssistanceButton.attr('aria-expanded','false');DokuCookie.setValue('sa','off');}});});if(DokuCookie.getValue('sa')==='on'){$toggleAssistanceButton.trigger('click');}$searchForm.find('.advancedOptions .toggle div.current').on('click',function(){var $me=jQuery(this);$me.parent().siblings().removeClass('open');$me.parent().siblings().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');$me.parent().toggleClass('open');if($me.parent().hasClass('open')){$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','true');}else{$me.parent().find('ul:first').attr('aria-expanded','false');}});});jQuery.fn.dw_tree=function(overrides){var dw_tree={throbber_delay:500,$obj:this,toggle_selector:'a.idx_dir',init:function(){this.$obj.on('click',this.toggle_selector,this,this.toggle);jQuery('ul:first',this.$obj).attr('role','tree');jQuery('ul',this.$obj).not(':first').attr('role','group');jQuery('li',this.$obj).attr('role','treeitem');jQuery('li.open > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','true');jQuery('li.closed > ul',this.$obj).attr('aria-expanded','false');jQuery('li.closed',this.$obj).attr('aria-live','assertive');},toggle:function(e){var $listitem,$sublist,timeout,$clicky,show_sublist,dw_tree,opening;e.preventDefault();dw_tree=e.data;$clicky=jQuery(this);$listitem=$clicky.closest('li');$sublist=$listitem.find('ul').first();opening=$listitem.hasClass('closed');dw_tree.toggle_display($clicky,opening);if($sublist.is(':visible')){$listitem.removeClass('open').addClass('closed');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','false');}else{$listitem.removeClass('closed').addClass('open');$sublist.attr('aria-expanded','true');}if(!opening){$sublist.dw_hide();return;}show_sublist=function(data){$sublist.hide();if(typeof data!=='undefined'){$sublist.html(data);$sublist.parent().attr('aria-busy','false').removeAttr('aria-live');jQuery('li.closed',$sublist).attr('aria-live','assertive');}if($listitem.hasClass('open')){$sublist.dw_show();}};if($sublist.length>0){show_sublist();return;}$sublist=jQuery('<ul class="idx" role="group"/>');$listitem.append($sublist);timeout=window.setTimeout(bind(show_sublist,'<li aria-busy="true"><img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="loading..." title="loading..." /></li>'),dw_tree.throbber_delay);dw_tree.load_data(function(data){window.clearTimeout(timeout);show_sublist(data);},$clicky);},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){},load_data:function(show_data,$clicky){show_data();}};jQuery.extend(dw_tree,overrides);if(!overrides.deferInit){dw_tree.init();}return dw_tree;};var dw_index=jQuery('#index__tree').dw_tree({deferInit:true,load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$clicky[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=index',show_sublist,'html');}});jQuery(function(){var $tree=jQuery('#index__tree');dw_index.$obj=$tree;dw_index.init();});function selection_class(){this.start=0;this.end=0;this.obj=null;this.scroll=0;this.fix=0;this.getLength=function(){return this.end-this.start;};this.getText=function(){return(!this.obj)?'':this.obj.value.substring(this.start,this.end);};}function DWgetSelection(textArea){var sel=new selection_class();textArea.focus();sel.obj=textArea;sel.start=textArea.selectionStart;sel.end=textArea.selectionEnd;sel.scroll=textArea.scrollTop;return sel;}function DWsetSelection(selection){selection.obj.setSelectionRange(selection.start,selection.end);if(selection.scroll)selection.obj.scrollTop=selection.scroll;}function pasteText(selection,text,opts){if(!opts)opts={};selection.obj.value=selection.obj.value.substring(0,selection.start)+text+selection.obj.value.substring(selection.end,selection.obj.value.length);if(is_opera){selection.end=selection.start+text.replace(/\r?\n/g,'\r\n').length;}else{selection.end=selection.start+text.length;}if(opts.startofs)selection.start+=opts.startofs;if(opts.endofs)selection.end-=opts.endofs;if(opts.nosel)selection.start=selection.end;DWsetSelection(selection);}function insertTags(textAreaID,tagOpen,tagClose,sampleText){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);var text=selection.getText();var opts;if(text.charAt(text.length-1)==' '){selection.end--;text=selection.getText();}if(!text){text=sampleText;opts={startofs:tagOpen.length,endofs:tagClose.length};}else{opts={nosel:true};}text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;pasteText(selection,text,opts);}function insertAtCarret(textAreaID,text){var txtarea=jQuery('#'+textAreaID)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(txtarea);pasteText(selection,text,{nosel:true});}var pickercounter=0;function initToolbar(tbid,edid,tb,allowblock){var $toolbar,$edit;if(typeof tbid=='string'){$toolbar=jQuery('#'+tbid);}else{$toolbar=jQuery(tbid);}$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($toolbar.length==0||$edit.length==0||$edit.attr('readOnly')){return;}if(typeof allowblock==='undefined'){allowblock=true;}$toolbar.html('');jQuery.each(tb,function(k,val){if(!tb.hasOwnProperty(k)||(!allowblock&&val.block===true)){return;}var actionFunc,$btn;$btn=jQuery(createToolButton(val.icon,val.title,val.key,val.id,val['class']));actionFunc='tb_'+val.type;if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){$btn.on('click',bind(window[actionFunc],$btn,val,edid));$toolbar.append($btn);return;}actionFunc='addBtnAction'+val.type.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+val.type.substring(1);if(jQuery.isFunction(window[actionFunc])){var pickerid=window[actionFunc]($btn,val,edid);if(pickerid!==''){$toolbar.append($btn);$btn.attr('aria-controls',pickerid);if(actionFunc==='addBtnActionPicker'){$btn.attr('aria-haspopup','true');}}return;}alert('unknown toolbar type: '+val.type+' '+actionFunc);});}function tb_format(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title;insertTags(edid,fixtxt(props.open),fixtxt(props.close),fixtxt(sample));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_formatln(btn,props,edid){var sample=props.sample||props.title,opts,selection=DWgetSelection(jQuery('#'+edid)[0]);sample=fixtxt(sample);props.open=fixtxt(props.open);props.close=fixtxt(props.close);if(selection.getLength()){sample=selection.getText();opts={nosel:true};}else{opts={startofs:props.open.length,endofs:props.close.length};}sample=sample.split("\n").join(props.close+"\n"+props.open);sample=props.open+sample+props.close;pasteText(selection,sample,opts);pickerClose();return false;}function tb_insert(btn,props,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,fixtxt(props.insert));pickerClose();return false;}function tb_mediapopup(btn,props,edid){window.open(DOKU_BASE+props.url+encodeURIComponent(NS)+'&edid='+encodeURIComponent(edid),props.name,props.options);return false;}function tb_autohead(btn,props,edid){var lvl=currentHeadlineLevel(edid),tags;lvl+=props.mod;if(lvl<1)lvl=1;if(lvl>5)lvl=5;tags=(new Array(8-lvl)).join('=');insertTags(edid,tags+' ',' '+tags+"\n",props.text);pickerClose();return false;}function addBtnActionPicker($btn,props,edid){var pickerid='picker'+(pickercounter++);var picker=createPicker(pickerid,props,edid);jQuery(picker).attr('aria-hidden','true');$btn.click(function(e){pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn);e.preventDefault();return'';});return pickerid;}function addBtnActionLinkwiz($btn,props,edid){dw_linkwiz.init(jQuery('#'+edid));jQuery($btn).click(function(e){dw_linkwiz.val=props;dw_linkwiz.toggle();e.preventDefault();return'';});return'link__wiz';}function pickerToggle(pickerid,$btn){var $picker=jQuery('#'+pickerid),pos=$btn.offset();if($picker.hasClass('a11y')){$picker.removeClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','false');}else{$picker.addClass('a11y').attr('aria-hidden','true');}var picker_left=pos.left+3,picker_width=$picker.width(),window_width=jQuery(window).width();if(picker_width>300){$picker.css("max-width","300");picker_width=300;}if((picker_left+picker_width+40)>window_width){picker_left=window_width-picker_width-40;}if(picker_left<0){picker_left=0;}$picker.offset({left:picker_left,top:pos.top+$btn[0].offsetHeight+3});}function pickerClose(){jQuery('.picker').addClass('a11y');}function fixtxt(str){return str.replace(/\\n/g,"\n");}jQuery(function(){initToolbar('tool__bar','wiki__text',toolbar);jQuery('#tool__bar').attr('role','toolbar');});function createToolButton(icon,label,key,id,classname){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')),$ico=jQuery(document.createElement('img'));$btn.addClass('toolbutton');if(classname){$btn.addClass(classname);}$btn.attr('title',label).attr('aria-controls','wiki__text');if(key){$btn.attr('title',label+' ['+key.toUpperCase()+']').attr('accessKey',key);}if(id){$btn.attr('id',id);$ico.attr('id',id+'_ico');}if(icon.substr(0,1)!=='/'){icon=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/toolbar/'+icon;}$ico.attr('src',icon);$ico.attr('alt','');$ico.attr('width',16);$ico.attr('height',16);$btn.append($ico);return $btn[0];}function createPicker(id,props,edid){var $picker=jQuery(document.createElement('div'));$picker.addClass('picker a11y');if(props['class']){$picker.addClass(props['class']);}$picker.attr('id',id).css('position','absolute');function $makebutton(title){var $btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('pickerbutton').attr('title',title).attr('aria-controls',edid).on('click',bind(pickerInsert,title,edid)).appendTo($picker);return $btn;}jQuery.each(props.list,function(key,item){if(!props.list.hasOwnProperty(key)){return;}if(isNaN(key)){if(item.substr(0,1)!=='/'){item=DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+props.icobase+'/'+item;}jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',item).attr('alt','').appendTo($makebutton(key));}else if(typeof item=='string'){$makebutton(item).text(item);}else{initToolbar($picker,edid,props.list);return false;}});jQuery('body').append($picker);return $picker[0];}function pickerInsert(text,edid){insertAtCarret(edid,text);pickerClose();}function addBtnActionSignature($btn,props,edid){if(typeof SIG!='undefined'&&SIG!=''){$btn.on('click',function(e){insertAtCarret(edid,SIG);e.preventDefault();});return edid;}return'';}function currentHeadlineLevel(textboxId){var field=jQuery('#'+textboxId)[0],s=false,opts=[field.value.substr(0,DWgetSelection(field).start)];if(field.form&&field.form.prefix){opts.push(field.form.prefix.value);}jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var str="\n"+opt,lasthl=str.lastIndexOf("\n==");if(lasthl!==-1){s=str.substr(lasthl+1,6);return false;}});if(s===false){return 0;}return 7-s.match(/^={2,6}/)[0].length;}window.textChanged=false;window.doku_edit_text_content='';function deleteDraft(){if(is_opera||window.keepDraft){return;}var $dwform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($dwform.length===0){return;}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'draftdel',id:$dwform.find('input[name=id]').val()});}jQuery(function(){var $editform=jQuery('#dw__editform');if($editform.length==0){return;}var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){if($edit_text.attr('readOnly')){return;}var sel=DWgetSelection($edit_text[0]);sel.start=0;sel.end=0;DWsetSelection(sel);$edit_text.trigger('focus');doku_edit_text_content=$edit_text.val();}var changeHandler=function(){doku_hasTextBeenModified();doku_summaryCheck();};$editform.change(changeHandler);$editform.keydown(changeHandler);window.onbeforeunload=function(){if(window.textChanged){return LANG.notsavedyet;}};window.onunload=deleteDraft;jQuery('#edbtn__save').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;});jQuery('#edbtn__preview').on('click',function(){window.onbeforeunload='';textChanged=false;window.keepDraft=true;});var $summary=jQuery('#edit__summary');$summary.on('change keyup',doku_summaryCheck);if(textChanged)doku_summaryCheck();});function doku_hasTextBeenModified(){if(!textChanged){var $edit_text=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($edit_text.length>0){textChanged=doku_edit_text_content!=$edit_text.val();}else{textChanged=true;}}}function doku_summaryCheck(){var $sum=jQuery('#edit__summary'),missing=$sum.val()==='';$sum.toggleClass('missing',missing).toggleClass('edit',!missing);}var dw_editor={init:function(){var $editor=jQuery('#wiki__text');if($editor.length===0){return;}dw_editor.initSizeCtl('#size__ctl',$editor);if($editor.attr('readOnly')){return;}$editor.keydown(dw_editor.keyHandler);},initSizeCtl:function(ctlarea,editor){var $ctl=jQuery(ctlarea),$textarea=jQuery(editor);if($ctl.length===0||$textarea.length===0){return;}$textarea.css('height',DokuCookie.getValue('sizeCtl')||'300px');var wrp=DokuCookie.getValue('wrapCtl');if(wrp){dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],wrp);}jQuery.each([['larger',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,100);}],['smaller',function(){dw_editor.sizeCtl(editor,-100);}],['wrap',function(){dw_editor.toggleWrap(editor);}]],function(_,img){jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+img[0]+'.gif').attr('alt','').on('click',img[1]).appendTo($ctl);});},sizeCtl:function(editor,val){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),height=parseInt($textarea.css('height'))+val;$textarea.css('height',height+'px');DokuCookie.setValue('sizeCtl',$textarea.css('height'));},toggleWrap:function(editor){var $textarea=jQuery(editor),wrap=$textarea.attr('wrap');dw_editor.setWrap($textarea[0],(wrap&&wrap.toLowerCase()=='off')?'soft':'off');DokuCookie.setValue('wrapCtl',$textarea.attr('wrap'));},setWrap:function(textarea,wrapAttrValue){textarea.setAttribute('wrap',wrapAttrValue);var parNod=textarea.parentNode;var nxtSib=textarea.nextSibling;parNod.removeChild(textarea);parNod.insertBefore(textarea,nxtSib);},keyHandler:function(e){if(jQuery.inArray(e.keyCode,[8,10,13,32])===-1){return;}var selection=DWgetSelection(this);if(selection.getLength()>0){return;}var search="\n"+this.value.substr(0,selection.start);var linestart=Math.max(search.lastIndexOf("\n"),search.lastIndexOf("\r"));search=search.substr(linestart);if((e.keyCode==13||e.keyCode==10)&&e.ctrlKey){jQuery('#edbtn__save').trigger('click');e.preventDefault();return false;}else if(e.keyCode==13){var match=search.match(/(\n +([\*-] ?)?)/);if(match){var scroll=this.scrollHeight;var match2=search.match(/^\n +[\*-]\s*$/);if(match2&&this.value.substr(selection.start).match(/^($|\r?\n)/)){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+"\n"+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart+1;selection.end=linestart+1;DWsetSelection(selection);}else{insertAtCarret(this.id,match[1]);}this.scrollTop+=(this.scrollHeight-scroll);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==8){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] ?)$/);if(match){var spaces=match[1].length-1;if(spaces>3){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(linestart+2);selection.start=selection.start-2;selection.end=selection.start;}else{this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+this.value.substr(selection.start);selection.start=linestart;selection.end=linestart;}DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}else if(e.keyCode==32){var match=search.match(/(\n +)([*-] )$/);if(match){this.value=this.value.substr(0,linestart)+' '+this.value.substr(linestart);selection.start=selection.start+2;selection.end=selection.start;DWsetSelection(selection);e.preventDefault();return false;}}}};jQuery(dw_editor.init);var dw_locktimer={timeout:0,draft:false,timerID:null,lasttime:null,msg:LANG.willexpire,pageid:'',fieldsToSaveAsDraft:['input[name=prefix]','textarea[name=wikitext]','input[name=suffix]','input[name=date]',],callbacks:[],init:function(timeout,draft,edid){var $edit;edid=edid||'wiki__text';$edit=jQuery('#'+edid);if($edit.length===0||$edit.attr('readonly')){return;}dw_locktimer.timeout=timeout*1000;dw_locktimer.draft=draft;dw_locktimer.lasttime=new Date();dw_locktimer.pageid=jQuery('#dw__editform').find('input[name=id]').val();if(!dw_locktimer.pageid){return;}$edit.keypress(dw_locktimer.refresh);dw_locktimer.reset();},addField:function(selector){dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.push(selector);},addRefreshCallback:function(callback){dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(callback);},reset:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();dw_locktimer.timerID=window.setTimeout(dw_locktimer.warning,dw_locktimer.timeout);},warning:function(){dw_locktimer.clear();alert(fixtxt(dw_locktimer.msg));},clear:function(){if(dw_locktimer.timerID!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_locktimer.timerID);dw_locktimer.timerID=null;}},refresh:function(){var now=new Date(),params='call=lock&id='+dw_locktimer.pageid+'&';if(now.getTime()-dw_locktimer.lasttime.getTime()<=30*1000){return;}if(dw_locktimer.draft&&jQuery('#dw__editform').find('textarea[name=wikitext]').length>0){params+=jQuery('#dw__editform').find(dw_locktimer.fieldsToSaveAsDraft.join(', ')).serialize();}jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,null,'json').done(function dwLocktimerRefreshDoneHandler(data){dw_locktimer.callbacks.forEach(function(callback){callback(data);});});dw_locktimer.lasttime=now;},refreshed:function(data){if(data.errors.length){data.errors.forEach(function(error){jQuery('#draft__status').after(jQuery('<div class="error"></div>').text(error));})}jQuery('#draft__status').html(data.draft);if(data.lock!=='1'){return;}dw_locktimer.reset();}};dw_locktimer.callbacks.push(dw_locktimer.refreshed);var dw_linkwiz={$wiz:null,$entry:null,result:null,timer:null,textArea:null,selected:null,selection:null,init:function($editor){var pos=$editor.position();if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz)return;dw_linkwiz.$wiz=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).dialog({autoOpen:false,draggable:true,title:LANG.linkwiz,resizable:false}).html('<div>'+LANG.linkto+' <input type="text" class="edit" id="link__wiz_entry" autocomplete="off" /></div>'+'<div id="link__wiz_result"></div>').parent().attr('id','link__wiz').css({'position':'absolute','top':(pos.top+20)+'px','left':(pos.left+80)+'px'}).hide().appendTo('.dokuwiki:first');dw_linkwiz.textArea=$editor[0];dw_linkwiz.result=jQuery('#link__wiz_result')[0];jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).css('position','relative');dw_linkwiz.$entry=jQuery('#link__wiz_entry');if(JSINFO.namespace){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(JSINFO.namespace+':');}jQuery('#link__wiz .ui-dialog-titlebar-close').on('click',dw_linkwiz.hide);dw_linkwiz.$entry.keyup(dw_linkwiz.onEntry);jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).on('click','a',dw_linkwiz.onResultClick);},onEntry:function(e){if(e.keyCode==37||e.keyCode==39){return true;}if(e.keyCode==27){dw_linkwiz.hide();e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==38){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected-1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==40){dw_linkwiz.select(dw_linkwiz.selected+1);e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}if(e.keyCode==13){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected);if($obj.length>0){dw_linkwiz.resultClick($obj.find('a')[0]);}}else if(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val());}e.preventDefault();e.stopPropagation();return false;}dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();},getResult:function(num){DEPRECATED('use dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0] instead');return dw_linkwiz.$getResult()[0]||null;},$getResult:function(num){return jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).find('div').eq(num);},select:function(num){if(num<0){dw_linkwiz.deselect();return;}var $obj=dw_linkwiz.$getResult(num);if($obj.length===0){return;}dw_linkwiz.deselect();$obj.addClass('selected');var childPos=$obj.position().top;var yDiff=childPos+$obj.outerHeight()-jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result).innerHeight();if(childPos<0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=childPos;}else if(yDiff>0){jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result)[0].scrollTop+=yDiff;}dw_linkwiz.selected=num;},deselect:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.selected>-1){dw_linkwiz.$getResult(dw_linkwiz.selected).removeClass('selected');}dw_linkwiz.selected=-1;},onResultClick:function(e){if(!jQuery(this).is('a')){return;}e.stopPropagation();e.preventDefault();dw_linkwiz.resultClick(this);return false;},resultClick:function(a){dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(a.title);if(a.title==''||a.title.substr(a.title.length-1)==':'){dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec();}else{if(jQuery(a.nextSibling).is('span')){dw_linkwiz.insertLink(a.nextSibling.innerHTML);}else{dw_linkwiz.insertLink('');}}},insertLink:function(title){var link=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(),sel,stxt;if(!link){return;}sel=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);if(sel.start==0&&sel.end==0){sel=dw_linkwiz.selection;}stxt=sel.getText();if(stxt.charAt(stxt.length-1)==' '){sel.end--;stxt=sel.getText();}if(!stxt&&!DOKU_UHC){stxt=title;}if(dw_linkwiz.textArea.form.id.value.indexOf(':')!=-1&&link.indexOf(':')==-1){link=':'+link;}var so=link.length;var eo=0;if(dw_linkwiz.val){if(dw_linkwiz.val.open){so+=dw_linkwiz.val.open.length;link=dw_linkwiz.val.open+link;}link+='|';so+=1;if(stxt){link+=stxt;}if(dw_linkwiz.val.close){link+=dw_linkwiz.val.close;eo=dw_linkwiz.val.close.length;}}pasteText(sel,link,{startofs:so,endofs:eo});dw_linkwiz.hide();var externallinkpattern=new RegExp('^((f|ht)tps?:)?//','i'),entry_value;if(externallinkpattern.test(dw_linkwiz.$entry.val())){if(JSINFO.namespace){entry_value=JSINFO.namespace+':';}else{entry_value='';}}else{entry_value=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val().replace(/[^:]*$/,'')}dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(entry_value);},autocomplete:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.timer!==null){window.clearTimeout(dw_linkwiz.timer);dw_linkwiz.timer=null;}dw_linkwiz.timer=window.setTimeout(dw_linkwiz.autocomplete_exec,350);},autocomplete_exec:function(){var $res=jQuery(dw_linkwiz.result);dw_linkwiz.deselect();$res.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="" width="16" height="16" />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'linkwiz',q:dw_linkwiz.$entry.val()});},show:function(){dw_linkwiz.selection=DWgetSelection(dw_linkwiz.textArea);dw_linkwiz.$wiz.show();dw_linkwiz.$entry.focus();dw_linkwiz.autocomplete();var temp=dw_linkwiz.$entry.val();dw_linkwiz.$entry.val('');dw_linkwiz.$entry.val(temp);},hide:function(){dw_linkwiz.$wiz.hide();dw_linkwiz.textArea.focus();},toggle:function(){if(dw_linkwiz.$wiz.css('display')=='none'){dw_linkwiz.show();}else{dw_linkwiz.hide();}}};var dw_mediamanager={keepopen:false,hide:false,popup:false,display:false,ext:false,$popup:null,align:false,link:false,size:false,forbidden_opts:{},view_opts:{list:false,sort:false},layout_width:0,minHeights:{thumbs:200,rows:100},init:function(){var $content,$tree;$content=jQuery('#media__content');$tree=jQuery('#media__tree');if(!$tree.length)return;dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.attachoptions();dw_mediamanager.initpopup();$content .on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','a.select',dw_mediamanager.select).on('click','#media__content a.btn_media_delete',dw_mediamanager.confirmattach).on('submit','#mediamanager__done_form',dw_mediamanager.list);$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $link=$clicky.parent().find('div.li a.idx_dir');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',$link[0].search.substr(1)+'&call=medians',show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.on('click','a',dw_mediamanager.list);dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();dw_mediamanager.init_options();dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');$page.find('div.filelist').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.list).on('click','div.panelContent a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#dw__mediasearch',dw_mediamanager.list).on('change','#upload__file',dw_mediamanager.suggest).on('click','.qq-upload-file a',dw_mediamanager.details);$page.find('div.file').on('click','ul.tabs a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_update',dw_mediamanager.list).on('submit','#page__revisions',dw_mediamanager.details).on('click','#page__revisions a',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__save_meta',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_delete',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','#mediamanager__btn_restore',dw_mediamanager.details).on('submit','.btn_newer, .btn_older',dw_mediamanager.details);dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_mediamanager.layout_width=$page.width();jQuery(window).on('resize',dw_mediamanager.window_resize);},init_options:function(){var $options=jQuery('div.filelist div.panelHeader form.options'),$listType,$sortBy,$both;if($options.length===0){return;}$listType=$options.find('li.listType');$sortBy=$options.find('li.sortBy');$both=$listType.add($sortBy);$options.find('button[type=submit]').parent().hide();$both.find('label').each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.children('input').appendTo($this.parent());});$both.find("input[type='radio']").checkboxradio({icon:false});$both.controlgroup();$listType.children('input').change(function(){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list();});$sortBy.children('input').change(function(event){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_sort();dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#dw__mediasearch')[0]||this,event);});},initpopup:function(){var opts,$insp,$insbtn;dw_mediamanager.$popup=jQuery(document.createElement('div')).attr('id','media__popup_content').dialog({autoOpen:false,width:280,modal:true,draggable:true,title:LANG.mediatitle,resizable:false});opts=[{id:'link',label:LANG.mediatarget,btns:['lnk','direct','nolnk','displaylnk']},{id:'align',label:LANG.mediaalign,btns:['noalign','left','center','right']},{id:'size',label:LANG.mediasize,btns:['small','medium','large','original']}];jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $p,$l;$p=jQuery(document.createElement('p')).attr('id','media__'+opt.id);if(dw_mediamanager.display==="2"){$p.hide();}$l=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).text(opt.label);$p.append($l);jQuery.each(opt.btns,function(i,text){var $btn,$img;$btn=jQuery(document.createElement('button')).addClass('button').attr('id',"media__"+opt.id+"btn"+(i+1)).attr('title',LANG['media'+text]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.setOpt,opt.id));$img=jQuery(document.createElement('img')).attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/media_'+opt.id+'_'+text+'.png');$btn.append($img);$p.append($btn);});dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($p);});$insp=jQuery(document.createElement('p'));dw_mediamanager.$popup.append($insp);$insbtn=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('id','media__sendbtn').attr('type','button').addClass('button').val(LANG.mediainsert);$insp.append($insbtn);},insert:function(id){var opts,cb,edid,s;dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('close');opts='';if({img:1,swf:1}[dw_mediamanager.ext]===1){if(dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){opts='?linkonly';}else{if(dw_mediamanager.link==="3"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?nolink';}else if(dw_mediamanager.link==="2"&&dw_mediamanager.ext==='img'){opts='?direct';}s=parseInt(dw_mediamanager.size,10);var size=s*200;if(s&&s>=1&&s<4){opts+=(opts.length)?'&':'?';opts+=size;if(dw_mediamanager.ext==='swf'){switch(s){case 1:opts+='x62';break;case 2:opts+='x123';break;case 3:opts+='x185';break;}}}}}edid=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&edid=([^&]+)/);edid=edid?edid[1]:'wiki__text';cb=String.prototype.match.call(document.location,/&onselect=([^&]+)/);cb=cb?cb[1].replace(/[^\w]+/,''):'dw_mediamanager_item_select';opener[cb](edid,id,opts,dw_mediamanager.align,dw_mediamanager.keepopen);if(!dw_mediamanager.keepopen){window.close();}opener.focus();return false;},suggest:function(){var $file,$name,text;$file=jQuery(this);$name=jQuery('#upload__name');if($name.val()!='')return;if(!$file.length||!$name.length){return;}text=$file.val();text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('/')+1);text=text.substr(text.lastIndexOf('\\')+1);$name.val(text);},list:function(event){var $link,$content,params;if(event){event.preventDefault();}jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();$link=jQuery(this);$content=jQuery('#media__content');if($content.length===0){$content=jQuery('div.filelist');if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){jQuery('div.file').empty();jQuery('div.namespaces .selected').removeClass('selected');$link.addClass('selected');}}params='call=medialist&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params);},form_params:function($form){if(!$form.length)return;var action='';var i=$form[0].action.indexOf('?');if(i>=0){action=$form[0].action.substr(i+1);}return action+'&'+$form.serialize();},set_fileview_list:function(new_type){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['list','listType',function(new_type){jQuery('div.filelist div.panelContent ul').toggleClass('rows',new_type==='rows').toggleClass('thumbs',new_type==='thumbs');}],new_type);dw_mediamanager.resize();},set_fileview_sort:function(new_sort){dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_opt(['sort','sortBy',function(new_sort){}],new_sort);},set_fileview_opt:function(opt,new_val){if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val=jQuery('form.options li.'+opt[1]+' input').filter(':checked').val();if(typeof new_val==='undefined'){new_val='thumbs';}}if(new_val!==dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]){opt[2](new_val);DokuCookie.setValue(opt[0],new_val);dw_mediamanager.view_opts[opt[0]]=new_val;}},details:function(event){var $link,$content,params,update_list;$link=jQuery(this);event.preventDefault();jQuery('div.success, div.info, div.error, div.notify').remove();if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'&&!confirm(LANG.del_confirm)){return false;}if($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore'&&!confirm(LANG.restore_confirm)){return false;}$content=jQuery('div.file');params='call=mediadetails&';if($link[0].search){params+=$link[0].search.substr(1);}else if($link.is('form')){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link);}else if($link.closest('form').length>0){params+=dw_mediamanager.form_params($link.closest('form'));}update_list=($link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_delete'||$link[0].id=='mediamanager__btn_restore');dw_mediamanager.update_content($content,params,update_list);},update_content:function($content,params,update_list){var $container;jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params,function(data){dw_mediamanager.$resizables().resizable('destroy');if(update_list){dw_mediamanager.list.call(jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('form.options button[type="submit"]')[0]);}$content.html(data);dw_mediamanager.prepare_content($content);dw_mediamanager.updatehide();dw_mediamanager.update_resizable();dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler();dw_mediamanager.set_fileview_list(dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list);dw_mediamanager.image_diff();dw_mediamanager.init_ajax_uploader();dw_mediamanager.init_options();},'html');$container=$content.find('div.panelContent');if($container.length===0){$container=$content;}$container.html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." class="load" />');},window_resize:function(){dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();},$resizables:function(){return jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.namespaces, div.filelist');},update_resizable:function(){var $resizables=dw_mediamanager.$resizables();$resizables.resizable({handles:(jQuery('html[dir=rtl]').length?'w':'e'),resize:function(event,ui){var $page=jQuery('#mediamanager__page');var widthFull=$page.width();var widthResizables=0;$resizables.each(function(){widthResizables+=jQuery(this).width();});var $filePanel=$page.find('div.panel.file');var widthOtherResizable=widthResizables-jQuery(this).width();var minWidthNonResizable=parseFloat($filePanel.css("min-width"));var maxWidth=widthFull-(widthOtherResizable+minWidthNonResizable)-1;$resizables.resizable("option","maxWidth",maxWidth);var relWidthNonResizable=99.9-(100*widthResizables/widthFull);$filePanel.width(relWidthNonResizable+'%');dw_mediamanager.resize();dw_mediamanager.opacity_slider();dw_mediamanager.portions_slider();}});dw_mediamanager.resize();},resize:function(){var $contents=jQuery('#mediamanager__page').find('div.panelContent'),height=jQuery(window).height()-jQuery(document.body).height()+Math.max.apply(null,jQuery.map($contents,function(v){return jQuery(v).height();}));if(height<dw_mediamanager.minHeights[dw_mediamanager.view_opts.list]){$contents.add(dw_mediamanager.$resizables()).height('auto');}else{$contents.height(height);dw_mediamanager.$resizables().each(function(){var $this=jQuery(this);$this.height(height+$this.find('div.panelContent').offset().top-$this.offset().top);});}},image_diff:function(){if(jQuery('#mediamanager__difftype').length)return;var $form=jQuery('#mediamanager__form_diffview');if(!$form.length)return;var $label=jQuery(document.createElement('label'));$label.append('<span>'+LANG.media_diff+'</span> ');var $select=jQuery(document.createElement('select')).attr('id','mediamanager__difftype').attr('name','difftype').change(dw_mediamanager.change_diff_type);$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_both,"both"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_opacity,"opacity"));$select.append(new Option(LANG.media_diff_portions,"portions"));$label.append($select);$form.append($label);var 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img');if(!$image.length)return;$slider.width($image.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",0.999);$slider.slider("option","step",0.001);$slider.slider("option","value",0.5);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.opacity div.image2 img').css({opacity:$slider.slider("option","value")});});},portions_slider:function(){var $diff=jQuery("#mediamanager__diff");if(!$diff.length)return;var $image1=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image1 img');var $image2=$diff.find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2 img');if(!$image1.length||!$image2.length)return;$diff.width('100%');$image2.parent().width('97%');$image1.width('100%');$image2.width('100%');if($image1.width()<$diff.width()){$diff.width($image1.width());}$image2.parent().width('50%');$image2.width($image1.width());$image1.width($image1.width());var $slider=$diff.find("div.slider");if(!$slider.length)return;$slider.width($image1.width()-20);$slider.slider();$slider.slider("option","min",0);$slider.slider("option","max",97);$slider.slider("option","step",1);$slider.slider("option","value",50);$slider.on("slide",function(event,ui){jQuery('#mediamanager__diff').find('div.imageDiff.portions div.image2').css({width:$slider.slider("option","value")+'%'});});},params_toarray:function(str){var vars=[],hash;var hashes=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<hashes.length;i++){hash=hashes[i].split('=');vars[decodeURIComponent(hash[0])]=decodeURIComponent(hash[1]);}return vars;},init_ajax_uploader:function(){if(!jQuery('#mediamanager__uploader').length)return;if(jQuery('.qq-upload-list').length)return;var params=dw_mediamanager.form_params(jQuery('#dw__upload'))+'&call=mediaupload';params=dw_mediamanager.params_toarray(params);var uploader=new qq.FileUploaderExtended({element:document.getElementById('mediamanager__uploader'),action:DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',params:params});},prepare_content:function($content){$content.find('div.example:visible').hide();$content.find('a.allowedmime').on('click',function(event){event.preventDefault();$toggle=jQuery(this);$list=$toggle.next('span');$list.toggle();}).next('span').hide();},select:function(event){var $link,id,dot,ext;event.preventDefault();$link=jQuery(this);id=$link.attr('id').substr(2);if(!opener){jQuery(document.getElementById('ex_'+id.replace(/:/g,'_').replace(/^_/,''))).dw_toggle();return;}dw_mediamanager.ext=false;dot=id.lastIndexOf(".");if(-1===dot){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}ext=id.substr(dot);if({'.jpg':1,'.jpeg':1,'.png':1,'.gif':1,'.swf':1}[ext]!==1){dw_mediamanager.insert(id);return;}var $sendbtn=jQuery('#media__sendbtn');$sendbtn.off().on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.insert,id));dw_mediamanager.unforbid('ext');if(ext==='.swf'){dw_mediamanager.ext='swf';dw_mediamanager.forbid('ext',{link:['1','2'],size:['4']});}else{dw_mediamanager.ext='img';}dw_mediamanager.setOpt('link');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');jQuery('#media__linkbtn1, #media__linkbtn2, #media__sizebtn4').toggle(dw_mediamanager.ext==='img');dw_mediamanager.$popup.dialog('open');$sendbtn.focus();},confirmattach:function(e){if(!confirm(LANG.del_confirm+"\n"+jQuery(this).attr('title'))){e.preventDefault();}},attachoptions:function(){var $obj,opts;$obj=jQuery('#media__opts');if($obj.length===0){return;}opts=[];if(opener){opts.push(['keepopen','keepopen']);}opts.push(['hide','hidedetails']);jQuery.each(opts,function(_,opt){var $box,$lbl;$box=jQuery(document.createElement('input')).attr('type','checkbox').attr('id','media__'+opt[0]).on('click',bind(dw_mediamanager.toggleOption,opt[0]));if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt[0])){$box.prop('checked',true);dw_mediamanager[opt[0]]=true;}$lbl=jQuery(document.createElement('label')).attr('for','media__'+opt[0]).text(LANG[opt[1]]);$obj.append($box,$lbl,document.createElement('br'));});dw_mediamanager.updatehide();},toggleOption:function(variable){if(jQuery(this).prop('checked')){DokuCookie.setValue(variable,1);dw_mediamanager[variable]=true;}else{DokuCookie.setValue(variable,'');dw_mediamanager[variable]=false;}if(variable==='hide'){dw_mediamanager.updatehide();}},updatehide:function(){jQuery('#media__content').find('div.detail').dw_toggle(!dw_mediamanager.hide);},setOpt:function(opt,e){var val,i;if(typeof e!=='undefined'){val=this.id.substring(this.id.length-1);}else{val=dw_mediamanager.getOpt(opt);}if(val===false){DokuCookie.setValue(opt,'');dw_mediamanager[opt]=false;return;}if(opt==='link'){if(val!=='4'&&dw_mediamanager.link==='4'){dw_mediamanager.unforbid('linkonly');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('align');dw_mediamanager.setOpt('size');}else if(val==='4'){dw_mediamanager.forbid('linkonly',{align:false,size:false});}jQuery("#media__size, #media__align").dw_toggle(val!=='4');}DokuCookie.setValue(opt,val);dw_mediamanager[opt]=val;for(i=1;i<=4;i++){jQuery("#media__"+opt+"btn"+i).removeClass('selected');}jQuery('#media__'+opt+'btn'+val).addClass('selected');},unforbid:function(group){delete dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group];},forbid:function(group,forbids){dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts[group]=forbids;},allowedOpt:function(opt,val){var ret=true;jQuery.each(dw_mediamanager.forbidden_opts,function(_,forbids){ret=forbids[opt]!==false&&jQuery.inArray(val,forbids[opt])===-1;return ret;});return ret;},getOpt:function(opt){var allowed=bind(dw_mediamanager.allowedOpt,opt);if(dw_mediamanager[opt]!==false&&allowed(dw_mediamanager[opt])){return dw_mediamanager[opt];}if(DokuCookie.getValue(opt)&&allowed(DokuCookie.getValue(opt))){return DokuCookie.getValue(opt);}if(opt==='size'&&allowed('2')){return'2';}return jQuery.grep(['1','2','3','4'],allowed)[0]||false;}};function dw_mediamanager_item_select(edid,mediaid,opts,align,keepopen){var alignleft='';var alignright='';var cursorInImageTag=false;var textArea=jQuery('#'+edid)[0];var selection=DWgetSelection(textArea);selection.end=selection.end+2;var charsAfterCursor=selection.getText();if(charsAfterCursor==='}}'){cursorInImageTag=true;}if(align!=='1'){alignleft=align==='2'?'':' ';alignright=align==='4'?'':' ';}if(keepopen&&cursorInImageTag){selection.start=selection.start+2;DWsetSelection(selection);}insertTags(edid,'{{'+alignleft+mediaid+opts+alignright+'|','}}','');}jQuery(dw_mediamanager.init);function DEPRECATED(msg){if(!window.console)return;if(!msg)msg='';var func;if(arguments.callee)func=arguments.callee.caller.name;if(func)func=' '+func+'()';var line='DEPRECATED function call'+func+'. 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input[type=checkbox]',dw_behaviour.revisionBoxHandler);jQuery('.bounce').effect('bounce',{times:10},2000);},scrollToMarker:function(){var $obj=jQuery('#scroll__here');if($obj.length){if($obj.offset().top!=0){jQuery('html, body').animate({scrollTop:$obj.offset().top-100},500);}else{$obj[0].scrollIntoView();}}},focusMarker:function(){jQuery('#focus__this').trigger('focus');},removeHighlightOnClick:function(){jQuery('span.search_hit').on('click',function(e){jQuery(e.target).removeClass('search_hit',1000);});},quickSelect:function(){jQuery('select.quickselect').on('change',function(e){e.target.form.submit();}).closest('form').find(':button').not('.show').hide();},checkWindowsShares:function(){if(!LANG.nosmblinks||navigator.userAgent.match(/(Trident|MSIE|Edge)/)){return;}jQuery('a.windows').on('click',function(){alert(LANG.nosmblinks.replace(/\\n/,"\n"));});},subscription:function(){var 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center',of:target}).hide();return $fndiv;},footnoteDisplay:function(){var $content=jQuery(jQuery(this).attr('href')).parent().siblings('.content').clone();if(!$content.length){return;}jQuery('[id]',$content).each(function(){var id=jQuery(this).attr('id');jQuery(this).attr('id','insitu__'+id);});var content=$content.html().trim();dw_page.insituPopup(this,'insitu__fn').html(content).show().attr('aria-hidden','false');},makeToggle:function(handle,content,state){var $handle,$content,$clicky,$child,setClicky;$handle=jQuery(handle);if(!$handle.length)return;$content=jQuery(content);if(!$content.length)return;$child=$content.children();setClicky=function(hiding){if(hiding){$clicky.html('<span>+</span>');$handle.addClass('closed');$handle.removeClass('open');}else{$clicky.html('<span>−</span>');$handle.addClass('open');$handle.removeClass('closed');}};$handle[0].setState=function(state){var hidden;if(!state)state=1;$content.css('min-height',$content.height()).show();$child.stop(true,true);if(state===-1){hidden=false;}else if(state===1){hidden=true;}else{hidden=$child.is(':hidden');}setClicky(!hidden);$child.dw_toggle(hidden,function(){$content.toggle(hidden);$content.attr('aria-expanded',hidden);$content.css('min-height','');},true);};$clicky=jQuery(document.createElement('strong'));$handle.css('cursor','pointer').on('click',$handle[0].setState).prepend($clicky);$handle[0].setState(state);}};jQuery(dw_page.init);var device_class='';var device_classes='desktop mobile tablet phone';function tpl_dokuwiki_mobile(){var screen_mode=jQuery('#screen__mode').css('z-index')+'';switch(screen_mode){case'1':if(device_class.match(/tablet/))return;device_class='mobile tablet';break;case'2':if(device_class.match(/phone/))return;device_class='mobile phone';break;default:if(device_class=='desktop')return;device_class='desktop';}jQuery('html').removeClass(device_classes).addClass(device_class);var $handle=jQuery('#dokuwiki__aside h3.toggle');var $toc=jQuery('#dw__toc h3');if(device_class=='desktop'){if($handle.length){$handle[0].setState(1);$handle.hide();}if($toc.length){$toc[0].setState(1);}}if(device_class.match(/mobile/)){if($handle.length){$handle.show();$handle[0].setState(-1);}if($toc.length){$toc[0].setState(-1);}}}jQuery(function(){var resizeTimer;dw_page.makeToggle('#dokuwiki__aside h3.toggle','#dokuwiki__aside div.content');tpl_dokuwiki_mobile();jQuery(window).on('resize',function(){if(resizeTimer)clearTimeout(resizeTimer);resizeTimer=setTimeout(tpl_dokuwiki_mobile,200);});var sidebar_height=jQuery('.desktop #dokuwiki__aside').height();var pagetool_height=jQuery('.desktop #dokuwiki__pagetools ul:first').height();var content_min=Math.max(sidebar_height||0,pagetool_height||0);var content_height=jQuery('#dokuwiki__content div.page').height();if(content_min&&content_min>content_height){var $content=jQuery('#dokuwiki__content div.page');$content.css('min-height',content_min);}jQuery('#dokuwiki__pagetools div.tools>ul>li>a').on('click',function(){this.blur();});});var dw_acl={init:function(){var $tree;if(jQuery('#acl_manager').length===0){return;}jQuery('#acl__user select').on('change',dw_acl.userselhandler);jQuery('#acl__user button').on('click',dw_acl.loadinfo);$tree=jQuery('#acl__tree');$tree.dw_tree({toggle_selector:'img',load_data:function(show_sublist,$clicky){var $frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery.extend(dw_acl.parseatt($clicky.parent().find('a')[0].search),{call:'plugin_acl',ajax:'tree',current_ns:$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(),current_id:$frm.find('input[name=id]').val()}),show_sublist,'html');},toggle_display:function($clicky,opening){$clicky.attr('src',DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/'+(opening?'minus':'plus')+'.gif');}});$tree.delegate('a','click',dw_acl.treehandler);},userselhandler:function(){jQuery('#acl__user input').toggle(this.value==='__g__'||this.value==='__u__');dw_acl.loadinfo();},loadinfo:function(){jQuery('#acl__info').attr('role','alert').html('<img src="'+DOKU_BASE+'lib/images/throbber.gif" alt="..." />').load(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',jQuery('#acl__detail form').serialize()+'&call=plugin_acl&ajax=info');return false;},parseatt:function(str){if(str[0]==='?'){str=str.substr(1);}var attributes={};var all=str.split('&');for(var i=0;i<all.length;i++){var att=all[i].split('=');attributes[att[0]]=decodeURIComponent(att[1]);}return attributes;},treehandler:function(){var $link,$frm;$link=jQuery(this);jQuery('#acl__tree a.cur').removeClass('cur');$link.addClass('cur');$frm=jQuery('#acl__detail form');if($link.hasClass('wikilink1')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val('');$frm.find('input[name=id]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).id);}else if($link.hasClass('idx_dir')){$frm.find('input[name=ns]').val(dw_acl.parseatt($link[0].search).ns);$frm.find('input[name=id]').val('');}dw_acl.loadinfo();return false;}};jQuery(dw_acl.init);(function(){var $,AbstractChosen,Chosen,SelectParser,_ref,__hasProp={}.hasOwnProperty,__extends=function(child,parent){for(var key in parent){if(__hasProp.call(parent,key))child[key]=parent[key];}function ctor(){this.constructor=child;}ctor.prototype=parent.prototype;child.prototype=new ctor();child.__super__=parent.prototype;return child;};SelectParser=(function(){function SelectParser(){this.options_index=0;this.parsed=[];}SelectParser.prototype.add_node=function(child){if(child.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTGROUP"){return this.add_group(child);}else{return this.add_option(child);}};SelectParser.prototype.add_group=function(group){var group_position,option,_i,_len,_ref,_results;group_position=this.parsed.length;this.parsed.push({array_index:group_position,group:true,label:this.escapeExpression(group.label),title:group.title?group.title:void 0,children:0,disabled:group.disabled,classes:group.className});_ref=group.childNodes;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];_results.push(this.add_option(option,group_position,group.disabled));}return _results;};SelectParser.prototype.add_option=function(option,group_position,group_disabled){if(option.nodeName.toUpperCase()==="OPTION"){if(option.text!==""){if(group_position!=null){this.parsed[group_position].children+=1;}this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,value:option.value,text:option.text,html:option.innerHTML,title:option.title?option.title:void 0,selected:option.selected,disabled:group_disabled===true?group_disabled:option.disabled,group_array_index:group_position,group_label:group_position!=null?this.parsed[group_position].label:null,classes:option.className,style:option.style.cssText});}else{this.parsed.push({array_index:this.parsed.length,options_index:this.options_index,empty:true});}return this.options_index+=1;}};SelectParser.prototype.escapeExpression=function(text){var map,unsafe_chars;if((text==null)||text===false){return"";}if(!/[\&\<\>\"\'\`]/.test(text)){return text;}map={"<":"<",">":">",'"':""","'":"'","`":"`"};unsafe_chars=/&(?!\w+;)|[\<\>\"\'\`]/g;return text.replace(unsafe_chars,function(chr){return map[chr]||"&";});};return SelectParser;})();SelectParser.select_to_array=function(select){var child,parser,_i,_len,_ref;parser=new SelectParser();_ref=select.childNodes;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){child=_ref[_i];parser.add_node(child);}return parser.parsed;};AbstractChosen=(function(){function AbstractChosen(form_field,options){this.form_field=form_field;this.options=options!=null?options:{};if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return;}this.is_multiple=this.form_field.multiple;this.set_default_text();this.set_default_values();this.setup();this.set_up_html();this.register_observers();this.on_ready();}AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_values=function(){var _this=this;this.click_test_action=function(evt){return _this.test_active_click(evt);};this.activate_action=function(evt){return _this.activate_field(evt);};this.active_field=false;this.mouse_on_container=false;this.results_showing=false;this.result_highlighted=null;this.allow_single_deselect=(this.options.allow_single_deselect!=null)&&(this.form_field.options[0]!=null)&&this.form_field.options[0].text===""?this.options.allow_single_deselect:false;this.disable_search_threshold=this.options.disable_search_threshold||0;this.disable_search=this.options.disable_search||false;this.enable_split_word_search=this.options.enable_split_word_search!=null?this.options.enable_split_word_search:true;this.group_search=this.options.group_search!=null?this.options.group_search:true;this.search_contains=this.options.search_contains||false;this.single_backstroke_delete=this.options.single_backstroke_delete!=null?this.options.single_backstroke_delete:true;this.max_selected_options=this.options.max_selected_options||Infinity;this.inherit_select_classes=this.options.inherit_select_classes||false;this.display_selected_options=this.options.display_selected_options!=null?this.options.display_selected_options:true;this.display_disabled_options=this.options.display_disabled_options!=null?this.options.display_disabled_options:true;return this.include_group_label_in_selected=this.options.include_group_label_in_selected||false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.set_default_text=function(){if(this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder")){this.default_text=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-placeholder");}else if(this.is_multiple){this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_multiple||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text;}else{this.default_text=this.options.placeholder_text_single||this.options.placeholder_text||AbstractChosen.default_single_text;}return this.results_none_found=this.form_field.getAttribute("data-no_results_text")||this.options.no_results_text||AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choice_label=function(item){if(this.include_group_label_in_selected&&(item.group_label!=null)){return"<b class='group-name'>"+item.group_label+"</b>"+item.html;}else{return item.html;}};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_enter=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.mouse_leave=function(){return this.mouse_on_container=false;};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_focus=function(evt){var _this=this;if(this.is_multiple){if(!this.active_field){return setTimeout((function(){return _this.container_mousedown();}),50);}}else{if(!this.active_field){return this.activate_field();}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.input_blur=function(evt){var _this=this;if(!this.mouse_on_container){this.active_field=false;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.blur_test();}),100);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_option_build=function(options){var content,data,_i,_len,_ref;content='';_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){data=_ref[_i];if(data.group){content+=this.result_add_group(data);}else{content+=this.result_add_option(data);}if(options!=null?options.first:void 0){if(data.selected&&this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(data);}else if(data.selected&&!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(data));}}}return content;};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_option=function(option){var classes,option_el;if(!option.search_match){return'';}if(!this.include_option_in_results(option)){return'';}classes=[];if(!option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("active-result");}if(option.disabled&&!(option.selected&&this.is_multiple)){classes.push("disabled-result");}if(option.selected){classes.push("result-selected");}if(option.group_array_index!=null){classes.push("group-option");}if(option.classes!==""){classes.push(option.classes);}option_el=document.createElement("li");option_el.className=classes.join(" ");option_el.style.cssText=option.style;option_el.setAttribute("data-option-array-index",option.array_index);option_el.innerHTML=option.search_text;if(option.title){option_el.title=option.title;}return this.outerHTML(option_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.result_add_group=function(group){var classes,group_el;if(!(group.search_match||group.group_match)){return'';}if(!(group.active_options>0)){return'';}classes=[];classes.push("group-result");if(group.classes){classes.push(group.classes);}group_el=document.createElement("li");group_el.className=classes.join(" ");group_el.innerHTML=group.search_text;if(group.title){group_el.title=group.title;}return this.outerHTML(group_el);};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_update_field=function(){this.set_default_text();if(!this.is_multiple){this.results_reset_cleanup();}this.result_clear_highlight();this.results_build();if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.reset_single_select_options=function(){var result,_i,_len,_ref,_results;_ref=this.results_data;_results=[];for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){result=_ref[_i];if(result.selected){_results.push(result.selected=false);}else{_results.push(void 0);}}return _results;};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_toggle=function(){if(this.results_showing){return this.results_hide();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.results_search=function(evt){if(this.results_showing){return this.winnow_results();}else{return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.winnow_results=function(){var escapedSearchText,option,regex,results,results_group,searchText,startpos,text,zregex,_i,_len,_ref;this.no_results_clear();results=0;searchText=this.get_search_text();escapedSearchText=searchText.replace(/[-[\]{}()*+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g,"\\$&");zregex=new RegExp(escapedSearchText,'i');regex=this.get_search_regex(escapedSearchText);_ref=this.results_data;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];option.search_match=false;results_group=null;if(this.include_option_in_results(option)){if(option.group){option.group_match=false;option.active_options=0;}if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index]){results_group=this.results_data[option.group_array_index];if(results_group.active_options===0&&results_group.search_match){results+=1;}results_group.active_options+=1;}option.search_text=option.group?option.label:option.html;if(!(option.group&&!this.group_search)){option.search_match=this.search_string_match(option.search_text,regex);if(option.search_match&&!option.group){results+=1;}if(option.search_match){if(searchText.length){startpos=option.search_text.search(zregex);text=option.search_text.substr(0,startpos+searchText.length)+'</em>'+option.search_text.substr(startpos+searchText.length);option.search_text=text.substr(0,startpos)+'<em>'+text.substr(startpos);}if(results_group!=null){results_group.group_match=true;}}else if((option.group_array_index!=null)&&this.results_data[option.group_array_index].search_match){option.search_match=true;}}}}this.result_clear_highlight();if(results<1&&searchText.length){this.update_results_content("");return this.no_results(searchText);}else{this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build());return this.winnow_results_set_highlight();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.get_search_regex=function(escaped_search_string){var regex_anchor;regex_anchor=this.search_contains?"":"^";return new RegExp(regex_anchor+escaped_search_string,'i');};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_string_match=function(search_string,regex){var part,parts,_i,_len;if(regex.test(search_string)){return true;}else if(this.enable_split_word_search&&(search_string.indexOf(" ")>=0||search_string.indexOf("[")===0)){parts=search_string.replace(/\[|\]/g,"").split(" ");if(parts.length){for(_i=0,_len=parts.length;_i<_len;_i++){part=parts[_i];if(regex.test(part)){return true;}}}}};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_count=function(){var option,_i,_len,_ref;if(this.selected_option_count!=null){return this.selected_option_count;}this.selected_option_count=0;_ref=this.form_field.options;for(_i=0,_len=_ref.length;_i<_len;_i++){option=_ref[_i];if(option.selected){this.selected_option_count+=1;}}return this.selected_option_count;};AbstractChosen.prototype.choices_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();if(!(this.results_showing||this.is_disabled)){return this.results_show();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.keyup_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref;stroke=(_ref=evt.which)!=null?_ref:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();switch(stroke){case 8:if(this.is_multiple&&this.backstroke_length<1&&this.choices_count()>0){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else if(!this.pending_backstroke){this.result_clear_highlight();return this.results_search();}break;case 13:evt.preventDefault();if(this.results_showing){return this.result_select(evt);}break;case 27:if(this.results_showing){this.results_hide();}return true;case 9:case 38:case 40:case 16:case 91:case 17:break;default:return this.results_search();}};AbstractChosen.prototype.clipboard_event_checker=function(evt){var _this=this;return setTimeout((function(){return _this.results_search();}),50);};AbstractChosen.prototype.container_width=function(){if(this.options.width!=null){return this.options.width;}else{return""+this.form_field.offsetWidth+"px";}};AbstractChosen.prototype.include_option_in_results=function(option){if(this.is_multiple&&(!this.display_selected_options&&option.selected)){return false;}if(!this.display_disabled_options&&option.disabled){return false;}if(option.empty){return false;}return true;};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchstart=function(evt){this.touch_started=true;return this.search_results_mouseover(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchmove=function(evt){this.touch_started=false;return this.search_results_mouseout(evt);};AbstractChosen.prototype.search_results_touchend=function(evt){if(this.touch_started){return this.search_results_mouseup(evt);}};AbstractChosen.prototype.outerHTML=function(element){var tmp;if(element.outerHTML){return element.outerHTML;}tmp=document.createElement("div");tmp.appendChild(element);return tmp.innerHTML;};AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported=function(){if(window.navigator.appName==="Microsoft Internet Explorer"){return document.documentMode>=8;}if(/iP(od|hone)/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}if(/Android/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){if(/Mobile/i.test(window.navigator.userAgent)){return false;}}return true;};AbstractChosen.default_multiple_text="Select Some Options";AbstractChosen.default_single_text="Select an Option";AbstractChosen.default_no_result_text="No results match";return AbstractChosen;})();$=jQuery;$.fn.extend({chosen:function(options){if(!AbstractChosen.browser_is_supported()){return this;}return this.each(function(input_field){var $this,chosen;$this=$(this);chosen=$this.data('chosen');if(options==='destroy'&&chosen instanceof Chosen){chosen.destroy();}else if(!(chosen instanceof Chosen)){$this.data('chosen',new Chosen(this,options));}});}});Chosen=(function(_super){__extends(Chosen,_super);function Chosen(){_ref=Chosen.__super__.constructor.apply(this,arguments);return _ref;}Chosen.prototype.setup=function(){this.form_field_jq=$(this.form_field);this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.is_rtl=this.form_field_jq.hasClass("chosen-rtl");};Chosen.prototype.set_up_html=function(){var container_classes,container_props;container_classes=["chosen-container"];container_classes.push("chosen-container-"+(this.is_multiple?"multi":"single"));if(this.inherit_select_classes&&this.form_field.className){container_classes.push(this.form_field.className);}if(this.is_rtl){container_classes.push("chosen-rtl");}container_props={'class':container_classes.join(' '),'style':"width: "+(this.container_width())+";",'title':this.form_field.title};if(this.form_field.id.length){container_props.id=this.form_field.id.replace(/[^\w]/g,'_')+"_chosen";}this.container=$("<div />",container_props);if(this.is_multiple){this.container.html('<ul class="chosen-choices"><li class="search-field"><input type="text" value="'+this.default_text+'" class="default" autocomplete="off" style="width:25px;" /></li></ul><div class="chosen-drop"><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}else{this.container.html('<a class="chosen-single chosen-default" tabindex="-1"><span>'+this.default_text+'</span><div><b></b></div></a><div class="chosen-drop"><div class="chosen-search"><input type="text" autocomplete="off" /></div><ul class="chosen-results"></ul></div>');}this.form_field_jq.hide().after(this.container);this.dropdown=this.container.find('div.chosen-drop').first();this.search_field=this.container.find('input').first();this.search_results=this.container.find('ul.chosen-results').first();this.search_field_scale();this.search_no_results=this.container.find('li.no-results').first();if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices=this.container.find('ul.chosen-choices').first();this.search_container=this.container.find('li.search-field').first();}else{this.search_container=this.container.find('div.chosen-search').first();this.selected_item=this.container.find('.chosen-single').first();}this.results_build();this.set_tab_index();return this.set_label_behavior();};Chosen.prototype.on_ready=function(){return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:ready",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.register_observers=function(){var _this=this;this.container.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);return evt.preventDefault();});this.container.bind('mousedown.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.container_mouseup(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseenter.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_enter(evt);});this.container.bind('mouseleave.chosen',function(evt){_this.mouse_leave(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseup.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseup(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseover.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseover(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mouseout.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mouseout(evt);});this.search_results.bind('mousewheel.chosen DOMMouseScroll.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_mousewheel(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchstart.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchstart(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchmove.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchmove(evt);});this.search_results.bind('touchend.chosen',function(evt){_this.search_results_touchend(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:updated.chosen",function(evt){_this.results_update_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:activate.chosen",function(evt){_this.activate_field(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:open.chosen",function(evt){_this.container_mousedown(evt);});this.form_field_jq.bind("chosen:close.chosen",function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('blur.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_blur(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keyup.chosen',function(evt){_this.keyup_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('keydown.chosen',function(evt){_this.keydown_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('focus.chosen',function(evt){_this.input_focus(evt);});this.search_field.bind('cut.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});this.search_field.bind('paste.chosen',function(evt){_this.clipboard_event_checker(evt);});if(this.is_multiple){return this.search_choices.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){_this.choices_click(evt);});}else{return this.container.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){evt.preventDefault();});}};Chosen.prototype.destroy=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);if(this.search_field[0].tabIndex){this.form_field_jq[0].tabIndex=this.search_field[0].tabIndex;}this.container.remove();this.form_field_jq.removeData('chosen');return this.form_field_jq.show();};Chosen.prototype.search_field_disabled=function(){this.is_disabled=this.form_field_jq[0].disabled;if(this.is_disabled){this.container.addClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=true;if(!this.is_multiple){this.selected_item.unbind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}return this.close_field();}else{this.container.removeClass('chosen-disabled');this.search_field[0].disabled=false;if(!this.is_multiple){return this.selected_item.bind("focus.chosen",this.activate_action);}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mousedown=function(evt){if(!this.is_disabled){if(evt&&evt.type==="mousedown"&&!this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}if(!((evt!=null)&&($(evt.target)).hasClass("search-choice-close"))){if(!this.active_field){if(this.is_multiple){this.search_field.val("");}$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).bind('click.chosen',this.click_test_action);this.results_show();}else if(!this.is_multiple&&evt&&(($(evt.target)[0]===this.selected_item[0])||$(evt.target).parents("a.chosen-single").length)){evt.preventDefault();this.results_toggle();}return this.activate_field();}}};Chosen.prototype.container_mouseup=function(evt){if(evt.target.nodeName==="ABBR"&&!this.is_disabled){return this.results_reset(evt);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mousewheel=function(evt){var delta;if(evt.originalEvent){delta=evt.originalEvent.deltaY||-evt.originalEvent.wheelDelta||evt.originalEvent.detail;}if(delta!=null){evt.preventDefault();if(evt.type==='DOMMouseScroll'){delta=delta*40;}return this.search_results.scrollTop(delta+this.search_results.scrollTop());}};Chosen.prototype.blur_test=function(evt){if(!this.active_field&&this.container.hasClass("chosen-container-active")){return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.close_field=function(){$(this.container[0].ownerDocument).unbind("click.chosen",this.click_test_action);this.active_field=false;this.results_hide();this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-active");this.clear_backstroke();this.show_search_field_default();return this.search_field_scale();};Chosen.prototype.activate_field=function(){this.container.addClass("chosen-container-active");this.active_field=true;this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());return this.search_field.focus();};Chosen.prototype.test_active_click=function(evt){var active_container;active_container=$(evt.target).closest('.chosen-container');if(active_container.length&&this.container[0]===active_container[0]){return this.active_field=true;}else{return this.close_field();}};Chosen.prototype.results_build=function(){this.parsing=true;this.selected_option_count=null;this.results_data=SelectParser.select_to_array(this.form_field);if(this.is_multiple){this.search_choices.find("li.search-choice").remove();}else if(!this.is_multiple){this.single_set_selected_text();if(this.disable_search||this.form_field.options.length<=this.disable_search_threshold){this.search_field[0].readOnly=true;this.container.addClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}else{this.search_field[0].readOnly=false;this.container.removeClass("chosen-container-single-nosearch");}}this.update_results_content(this.results_option_build({first:true}));this.search_field_disabled();this.show_search_field_default();this.search_field_scale();return this.parsing=false;};Chosen.prototype.result_do_highlight=function(el){var high_bottom,high_top,maxHeight,visible_bottom,visible_top;if(el.length){this.result_clear_highlight();this.result_highlight=el;this.result_highlight.addClass("highlighted");maxHeight=parseInt(this.search_results.css("maxHeight"),10);visible_top=this.search_results.scrollTop();visible_bottom=maxHeight+visible_top;high_top=this.result_highlight.position().top+this.search_results.scrollTop();high_bottom=high_top+this.result_highlight.outerHeight();if(high_bottom>=visible_bottom){return this.search_results.scrollTop((high_bottom-maxHeight)>0?high_bottom-maxHeight:0);}else if(high_top<visible_top){return this.search_results.scrollTop(high_top);}}};Chosen.prototype.result_clear_highlight=function(){if(this.result_highlight){this.result_highlight.removeClass("highlighted");}return this.result_highlight=null;};Chosen.prototype.results_show=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}this.container.addClass("chosen-with-drop");this.results_showing=true;this.search_field.focus();this.search_field.val(this.search_field.val());this.winnow_results();return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:showing_dropdown",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.update_results_content=function(content){return this.search_results.html(content);};Chosen.prototype.results_hide=function(){if(this.results_showing){this.result_clear_highlight();this.container.removeClass("chosen-with-drop");this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:hiding_dropdown",{chosen:this});}return this.results_showing=false;};Chosen.prototype.set_tab_index=function(el){var ti;if(this.form_field.tabIndex){ti=this.form_field.tabIndex;this.form_field.tabIndex=-1;return this.search_field[0].tabIndex=ti;}};Chosen.prototype.set_label_behavior=function(){var _this=this;this.form_field_label=this.form_field_jq.parents("label");if(!this.form_field_label.length&&this.form_field.id.length){this.form_field_label=$("label[for='"+this.form_field.id+"']");}if(this.form_field_label.length>0){return this.form_field_label.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){if(_this.is_multiple){return _this.container_mousedown(evt);}else{return _this.activate_field();}});}};Chosen.prototype.show_search_field_default=function(){if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()<1&&!this.active_field){this.search_field.val(this.default_text);return this.search_field.addClass("default");}else{this.search_field.val("");return this.search_field.removeClass("default");}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseup=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target.length){this.result_highlight=target;this.result_select(evt);return this.search_field.focus();}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseover=function(evt){var target;target=$(evt.target).hasClass("active-result")?$(evt.target):$(evt.target).parents(".active-result").first();if(target){return this.result_do_highlight(target);}};Chosen.prototype.search_results_mouseout=function(evt){if($(evt.target).hasClass("active-result"||$(evt.target).parents('.active-result').first())){return this.result_clear_highlight();}};Chosen.prototype.choice_build=function(item){var choice,close_link,_this=this;choice=$('<li />',{"class":"search-choice"}).html("<span>"+(this.choice_label(item))+"</span>");if(item.disabled){choice.addClass('search-choice-disabled');}else{close_link=$('<a />',{"class":'search-choice-close','data-option-array-index':item.array_index});close_link.bind('click.chosen',function(evt){return _this.choice_destroy_link_click(evt);});choice.append(close_link);}return this.search_container.before(choice);};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy_link_click=function(evt){evt.preventDefault();evt.stopPropagation();if(!this.is_disabled){return this.choice_destroy($(evt.target));}};Chosen.prototype.choice_destroy=function(link){if(this.result_deselect(link[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index"))){this.show_search_field_default();if(this.is_multiple&&this.choices_count()>0&&this.search_field.val().length<1){this.results_hide();}link.parents('li').first().remove();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset=function(){this.reset_single_select_options();this.form_field.options[0].selected=true;this.single_set_selected_text();this.show_search_field_default();this.results_reset_cleanup();this.form_field_jq.trigger("change");if(this.active_field){return this.results_hide();}};Chosen.prototype.results_reset_cleanup=function(){this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;return this.selected_item.find("abbr").remove();};Chosen.prototype.result_select=function(evt){var high,item;if(this.result_highlight){high=this.result_highlight;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.is_multiple&&this.max_selected_options<=this.choices_count()){this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:maxselected",{chosen:this});return false;}if(this.is_multiple){high.removeClass("active-result");}else{this.reset_single_select_options();}high.addClass("result-selected");item=this.results_data[high[0].getAttribute("data-option-array-index")];item.selected=true;this.form_field.options[item.options_index].selected=true;this.selected_option_count=null;if(this.is_multiple){this.choice_build(item);}else{this.single_set_selected_text(this.choice_label(item));}if(!((evt.metaKey||evt.ctrlKey)&&this.is_multiple)){this.results_hide();}this.search_field.val("");if(this.is_multiple||this.form_field.selectedIndex!==this.current_selectedIndex){this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{'selected':this.form_field.options[item.options_index].value});}this.current_selectedIndex=this.form_field.selectedIndex;evt.preventDefault();return this.search_field_scale();}};Chosen.prototype.single_set_selected_text=function(text){if(text==null){text=this.default_text;}if(text===this.default_text){this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-default");}else{this.single_deselect_control_build();this.selected_item.removeClass("chosen-default");}return this.selected_item.find("span").html(text);};Chosen.prototype.result_deselect=function(pos){var result_data;result_data=this.results_data[pos];if(!this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].disabled){result_data.selected=false;this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].selected=false;this.selected_option_count=null;this.result_clear_highlight();if(this.results_showing){this.winnow_results();}this.form_field_jq.trigger("change",{deselected:this.form_field.options[result_data.options_index].value});this.search_field_scale();return true;}else{return false;}};Chosen.prototype.single_deselect_control_build=function(){if(!this.allow_single_deselect){return;}if(!this.selected_item.find("abbr").length){this.selected_item.find("span").first().after("<abbr class=\"search-choice-close\"></abbr>");}return this.selected_item.addClass("chosen-single-with-deselect");};Chosen.prototype.get_search_text=function(){return $('<div/>').text($.trim(this.search_field.val())).html();};Chosen.prototype.winnow_results_set_highlight=function(){var do_high,selected_results;selected_results=!this.is_multiple?this.search_results.find(".result-selected.active-result"):[];do_high=selected_results.length?selected_results.first():this.search_results.find(".active-result").first();if(do_high!=null){return this.result_do_highlight(do_high);}};Chosen.prototype.no_results=function(terms){var no_results_html;no_results_html=$('<li class="no-results">'+this.results_none_found+' "<span></span>"</li>');no_results_html.find("span").first().html(terms);this.search_results.append(no_results_html);return this.form_field_jq.trigger("chosen:no_results",{chosen:this});};Chosen.prototype.no_results_clear=function(){return this.search_results.find(".no-results").remove();};Chosen.prototype.keydown_arrow=function(){var next_sib;if(this.results_showing&&this.result_highlight){next_sib=this.result_highlight.nextAll("li.active-result").first();if(next_sib){return this.result_do_highlight(next_sib);}}else{return this.results_show();}};Chosen.prototype.keyup_arrow=function(){var prev_sibs;if(!this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){return this.results_show();}else if(this.result_highlight){prev_sibs=this.result_highlight.prevAll("li.active-result");if(prev_sibs.length){return this.result_do_highlight(prev_sibs.first());}else{if(this.choices_count()>0){this.results_hide();}return this.result_clear_highlight();}}};Chosen.prototype.keydown_backstroke=function(){var next_available_destroy;if(this.pending_backstroke){this.choice_destroy(this.pending_backstroke.find("a").first());return this.clear_backstroke();}else{next_available_destroy=this.search_container.siblings("li.search-choice").last();if(next_available_destroy.length&&!next_available_destroy.hasClass("search-choice-disabled")){this.pending_backstroke=next_available_destroy;if(this.single_backstroke_delete){return this.keydown_backstroke();}else{return this.pending_backstroke.addClass("search-choice-focus");}}}};Chosen.prototype.clear_backstroke=function(){if(this.pending_backstroke){this.pending_backstroke.removeClass("search-choice-focus");}return this.pending_backstroke=null;};Chosen.prototype.keydown_checker=function(evt){var stroke,_ref1;stroke=(_ref1=evt.which)!=null?_ref1:evt.keyCode;this.search_field_scale();if(stroke!==8&&this.pending_backstroke){this.clear_backstroke();}switch(stroke){case 8:this.backstroke_length=this.search_field.val().length;break;case 9:if(this.results_showing&&!this.is_multiple){this.result_select(evt);}this.mouse_on_container=false;break;case 13:if(this.results_showing){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 32:if(this.disable_search){evt.preventDefault();}break;case 38:evt.preventDefault();this.keyup_arrow();break;case 40:evt.preventDefault();this.keydown_arrow();break;}};Chosen.prototype.search_field_scale=function(){var div,f_width,h,style,style_block,styles,w,_i,_len;if(this.is_multiple){h=0;w=0;style_block="position:absolute; left: -1000px; top: -1000px; display:none;";styles=['font-size','font-style','font-weight','font-family','line-height','text-transform','letter-spacing'];for(_i=0,_len=styles.length;_i<_len;_i++){style=styles[_i];style_block+=style+":"+this.search_field.css(style)+";";}div=$('<div />',{'style':style_block});div.text(this.search_field.val());$('body').append(div);w=div.width()+25;div.remove();f_width=this.container.outerWidth();if(w>f_width-10){w=f_width-10;}return this.search_field.css({'width':w+'px'});}};return Chosen;})(AbstractChosen);}).call(this);(function(){'use strict';jQuery(function(){var $animalSelect=jQuery('select.farmer_chosen_animals');$animalSelect.chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,allow_single_deselect:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});jQuery('select.acl_chosen').chosen({disable_search:true,width:'100%'});var $formAllAnimals=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforall');$formAllAnimals.find('select').change(function(){$formAllAnimals.find('button').prop('disabled',false);}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.pluginSelect});var $formSingleAnimal=jQuery('#farmer__pluginsforone');$formSingleAnimal.find('select').change(function(){var animal=jQuery(this).val();$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',true);jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_getPlugins_'+animal},function(data){$formSingleAnimal.find('div.output').html(data);$formSingleAnimal.find('button').prop('disabled',false);},'html')}).chosen({width:'100%',search_contains:true,"placeholder_text_single":LANG.plugins.farmer.animalSelect});var $formPluginMatrix=jQuery('#farmer__pluginmatrix').hide();$formPluginMatrix.on('click','td',function(){var $td=jQuery(this);$td.html('⌛').css('background-color','transparent');jQuery.post(DOKU_BASE+'lib/exe/ajax.php',{call:'plugin_farmer_modPlugin',plugin:$td.data('plugin'),ani:$td.data('animal')},function(data){$td.replaceWith(data);},'html');});function 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desescolarizada";i:1;i:1;i:2;i:0;}i:2;i:0;}i:2;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:1;}i:2;i:0;}i:3;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:30:" +# La sociedad desescolarizada";}i:2;i:0;}i:4;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32;}i:5;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"Introducción";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:32;}i:2;i:32;}i:6;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:32;}i:7;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:17:" +## Introducción";}i:2;i:32;}i:8;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32;}i:9;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:386:"Debo a Everett Reimer el interés que tengo por la educación pública hasta el día de 1958 en que nos conocimos en Puerto Rico jamás había yo puesto en duda el valor de hacer obligatoria la escuela para todos. Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela.";}i:2;i:51;}i:10;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:437;}i:11;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:437;}i:12;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:491:"Desde 1966 en adelante, Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca, organizó anualmente dos seminarios alrededor de mi diálogo con Reimer. Centenares de personas de todo el mundo participaron en estos encuentros. Quiero recordar en este lugar a dos de ellos que contribuyeron particularmente a nuestro análisis y que en el entretiempo murieron: Augusto Salazar Bondy y Paul Goodman. Los ensayos escritos para el boletín ";}i:2;i:439;}i:13;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:930;}i:14;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"Cidoc Informa";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"Cidoc Informa";}i:2;i:931;}i:15;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:944;}i:16;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:215:" y reunidos en este libro se desarrollaron a partir de mis notas de seminario. El último capítulo contiene ideas que me surgieron después de mis conversaciones con Erich Fromm en torno al Mutterrecht de Bachofen.";}i:2;i:945;}i:17;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1160;}i:18;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1160;}i:19;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:241:"Durante estos años Valentina Borremans constantemente me urgía a poner a prueba nuestro pensar enfrentándolo a las realidades de América Latina y de África. Este libro refleja su convencimiento de que no sólo las instituciones sino el ";}i:2;i:1162;}i:20;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1403;}i:21;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:1404;}i:22;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1409;}i:23;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:49:" de la sociedad deben ser “desescolarizados”.";}i:2;i:1410;}i:24;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1459;}i:25;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:1459;}i:26;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:565:"La educación universal por medio de la escolarización no es factible. No sería más factible si se intentara mediante instituciones alternativas construidas según el estilo de las escuelas actuales. Ni nuevas actitudes de los maestros hacia sus alumnos, ni la proliferación de nuevas herramientas y métodos físicos o mentales (en el aula o en el dormitorio), ni, finalmente, el intento de ampliar la responsabilidad del pedagogo hasta que englobe las vidas completas de sus alumnos, dará por resultado la educación universal. La búsqueda actual de nuevos ";}i:2;i:1461;}i:27;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2026;}i:28;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"embudos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"embudos";}i:2;i:2027;}i:29;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2034;}i:30;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:81:" educacionales debe revertirse hacia la búsqueda de su antípoda institucional: ";}i:2;i:2035;}i:31;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2116;}i:32;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"tramas";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"tramas";}i:2;i:2117;}i:33;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2123;}i:34;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:372:" educacionales que aumenten la oportunidad para que cada cual transforme cada momento de su vida en un momento de aprendizaje, de compartir, de interesarse. Confiamos en estar aportando conceptos necesarios para aquellos que realizan investigaciones sobre la educación —y asimismo para aquellos que buscan alternativas para otras industrias de servicio establecidas—.";}i:2;i:2124;}i:35;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2496;}i:36;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2496;}i:37;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:372:"Me propongo examinar algunas cuestiones inquietantes que surgen una vez que adoptamos como hipótesis que la sociedad puede desescolarizarse, buscar pautas que puedan ayudarnos a discernir instituciones dignas de desarrollo por cuanto apoyan el aprendizaje en un medio desescolarizado, y esclarecer las metas personales que ampararían el advenimiento de una Edad de Ocio ";}i:2;i:2498;}i:38;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2870;}i:39;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"(schole)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"(schole)";}i:2;i:2871;}i:40;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2879;}i:41;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:74:" opuesta como tal a una economía dominada por las industrias de servicio.";}i:2;i:2880;}i:42;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2954;}i:43;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2954;}i:44;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:12:"IVÁN ILLICH";}i:2;i:2956;}i:45;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2968;}i:46;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:2968;}i:47;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:2970;}i:48;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:32:"Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:32:"Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978";}i:2;i:2971;}i:49;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:3003;}i:50;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:0:"";}i:2;i:3004;}i:51;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:3005;}i:52;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:3005;}i:53;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:53:"Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:3005;}i:2;i:3005;}i:54;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:3005;}i:55;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:57:" +## Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela";}i:2;i:3005;}i:56;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:3005;}i:57;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1190:"Muchos estudiantes en especial los que son pobres saben intuitivamente qué hacen por ellos las escuelas los adiestran a confundir proceso y sustancia. Una vez que estos dos términos se hacen indistintos, se adopta una nueva lógica: cuanto más tratamiento haya, tanto mejor serán los resultados. Al alumno se le “escolariza” de ese modo para confundir enseñanza con saber, promoción al curso siguiente con educación, diploma con competencia, y fluidez con capacidad para decir algo nuevo. A su imaginación se la “escolariza” para que acepte servicio en vez de valor. Se confunde el tratamiento médico tomándolo por cuidado de la salud, el trabajo social por mejoramiento de la vida comunitaria, la protección policiaca por tranquilidad, el equilibrio militar por seguridad nacional, la mezquina lucha cotidiana por trabajo productivo. La salud, el saber, la dignidad, la independencia y el quehacer creativo quedan definidos como poco más que el desempeño de las instituciones que afirman servir a estos fines, y su mejoramiento se hace dependiente de la asignación de mayores recursos a la administración de hospitales, escuelas y demás organismos correspondientes.";}i:2;i:3064;}i:58;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:4254;}i:59;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:4254;}i:60;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1162:"En estos ensayos mostraré que la institucionalización de los valores conduce inevitablemente a la contaminación física, a la polarización social y a la impotencia psicológica: tres dimensiones en un proceso de degradación global y de miseria modernizada. Explicaré cómo este proceso de degradación se acelera cuando unas necesidades no materiales se transforman en demanda de bienes; cuando a la salud, a la educación, a la movilidad personal, al bienestar o a la cura psicológica se las define como el resultado de servicios o de “tratamientos”. Hago esto porque creo que la mayoría de las investigaciones actualmente en curso acerca del futuro tienden a abogar por incrementos aún mayores en la institucionalización de valores y que debemos definir algunas condiciones que permitieran que ocurriese lo contrario. Precisamos investigaciones sobre el posible uso de la tecnología para crear instituciones que atiendan a la acción recíproca, creativa y autónoma entre personas y a la emergencia de valores que los tecnócratas no puedan controlar sustancialmente. Necesitamos investigación en líneas generales para la futurología actual.";}i:2;i:4256;}i:61;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:5418;}i:62;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:5418;}i:63;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:743:"Quiero suscitar la cuestión general acerca de la mutua definición, de la naturaleza del hombre y de la naturaleza de las instituciones modernas, que caracteriza nuestra visión del mundo y nuestro lenguaje. Para hacerlo, he elegido a la escuela como mi paradigma, y por consiguiente trato sólo indirectamente de otros organismos burocráticos del Estado corporativo: la familia consumidora, el partido, el ejército, la Iglesia, los medios informativos. Mi análisis del currículum oculto de la escuela debería poner en evidencia que la educación pública se beneficiaría con la desescolarización de la sociedad, tal como la vida familiar, la política, la seguridad, la fe y la comunicación se beneficiarían con un proceso análogo.";}i:2;i:5420;}i:64;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6163;}i:65;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6163;}i:66;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:335:"Quiero comenzar este estudio esforzándome en hacer comprender qué es lo que la desescolarización de una sociedad escolarizada podría significar. En este contexto debiera ser más fácil entender mi elección de los cinco aspectos específicos pertinentes respecto de este proceso, los cuales abordaré en los capítulos siguientes.";}i:2;i:6165;}i:67;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6500;}i:68;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6500;}i:69;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:387:"No sólo la educación sino la propia realidad social se han escolarizado. Cuesta más o menos lo mismo escolarizar tanto al rico como al pobre en igual dependencia. El gasto anual por alumno en los arrabales y los suburbios ricos de cualquiera de 20 ciudades de Estados Unidos está comprendido dentro de unos mismos márgenes —y hasta es favorable al pobre en ciertos casos—.[^n01]";}i:2;i:6502;}i:70;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6889;}i:71;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:6889;}i:72;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:692:"Tanto el pobre como el rico dependen de escuelas y hospitales que guían sus vidas, forman su visión del mundo y definen para ellos qué es legítimo y qué no. Ambos consideran irresponsable medicarse uno mismo, y ven a la organización comunitaria, cuando no la pagan quienes detentan la autoridad, como una forma de agresión y subversión. Para ambos grupos, apoyarse en el tratamiento institucional hace sospechoso el logro independiente. El subdesarrollo progresivo de la confianza en sí mismo y en la comunidad es incluso más típico en Westchester que en el norte de Brasil. Por doquiera, no tan sólo la educación sino la sociedad en conjunto, necesitan “desescolarización”.";}i:2;i:6891;}i:73;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:7583;}i:74;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:7583;}i:75;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:655:"Las burocracias del bienestar social pretenden un monopolio profesional, político y financiero sobre la imaginación social, fijando normas sobre qué es valedero y qué es factible. Este monopolio está en las raíces de la modernización de la pobreza. Cada necesidad simple para la que se halla una respuesta institucional permite la invención de una nueva clase de pobres y una nueva definición de la pobreza. Hace 10 años, lo normal en México era nacer y morir en su propia casa, y ser enterrado por sus amigos. Sólo las necesidades del alma las atendía la Iglesia institucionalizada. Ahora, comenzar y acabar la vida en casa se convierten en ";}i:2;i:7585;}i:76;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:8240;}i:77;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"signos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"signos";}i:2;i:8241;}i:78;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:8247;}i:79;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:177:" , ya sea de pobreza, ya sea de privilegio especial. El morir y la muerte han quedado bajo la administración institucional del médico y de los empresarios de pompas fúnebres.";}i:2;i:8248;}i:80;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8425;}i:81;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8425;}i:82;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:405:"Una vez que una sociedad ha convertido ciertas necesidades básicas en demandas de bienes producidos científicamente, la pobreza queda definida por normas que los tecnócratas pueden cambiar a voluntad. “Pobre” es quien no llega a satisfacer ciertas normas del consumo obligatorio. En México son pobres aquellos que carecen de tres años de escolaridad, y en Nueva York aquellos que carecen de doce.";}i:2;i:8427;}i:83;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8832;}i:84;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:8832;}i:85;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:772:"Los pobres siempre han sido socialmente impotentes. Apoyarse cada vez más en la atención y el cuidado institucionales agrega una nueva dimensión a su indefensión: la impotencia psicológica, la incapacidad de valerse por sí mismos. Los campesinos del altiplano andino son explotados por el terrateniente y el comerciante —una vez que se asientan en Lima llegan a depender, además, de los jefazos políticos y están desarmados por su falta de escolaridad—. La pobreza moderna conjuga la pérdida del poder sobre las circunstancias con una pérdida de la potencia personal. Esta modernización de la pobreza es un fenómeno mundial y está en el origen del subdesarrollo contemporáneo. Adopta aspectos diferentes, por supuesto, en países ricos y países pobres.";}i:2;i:8834;}i:86;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:9606;}i:87;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:9606;}i:88;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:450:"Probablemente se siente más intensamente en las ciudades estadunidenses. En ninguna otra parte se da un tratamiento más costoso a la pobreza. En ninguna otra parte el tratamiento de la pobreza produce tanta dependencia, ira, frustración y nuevos requerimientos. Y en ninguna otra parte es tan evidente que la pobreza —una vez modernizada— ha llegado a hacerse resistente al tratamiento con dólares y requiere de una revolución institucional.";}i:2;i:9608;}i:89;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10058;}i:90;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10058;}i:91;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:798:"Hoy en día, en Estados Unidos, el negro y hasta el vagabundo pueden aspirar a un nivel de tratamiento profesional que habría sido inconcebible hace dos generaciones y que a la mayoría de la gente del Tercer Mundo le parece grotesca. Por ejemplo, los pobres de Estados Unidos pueden contar con un vigilante escolar que lleve a sus hijos de regreso a la escuela hasta que lleguen a los 17 años o con un médico que les remita a una cama de hospital que cuesta 60 dólares diarios —el equivalente al ingreso de tres meses para la mayor parte de la gente en el mundo—. Pero ese cuidado los hace sólo más dependientes de un tratamiento ulterior, y los hace cada vez más incapaces de organizar sus propias vidas en torno a sus propias experiencias y recursos dentro de sus propias comunidades.";}i:2;i:10060;}i:92;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10858;}i:93;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:10858;}i:94;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:659:"Los estadunidenses pobres están en una posición singular para hablar sobre el predicamento que amenaza a todos los pobres de un mundo en vías de modernización. Están descubriendo que no hay cantidad alguna de dólares que pueda eliminar la destructividad inherente de las instituciones de bienestar social, una vez que las jerarquías profesionales de estas instituciones han convencido a la sociedad de que sus servicios son moralmente necesarios. Los pobres de los núcleos urbanos centrales de Estados Unidos pueden demostrar con su propia experiencia la falacia sobre la que está construida la legislación social en una sociedad “escolarizada”.";}i:2;i:10860;}i:95;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11519;}i:96;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11519;}i:97;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:451:"William O. Douglas, miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, hizo la observación de que “la única manera de establecer una observación es financiarla”. El corolario es asimismo verdadero. Sólo al desviar los dólares que ahora afluyen a las instituciones que actualmente tratan la salud, la educación y el bienestar social, podrá detenerse el progresivo empobrecimiento que ahora proviene del aspecto paralizante de las mismas instituciones.";}i:2;i:11521;}i:98;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11972;}i:99;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:11972;}i:100;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:298:"Debemos tener esto presente al evaluar los programas de ayuda federales. A modo de ejemplo: entre 1965 y 1968, en las escuelas de Estados Unidos se gastaron más de 3 000 millones de dólares para compensar las desventajas de unos seis millones de niños. Al programa se le conoce con el nombre de ";}i:2;i:11974;}i:101;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:12272;}i:102;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"Title One";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"Title One";}i:2;i:12273;}i:103;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:12282;}i:104;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:643:" (Artículo Primero). Es el programa compensatorio más costoso que jamás se haya intentado en parte alguna en materia de educación y, sin embargo, no es posible discernir ningún mejoramiento significativo en el aprendizaje de estos niños “desfavorecidos”. En comparación con sus condiscípulos del mismo curso que provienen de hogares de ingresos medios, han quedado aún más retrasados. Por lo demás, a lo largo de este programa, los profesionales descubrieron otros 10 millones de niños que se esforzaban sometidos a desventajas económicas y educativas. Se dispone ahora de nuevas razones para reclamar nuevos fondos federales.";}i:2;i:12283;}i:105;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:12926;}i:106;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:12926;}i:107;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:144:"Este fracaso total en el intento de mejorar la educación de los pobres a pesar de un tratamiento más costoso puede explicarse de tres maneras:";}i:2;i:12928;}i:108;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13072;}i:109;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13072;}i:110;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13074;}i:111;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"1)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"1)";}i:2;i:13075;}i:112;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13077;}i:113;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:135:" Tres mil millones de dólares son insuficientes para mejorar el aprovechamiento de seis millones de niños de modo apreciable; o bien,";}i:2;i:13078;}i:114;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13213;}i:115;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13213;}i:116;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13215;}i:117;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"2)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"2)";}i:2;i:13216;}i:118;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13218;}i:119;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:243:" el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente: se requieren diferentes planes de estudio, una mejor administración, una concentración aún mayor de fondos sobre el niño pobre, y más investigaciones. Con ello se lograría el objetivo: o bien,";}i:2;i:13219;}i:120;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13462;}i:121;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13462;}i:122;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13464;}i:123;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"3)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"3)";}i:2;i:13465;}i:124;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:13467;}i:125;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:93:" la desventaja educativa no puede curarse apoyándose en una educación dentro de la escuela.";}i:2;i:13468;}i:126;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13561;}i:127;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:13561;}i:128;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:783:"Lo primero es sin duda cierto en cuanto que el dinero se ha gastado a través del presupuesto escolar. El dinero se destinó efectivamente a las escuelas donde estaban la mayoría de los niños desfavorecidos, pero no se gastó en los niños mismos. Estos niños, a los que estaba destinado el dinero, constituían sólo alrededor de la mitad de los que asistían a las escuelas que añadieron el subsidio federal a sus presupuestos. De modo que el dinero se gastó en inspección y custodia, en indoctrinación y selección de papeles sociales, como también en educación, todo ello inextricablemente mezclado con los edificios e instalaciones, planes de estudio, profesores, administradores y otros componentes básicos de estas escuelas y, por consiguiente, con sus presupuestos.";}i:2;i:13563;}i:129;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14346;}i:130;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14346;}i:131;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:422:"Los fondos adicionales permitieron a las escuelas atender desproporcionadamente a los niños relativamente más ricos que estaban “desfavorecidos” por tener que asistir a la escuela en compañía de los pobres. En el mejor de los casos, una pequeña proporción de cada dólar destinado a remediar las desventajas del niño pobre en su aprendizaje podía llegar hasta ese niño a través del presupuesto de la escuela.";}i:2;i:14348;}i:132;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14770;}i:133;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:14770;}i:134;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:437:"Podría ser igualmente cierto que el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente. Pero ni siquiera la incompetencia poco común puede superar la del sistema escolar. Las escuelas resisten, por su estructura misma, la concentración del privilegio en quienes son, por otra parte, desfavorecidos. Los planes especiales de estudio, las clases separadas o más horas de estudio constituyen tan sólo más discriminación a un coste más elevado.";}i:2;i:14772;}i:135;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15209;}i:136;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:15209;}i:137;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:994:"Los contribuyentes no se han acostumbrado aún a ver que 3 000 millones de dólares se desvanezcan en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar como si se tratara del Pentágono. El gobierno actual tal vez estime que puede afrontar la ira de los educadores. Los estadunidenses de clase media no tienen nada que perder si se interrumpe el programa. Los padres pobres creen que sí pierden, pero, más todavía, están exigiendo el control de los fondos destinados a sus hijos. Un sistema lógico de recortar el presupuesto y, sería de esperar, de aumentar sus beneficios, consistiría en un sistema de becas escolares como el propuesto por Milton Friedman y otros. Los fondos se canalizarían al beneficiario, permitiéndole comprar su parte de escolaridad que elija. Si dicho crédito se limitara a unas compras que se ajustasen a un plan escolar de estudios, tendería a proporcionar una mayor igualdad de tratamiento, pero no aumentaría por ello la igualdad de las exigencias sociales.";}i:2;i:15211;}i:138;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16205;}i:139;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:16205;}i:140;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:797:"Debería ser obvio que incluso con escuelas de igual calidad un niño pobre rara vez se pondrá a la par de uno rico. Incluso si asisten a las mismas escuelas y comienzan a la misma edad, los niños pobres carecen de la mayoría de las oportunidades educativas que, al parecer, dispone el niño de clase media. Estas ventajas van desde la conversación y los libros en el hogar hasta el viaje de vacaciones y un sentido diferente de sí mismo, y actúan, para el niño que goza de ellas, tanto dentro de la escuela como fuera de ella. De modo que el estudiante más pobre se quedará atrás en tanto dependa de la escuela para progresar o aprender. Los pobres necesitan fondos que les permitan aprender y no obtener certificados del tratamiento de sus deficiencias presuntamente desproporcionadas.";}i:2;i:16207;}i:141;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17004;}i:142;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17004;}i:143;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:354:"Todo esto es válido para naciones tanto ricas como pobres, pero aparece con aspecto diferente. En las naciones pobres, la pobreza modernizada afecta a más gente y más visiblemente, pero también —por ahora— más superficialmente. Dos de cada tres del total de niños latinoamericanos dejan la escuela antes de terminar el quinto grado, pero estos ";}i:2;i:17006;}i:144;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:17360;}i:145;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"desertores";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"desertores";}i:2;i:17361;}i:146;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:17371;}i:147;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:62:"[^n02] no están tan mal, como lo estarían en Estados Unidos.";}i:2;i:17372;}i:148;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17434;}i:149;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:17434;}i:150;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1096:"Hoy en día son pocos los países víctimas de la pobreza clásica, que era estable y menos paralizante. La mayoría de los países de América Latina han llegado al punto de “despegue” hacia el desarrollo económico y el consumo competitivo y, por lo tanto, hacia la pobreza modernizada: sus ciudadanos aprenden a pensar como ricos y a vivir como pobres. Sus leyes establecen un periodo escolar obligatorio de seis a 10 años. No sólo en Argentina, sino también en México o en Brasil, el ciudadano medio define una educación adecuada según las pautas estadunidenses, aun cuando la posibilidad de lograr esa prolongada escolarización esté restringida a una diminuta minoría. En estos países la mayoría ya está enviciada con la escuela, es decir, ha sido “escolarizada” para sentirse inferior respecto de quienes tienen una mejor escolaridad. Su fanatismo en favor de la escuela hace posible explotarlos por partida doble: permite aumentar la asignación de fondos públicos para la educación de unos pocos y aumentar la aceptación del control social por parte de la mayoría.";}i:2;i:17436;}i:151;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:18532;}i:152;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:18532;}i:153;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:781:"Es paradójico que la creencia en la escolarización universal se mantenga más firme en los países en que el menor número de personas ha sido —y será— servido por las escuelas. Sin embargo, en América Latina la mayoría de los padres y de los hijos podrían seguir aún senderos diferentes hacia la educación. La proporción del ahorro nacional invertido en escuelas y maestros tal vez sea mayor que en los países ricos, pero estas inversiones son totalmente insuficientes para atender a la mayoría haciendo posible siquiera cuatro años de asistencia a la escuela. Fidel Castro habla como si quisiese avanzar directo a la desescolarización, cuando promete que para 1980 Cuba estará en condiciones de disolver su universidad, puesto que toda la vida cubana será una ";}i:2;i:18534;}i:154;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:19315;}i:155;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:21:"experiencia educativa";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:21:"experiencia educativa";}i:2;i:19316;}i:156;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:19337;}i:157;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:289:". Sin embargo, en los niveles de primaria y secundaria, Cuba, al igual que otros países latinoamericanos, actúa como si el paso a través de un periodo definido como “la edad escolar” fuese una meta incuestionable para todos, sólo postergada por una escasez momentánea de recursos.";}i:2;i:19338;}i:158;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:19627;}i:159;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:19627;}i:160;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:920:"Los dos engaños gemelos de un tratamiento más a fondo, tal como de hecho se proporciona en Estados Unidos —y como tan sólo se promete en América Latina— se complementan entre sí. Los pobres del Norte están siendo tullidos por el mismo tratamiento de 12 años cuya carencia marca a los pobres del Sur como irremediablemente retrasados. Ni en Norteamérica ni en América Latina logran los pobres igualdad a partir de escuelas obligatorias. Pero en ambas partes la sola existencia de la escuela desanima al pobre y lo invalida para asir el control de su propio aprendizaje. En todo el mundo la escuela tiene un efecto antieducacional sobre la sociedad: se le reconoce como la institución que se especializa en educación. La mayoría de las personas considera los fracasos de la escuela como una prueba de que la educación es una tarea muy costosa, muy compleja, siempre arcana y frecuentemente casi imposible.";}i:2;i:19629;}i:161;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:20549;}i:162;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:20549;}i:163;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:552:"La escuela se apropia del dinero, de los hombres y de la buena voluntad disponibles para educación, y fuera de eso desalienta a otras instituciones respecto a asumir tareas educativas. El trabajo, el tiempo libre, la política, la vida ciudadana e incluso la vida familiar dependen de las escuelas, en lo concerniente a los hábitos y conocimientos que presuponen, en vez de convertirse ellos mismos en medios de educación. Tanto las escuelas como las otras instituciones que dependen de aquéllas llegan simultáneamente a tener un precio imposible.";}i:2;i:20551;}i:164;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21103;}i:165;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21103;}i:166;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"En Estados Unidos, los costes per cápita de la escolaridad han aumentado casi con igual rapidez que el coste del tratamiento médico. Pero este tratamiento más completo impartido por doctores y maestros ha mostrado resultados en continua declinación. Los gastos médicos concentrados sobre los mayores de 45 años se han duplicado varias veces durante un periodo de 40 años, dando como fruto un aumento de 3% en las probabilidades de vida de los varones. El incremento de los gastos educativos ha producido resultados aún más extraños; de otra manera el presidente Nixon no se habría sentido inclinado a prometer esta primavera que todo niño tendrá pronto el “derecho a leer” antes de dejar la escuela.";}i:2;i:21105;}i:167;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21821;}i:168;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:21821;}i:169;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1077:"En Estados Unidos se precisarían 80 000 millones de dólares por año para proporcionar lo que los educadores consideran como tratamiento igualitario para todos en escuelas primaria y secundaria. Esto es bastante más del doble de los 36 000 millones que se están gastando ahora. Las predicciones de costes preparadas de modo independiente en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar y en la Universidad de Florida indican que para 1974 las cifras comparables serán de 107 000 millones contra los 45 000 millones proyectados ahora, y estas cifras omiten totalmente los enormes costes de lo que se denomina “educación superior”, cuya demanda está creciendo de manera más veloz. Estados Unidos, que en 1969 gastó casi 80 000 millones de dólares en “defensa”, incluyendo su despliegue en Vietnam, es obviamente demasiado pobre como para proporcionar igual escolaridad. El comité nombrado por el presidente para el estudio del financiamiento de las escuelas debiera preguntar no cómo mantener o cómo recortar tales costes, crecientes, sino cómo evitarlos.";}i:2;i:21823;}i:170;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:22900;}i:171;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:22900;}i:172;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1119:"La escuela igual y obligatoria para todos debiera reconocerse por lo menos como algo económicamente impracticable. En América Latina, la cantidad de erario que se gasta en cada estudiante graduado oscila entre 350 y 1 500 veces el monto gastado en el ciudadano medio (es decir, el ciudadano que está en un término medio entre el más pobre y el más rico). En Estados Unidos la discrepancia es menor, pero la discriminación más aguda. Los padres más ricos, cerca de 10%, pueden permitirse proporcionar a sus hijos educación privada y ayudarles a beneficiarse de las donaciones de fundaciones. Pero además consiguen 10 veces el monto per cápita de fondos públicos si éste se compara con el gasto per cápita que se efectúa en los hijos de 10% de los más pobres. Las razones principales de que esto ocurra son que los muchachos ricos permanecen más tiempo en la escuela, que un año de universidad es desproporcionadamente más costoso que un año de escuela secundaria, y que la mayoría de las universidades privadas dependen —al menos indirectamente— de un financiamiento derivado de desgravámenes.";}i:2;i:22902;}i:173;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24021;}i:174;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24021;}i:175;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:396:"La escuela obligatoria polariza inevitablemente a una sociedad y califica asimismo a las naciones del mundo según un sistema internacional de castas. A los países se los califica como castas cuya dignidad la determina el promedio de años de escolaridad de sus ciudadanos, tabla de calificación que se relaciona íntimamente con el producto nacional bruto per cápita y es mucho más dolorosa.";}i:2;i:24023;}i:176;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24419;}i:177;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:24419;}i:178;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"La paradoja de las escuelas es evidente: el gasto creciente hace aumentar su destructividad en su propio país y en el extranjero. Esta paradoja debe convertirse en tema de debate público. Hoy por hoy se reconoce de manera general que el medio ambiente físico quedará destruido dentro de poco por la contaminación bioquímica a menos que invirtamos las tendencias actuales de producción de bienes físicos. Debería reconocerse asimismo que la vida social y personal está igualmente amenazada por la contaminación del Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar, subproducto inevitable del consumo obligatorio y competitivo del bienestar.";}i:2;i:24421;}i:179;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:25066;}i:180;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:25066;}i:181;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:980:"La escalada de las escuelas es tan destructiva como la de las armas, si bien de manera menos visible. En todo el mundo, los costes de la escuela han aumentado con mayor velocidad que las matrículas y más velozmente por el producto nacional bruto (PNB); en todas partes los gastos en la escuela se quedan cada vez más cortos frente a las expectativas de padres, maestros y alumnos. Por doquiera, esta situación desalienta tanto la motivación como el financiamiento para una planificación en gran escala del aprendizaje no escolar. Estados Unidos está demostrando al mundo que ningún país puede ser lo bastante rico como para permitirse un sistema escolar que satisfaga las demandas que este mismo sistema crea con sólo existir, porque un sistema escolar que logre su meta escolariza a padres y alumnos en el valor supremo de un sistema escolar aún mayor, cuyo coste crece desproporcionadamente conforme se crea una demanda de grados superiores y éstos se hacen escasos.";}i:2;i:25068;}i:182;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26048;}i:183;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26048;}i:184;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:279:"En vez de decir que una escolaridad pareja es impracticable por el momento, debemos reconocer que, en principio, es económicamente absurda, y que intentarla es intelectualmente castrante, socialmente polarizante y destruye la verosimilitud del sistema político que la promueve.";}i:2;i:26050;}i:185;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26329;}i:186;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:26329;}i:187;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:812:"La ideología de la escolaridad obligatoria no admite límites lógicos. La Casa Blanca proporcionó hace poco un buen ejemplo. El doctor Hutschnecker, el “psiquiatra” que atendió al señor Nixon antes de que fuese admitido como candidato, recomendó al presidente que todos los niños de seis a ocho años fueran examinados profesionalmente para cazar a aquellos que tuviesen tendencias destructivas, y que se les proporcionase a éstos tratamiento obligatorio. En caso necesario se exigiría su reeducación en instituciones especiales. Este memorándum enviado al presidente por su doctor pasó al Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar para que examinaran su valía. En efecto, unos campos de concentración preventivos para predelincuentes serían un adelanto lógico respecto del sistema escolar.";}i:2;i:26331;}i:188;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:27143;}i:189;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:27143;}i:190;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:867:"El que todos tengan iguales oportunidades de educarse es una meta deseable y factible, pero identificar con ello la escolaridad obligatoria es confundir la salvación con la Iglesia. La escuela ha llegado a ser la religión del proletariado modernizado, y hace promesas huecas a los pobres de la era tecnológica. La nación-Estado la ha adoptado, reclutando a todos los ciudadanos dentro de un currículum graduado que conduce a diplomas consecutivos no distintos a los rituales de iniciación y promociones hieráticas de antaño. El Estado moderno se ha arrogado el deber de hacer cumplir el juicio de sus educadores mediante vigilantes bien intencionados y cualificaciones exigidas para conseguir trabajos, de modo muy semejante al que siguieron los reyes españoles que hicieron cumplir los juicios de sus teólogos mediante los conquistadores y la Inquisición.";}i:2;i:27145;}i:191;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28012;}i:192;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28012;}i:193;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:656:"Hace dos siglos Estados Unidos dio al mundo la pauta en un movimiento para privar de apoyo oficial al monopolio de una sola Iglesia. Ahora necesitamos la separación constitucional respecto del monopolio de la escuela quitando de esa manera el apoyo oficial a un sistema que conjuga legalmente el prejuicio con la discriminación. El primer artículo de una Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre apropiada para una sociedad moderna, humanista, concordaría con la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de Estados Unidos: “El Estado no dictará ley alguna respecto del establecimiento de la educación”. No habrá ningún ritual obligatorio para todos.";}i:2;i:28014;}i:194;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28670;}i:195;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:28670;}i:196;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:858:"Para poner en vigencia esta separación entre Estado y escuela, necesitamos una ley que prohíba la discriminación en la contratación de personal, en las votaciones o en la admisión a los centros de enseñanza fundados en la previa asistencia a algún plan de estudios. Esta garantía no excluiría pruebas de competencia para una función o cargo, pero eliminaría la absurda discriminación actual en favor de una persona que aprende una destreza determinada con el mayor de los gastos del erario público o —lo que es igualmente probable— que ha podido obtener un diploma que no tiene relación con ninguna habilidad o trabajo útiles. Una separación constitucional del Estado y la escuela puede llegar a ser psicológicamente eficaz sólo si protege al ciudadano de la posibilidad de ser descalificado por cualquier aspecto de su carrera escolar.";}i:2;i:28672;}i:197;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:29530;}i:198;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:29530;}i:199;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:592:"Con la escolaridad no se fomenta ni el deber ni la justicia porque los educadores insisten en aunar la instrucción y la certificación. El aprendizaje y la asignación de funciones sociales se funden en la escolarización. No obstante que aprender significa adquirir una nueva habilidad o entendimiento, la promoción depende de la opinión que otros se hayan formado de uno. Aprender es con frecuencia el resultado de una instrucción, pero ser elegido para una función o categoría en el mercado del trabajo depende cada vez más del tiempo que se ha asistido a un centro de instrucción.";}i:2;i:29532;}i:200;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30124;}i:201;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30124;}i:202;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:681:"Instrucción es la selección de circunstancias que facilitan el aprendizaje. Las funciones se asignan fijando un currículum de condiciones que el candidato debe satisfacer para pasar la valla. La escuela vincula la instrucción —pero no el aprendizaje— con estas funciones. Esto no es ni razonable ni liberador. No es razonable porque no liga unas cualidades o competencias sobresalientes con las funciones por desempeñar, sino con el proceso mediante el cual se supone que habrán de adquirirse dichas cualidades. No libera ni educa porque la escuela reserva la instrucción para aquellos cuyos pasos en el aprendizaje se ajustan a unas medidas aprobadas de control social.";}i:2;i:30126;}i:203;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30807;}i:204;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:30807;}i:205;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:878:"El currículum se ha empleado siempre para asignar el rango social. En ocasiones podía ser prenatal: el karma le adjudica a uno a determinada casta y el linaje a la aristocracia. El currículum podía adoptar la forma de un ritual de ordenaciones sacras y secuenciales, o bien podía consistir en una sucesión de hazañas guerreras o cinegéticas, o bien las promociones ulteriores podían depender de una serie de previos favores regios. La escolaridad universal tenía por objeto separar la adjudicación de las funciones de la historia personal de cada uno: se ideó para dar a todos una oportunidad igual de obtener cualquier cargo. Aún ahora muchos creen erróneamente que la escuela asegura que la confianza pública dependa de unos logros sobresalientes en el saber. Pero en vez de haber igualado las posibilidades, el sistema escolar ha monopolizado su distribución.";}i:2;i:30809;}i:206;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:31687;}i:207;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:31687;}i:208;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:581:"Para separar la competencia del currículum, debe convertirse en tabú toda indagación acera del historial de aprendizaje de cada persona, tal como las indagaciones acerca de su filiación política, su asistencia a la iglesia, linaje, hábitos sexuales o antecedentes raciales. Deben dictarse leyes que prohíban la discriminación basada en una previa escolaridad. Evidentemente, las leyes no pueden impedir el prejuicio contra el no escolarizado —ni se pretende con ellas obligar a nadie a casarse con un autodidacta—, pero pueden desaprobar la discriminación justificada.";}i:2;i:31689;}i:209;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32270;}i:210;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32270;}i:211;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:559:"Otra gran ilusión en la que se apoya el sistema escolar es la creencia de que la mayor parte del saber es el resultado de la enseñanza. La enseñanza puede, en verdad, contribuir a ciertos tipos de aprendizaje en ciertas circunstancias. Pero la mayoría de las personas adquieren la mayor parte de su conocimiento fuera de la escuela, y cuando este conocimiento se da en ella, sólo es en la medida en que, en unos cuantos países ricos, la escuela se ha convertido en el lugar de confinamiento de las personas durante una parte cada vez mayor de sus vidas.";}i:2;i:32272;}i:212;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32831;}i:213;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:32831;}i:214;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:783:"Lo principal del aprendizaje sobreviene casualmente, e incluso el aprendizaje más intelectual no es el resultado de una instrucción programada. Los niños normales aprenden su lenguaje de manera informal, aunque con mayor rapidez si sus padres les prestan atención. La mayoría de las personas que aprenden bien un segundo idioma lo hacen a consecuencia de circunstancias aleatorias y no de una enseñanza ordenada. Llegan a vivir con sus abuelos, o viajan o se enamoran de algún extranjero. La lectura fácil proviene con igual frecuencia de la escuela o de actividades extracurriculares de este tipo. La mayoría de quienes leen profusamente y con placer tan sólo creen que aprendieron a hacerlo en la escuela; cuando se les discute esto, descartan fácilmente este espejismo.";}i:2;i:32833;}i:215;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:33616;}i:216;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:33616;}i:217;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1212:"Pero el hecho de que aún ahora gran parte del aprendizaje parece suceder al azar y como subproducto de alguna otra actividad definida como trabajo u ocio no significa que el aprendizaje planificado no beneficie la instrucción planificada. Al estudiante poderosamente motivado que se enfrenta con la tarea de adquirir una habilidad nueva y compleja puede aprovecharle mucho la disciplina que hoy en día se asocia mentalmente con el maestro de viejo cuño que antaño enseñaba lectura, hebreo, catecismo o multiplicación de memoria. La escuela ha hecho que este tipo de enseñanza rutinaria sea escasa y mal reputada; no obstante hay muchas destrezas que un estudiante motivado puede dominar en pocos meses si se le enseña de este modo tradicional. Esto vale tanto para los códigos como para su desciframiento; tanto para los segundos o terceros idiomas como para la lectura y la escritura, e igualmente para lenguajes especiales como el álgebra, la programación de computadoras, el análisis químico, o para destrezas manuales como la mecanografía, la relojería, la fontanería, las instalaciones domésticas de electricidad, la reparación de televisores, o para bailar, conducir vehículos y bucear.";}i:2;i:33618;}i:218;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:34830;}i:219;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:34830;}i:220;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:430:"En algunos casos, ser aceptado en un programa de aprendizaje dirigido a una determinada habilidad podría presuponer competencia en alguna otra habilidad, pero ciertamente no se haría depender del proceso mediante el cual se hubieran adquirido tales habilidades previamente requeridas. La reparación de televisores presupone saber leer y algo de matemáticas; el bucear, ser buen nadador, y el conducir, muy poco de ambas cosas.";}i:2;i:34832;}i:221;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:35262;}i:222;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:35262;}i:223;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:762:"El progreso en el aprendizaje es mensurable. Es fácil calcular los recursos óptimos de tiempo y materiales que un adulto corriente motivado necesita. El coste de enseñar un segundo idioma europeo occidental hasta un elevado nivel de fluidez oscila entre 400 y 600 dólares en Estados Unidos, y para una lengua oriental el tiempo requerido de instrucción podría duplicarse. Esto sería todavía poquísimo en comparación con el coste de 12 años de escolaridad en la ciudad de Nueva York (condición para ingresar en el Departamento de Higiene) —casi 15 000 dólares—. Sin duda no sólo el maestro, sino también el impresor y el farmacéutico protegen sus oficios mediante el espejismo público de que el adiestramiento para aprenderlos es muy costoso.";}i:2;i:35264;}i:224;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36026;}i:225;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36026;}i:226;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:736:"En la actualidad, las escuelas se apropian de antemano de la mayor parte de los fondos para educación. La instrucción rutinaria, que cuesta menos que una escolarización comparable, es ahora un privilegio de quienes son lo bastante ricos como para pasarse por alto las escuelas, y de aquellos a quienes el ejército o las grandes firmas les proporcionan un adiestramiento en el trabajo mismo. En un programa de desescolarización progresiva para Estados Unidos, en un comienzo habría escasez de recursos para el adiestramiento rutinario. Pero finalmente no habría impedimento alguno para cualquiera que en cualquier momento de su vida quisiese elegir una instrucción entre centenares de habilidades definibles y a cargo del Estado.";}i:2;i:36028;}i:227;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36764;}i:228;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:36764;}i:229;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:767:"Ahora mismo podrían proporcionarse calificaciones educativas aceptables en cualquier centro de enseñanza de oficios en cantidades limitadas para personas de cualquier edad, y no sólo para pobres. Yo concibo dicha calificación (o crédito) en forma de un pasaporte educativo o de una “tarjeta de educrédito” entregada a cada ciudadano al nacer. A fin de favorecer a los pobres, que probablemente no usarían sus cuotas anuales a temprana edad, podría estipularse que los usuarios tardíos de tales “títulos” acumulados ganasen interés. Dichos créditos permitirían a la mayoría adquirir las habilidades de mayor demanda, cuando les conviene, de manera mejor, más rápida, más barata y con menos efectos subsidiarios desfavorables que en la escuela.";}i:2;i:36766;}i:230;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:37533;}i:231;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:37533;}i:232;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1083:"Se me objetará la falta de profesores, pero esto es plantear mal el problema, pues, por una parte, la demanda de una habilidad crece sólo al ponerse en práctica en una comunidad y, por otra, un hombre que ejerza una habilidad puede también enseñarla. Pero, actualmente, aquellos que usan una habilidad que está en demanda y que precisan un profesor humano tienen estímulos negativos para compartir con otros estas habilidades. Esto lo hacen o maestros que monopolizan las licencias, o sindicatos que protegen sus intereses gremiales. Unos centros de enseñanza de oficios o habilidades a los que los clientes juzgaran por sus resultados, y no por el personal que empleasen o por el proceso que se utilizasen, abrirían oportunidades insospechables de trabajo, frecuentemente incluso para aquellos que hoy se consideran inempleables. Verdaderamente no hay motivo para que tales centros no estuviesen en el lugar mismo de trabajo; el patrono y su personal proporcionarían tanto la instrucción como trabajos a quienes eligiesen utilizar sus créditos educativos de esta manera.";}i:2;i:37535;}i:233;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:38618;}i:234;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:38618;}i:235;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1123:"En 1956 se suscitó la necesidad de enseñar rápidamente español a varios centenares de maestros, trabajadores sociales y curas de la arquidiócesis de Nueva York, de modo que pudiesen comunicarse con los puertorriqueños. Mi amigo Gerry Morris anunció en español por una radioemisora que necesitaba hispanohablantes nativos que viviesen en Harlem. Al día siguiente unos 200 adolescentes se alineaban frente a su oficina; de entre ellos eligió cuatro docenas —muchos de ellos desertores escolares—. Los instruyó en el uso del Manual de Instrucción del Instituto del Servicio Exterior de Estados Unidos, para español, concebido para el uso de lingüistas con licenciatura, y al cabo de una semana sus profesores se manejaban solos —cada uno de ellos a cargo de cuatro neoyorkinos que querían hablar el idioma—. En el plazo de seis meses se había cumplido la misión. El cardenal Spellman podía afirmar que tenía 127 parroquias en cada una de las cuales había por lo menos tres miembros de su personal que podían conversar en español. Ningún programa escolar podría haber logrado iguales resultados.";}i:2;i:38620;}i:236;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:39743;}i:237;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:39743;}i:238;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:950:"Los profesores de habilidades escasean por la creencia en el valor de los títulos. La certificación es una manera de manipular el mercado y es concebible sólo para una mente escolarizada. La mayoría de los profesores de artes y oficios son menos diestros, tienen menor inventiva y son menos comunicativos que los mejores artesanos y maestros. La mayoría de los profesores de español o de francés de bachillerato no hablan esos idiomas con la corrección con que lo harían alumnos después de un semestre de rutinas competentes. Unos experimentos llevados a cabo por Ángel Quintero en Puerto Rico sugieren que muchos adolescentes, si se les dan los adecuados incentivos, programas y acceso a las herramientas, son mejores que la mayoría de los maestros de escuela para iniciar a los de su edad en la exploración científica de las plantas, las estrellas y la materia, y en el descubrimiento de cómo y por qué funciona un motor o un radio.";}i:2;i:39745;}i:239;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40695;}i:240;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40695;}i:241;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:290:"Las oportunidades para el aprendizaje de habilidades pueden multiplicarse enormemente si abrimos el “mercado”. Esto depende de reunir al maestro correcto con el alumno correcto cuando éste está altamente motivado dentro de un programa inteligente, sin la restricción del currículum.";}i:2;i:40697;}i:242;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40987;}i:243;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:40987;}i:244;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:305:"La instrucción libre y rutinaria es una blasfemia subversiva para el educador ortodoxo. Ella desliga la adquisición de destrezas de la educación “humana”, que la escuela empaca conjuntamente, y fomenta así el aprendizaje sin título no menos que la enseñanza sin título para fines imprevisibles.";}i:2;i:40989;}i:245;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:41294;}i:246;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:41294;}i:247;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:771:"Hay actualmente una propuesta registrada que a primera vista parece sumamente sensata. La preparó Christopher Jencks, del Center for the Study of Public Policy, y está patrocinada por la Office of Economic Opportunity. Propone poner unos “bonos” o “títulos” educativos o donaciones, para pagar el coste de los estudios, en manos de padres y estudiantes para que los gasten en las escuelas que elijan. Tales bonos individuales podrían ser un importante avance en la dirección correcta. Necesitamos que se garantice a cada ciudadano el derecho a una parte igual de los recursos educativos derivados de los impuestos, el derecho a verificar esa parte, y el derecho a entablar juicio si le es denegada. Es una forma de garantía contra la tributación regresiva.";}i:2;i:41296;}i:248;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42067;}i:249;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42067;}i:250;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:474:"Pero la propuesta de Jencks comienza con la ominosa declaración de que “los conservadores, los liberales y los radicales se han quejado en una u otra ocasión de que el sistema educativo estadunidense da a los educadores profesionales un incentivo demasiado pequeño para que proporcionen una educación de gran calidad a la mayoría de los niños”. La propuesta se condena sola al proponer donaciones para pagar unos estudios que tendrían que gastar en escolarizarse.";}i:2;i:42069;}i:251;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42543;}i:252;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:42543;}i:253;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:973:"Esto es como dar a un inválido un par de muletas, advirtiéndole que las use sólo si les amarra los extremos. En su forma actual, la propuesta de estos bonos educativos hace el juego no sólo a los educadores profesionales sino también a los racistas, a los promotores de escuelas religiosas y a otros cuyos intereses son socialmente disociantes. Sobre todo, los bonos educativos, cuyo uso se restrinja a las escuelas, hace el juego de quienes quieren continuar viviendo en una sociedad en la que el progreso social está ligado no al conocimiento comprobado, sino al historial de aprendizaje mediante el cual presuntamente se adquiere. Esta discriminación en favor de las escuelas que domina la exposición de Jencks sobre el refinamiento de la educación podría desacreditar uno de los principios que más perentoriamente se precisan para la reforma educativa: el retorno de la iniciativa y la responsabilidad del aprendizaje al aprendiz o a su tutor más inmediato.";}i:2;i:42545;}i:254;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:43518;}i:255;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:43518;}i:256;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:710:"La desescolarización de la sociedad implica el reconocimiento de la naturaleza ambivalente del aprendizaje. La insistencia en la sola rutina podría ser un desastre; igual énfasis debe hacerse en otros tipos de aprendizaje. Pero si las escuelas son el lugar inapropiado para aprender una destreza, son lugares aún peores para adquirir una educación. La escuela realiza mal ambas tareas, en parte porque no distingue entre ellas. La escuela es ineficiente para instruir en destrezas por ser curricular. En la mayoría de las escuelas, un programa cuyo objetivo es mejorar una habilidad está siempre concatenado con otra tarea no pertinente. La historia está amarrada al derecho de usar el patio de juegos.";}i:2;i:43520;}i:257;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:44230;}i:258;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:44230;}i:259;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:843:"Las escuelas son todavía menos eficientes en la creación de circunstancias que alienten el uso irrestricto, exploratorio, de habilidades adquiridas, para lo cual reservaré el término de “educación liberal”. El principal motivo es que la escuela es obligatoria y llega a convertirse en la escolaridad por la escolaridad: una estadía forzosa en compañía de profesores, que paga con el dudoso privilegio de continuar en dicha compañía. Así como la instrucción de destrezas debe ser liberada de restricciones curriculares, a la educación liberal debe desligársela de la asistencia obligatoria. Mediante dispositivos institucionales puede ayudarse tanto al aprendizaje de habilidades como a la educación encaminada a un comportamiento creativo e inventivo, pero ambas cosas son de naturaleza diferente y frecuentemente contraria.";}i:2;i:44232;}i:260;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45075;}i:261;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45075;}i:262;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:814:"La mayoría de las destrezas pueden adquirirse y perfeccionarse mediante rutinas; porque la destreza o habilidad implica el dominio de una conducta definible y predecible. La instrucción de una destreza puede apoyarse, por consiguiente, en la simulación de las circunstancias en que se utilizará dicha destreza. En cambio, la educación en el empleo exploratorio y creativo de destrezas no puede descansar en sistemas rutinarios. La educación puede ser el resultado de la instrucción, aunque de una instrucción fundamentalmente opuesta a la rutina. Se apoya en la relación entre asociaciones que ya poseen algunas de la llaves que dan acceso a memorias almacenadas en la comunidad y por la comunidad. Se apoya en la sorpresa de la pregunta inesperada que abre nuevas puertas al cuestionario y a su asociado.";}i:2;i:45077;}i:263;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45891;}i:264;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:45891;}i:265;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:574:"El instructor de destrezas utiliza un conjunto de condiciones dadas que permiten al aprendiz desarrollar ciertas reacciones o respuestas precisas y definidas. El guía o maestro en educación se ocupa de ayudar a unos asociados a que se reúnan de modo que se dé el aprendizaje. Reúne a personas que parten de sus propias y no resueltas interrogantes. A lo más, ayuda al alumno a formular su perplejidad puesto que sólo un planteamiento claro le dará el poder de encontrar a su pareja, moverse como ella, explorar en ese momento la misma cuestión en el mismo contexto.";}i:2;i:45893;}i:266;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:46467;}i:267;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:46467;}i:268;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:605:"En un comienzo parecería más difícil imaginar unos asociados o compañeros para fines educativos que hallar instructores de destrezas y compañeros para un juego. Una de las razones de que esto ocurra es el profundo temor que la escuela nos ha inculcado, un miedo que nos pone criticones. El intercambio intitulado de destrezas —a menudo destrezas inconvenientes— es más predecible y por tanto parece menos peligroso que las oportunidades ilimitadas de reunión para personas que comparten una cuestión en debate que es, en ese momento, social, intelectual y emocionalmente importante para ellas.";}i:2;i:46469;}i:269;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:47074;}i:270;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:47074;}i:271;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:441:"El profesor brasileño Paulo Freire sabe esto por experiencia. Descubrió que cualquier adulto puede comenzar a leer en cosa de 40 horas si las primeras palabras que descifra están cargadas de significado político. Freire adiestra a sus maestros para trasladarse a una aldea y descubrir las palabras que designan asuntos actuales importantes, tales como el acceso a un pozo, o el interés compuesto de las deudas que han contraído con el ";}i:2;i:47076;}i:272;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:47517;}i:273;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"patrón";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"patrón";}i:2;i:47518;}i:274;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:47525;}i:275;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:540:". Por la tarde, los aldeanos se reúnen para conversar sobre esas palabras clave. Comienzan a percatarse de que cada palabra permanece en el pizarrón incluso después de haberse desvanecido su sonido. Las letras continúan abriendo, como llaves, la realidad y haciéndola manejable como problema. Frecuentemente he presenciado cómo en unos participantes crece la conciencia social y cómo se ven impelidos a actuar políticamente con la misma velocidad con que aprenden a leer. Parecen tomar la realidad en sus manos conforme la escriben.";}i:2;i:47526;}i:276;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48066;}i:277;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48066;}i:278;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:273:"Recuerdo a un hombre que se quejó del peso de los lápices: eran difíciles de manipular porque no pesaban como una pala, y recuerdo a otro que camino al trabajo se detuvo con sus compañeros y escribió con su azadón en el suelo la palabra de la que venía conversando: ";}i:2;i:48068;}i:279;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:48341;}i:280;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"agua";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"agua";}i:2;i:48342;}i:281;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:48346;}i:282;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:280:".[^n03] Desde 1962, mi amigo Freire ha pasado de exilio en exilio, principalmente porque rehúsa llevar a cabo sus sesiones en torno a palabras que hayan sido preseleccionadas por educadores aprobados y prefiere utilizar aquellas que los participantes llevan consigo a las clases.";}i:2;i:48347;}i:283;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48627;}i:284;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:48627;}i:285;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1182:"La reunión de personas con fines educativos sólo es posible cuando se han beneficiado de una verdadera escolaridad. Los que no necesitan de esa ayuda son una minoría, incluso entre aquellos que leen revistas serias. La mayoría no puede ni debe ser congregada en torno a una consigna, a una palabra, a una imagen, sino en torno a un problema elegido y definido por iniciativa de los participantes. El aprendizaje creativo, exploratorio, requiere sujetos de igual perplejidad ante los mismos términos o problemas. Las grandes universidades realizan el vano intento de aparejarlos multiplicando sus cursos y por lo general fracasan en la medida en que están ligados al currículum, a la estructura de cursos y a una administración burocrática. En las escuelas, tal como en las universidades, la mayoría de los recursos se gasta en comprar el tiempo y la motivación de un número reducido de personas para encarar problemas predeterminados en un escenario definido de forma ritual. La alternativa más radical para la escuela sería una red o servicio que diera a cada hombre la misma oportunidad de compartir sus intereses actuales con otros motivados por iguales cuestiones.";}i:2;i:48629;}i:286;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:49811;}i:287;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:49811;}i:288;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:724:"Permítaseme dar, como ejemplo de mi planteamiento, una descripción de cómo podría funcionar esta “unión” intelectual en la ciudad de Nueva York. Cada hombre, en cualquier momento y a un precio mínimo, podría identificarse ante una computadora con su dirección y su número de teléfono, indicando libro, artículos, película o grabación acerca de los cuales busca un compañero con el cual conversar. En un plazo de días podría recibir por correo la lista de otros que hubieran tomado recientemente la misma iniciativa. Esta lista le permitiría concertar por teléfono una reunión con personas que inicialmente se conocerían exclusivamente por el hecho de haber solicitado un diálogo sobre el mismo tema.";}i:2;i:49813;}i:289;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:50537;}i:290;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:50537;}i:291;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:671:"Juntar personas de acuerdo con el interés que tengan sobre un título dado es radicalmente simple. Permite la identificación sobre la base de un deseo mutuo de conversar sobre una afirmación registrada por un tercero, y deja al individuo la iniciativa de concertar la reunión. Normalmente se hacen tres objeciones contra esta pureza esquelética. Las recojo no sólo para esclarecer la teoría que quiero ilustrar mediante mi propuesta —pues destacan la acendrada resistencia a desescolarizar la educación, a separar el aprendizaje del control social—, sino también porque pueden ayudar a sugerir unos recursos que no se emplean ahora para fines de aprendizaje.";}i:2;i:50539;}i:292;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:51210;}i:293;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:51210;}i:294;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:789:"La primera objeción es: ¿por qué no podría la identificación de cada uno basarse en una idea o en un tema de debate? Ciertamente dichos términos subjetivos podrían usarse también en un sistema informático. Los partidos políticos, Iglesias, sindicatos, clubes, centros vecinales y sociedades profesionales organizan ya sus actividades educativas de este modo y, en efecto, actúan como escuelas. Todos ellos reúnen personas con el fin de explorar ciertos “temas”, que se abordan en cursos, seminarios y planes de estudio en los que unos presuntos “intereses comunes” están preen-vasados. Dicha “reunión por tema” está, por definición, centrado en el profesor: precisa una presencia autoritaria para definir ante los participantes el punto de partida de su debate.";}i:2;i:51212;}i:295;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:52001;}i:296;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:52001;}i:297;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:691:"Por el contrario, reunirse para hablar de un libro, de una película, etc., sin otra explicación que un título o una referencia, deja al autor definir el lenguaje especial, los términos y el marco de referencia dentro del cual se plantea un determinado problema o hecho, y permite a quienes acepten este punto de partida identificarse uno con otro. Por ejemplo, reunir gente en torno a la idea de “revolución cultural” conduce generalmente o a la confusión o a la demagogia. Por otra parte, reunir a quienes se interesen en ayudarse mutuamente a entender un determinado artículo de Mao, Marcuse, Freud o Goodman se inscribe en la gran tradición del aprendizaje liberal, desde los ";}i:2;i:52003;}i:298;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:52694;}i:299;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"Diálogos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"Diálogos";}i:2;i:52695;}i:300;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:52704;}i:301;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:512:" de Platón, que están construidos en torno a presuntas declaraciones de Sócrates, hasta los comentarios de Tomás de Aquino sobre Pedro Lombardo. La idea de reunir a las personas alrededor de un título es pues radicalmente diferente de la teoría sobre la que se fundaban, por ejemplo, los clubes de los “Grandes Libros”: en vez de apoyarse en la selección realizada por algunos catedráticos de Chicago, cualquier par de personas puede, como compañero de juego, elegir cualquier libro para analizarlo.";}i:2;i:52705;}i:302;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:53217;}i:303;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:53217;}i:304;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1306:"La segunda objeción pregunta: ¿por qué la identificación de quienes buscan compañero no podría incluir información sobre edad, antecedentes, visión del mundo, competencia, experiencia y otras características definitorias? No hay en este caso razón alguna para que tales restricciones discriminatorias no pudiesen (y no debiesen) incorporarse en algunas de las numerosas universidades —con o sin muros— que podrían usar la reunión alrededor de títulos como el dispositivo básico para organizarse. Puedo imaginar un sistema ideal para fomentar las reuniones de personas interesadas en las que el autor del libro elegido podría estar presente o representado, o un sistema que garantice la presencia de un asesor competente, o uno al que tuviesen acceso sólo estudiantes matriculados en una facultad o escuela, o personas capaces de presentar una investigación específica sobre la obra que se discute. Cada una de estas restricciones, se me dirá, serviría a metas específicas de aprendizaje. Pero me temo que, en la mayoría de los casos, el motivo real para proponer tales restricciones es el desdén que proviene de presuponer que la gente es ignorante: los educadores quieren evitar que el ignorante se junte con el ignorante en torno a un texto que podrían no entender y que leen ";}i:2;i:53219;}i:305;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:54525;}i:306;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"sólo";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"sólo";}i:2;i:54526;}i:307;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:54531;}i:308;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:34:" porque están interesados en él.";}i:2;i:54532;}i:309;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:54566;}i:310;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:54566;}i:311;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:666:"La tercera objeción: ¿por qué no proporcionar a quienes buscan compañero una ayuda incidental que facilite sus reuniones —espacio, horarios, selección de participantes, protección—? Esto lo hacen actualmente las escuelas con toda la ineficiencia que caracteriza a las grandes burocracias. Si dejáramos la iniciativa de las reuniones a los interesados en reunirse, unas organizaciones que nadie clasifica hoy como educativas harían mucho mejor este trabajo. Pienso en dueños de restaurantes, editores, servicios de recados telefónicos, directivos de trenes suburbanos que podrían promover sus servicios al hacerlos atractivos para reuniones educativas.";}i:2;i:54568;}i:312;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:55234;}i:313;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:55234;}i:314;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1392:"En una primera reunión en, digamos, un café, los interesados podrían establecer sus identidades colocando el libro en debate junto a sus tazas. Las personas que tomaran la iniciativa de concertar tales reuniones aprenderían pronto qué elementos citar para encontrarse con la gente que buscan. El riesgo de que una conversación que uno mismo ha elegido le lleve a una pérdida de tiempo, a una decepción, e incluso a un desagrado es ciertamente menor que el riesgo que corre quien solicita ingresar en una universidad. Una reunión concertada por computadora para debatir un artículo de una revista de circulación nacional, celebrada en un café de la Cuarta Avenida, no obligaría a ninguno de los participantes a permanecer en compañía de sus nuevos conocidos por más tiempo del necesario para beber una taza de café, ni tendría que encontrarse con ellos de nuevo. La probabilidad de que ello le ayudara a disipar la opacidad de la vida en una ciudad moderna, a fomentar nuevas amistades, a abrir nuevos horizontes y profundizar en un trabajo elegido, es elevada. (El hecho de que de este modo el FBI podría conseguir un registro de las reuniones y lecturas que se hacen es innegable; el que esto pueda aún preocupar a alguien en 1970 es sólo divertido para un hombre libre, quien, quiéralo o no, aporta su cuota para ahogar a los espías en las nimiedades que recolectan.)";}i:2;i:55236;}i:315;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:56628;}i:316;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:56628;}i:317;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:113:"Tanto el intercambio de destrezas como el encuentro con copartícipes se fundan en el supuesto de que educación ";}i:2;i:56630;}i:318;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56743;}i:319;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"para todos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"para todos";}i:2;i:56744;}i:320;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56754;}i:321;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:22:" significa educación ";}i:2;i:56755;}i:322;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56777;}i:323;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:18:"por parte de todos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:18:"por parte de todos";}i:2;i:56778;}i:324;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:56796;}i:325;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1029:". No es el reclutamiento en una institución especializada, sino sólo la movilización de toda la población lo que puede conducir a una cultura popular. Los maestros titulados se han apropiado del derecho que todo hombre tiene de ejercer su competencia para aprender e instruir igualmente. La competencia del maestro está a su vez restringida a lo que pueda hacerse en la escuela. Además, el trabajo y el tiempo libre están, a consecuencia de ello, alienados el uno del otro: tanto del trabajador como del espectador se espera que lleguen al lugar de trabajo prestos a encajar en una rutina preparada para ellos. La adaptación en forma de diseño, instrucción y publicidad de un producto los moldea para desempeñar su papel de modo muy semejante a como lo hace la educación mediante la escolaridad. Una alternativa radical para una sociedad escolarizada exige no sólo mecanismos para la adquisición formal de destrezas y el uso educativo de éstas, implica un nuevo modo de encarar la educación informal o incidental.";}i:2;i:56797;}i:326;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:57826;}i:327;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:57826;}i:328;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1047:"La educación incidental ya no puede regresar a las formas que el aprendizaje adoptó en la aldea o en la ciudad medieval. Mientras la sociedad tradicional se asemejaba más a un grupo de círculos concéntricos de estructuras significativas, el hombre moderno debe aprender cómo hallar significación en muchas estructuras con las que está relacionado de manera sólo marginal. En la aldea, el lenguaje, la arquitectura, el trabajo, la religión y las costumbres familiares eran compatibles entre sí, se explicaban y reforzaban mutuamente. Desarrollarse en una implicaba un desarrollo en las otras. Incluso el aprendizaje especializado era el subproducto de actividades especializadas, tales como la fabricación de zapatos o el canto de los salmos. Si un aprendiz no llegaba jamás a ser maestro o erudito, contribuía sin embargo a la fabricación de zapatos o a hacer solemnes los servicios litúrgicos. La educación no competía en tiempo ni con el trabajo ni con el ocio. Casi toda la educación era compleja, vitalicia y no planificada.";}i:2;i:57828;}i:329;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:58875;}i:330;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:58875;}i:331;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:775:"La sociedad contemporánea es el resultado de diseños e intenciones conscientes, y las oportunidades educativas han de ser incorporadas a esos diseños. Ahora disminuirá la confianza que depositamos en la instrucción especializada y de tiempo completo a través de la escuela, y hemos de hallar nuevas maneras de aprender y enseñar: la calidad educativa de todas las instituciones debe aumentar una vez más. Pero ésta es una previsión muy ambigua. Podría significar que los hombres de la ciudad moderna serán cada día más las víctimas de un proceso eficaz de instrucción total y manipulación una vez que estén privados incluso del tenue asomo de independencia crítica que proporcionan hoy en día las escuelas liberales, cuando menos a algunos de sus alumnos.";}i:2;i:58877;}i:332;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:59652;}i:333;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:59652;}i:334;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:576:"Podría significar también que los hombres se escudarán menos tras certificados adquiridos en la escuela y adquirirán así valor para ser “respondones” y controlar e instruir de ese modo a las instituciones en que participen. Para lograr esto último debemos darnos cuenta del valor social del trabajo y del ocio por el intercambio educativo que permiten. La participación efectiva en la política de una calle, de un puesto de trabajo o de un hospital es por lo tanto el mejor patrón para evaluar el valor de las diferentes instituciones en el plan de la educación.";}i:2;i:59654;}i:335;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:60230;}i:336;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:60230;}i:337;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:914:"Hace poco dirigí la palabra a un grupo de estudiantes de los primeros años de bachillerato, empeñados en organizar un movimiento de resistencia a su enrolamiento obligatorio en la clase siguiente. Tenían por consigna “participación-no simulación”. Les decepcionaba que esto se entendiera como una petición de menos educación en vez de lo contrario, y me hicieron recordar la resistencia que opuso Karl Marx a un párrafo en el programa de Gotha que —hace 100 años— quería hacer ilegal el trabajo infantil. Se opuso a la proposición diciendo que la ecuación de los jóvenes solo podía producirse en el trabajo. Si el mayor fruto del trabajo del hombre debiera ser la educación que se deriva de éste y la oportunidad que el trabajo le da para iniciar la educación de otros, entonces la alimentación de la sociedad moderna en un sentido pedagógico es aún peor que su alienación económica.";}i:2;i:60232;}i:338;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61146;}i:339;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61146;}i:340;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:564:"El mayor obstáculo en el camino de una sociedad que educa verdaderamente lo definió muy bien un amigo mío, negro de Chicago, quien me dijo que nuestra imaginación estaba “totalmente escuelada”. Permitimos al Estado verificar las deficiencias educativas universales de sus ciudadanos y establecer un organismo especializado para tratarlos. Compartimos así la ilusión de que podemos distinguir entre qué es educación necesaria para otros y qué no lo es, tal como generaciones anteriores establecieron leyes que definían qué era sagrado y qué profano.";}i:2;i:61148;}i:341;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61712;}i:342;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:61712;}i:343;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:493:"Durkheim reconoció que esta capacidad para dividir la realidad social en dos ámbitos era la esencia misma de la religión formal. Existen —razonó— religiones sin lo sobrenatural y religiones sin Dios, pero no hay ninguna que no subdivida el mundo en cosas, tiempo y personas que son sagradas y en otras que por consecuencia son profanas. Este penetrante alcance de Durkheim puede aplicarse a la sociología de la educación, pues la escuela es radicalmente divisoria de manera parecida.";}i:2;i:61714;}i:344;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62207;}i:345;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62207;}i:346;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:369:"La existencia misma de las escuelas obligatorias divide cualquier sociedad en dos ámbitos: ciertos lapsos, procesos, tratamientos y profesiones son “académicos” y “pedagógicos”, y otros no lo son. Así, el poder de la escuela para dividir la realidad social no conoce límites: la educación se hace no terrenal, en tanto que el mundo se hace no educacional.";}i:2;i:62209;}i:347;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62578;}i:348;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:62578;}i:349;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:587:"A partir de Bonhoeffer, los teólogos contemporáneos han señalado la confusión que reina hoy en día entre el mensaje bíblico y la religión institucionalizada. Señalan la experiencia que la libertad y la fe cristianas suelen ganar con la secularización. Sus afirmaciones suenan inevitablemente blasfemas para muchos clérigos. En incuestionable que el proceso educativo ganará con la desescolarización de la sociedad aun cuando esta exigencia les suene a muchos escolares como una traición a la cultura. Pero es la cultura misma la que está siendo apagada hoy en las escuelas.";}i:2;i:62580;}i:350;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63167;}i:351;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63167;}i:352;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:507:"La secularización de la fe cristiana depende de la dedicación que pongan en ello los cristianos arraigados en la Iglesia. De manera muy parecida, la desescolarización de la educación depende del liderazgo de quienes se criaron en las escuelas. El currículum que cumplieron no puede servirles como excusa para la tarea: cada uno de nosotros sigue siendo responsable de lo que se ha hecho por él, aun cuando puede que no sea capaz sino de aceptar esta responsabilidad y servir de advertencia para otros.";}i:2;i:63169;}i:353;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63677;}i:354;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63677;}i:355;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:28:"Fenomenología de la escuela";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:63677;}i:2;i:63677;}i:356;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:63677;}i:357;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:32:" +## Fenomenología de la escuela";}i:2;i:63677;}i:358;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:63677;}i:359;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:398:"Algunas palabras llegan a ser tan flexibles que pierden cualquier significación precisa y se usan para cualquier cosa entre éstas se cuentan “escuela” y “enseñanza”. Se filtran, como una amiba, por cualquier intersticio del lenguaje. Así, decimos que el ABM[^n04] enseñará a los rusos, la IBM enseñará a los niños negros, y el ejército puede llegar a ser la escuela de la nación.";}i:2;i:63711;}i:360;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:64109;}i:361;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:64109;}i:362;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1080:"Por consiguiente, la búsqueda de alternativas en educación debe comenzar por un acuerdo acerca de lo que entendemos por “escuela”. Esto puede hacerse de varias maneras. Podemos comenzar por anotar las funciones latentes desempeñadas por los sistemas escolares modernos, tales como los de custodia, selección, adoctrinamiento y aprendizaje. Podríamos hacer un análisis de clientela y verificar cuál de estas funciones latentes favorece o desfavorece a maestros, patronos, niños, padres o a las profesiones. Podríamos repasar la historia de la cultura occidental y la información reunida por la antropología a fin de encontrar instituciones que desempeñaron un papel semejante al que hoy cumple la escolarización. Podríamos finalmente recordar los numerosos dictámenes normativos que se han hecho desde el tiempo de Comenius, o incluso desde Quintiliano, y descubrir a cuál de éstos se aproxima más el moderno sistema escolar. Pero cualquiera de estos enfoques nos obligaría a comenzar con ciertos supuestos acerca de una relación entre escuela y educación.";}i:2;i:64111;}i:363;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65191;}i:364;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65191;}i:365;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:368:"Para crear un lenguaje en el que podamos hablar sobre la escuela sin ese incesante recurrir a la educación, he querido comenzar por algo que podría llamarse fenomenología de la escuela pública. Con este objeto definiré “escuela” como el proceso que especifica edad, se relaciona con maestros y exige asistencia de tiempo completo y un currículum obligatorio.";}i:2;i:65193;}i:366;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65561;}i:367;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65561;}i:368;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"1";}i:2;i:65563;}i:369;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:28:"markdowku_escapespecialchars";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:5;i:1;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:5;i:3;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:65564;}i:370;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" ";}i:2;i:65566;}i:371;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:65567;}i:372;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"Edad";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"Edad";}i:2;i:65568;}i:373;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:65572;}i:374;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:346:". La escuela agrupa a las personas según sus edades. Este agrupamiento se funda en tres premisas indiscutidas. A los niños les corresponde estar en la escuela. Los niños aprenden en la escuela. A los niños puede enseñárseles solamente en la escuela. Creo que estas tres premisas no sometidas a examen merecen ser seriamente puestas en duda.";}i:2;i:65573;}i:375;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65919;}i:376;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:65919;}i:377;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:647:"Nos hemos ido acostumbrando a los niños. Hemos decidido que deberían ir a la escuela, hacer lo que se les dice y no tener ingresos propios. Esperamos que sepan el lugar que ocupan y se comporten como niños. Recordamos, ya sea con nostalgia o con amargura, el tiempo en que también fuimos niños. Se espera de nosotros que toleremos la conducta infantil de los niños. La humanidad es, para nosotros, una especie simultáneamente atribulada y bendecida con la tarea de cuidar niños. No obstante, olvidamos que nuestro actual concepto de “niñez” sólo se desarrolló recientemente en Europa occidental, y hace aún menos en América.[^n05]";}i:2;i:65921;}i:378;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:66568;}i:379;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:66568;}i:380;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1458:"La niñez como algo diferente de la infancia, la adolescencia o la juventud fue algo desconocido para la mayoría de los periodos históricos. Algunos siglos del cristianismo no tuvieron ni siquiera una idea de sus proporciones corporales. Los artistas pintaban al niño como un adulto en miniatura sentado en el brazo de su madre. Los niños aparecieron en Europa junto con el reloj de bolsillo y los prestamistas cristianos del Renacimiento. Antes de nuestro siglo ni los ricos ni los pobres supieron nada acerca de vestidos para niños, juegos para niños o de la inmunidad del niño ante la ley. Esas ideas comenzaron a desarrollarse en la burguesía. El hijo del obrero, el del campesino y el del noble vestían todos como lo hacían sus padres, jugaban como éstos y eran ahorcados igual que ellos. Después de que la burguesía descubriera la “niñez”, todo esto cambió. Sólo algunas Iglesias continuaron respetando por algún tiempo la dignidad y la madurez de los menores. Hasta el Concilio Vaticano II, se le decía a cada niño que un cristiano llega a tener discernimiento moral y libertad a la edad de siete años y a partir de entonces es capaz de caer en pecados por los cuales podrá ser castigado por toda una eternidad en el infierno. A mediados de este siglo, los padres de clase media comenzaron a tratar de evitar a sus niños el impacto de esta doctrina, y su modo de pensar sobre los niños es el que hoy prevalece en la Iglesia.";}i:2;i:66570;}i:381;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68028;}i:382;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68028;}i:383;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:373:"Hasta el siglo pasado, los “niños” de padres de clase media se fabricaban en casa con la ayuda de preceptores y escuelas privadas. Sólo con el advenimiento de la sociedad industrial la producción en masa de la “niñez” comenzó a ser factible y a ponerse al alcance de la multitud. El sistema escolar es un fenómeno moderno, como lo es la niñez que lo produce.";}i:2;i:68030;}i:384;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68403;}i:385;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:68403;}i:386;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:543:"Puesto que hoy en día la mayoría de las personas viven fuera de las ciudades industriales, la mayoría de la gente no experimenta la niñez. En los Andes, uno labra la tierra cuando ha llegado a ser “útil”. Antes de esa edad, uno cuida las ovejas. Si se está bien nutrido, debe llegar a ser útil hacia los 11 años de edad, y de otro modo a los 12. Estaba yo conversando hace poco con Marcos, mi celador nocturno, sobre su hijo de 11 años que trabaja en una barbería. Hice en español la observación de que su hijo era todavía un ";}i:2;i:68405;}i:387;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:68948;}i:388;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"niño";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"niño";}i:2;i:68949;}i:389;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:68954;}i:390;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:724:". Marcos, sorprendido, contestó con inocente sonrisa: “Don Iván, creo que usted tiene razón”. Percatándome de que hasta el momento de mi observación Marcos había pensado en el muchacho en primer lugar como su “hijo”, me sentí culpable de haber hecho surgir el fantasma de la niñez entre dos personas sensatas. Naturalmente que si yo fuese a decir a un habitante de los barrios bajos de Nueva York que su hijo que trabaja es todavía un “niño”, no mostraría ninguna sorpresa. Sabe muy bien que a su hijo de 11 años debería permitírsele su niñez, y se resiente de que no sea así. El hijo de Marcos no ha sido afectado aún por el anhelo de tener niñez, el hijo del neoyorkino se siente desposeído.";}i:2;i:68955;}i:391;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:69679;}i:392;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:69679;}i:393;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:666:"Así pues, la mayoría de la gente en el mundo o no quiere o no puede conceder una niñez moderna a sus críos. Pero también parece que la niñez es una carga para esos pocos a quienes se les concede. A muchos simplemente se les obliga a pasar por ella y no están en absoluto felices de desempeñar el papel de niños. Crecer pasando por la niñez significa estar condenado a un proceso de conflicto inhumano entre la conciencia de sí y el papel que impone una sociedad que está pasando por su propia edad escolar. Ni Stephen Dédalus ni Alexander Portnoy gozaron de la niñez y, según sospecho, tampoco nos gustó a muchos de nosotros ser tratados como niños.";}i:2;i:69681;}i:394;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70347;}i:395;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70347;}i:396;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:539:"Si no existiese una institución de aprendizaje obligatorio y para una edad determinada, la “niñez” dejaría de fabricarse. Los menores de los países ricos se librarían de su destructividad, y los países pobres dejarían de rivalizar con la niñería de los ricos. Para que la sociedad pudiese sobreponerse a su edad de la niñez, tendría que hacerse vivible para los menores. La disyunción actual entre una sociedad adulta que pretende ser humanitaria y un ambiente escolar que remeda la realidad no puede seguir manteniéndose.";}i:2;i:70349;}i:397;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70888;}i:398;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:70888;}i:399;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:508:"El hecho de privar de apoyo oficial a las escuelas podría terminar también con la discriminación contra los nenes, los adultos y los ancianos en favor de los niños durante su adolescencia y juventud. Es probable que la decisión social de asignar recursos educativos preferentemente a aquellos ciudadanos que han dejado atrás la extraordinaria capacidad de aprendizaje de sus primeros años y no han llegado a la cúspide de su aprendizaje automotivado parezca grotesca cuando se vea retrospectivamente.";}i:2;i:70890;}i:400;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71398;}i:401;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71398;}i:402;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:456:"La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños necesitan la escuela. La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños aprenden en la escuela. Pero esta sabiduría institucional es en sí el producto de escuelas, porque el sólido sentido común nos dice que sólo a niños se les puede enseñar en la escuela. Sólo segregando a los seres humanos en la categoría de la niñez podremos someterlos alguna vez a la autoridad de un maestro de escuela.";}i:2;i:71400;}i:403;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71856;}i:404;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:71856;}i:405;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"2";}i:2;i:71858;}i:406;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:28:"markdowku_escapespecialchars";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:5;i:1;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:5;i:3;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:71859;}i:407;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" ";}i:2;i:71861;}i:408;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:71862;}i:409;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:20:"Profesores y alumnos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:20:"Profesores y alumnos";}i:2;i:71863;}i:410;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:71883;}i:411;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:370:". Por definición, los niños son alumnos. La demanda por el medio ambiente escolar crea un mercado ilimitado para los profesores titulados. La escuela es una institución construida sobre el axioma de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza. Y la sabiduría institucional continúa aceptando este axioma, pese a las pruebas abrumadoras en sentido contrario.";}i:2;i:71884;}i:412;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72254;}i:413;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72254;}i:414;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:313:"Todos hemos aprendido la mayor parte de lo que sabemos fuera de la escuela. Los alumnos hacen la mayor parte de su aprendizaje sin sus maestros y, a menudo, a pesar de éstos. Lo que es más trágico es que a la mayoría de los hombres las escuelas les enseñan su lección, aun cuando nunca vayan _a_ la escuela.";}i:2;i:72256;}i:415;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72569;}i:416;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:72569;}i:417;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1264:"Toda persona aprende a vivir fuera de la escuela. Aprendemos a hablar, a pensar, a amar, a sentir, a jugar, a blasfemar, a politiquear y a trabajar sin la interferencia de un profesor. Ni siquiera los niños que están día y noche bajo la tutela de un maestro constituyen excepciones a la regla. Los huérfanos, los cretinos y los hijos de maestros de escuela aprenden la mayor parte de lo que aprenden fuera del proceso “educativo” programado para ellos. Los profesores han quedado mal parados en sus intentos de aumentar el aprendizaje entre los pobres. A los padres pobres que quieren que sus hijos vayan a la escuela no les preocupa tanto lo que aprendan como el certificado y el dinero que obtendrán. Y los padres de clase media confían sus hijos a un profesor para evitar que aprendan aquello que los pobres aprenden en la calle. Las investigaciones sobre educación están demostrando cada día más que los niños aprenden aquello que sus maestros pretenden enseñarles, no de éstos, sino de sus iguales, de las tiras cómicas, de la simple observación al pasar y, sobre todo, del solo hecho de participar en el ritual de la escuela. Las más de las veces los maestros obstruyen el aprendizaje de materias de estudio conforme se dan en la escuela.";}i:2;i:72571;}i:418;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:73835;}i:419;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:73835;}i:420;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:979:"La mitad de la gente en nuestro mundo jamás ha estado en una escuela. No se han topado con profesores y están privados del privilegio de llegar a ser desertores escolares. No obstante, aprenden eficazmente el mensaje que la escuela enseña: que deben tener escuela y más y más escuela. La escuela les instruye acerca de su propia inferioridad mediante el cobrador de impuestos que les hace pagar por ella, mediante el demagogo que les suscita las esperanzas de tenerla, o bien mediante sus niños cuando éstos se ven enviciados por ella. De modo que a los pobres se les quita su respeto por sí mismos al suscribirse a un credo que concede la salvación sólo a través de la escuela. La Iglesia les da al menos la posibilidad de arrepentirse en la hora de su muerte. La escuela les deja con la esperanza (una esperanza falsificada) de que sus nietos la conseguirán. Esa esperanza es, por cierto, otro aprendizaje más que proviene de la escuela, pero no de los profesores.";}i:2;i:73837;}i:421;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:74816;}i:422;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:74816;}i:423;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:269:"Los alumnos jamás han atribuido a sus maestros lo que han aprendido. Tanto los brillantes como los lerdos han confiado siempre en la memorización, la lectura y el ingenio para pasar sus exámenes, movidos por el garrote o por la obtención de una carrera ambicionada.";}i:2;i:74818;}i:424;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75087;}i:425;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75087;}i:426;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:440:"Los adultos tienden a crear fantasías románticas sobre su periodo de escuela. Atribuyen retrospectivamente su aprendizaje al maestro cuya paciencia aprendieron a admirar. Pero esos mismos adultos se preocuparán por la salud mental de un niño que corriera a casa a contarles qué ha aprendido de cada uno de sus profesores. Las escuelas crean trabajos para maestros de escuela, independientemente de lo que aprendan de ellos sus alumnos.";}i:2;i:75089;}i:427;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75529;}i:428;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:75529;}i:429;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"3";}i:2;i:75531;}i:430;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:28:"markdowku_escapespecialchars";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:5;i:1;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:5;i:3;s:2:"\.";}i:2;i:75532;}i:431;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:" ";}i:2;i:75534;}i:432;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:75535;}i:433;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:29:"Asistencia a jornada completa";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:29:"Asistencia a jornada completa";}i:2;i:75536;}i:434;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:75565;}i:435;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:489:". Cada mes veo una nueva lista de propuestas que hace al AID[^n06] alguna industria estadunidense, sugiriéndole reemplazar a los “practicantes del aula” latinoamericanos por unos disciplinados administradores de sistemas o simplemente por la televisión. Pero, aunque el profesor sea una maestra de primaria o un equipo de tipos con delantales blancos, y que logren enseñar la materia indicada en el catálogo o fracasen en el intento, el maestro profesional crea un entorno sagrado.";}i:2;i:75566;}i:436;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76055;}i:437;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76055;}i:438;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:608:"La incertidumbre acerca del futuro de la enseñanza profesional pone al aula en peligro. Si los educadores profesionales se especializan en fomentar el aprendizaje tendrían que abandonar un sistema que exige entre 750 y 1 500 reuniones por año. Pero naturalmente los profesores hacen mucho más que eso. La sabiduría institucional de la escuela dice a los padres, a los alumnos y a los educadores que el profesor, para que pueda enseñar, debe ejercer su autoridad en un recinto sagrado. Esto es válido incluso para profesores cuyos alumnos pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo escolar en un aula sin muros.";}i:2;i:76057;}i:439;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76665;}i:440;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76665;}i:441;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:191:"La escuela, por su naturaleza misma, tiende a reclamar la totalidad del tiempo y las energías de sus participantes. Esto a su vez hace del profesor un custodio, un predicador y un terapeuta.";}i:2;i:76667;}i:442;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76858;}i:443;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:76858;}i:444;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:97:"El maestro funda su autoridad sobre una pretensión diferente en cada uno de estos tres papeles. ";}i:2;i:76860;}i:445;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:76957;}i:446;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:25:"El profesor-como-custodio";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:25:"El profesor-como-custodio";}i:2;i:76958;}i:447;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:76983;}i:448;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:457:" actúa como maestro de ceremonias que guía a sus alumnos a lo largo de un ritual dilatado y laberíntico. Es árbitro del cumplimiento de las normas y administra las intrincadas rúbricas de iniciación a la vida. En el mejor de los casos, monta la escena para la adquisición de una habilidad como siempre han hecho los maestros de escuela. Sin hacerse ilusiones acerca de producir ningún saber profundo, somete a sus alumnos a ciertas rutinas básicas.";}i:2;i:76984;}i:449;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77441;}i:450;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77441;}i:451;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:3:"El ";}i:2;i:77443;}i:452;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77446;}i:453;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:23:"profesor-como-moralista";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:23:"profesor-como-moralista";}i:2;i:77447;}i:454;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77470;}i:455;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:162:" reemplaza a los padres, a Dios, al Estado. Adoctrina al alumno acerca de lo bueno y lo malo, no sólo en la escuela, sino en la sociedad en general. Se presenta ";}i:2;i:77471;}i:456;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77633;}i:457;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:77634;}i:458;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77650;}i:459;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:75:" para cada cual y asegura así que todos se sientan hijos del mismo Estado.";}i:2;i:77651;}i:460;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77726;}i:461;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:77726;}i:462;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:3:"El ";}i:2;i:77728;}i:463;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77731;}i:464;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:23:"profesor-como-terapeuta";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:23:"profesor-como-terapeuta";}i:2;i:77732;}i:465;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:77755;}i:466;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:312:" se siente autorizado a inmiscuirse en la vida privada de su alumno a fin de ayudarle a desarrollarse como persona. Cuando esta función la desempeña un custodio y predicador, significa por lo común que persuade al alumno a someterse a una domesticación de su visión de la verdad y de su sentido de lo justo.";}i:2;i:77756;}i:467;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78068;}i:468;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78068;}i:469;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:606:"La afirmación de que una sociedad liberal puede basarse en la escuela moderna, es paradójica. Todas las defensas de la libertad individual quedan anuladas en los tratos de un maestro de escuela con su alumno. Cuando el maestro funde en su persona las funciones de juez, ideólogo y médico, el estilo fundamental de la sociedad es pervertido por el proceso mismo que debiera preparar para la vida. Un maestro que combine estos tres poderes contribuye mucho más a la deformación del niño que las leyes que dictan su menor edad legal o económica, o que restringen su libertad de reunión o de vivienda.";}i:2;i:78070;}i:470;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78676;}i:471;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:78676;}i:472;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:619:"Los maestros no son en absoluto los únicos en ofrecer servicios terapéuticos. Los psiquiatras, los consejeros vocacionales y laborales, y hasta los abogados ayudan a sus clientes a decidir, a desarrollar sus personalidades y a aprender. Pero el sentido común le dice al cliente que dichos profesionales deben abstenerse de imponer sus opiniones sobre lo bueno y lo malo, o de obligar a nadie a seguir su consejo. Los maestros de escuelas y los curas son los únicos profesionales que se sienten con derecho para inmiscuirse en los asuntos privados de sus clientes al mismo tiempo que predican a un público obligado.";}i:2;i:78678;}i:473;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:79297;}i:474;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:79297;}i:475;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:701:"Los niños no están protegidos ni por la Primera ni por la Quinta Enmienda[^n07] cuando están frente a ese sacerdote secular, el profesor. El niño tiene que enfrentarse con un hombre que usa una triple corona invisible y que, como la tiara papal, es el símbolo de la triple autoridad conjugada en una persona. Para el niño, el maestro pontifica como pastor, profeta y sacerdote —es a un mismo tiempo guía, maestro y administrador de un ritual sagrado—. Conjuga las pretensiones de los papas medievales en una sociedad constituida bajo la garantía de que tales pretensiones no serán jamás ejercidas conjuntamente por una institución establecida y obligatoria —la Iglesia o el Estado—.";}i:2;i:79299;}i:476;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80000;}i:477;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80000;}i:478;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:462:"Definir a los niños como alumnos a jornada completa permite al profesor ejercer sobre sus personas una especie de poder que está mucho menos limitado por restricciones constitucionales o consuetudinarias que el poder detentado por el guardián de otros enclaves sociales. La edad cronológica de los niños los descalifica respecto de las salvaguardas que son de rutina para adultos situados en un asilo moderno —un manicomio, un monasterio o una cárcel—.";}i:2;i:80002;}i:479;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80464;}i:480;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80464;}i:481;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:509:"Bajo la mirada autoritaria del maestro, los valores se confunden y las diferencias se borran. Las distinciones entre moralidad, legalidad y valor personal se difuminan y eventualmente se eliminan. Se hace sentir cada transgresión como un delito múltiple. Se cuenta con que el delincuente sienta que ha quebrantado una norma, que se ha comportado de modo inmoral y se ha abandonado. A un alumno que ha conseguido hábilmente ayuda en un examen se le dice que es un delincuente, un corrompido y un mequetrefe.";}i:2;i:80466;}i:482;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80975;}i:483;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:80975;}i:484;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:2044:"La asistencia a clases saca a los niños del mundo cotidiano de la cultura occidental y los sumerge en un ambiente mucho más primitivo, mágico y mortalmente serio. La escuela no podría crear un enclave como éste, dentro del cual se suspende físicamente a los menores durante muchos años sucesivos de las normas de la realidad ordinaria, si no tuviera el poder de encarcelar físicamente a los menores durante esos años en su territorio sagrado. La norma de asistencia posibilita que el aula sirva de útero mágico, del cual el niño es dado periódicamente a luz al terminar el día escolar y el año escolar, hasta que es finalmente lanzado a la vida adulta. Ni la niñez universalmente prolongada ni la atmósfera sofocante del aula podrían existir sin las escuelas. Sin embargo, las escuelas, como canales obligatorios de aprendizaje, podrían existir sin ninguna de ambas y ser más represivas y destructivas que todo lo que hayamos podido conocer hasta la fecha. Para entender lo que significa desescolarizar la sociedad y no tan sólo reformar el sistema educativo establecido, debemos concentrarnos ahora en el currículum oculto de la escolarización. No nos ocupamos en este caso, y directamente, del currículum oculto de las calles del gueto, que deja marcado al pobre, o del currículum camuflado de salón, que beneficia al rico. Nos interesa más bien llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que el ceremonial o ritual de la escolarización misma constituye un currículum escondido de este tipo. Incluso el mejor de los maestros no puede proteger del todo a sus alumnos contra él. Este currículum oculto de la escolarización añade inevitablemente prejuicio y culpa a la discriminación que una sociedad practica contra algunos de sus miembros y realza el privilegio de otros con un nuevo título con el cual tener en menos a la mayoría. De modo igualmente inevitable, este currículum oculto sirve como ritual de iniciación a una sociedad de consumo orientada hacia el crecimiento, tanto para ricos como para pobres.";}i:2;i:80977;}i:485;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:83022;}i:486;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:83022;}i:487;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:27:"Ritualización del progreso";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:83022;}i:2;i:83022;}i:488;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:83022;}i:489;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:31:" +## Ritualización del progreso";}i:2;i:83022;}i:490;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:83022;}i:491;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:959:"El graduado en una universidad ha sido escolarizado para cumplir un servicio selectivo entre los ricos del mundo sean cuales fueren sus afirmaciones de solidaridad con el Tercer Mundo, cada estadunidense que ha conseguido su título universitario ha tenido una educación que cuesta una cantidad cinco veces mayor que los ingresos medios de toda una vida en el seno de la mitad desheredada de la humanidad. A un estudiante latinoamericano se le introduce en esta exclusiva fraternidad acordándole para su educación un gasto por lo menos 350 veces mayor que el de sus conciudadanos de clase media. Salvo muy raras excepciones, el graduado universitario de un país pobre se siente más a gusto con sus colegas norteamericanos o europeos que con sus compatriotas no escolarizados, y a todos los estudiantes se les somete a un proceso académico que les hace sentirse felices sólo en compañía de otros consumidores de los productos de la máquina educativa.";}i:2;i:83055;}i:492;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:84014;}i:493;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:84014;}i:494;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1269:"La universidad moderna sólo confiere el privilegio de disentir a aquellos que han sido comprobados y clasificados como fabricantes de dinero o detentadores de poder en potencia. A nadie se le conceden fondos provenientes de impuestos para que tengan así tiempo libre para autoeducarse o el derecho de educar a otros, a menos que al mismo tiempo puedan certificarse sus logros. Las escuelas eligen para cada nivel superior sucesivo a aquellos que en las primeras etapas del juego hayan demostrado ser buenos riesgos[^n08] para el orden establecido. Al tener un monopolio sobre los recursos para el aprendizaje y sobre la investidura de los papeles por desempeñar en la sociedad, la universidad invita a sus filas al descubridor y al disidente en potencia. Un grado siempre deja su tinta indeleble con el precio en el currículum de su consumidor. Los graduados universitarios diplomados encajan sólo en un mundo que pone un marbete con el precio en sus cuellos dándoles así el poder de pertenecer a un mundo donde todo recibe un valor mercantil. En cada país, el monto que consume el graduado universitario fija la pauta para todos los demás; si fueran gente civilizada con trabajo o cesantes habrán de aspirar al estilo de vida de los graduados universitarios.";}i:2;i:84016;}i:495;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85285;}i:496;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85285;}i:497;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:657:"De este modo, la universidad tiene por efecto imponer normas de consumo en el trabajo o en el hogar, y lo hace en todo el mundo y bajo todos los sistemas políticos. Cuanto menos graduados universitarios hay en un país, tanto más sirven de modelo para el resto de la población sus ilustradas exigencias. La brecha entre el consumo de un graduado universitario y el de un ciudadano corriente es incluso más ancha en Rusia, China y Argelia que en Estados Unidos. Los coches, los viajes en avión y los magnetófonos confieren una distinción más notoria en un país socialista en donde únicamente un título, y no tan sólo el dinero, puede procurarlos.";}i:2;i:85287;}i:498;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85944;}i:499;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:85944;}i:500;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:575:"La capacidad de la universidad para fijar metas de consumo es algo nuevo. En muchos países la universidad adquirió este poder sólo en la década de los años sesenta, conforme la ilusión de acceso parejo a la educación pública comenzó a difundirse. Antes de entonces la universidad protegía la libertad de expresión de un individuo, pero no convertía automáticamente su conocimiento en riqueza. Durante la Edad Media, ser un estudioso significaba ser pobre y hasta mendicante. En virtud de su vocación, el estudioso medieval aprendía latín, se convertía en un ";}i:2;i:85946;}i:501;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:86521;}i:502;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"outsider";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"outsider";}i:2;i:86522;}i:503;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:86530;}i:504;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:106:" digno tanto de la mofa como de la estimación del campesino y del príncipe, del burgués y del clérigo.";}i:2;i:86531;}i:505;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:86637;}i:506;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:86637;}i:507;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:557:"Para triunfar en el mundo, el escolástico tenía que ingresar primero en él, entrando en la carrera funcionaria, preferiblemente la eclesiástica. La universidad antigua era una zona liberada para el descubrimiento y el debate de ideas nuevas y viejas. Los maestros y los estudiantes se reunían para leer los textos de otros maestros, muertos mucho antes, y las palabras vivas de los maestros difuntos daban nuevas perspectivas a las falacias del mundo presente. La universidad era entonces una comunidad de búsqueda académica y de inquietud endémica.";}i:2;i:86639;}i:508;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87196;}i:509;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87196;}i:510;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:797:"En la universidad multidisciplinaria moderna esta comunidad ha huido hacia las márgenes, en donde se junta en un apartamento, en la oficina de un profesor o en los aposentos del capellán. El propósito estructural de la universidad moderna guarda poca relación con la búsqueda tradicional. Desde los días de Gutenberg, el intercambio de la indagación disciplinada y crítica se ha trasladado en su mayor parte de la “cátedra” a la imprenta. La universidad moderna ha perdido por incumplimiento su posibilidad de ofrecer un escenario simple para encuentros que sean autónomos y anárquicos, enfocados hacia un interés y sin embargo espontáneos y vivaces, y ha elegido en cambio administrar el proceso mediante el cual se produce lo que ha dado en llamarse investigación y enseñanza.";}i:2;i:87198;}i:511;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87995;}i:512;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:87995;}i:513;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:9:"Desde el ";}i:2;i:87997;}i:514;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88006;}i:515;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"Sputnik";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"Sputnik";}i:2;i:88007;}i:516;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88014;}i:517;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:216:" , la universidad estadunidense ha estado tratando de ponerse a la par con el número de graduados que sacan los soviéticos. Ahora los alemanes están abandonando su tradición académica y están construyendo unos ";}i:2;i:88015;}i:518;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88231;}i:519;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"campus";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"campus";}i:2;i:88232;}i:520;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:88238;}i:521;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:675:" para ponerse a la par con los estadunidenses. Durante esta década quieren aumentar sus erogaciones en escuelas primarias y secundarias de 14 000 a 59 000 millones de marcos alemanes y triplicar los desembolsos para la instrucción superior. Los franceses se proponen elevar para 1980 a 10% de su PNB el monto gastado en escuelas, y la Fundación Ford ha estado empujando a países pobres de América Latina a elevar sus desembolsos per cápita para los graduados “respetables” a los niveles estadunidenses. Los estudiantes consideran sus estudios como la inversión que produce el mayor rédito monetario, y las naciones los ven como un factor clave para el desarrollo.";}i:2;i:88239;}i:522;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:88914;}i:523;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:88914;}i:524;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"Para la mayoría que va en pos de un grado universitario, la universidad no ha perdido prestigio, pero desde 1968 ha perdido notoriamente categoría entre sus creyentes. Los estudiantes se niegan a prepararse para la guerra, la contaminación y la perpetuación del prejuicio. Los profesores les ayudan en su recusación de la legitimidad del gobierno, de su política exterior, de la educación y del sistema de vida norteamericano. No pocos rechazan títulos y se preparan para una vida en una contracultura, fuera de la sociedad diplomada. Parecen elegir la vía de los Fraticelli medievales o de los Alumbrados de la Reforma, que fueron los ";}i:2;i:88916;}i:525;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:89561;}i:526;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"hippies";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"hippies";}i:2;i:89562;}i:527;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:89569;}i:528;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:326:" y desertores escolares de su época. Otros reconocen el monopolio de las escuelas sobre los recursos que ellos necesitan para construir una contrasociedad. Buscan apoyo el uno en el otro para vivir con integridad mientras se someten al ritual académico. Forman, por así decirlo, focos de herejía en medio de la jerarquía.";}i:2;i:89570;}i:529;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:89896;}i:530;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:89896;}i:531;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"No obstante, grandes sectores de la población general miran al místico moderno y al heresiarca moderno con alarma. Éstos amenazan la economía consumista, el privilegio democrático y la imagen que de sí mismo tiene Estados Unidos. Pero no es posible eliminarlos con sólo desearlo. Son cada vez menos aquellos a los que es posible reconvertir y reincorporar en las filas mediante sutilezas —como, por ejemplo, darles el cargo de enseñar como profesores su herejía—. De aquí la búsqueda de medios que hagan posible ya sea librarse de disidentes, ya sea disminuir la importancia de la universidad que les sirve de base para protestar.";}i:2;i:89898;}i:532;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:90543;}i:533;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:90543;}i:534;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:807:"A los estudiantes y a la facultad que ponen en tela de juicio la legitimidad de la universidad, y lo hacen pagando un alto costo personal, no les parece por cierto estar fijando normas de consumo ni favoreciendo un sistema determinado de producción. Aquellos que han fundado grupos tales como el Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars y el North American Congress of Latin America (NACLA) han sido de los más eficaces para cambiar radicalmente la visión que millones de personas jóvenes tenían de países extranjeros. Otros más han tratado de formular interpretaciones marxistas de la sociedad norteamericana o han figurado entre los responsables de la creación de comunas. Sus logros dan nuevo vigor al argumento de que la existencia de la universidad es necesaria para una crítica social sostenida.";}i:2;i:90545;}i:535;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91352;}i:536;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91352;}i:537;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:550:"No cabe duda de que en este momento la universidad ofrece una combinación singular de circunstancias que permite a algunos de sus miembros criticar el conjunto de la sociedad. Proporciona tiempo, movilidad, acceso a los iguales y a la información, así como cierta impunidad —privilegios de que no disponen igualmente otros sectores de la población—. Pero la universidad permite esta libertad sólo a quienes ya han sido profundamente iniciados en la sociedad de consumo y en la necesidad de alguna especie de escolaridad pública obligatoria.";}i:2;i:91354;}i:538;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91904;}i:539;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:91904;}i:540;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:904:"El sistema escolar de hoy en día desempeña la triple función que ha sido común a las Iglesias poderosas a lo largo de la historia. Es simultáneamente el depósito del mito de la sociedad, la institucionalización de las contradicciones de ese mito y el lugar donde ocurre el ritual que reproduce y encubre las disciplinas entre el mito y la realidad. El sistema escolar, y en particular la universidad, proporciona hoy grandes oportunidades para criticar el mito y para rebelarse contra las perversiones institucionales. Pero el ritual que exige tolerancia para con las contradicciones fundamentales entre mito e institución pasa todavía por lo general sin ponerse en tela de juicio, pues ni la crítica ideológica ni la acción social pueden dar a luz una nueva sociedad. Sólo el desencanto del ritual social central, el desligarse del mismo y reformarlo pueden llevar a cabo un cambio radical.";}i:2;i:91906;}i:541;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:92810;}i:542;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:92810;}i:543;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:887:"La universidad estadunidense ha llegado a ser la etapa final del rito de iniciación más global que el mundo haya conocido. Ninguna sociedad histórica ha logrado sobrevivir sin ritual o mito, pero la nuestra es la primera que ha necesitado una iniciación tan aburrida, morosa, destructiva y costosa a su mito. La civilización mundial contemporánea es también la primera que estimó necesario racionalizar su ritual fundamental de iniciación en nombre de la educación. No podemos iniciar una reforma de la educación a menos que entendamos primero que ni el aprendizaje individual ni la igualdad social pueden acrecentarse mediante el ritual de la escolarización. No podremos ir más allá de la sociedad de consumo a menos que entendamos primero que las escuelas públicas obligatorias reproducen inevitablemente dicha sociedad, independientemente de lo que se enseñe en ellas.";}i:2;i:92812;}i:544;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:93699;}i:545;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:93699;}i:546;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:512:"El proyecto de desmitologización que propongo no puede limitarse tan sólo a la universidad. Cualquier intento de reformar la universidad sin ocuparse del sistema del que forma parte integral es como tratar de hacer la reforma urbana en Nueva York, desde el piso decimosegundo hacia arriba. La mayor parte de las reformas introducidas en la enseñanza superior, equivalen a rascacielos construidos sobre chozas. Sólo una generación que se críe sin escuelas obligatorias será capaz de recrear la universidad.";}i:2;i:93701;}i:547;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:94213;}i:548;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:94215;}i:549;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:42:"El mito de los valores institucionalizados";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:94215;}i:2;i:94215;}i:550;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:94215;}i:551;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:47:" +### El mito de los valores institucionalizados";}i:2;i:94215;}i:552;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:94215;}i:553;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:931:"La escuela inicia asimismo el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin. Este mito moderno se funda en la creencia según la cual el sistema de producción produce inevitablemente algo de valor y que, por consiguiente, la producción produce necesariamente demanda. La escuela nos enseña que la instrucción produce aprendizaje. La existencia de las escuelas produce la demanda de escolaridad. Una vez que hemos aprendido a necesitar la escuela, todas nuestras actividades tienden a tomar la forma de relaciones de clientes respecto de otras instituciones especializadas. Una vez que se ha desacreditado al hombre o a la mujer autodidactos, toda actividad no profesional se hace sospechosa. En la escuela se nos enseña que el resultado de la asistencia es un aprendizaje valioso; que el valor del aprendizaje aumenta con el monto de la información de entrada y, finalmente, que este valor puede medirse y documentarse mediante grados y diplomas.";}i:2;i:94264;}i:554;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95195;}i:555;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95195;}i:556;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:470:"De hecho, el aprendizaje es la actividad humana que menos manipulación de terceros necesita. La mayor parte del aprendizaje no es la consecuencia de una instrucción. Es más bien el resultado de una participación a la que no se estorba en un entorno significativo. La mayoría de la gente aprende mejor “metiendo la cuchara” y, sin embargo, la escuela les hace identificar su desarrollo cognoscitivo personal con una programación y una manipulación complicadas.";}i:2;i:95197;}i:557;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95667;}i:558;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:95667;}i:559;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:711:"Una vez que un hombre o una mujer ha aceptado la necesidad de la escuela, es presa fácil de otras instituciones. Una vez que los jóvenes han permitido que a su imaginación la forme la instrucción curricular, están condicionados para las planificaciones institucionales de toda especie. La “institución” les ahoga el horizonte imaginativo. No se les puede traicionar, sólo engañar en el precio, porque se les ha enseñado a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. Para bien o para mal, ya no serán sorprendidos por terceros, pues se les ha enseñado qué pueden esperar de cualquier otra persona que ha sido enseñada como ellos. Esto es válido para el caso de otra persona o de una máquina.";}i:2;i:95669;}i:560;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:96380;}i:561;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:96380;}i:562;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:209:"Esta transferencia de responsabilidad desde sí mismo a una institución garantiza la regresión social, especialmente desde el momento en que se ha aceptado como una obligación. Así, los rebeldes contra el ";}i:2;i:96382;}i:563;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:96591;}i:564;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"Alma Mater";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"Alma Mater";}i:2;i:96592;}i:565;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:96602;}i:566;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:536:" a menudo “la consiguen” e ingresan en su facultad en vez de desarrollar la valentía de infectar a otros con su enseñanza personal y de asumir la responsabilidad de las consecuencias de tal enseñanza. Esto sugiere la posibilidad de una nueva historia de Edipo —Edipo Profesor, que “consigue” a su madre a fin de engendrar hijos de ella—. El hombre adicto a ser enseñado busca su seguridad en la enseñanza compulsiva. La mujer que experimenta su conocimiento como el resultado de un proceso quiere reproducirlo en otros.";}i:2;i:96603;}i:567;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97139;}i:568;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97141;}i:569;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:38:"El mito de la medición de los valores";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:97141;}i:2;i:97141;}i:570;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:97141;}i:571;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:43:" +### El mito de la medición de los valores";}i:2;i:97141;}i:572;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97141;}i:573;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:205:"Los valores institucionalizados que infunde la escuela son valores cuantificados. La escuela inicia a los jóvenes en un mundo en el que todo puede medirse, incluso su imaginación y hasta el hombre mismo.";}i:2;i:97186;}i:574;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97391;}i:575;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97391;}i:576;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:423:"Pero el desarrollo personal no es una entidad mensurable. Es crecimiento en disensión disciplinada, que no puede medirse respecto a ningún cartabón, a ningún currículum, ni compararse con lo logrado por algún otro. En ese aprendizaje podemos emular a otros sólo en el empeño imaginativo, y seguir sus huellas más bien que remedar sus maneras de andar. El aprendizaje que yo aprecio es una recreación inmensurable.";}i:2;i:97393;}i:577;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97816;}i:578;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:97816;}i:579;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:629:"Las escuelas pretenden desglosar el aprendizaje en “materias”, para incorporar en el alumno un currículum hecho con estos ladrillos prefabricados y para medir el resultado con una escala internacional. Las personas que se someten a la norma de otros para la medida de su propio desarrollo personal pronto se aplican el mismo cartabón a sí mismos. Ya no es necesario ponerlos en su lugar, pues se colocan solos en sus casilleros correspondientes, se comprimen en el nicho que se les ha enseñado a buscar y, en el curso de este mismo proceso, colocan asimismo a sus prójimos en sus lugares, hasta que todo y todos encajan.";}i:2;i:97818;}i:580;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98447;}i:581;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98447;}i:582;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:388:"Las personas que han sido escolarizadas hasta su talla dejan que la experiencia no mensurada se les escape entre los dedos. Para ellas, lo que no puede medirse se hace secundario, amenazante. No es necesario robarles su creatividad. Con la instrucción, han desaprendido a “hacer” lo suyo o a “ser” ellas mismas, y valoran sólo aquello que ha sido fabricado o podría fabricarse.";}i:2;i:98449;}i:583;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98837;}i:584;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:98837;}i:585;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:459:"Una vez que se ha escolarizado a las personas con la idea de que los valores pueden producirse y medirse, tienden a aceptar toda clase de clasificaciones jerárquicas. Existe una escala para el desarrollo de las naciones, otra para la inteligencia de los nenes, e incluso el avance hacia la paz puede medirse según un recuento de personas. En un mundo escolarizado, el camino hacia la felicidad está pavimentado con un índice de precios para el consumidor.";}i:2;i:98839;}i:586;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:99298;}i:587;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:99300;}i:588;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:32:"El mito de los valores envasados";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:99300;}i:2;i:99300;}i:589;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:99300;}i:590;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:37:" +### El mito de los valores envasados";}i:2;i:99300;}i:591;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:99300;}i:592;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:841:"La escuela vende currículum: un atado de mercancías hecho con el mismo proceso y con la misma estructura que cualquier otra mercancía. La producción del currículum para la mayoría de las escuelas comienza con la investigación presuntamente científica; fundados en ella los ingenieros de la educación predicen la demanda futura y las herramientas para la línea de montaje, dentro de los límites establecidos por presupuestos y tabúes. El distribuidor-profesor entrega el producto terminado al consumidor-alumno, cuyas reacciones son cuidadosamente estudiadas y tabuladas a fin de proporcionar datos para la investigación que servirán para preparar el modelo siguiente que podrá ser “desgraduado”, “concebido para alumnado”, “concebido para un trabajo en equipo”, “con ayudas visuales” o “centrado en temas”.";}i:2;i:99339;}i:593;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100180;}i:594;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100180;}i:595;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:663:"El resultado del proceso de producción de un currículum se asemeja a cualquier otro artículo moderno de primera necesidad. Es un paquete de significados planificados, una mercancía cuyo “atractivo equilibrado” la hace comercializable para una clientela lo bastante grande como para justificar su elevado coste de producción. A los consumidores-alumnos se les enseña a ajustar sus deseos a valores comercializables. De modo que se les hace sentir culpables si no se comportan en conformidad con los resultados de los análisis de mercado y si no obtienen los grados y diplomas que los colocarán en la categoría laboral que se les ha inducido a esperar.";}i:2;i:100182;}i:596;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100845;}i:597;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:100845;}i:598;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:696:"Los educadores pueden justificar unos currícula más costosos fundándose en lo que han observado, a saber, que las dificultades de aprendizaje se elevan en proporción al costo del currículum. Ésta es una aplicación de aquella ley de Parkinson que dice que una labor se expande junto con los recursos disponibles para ejecutarla. Esta ley puede verificarse en todos los niveles de la escuela: por ejemplo, las dificultades de lectura han sido un tema principal de debate en que los grados per cápita en ellas se han aproximado a los niveles estadunidenses de 1950 —año en el cual las dificultades para aprender a leer llegaron a ser tema de importancia en las escuelas de Estados Unidos.";}i:2;i:100847;}i:599;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101543;}i:600;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101543;}i:601;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:412:"De hecho, los estudiantes saludables redoblan su resistencia a la enseñanza conforme se ven más cabalmente manipulados. Su resistencia no se debe al estilo autoritario de una escuela pública o al estilo seductor de algunas escuelas libres, sino al planteamiento fundamental común a todas las escuelas —la idea de que el juicio de una persona debiera determinar qué y cuándo debe aprender otra persona—.";}i:2;i:101545;}i:602;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101957;}i:603;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101959;}i:604;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:49:"El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:101959;}i:2;i:101959;}i:605;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:101959;}i:606;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:54:" +### El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo";}i:2;i:101959;}i:607;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:101959;}i:608;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:783:"Los crecientes costes per cápita de la instrucción, aun cuando vayan acompañados por réditos de aprendizaje decrecientes, aumentan paradójicamente el valor del alumno o alumna ante sus propios ojos y su valor en el mercado. La escuela, casi al coste que sea, iza a empellones al alumno hasta el nivel del consumo curricular competitivo, hasta meterlo en el progreso hacia unos niveles cada vez más elevados. Los gastos que motivan al alumno a permanecer en la escuela se desbocan conforme asciende la pirámide. En niveles más altos adoptan el disfraz de nuevos estadios de futbol o programas llamados de Educación Internacional. Aunque no enseña ninguna otra cosa, la escuela enseña al menos el valor de la escalada: el valor de la manera estadunidense de hacer las cosas.";}i:2;i:102015;}i:609;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:102798;}i:610;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:102798;}i:611;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:867:"La guerra de Vietnam se ajusta a la lógica prevaleciente. Su éxito se ha medido por el número de personas efectivamente tratadas con balas baratas descargadas a un coste inmenso, y a este cálculo salvaje se le llama desvergonzadamente “recuento de cuerpos”. Así como los negocios son los negocios, la acumulación inacabable de dinero, así también la guerra es el matar, la acumulación inacabable de cuerpos muertos. De manera semejante, la educación es escolarización, y este proceso sin término se cuenta en alumnos-hora. Los diferentes procesos son irreversibles y se justifican por sí mismos. Según las normas económicas, el país se hace cada vez más rico. Según las normas de la contabilidad mortal, la nación continúa ganando perennemente sus guerras. Y conforme a las normas escolares, la población se va haciendo cada vez más educada.";}i:2;i:102800;}i:612;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:103667;}i:613;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:103667;}i:614;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1025:"El programa escolar está hambriento de un bocado cada vez mayor de instrucción, pero aun cuando esta hambre conduzca a una absorción sostenida, nunca da el gozo de saber algo a satisfacción. Cada tema llega envasado con la instrucción de continuar consumiendo una “oferta” tras otra, y el envase del año anterior es siempre anticuado para el consumidor del año en curso. El fraudulento negocio de los libros de texto está construido sobre esta demanda. Los reformadores de la educación prometen a cada generación lo último y lo mejor, y al público se le escolariza para pedir lo que ellos ofrecen. Tanto el desertor, a quien se le hace recordar a perpetuidad lo que se perdió, como el graduado, a quien se le hace sentir inferior a la nueva casta de estudiantes, saben exactamente dónde están situados en el ritual de engaños crecientes, y continúan apoyando una sociedad que, para denominar la brecha cada vez más ancha de frustración, usa el eufemismo de “revolución de expectativas crecientes”.";}i:2;i:103669;}i:615;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104694;}i:616;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104694;}i:617;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:224:"Pero el crecimiento concebido como un consumo sin términos —el progreso eterno— no puede conducir jamás a la madurez. El compromiso con un ilimitado aumento cuantitativo vicia la posibilidad de un desarrollo orgánico.";}i:2;i:104696;}i:618;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104920;}i:619;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104922;}i:620;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:44:"El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:104922;}i:2;i:104922;}i:621;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:104922;}i:622;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:49:" +### El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial";}i:2;i:104922;}i:623;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:104922;}i:624;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"En las naciones desarrolladas, la edad para salir de la escuela excede el aumento de los años de vida probable. Dentro de una década se cortarán ambas curvas y crearán un problema para Jessica Mitford y para los profesionales que se interesan por la “educación terminal”. Me hace recordar la Edad Media tardía, cuando la demanda por los servicios de la Iglesia sobrepasó la duración de la vida, y se creó el “purgatorio” para purificar a las almas bajo el control papal antes de que pudiesen ingresar en la paz eterna. Lógicamente, esto condujo primero a un tráfico de indulgencias y luego a un intento de Reforma. El Mito del Consumo Sin Fin ocupa ahora el lugar de la creencia en la vida eterna.";}i:2;i:104973;}i:625;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:105689;}i:626;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:105689;}i:627;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:979:"Arnold Toynbee señaló que la decadencia de una gran cultura suele ir acompañada por el surgimiento de una nueva Iglesia Universal que lleva la esperanza al proletariado interior mientras atiende al mismo tiempo las necesidades de una nueva casta guerrera. La escuela parece eminentemente apta para ser la Iglesia Universal de nuestra decadente cultura. Ninguna institución podría ocultar mejor a sus participantes la profunda discrepancia entre los principios sociales y la realidad social en el mundo de hoy. Secular, científica y negadora de la muerte, se ciñe estrechamente al ánimo moderno. Su apariencia clásica, crítica, la hace aparecer, si no antirreligiosa, al menos pluralista. Su currículum define la ciencia y la define a ella misma mediante la llamada investigación científica. Nadie completa la escuela —todavía—. No cierra sus puertas a nadie sin antes ofrecerle una oportunidad más: educación de recuperación, para adultos y de continuación.";}i:2;i:105691;}i:628;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:106670;}i:629;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:106670;}i:630;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1079:"La escuela sirve como una eficaz creadora y preservadora del mito social debido a su estructura como juego ritual de promociones graduadas. La introducción a este ritual es mucho más importante que el asunto enseñado o el cómo se enseña. Es el juego mismo el que escolariza, el que se mete en la sangre y se convierte en hábito. Se inicia a una sociedad entera en el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin de servicios. Esto ocurre hasta tal punto que la formalidad de participar en el ritual sin término se hace obligatoria y compulsiva por doquier. La escuela ordena una rivalidad ritual en forma de juego internacional que obliga a los competidores a achacar los males del mundo a aquellos que no pueden o no quieren jugar. La escuela es un ritual de iniciación que introduce al neófito en la sagrada carrera del consumo progresivo, un ritual propiciatorio cuyos sacerdotes académicos son mediadores entre los creyentes y los dioses del privilegio y del poder, un ritual de expiación que sacrifica a sus desertores, marcándolos a fuego como chivos expiatorios del subdesarrollo.";}i:2;i:106672;}i:631;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:107751;}i:632;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:107751;}i:633;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:762:"Incluso aquellos que en el mejor de los casos pasan unos pocos años en la escuela —y éste es el caso de la abrumadora mayoría en América Latina, Asia y África— aprenden a sentirse culpables debido a su subconsumo de escolarización. En México es obligatorio aprobar seis grados de escuela. Los niños nacidos en el tercio económico inferior tienen sólo dos posibilidades sobre tres de aprobar el primer grado. Si lo aprueban, tienen cuatro probabilidades sobre 100 de terminar la escolaridad obligatoria en el sexto grado. Si nacen en el tercio medio, sus probabilidades aumentan a 12 sobre 100. Con estas pautas, México ha tenido más éxito que la mayoría de las otras 26 repúblicas latinoamericanas en cuanto a proporcionar educación pública.";}i:2;i:107753;}i:634;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:108515;}i:635;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:108515;}i:636;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:970:"Todos los niños saben, en todas partes, que se les ha dado una posibilidad, aunque desigual, en una lotería obligatoria, y la supuesta igualdad de la norma internacional realza ahora la pobreza original de esos niños con la discriminación autoinfligida que el desertor acepta. Se les ha escolarizado en la creencia de las expectativas crecientes y pueden racionalizar ahora su creciente frustración fuera de la escuela aceptando el rechazo de la gracia escolástica que les ha caído en suerte. Se les expulsa del paraíso porque, habiendo sido bautizados, no fueron a la Iglesia. Nacidos en pecado original, se les bautiza en el primer grado, pero van al Gehenna (que en hebreo significa “conventillo”) debido a sus faltas personales. Así como Max Weber examinó los efectos sociales de la creencia en que la salvación pertenecía a quienes acumulaban riqueza, podemos observar ahora que la gracia está reservada para aquellos que acumulan años de escuela.";}i:2;i:108517;}i:637;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:109487;}i:638;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:109489;}i:639;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:58:"El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:109489;}i:2;i:109489;}i:640;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:109489;}i:641;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:63:" +### El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas";}i:2;i:109489;}i:642;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:109489;}i:643;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:173:"La escuela conjuga las expectativas del consumidor expresadas en sus pretensiones, con las creencias del productor expresadas en su ritual. Es una expresión litúrgica del ";}i:2;i:109554;}i:644;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:109727;}i:645;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"cargocult";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"cargocult";}i:2;i:109728;}i:646;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:109737;}i:647;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:283:"[^n09] que recorrió la Melanesia en la década de 1940-1950, que inyectaba en sus cultores la creencia de que si se colocaban una corbata negra sobre el torso desnudo, Jesús llegaría en un vapor trayendo una nevera, un par de pantalones y una máquina de coser para cada creyente.";}i:2;i:109738;}i:648;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110021;}i:649;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110021;}i:650;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:454:"La escuela funde el crecimiento en humillante dependencia de un maestro con el crecimiento en el vano sentido de omnipotencia que es tan típico del alumno que quiere ir a enseñar a todas las naciones a salvarse. El ritual está moldeado según los severos hábitos de trabajo de los obreros de la construcción, y su finalidad es celebrar el mito de un paraíso terrestre de consumo sin fin, que es la única esperanza del desgraciado y el desposeído.";}i:2;i:110023;}i:651;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110477;}i:652;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:110477;}i:653;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:778:"A lo largo de la historia ha habido epidemias de insaciables expectativas en este mundo, especialmente entre grupos colonizados y marginales en todas las culturas. Los judíos tuvieron durante el Imperio romano sus Esenios y Mesías judíos, los siervos en la Reforma tuvieron su Thomas Münzer, los desposeídos indios desde el Paraguay hasta Dakota sus contagiosos bailarines. Estas sectas estaban siempre dirigidas por un profeta, y limitaban sus promesas a unos pocos elegidos. En cambio la espera del reino a que induce la escuela es impersonal más que profética, y universal más que local. El hombre ha llegado a ser el ingeniero de su propio Mesías y promete las limitadas recompensas de la ciencia a aquellos que somete a una progresiva tecnificación para su reino.";}i:2;i:110479;}i:654;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:111257;}i:655;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:111259;}i:656;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:20:"La nueva alienación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:111259;}i:2;i:111259;}i:657;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:111259;}i:658;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:25:" +### La nueva alienación";}i:2;i:111259;}i:659;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:111259;}i:660;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:892:"La escuela no sólo es la Nueva Religión Mundial. Es también el mercado de trabajo de crecimiento más veloz del mundo. La tecnificación de los consumidores ha llegado a ser el principal sector de crecimiento de la economía. Conforme el coste de la producción disminuye en las naciones ricas, se produce una concentración creciente de capital y trabajo en la vasta empresa de equipar al hombre para un consumo disciplinario. Durante la década pasada las inversiones de capital relacionadas directamente con el sistema escolar aumentaron con velocidad incluso mayor que los gastos para defensa. El desarme tan sólo aceleraría el proceso por el cual la industria del aprendizaje se encamina al centro de la economía nacional. La escuela proporciona oportunidades ilimitadas para el derroche legitimizado, mientras su destructividad pasa inadvertida y crece el coste de los paliativos.";}i:2;i:111286;}i:661;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:112178;}i:662;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:112178;}i:663;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:989:"Si a quienes asisten a jornada completa agregamos los que enseñan a jornada completa, nos percatamos de que esta llamada superestructura ha llegado a ser el principal patrono de la sociedad. En Estados Unidos hay 62 millones en la escuela y 80 millones trabajando en otras cosas. Esto a menudo lo han olvidado los analistas neomarxistas cuando dicen que el proceso de desescolarización debe posponerse o dejarse pendiente hasta que otros desórdenes, considerados tradicionalmente como más importantes, los haya corregido una revolución económica y política. Pero hay que comprender que la escuela es una industria antes de querer edificar una estrategia revolucionaria realista. Para Marx, el coste de producir las demandas de bienes apenas si era significativo. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la mano de obra está empleada en la producción de demandas que puede satisfacer la industria que hace un uso intenso del capital. La mayor parte de este trabajo se realiza en la escuela.";}i:2;i:112180;}i:664;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:113169;}i:665;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:113169;}i:666;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1093:"En el esquema tradicional, la alienación era una consecuencia directa de que el trabajo se convirtiera en labor asalariada que privaba al hombre de su oportunidad para crear y recrearse. Ahora a los menores los prealienan las escuelas que los aíslan del mundo mientras juegan a ser productores y consumidores de su propio conocimiento, al que se concibe como una mercancía en el mercado en la escuela. La escuela hace de la alienación una preparación para la vida, privando así a la educación de realidad y al trabajo de creatividad. La escuela prepara para la alienante institucionalización de la vida al enseñar la necesidad de ser enseñado. Una vez que se aprende esta lección, la gente pierde su incentivo para desarrollarse con independencia; ya no encuentra atractivos en relacionarse y se cierra a las sorpresas que la vida ofrece cuando no está predeterminada por la definición institucional. La escuela emplea directa o indirectamente a una mayor parte de la población. La escuela o bien guarda a la gente de por vida o asegura el que encaje en alguna otra institución.";}i:2;i:113171;}i:667;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114264;}i:668;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114264;}i:669;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:269:"La Nueva Iglesia Mundial es la industria del conocimiento, proveedora de opio y banco de trabajo durante un número creciente de años de la vida de un individuo. La desescolarización es por consiguiente fundamental para cualquier movimiento de liberación del hombre.";}i:2;i:114266;}i:670;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114535;}i:671;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114537;}i:672;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:56:"La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:114537;}i:2;i:114537;}i:673;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:114537;}i:674;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:61:" +### La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización";}i:2;i:114537;}i:675;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:114537;}i:676;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:844:"La escuela no es de ningún modo, por cierto, la única institución moderna cuya finalidad primaria es moldear la visión de la realidad en el hombre. El currículum escondido de la vida familiar, de la conscripción militar, del llamado profesionalismo o de los medios informativos desempeña un importante papel en la manipulación institucional de la visión del mundo que tiene el hombre, de su lenguaje y de sus demandas. Pero la escuela esclaviza más profunda y sistemáticamente, puesto que sólo a ella se le acredita la función principal de formar el juicio crítico y, paradójicamente, trata de hacerlo haciendo que el aprender sobre sí mismo, sobre los demás y sobre la naturaleza dependa de un proceso preempacado. La escuela nos alcanza de manera tan íntima que ninguno puede esperar liberarse de ella mediante algo externo.";}i:2;i:114600;}i:677;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:115444;}i:678;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:115444;}i:679;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:743:"Muchos de los que se autodenominan revolucionarios son víctimas de la escuela. Incluso ven la “liberación” como el producto de algo institucional. Sólo al librarse uno mismo de la escuela se disipa esa ilusión. El descubrimiento de que la mayor parte del aprendizaje no requiere enseñanza no puede ser ni manipulado ni planificado. Cada uno de nosotros es responsable de su propia desescolarización, y sólo nosotros tenemos el poder de hacerlo. No puede excusarse a nadie si no logra liberarse de la escolarización. El pueblo no pudo liberarse de la Corona sino hasta que al menos algunos de ellos se liberaron de la Iglesia establecida. No pueden liberarse del consumo progresivo hasta que no se liberen de la escuela obligatoria.";}i:2;i:115446;}i:680;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116189;}i:681;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116189;}i:682;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:601:"Todos estamos metidos en la escolarización, tanto desde el aspecto de la producción como desde el del consumo. Estamos supersticiosamente convencidos de que el buen aprendizaje puede y debería producirse en nosotros —y de que podemos producirlo en otros—. Nuestro intento de desligarnos del concepto de escuela hará surgir las resistencias que hallamos en nosotros mismos cuando tratamos de renunciar al consumo ilimitado y a la ubicua suposición de que a los otros se les puede manipular por su propio bien. Nadie está totalmente exento de explotar a otros en el proceso de escolarización.";}i:2;i:116191;}i:683;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116792;}i:684;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:116792;}i:685;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:648:"La escuela es el más grande y más anónimo de todos los patrones. De hecho es el mejor empleo de un nuevo tipo de empresa, sucesora del gremio, de la fábrica y de la sociedad anónima. Las empresas multinacionales que han dominado la economía están siendo complementadas ahora, y puede que algún día sean suplantadas por organismos de servicio con planificación supranacional. Estas empresas presentan sus servicios de manera que hacen que todos los hombres se sientan obligados a consumirlos. Se rigen por una normativa internacional, redefiniendo el valor de sus servicios periódicamente y por doquiera a un ritmo aproximadamente parejo.";}i:2;i:116794;}i:686;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:117442;}i:687;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:117442;}i:688;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:599:"El “transporte” que se apoya en nuevos coches y supercarreteras atiende a la misma necesidad institucionalmente envasada de comodidad, prestigio, velocidad y equipamiento, independientemente de que sus componentes los produzca o no el Estado. El aparato de la “atención médica” define una especie peculiar de salud, poco importa que sea el individuo o el Estado quien pague el servicio. La promoción graduada a fin de obtener diplomas ajusta al estudiante para ocupar un lugar en la misma pirámide internacional de mano de obra cualificada, independientemente de quien dirija la escuela.";}i:2;i:117444;}i:689;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118043;}i:690;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118043;}i:691;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:689:"En todos estos casos el empleo es un beneficio oculto: el chofer de un automóvil privado, el paciente que se somete a hospitalización o el alumno en el aula deben considerase como parte de una nueva clase de “empleados”. Un movimiento de liberación que se inicie en la escuela y, sin embargo, esté fundado en maestros y alumnos como explotados y explotadores simultáneamente, podría anticiparse a las estrategias revolucionarias del futuro; pues un programa radical de desescolarización podría adiestrar a la juventud en el nuevo estilo de revolución necesaria para desafiar a un sistema social que exhibe una “salud”, una “riqueza” y una “seguridad” obligatorias.";}i:2;i:118045;}i:692;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118734;}i:693;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:118734;}i:694;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:667:"Los riesgos de una rebelión contra la escuela son imprevisibles, pero no son tan horribles como los de una revolución que se inicie en cualquier otra institución principal. La escuela no está todavía organizada para defenderse con tanta eficacia como una nación-Estado, o incluso como una gran sociedad anónima. La liberación de la opresión de las escuelas podría ser incruenta. Las armas del vigilante escolar[^n10] y de sus aliados en los tribunales y en las agencias de empleo podrían tomar medidas muy crueles contra el o la delincuente individual, especialmente si fuese pobre, pero podrían ser a su vez impotentes si surgiera un movimiento de masas.";}i:2;i:118736;}i:695;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:119403;}i:696;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:119403;}i:697;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1109:"La escuela se ha convertido en un problema social; se le ataca por todas partes, y los ciudadanos y los gobiernos patrocinan experimentos no convencionales en todo el mundo. Recurren a insólitos expedientes estadísticos a fin de preservar la fe y salvar las apariencias. El ánimo que existe entre algunos educadores es muy parecido al ánimo de los obispos católicos después del Concilio Vaticano. Los planes de estudio de las llamadas “escuelas libres” se parecen a las liturgias de las misas con música folclórica y rock. Las exigencias de los estudiantes de bachillerato para tener voz y voto en la elección de sus profesores son tan estridentes como las de los feligreses que exigen seleccionar a sus párrocos. Pero para la sociedad está en juego algo mucho mayor si una minoría significativa pierde su fe en la escolaridad. Esto pondría en peligro la supervivencia no sólo del orden económico construido sobre la coproducción de bienes y demandas, sino igualmente del orden político construido sobre la nación-Estado dentro del cual los estudiantes son dados a la luz por la escuela.";}i:2;i:119405;}i:698;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120514;}i:699;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120514;}i:700;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:452:"Nuestras alternativas posibles son harto claras. O continuamos creyendo que el aprendizaje institucionalizado es un producto que justifica una inversión ilimitada, o redescubrimos que la legislación, la planificación y la inversión, si de alguna manera encajan en la educación formal, debieran usarse principalmente para derribar las barreras que ahora obstaculizan las posibilidades de aprendizaje, el cual sólo puede ser una actividad personal.";}i:2;i:120516;}i:701;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120968;}i:702;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:120968;}i:703;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1010:"Si no ponemos en tela de juicio el supuesto de que el conocimiento valedero es una mercancía que en ciertas circunstancias puede metérsele a la fuerza al consumidor, la sociedad se verá cada día más dominada por siniestras seudoescuelas y totalitarios administradores de la información. Los terapeutas pedagógicos drogarán más a sus alumnos a fin de enseñarles mejor, y los estudiantes se drogarán más a fin de conseguir aliviarse de las presiones de los profesores y de la carrera por diplomas. Ejércitos cada día mayores de burócratas presumirán de maestros. El lenguaje del escolar ya se lo ha apropiado el publicista. Ahora el general y el policía tratarán de dignificar sus profesiones disfrazándose de educadores. En una sociedad escolarizada, las guerras y la represión civil encuentran una justificación racional educativa. La guerra pedagógica al estilo Vietnam se justificará cada vez más como la única manera de enseñar a la gente el valor superior del progreso inacabable.";}i:2;i:120970;}i:704;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:121980;}i:705;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:121980;}i:706;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:689:"La represión se considerará como un empeño de misioneros por apresurar la venida del Mesías mecánico. Más y más países recurrirán a la tortura pedagógica puesta ya en práctica en Brasil y Grecia. Esta tortura pedagógica no se usa para extraer información o para satisfacer las necesidades psíquicas de unos sádicos. Se apoya en el terror aleatorio para romper la integridad de toda una población y convertirla en un material plástico para las enseñanzas inventadas por tecnócratas. La naturaleza totalmente destructiva y en constante progreso de la instrucción obligatoria cumplirá cabalmente su lógica final a menos que comencemos a librarnos desde ahora de nuestra ";}i:2;i:121982;}i:707;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:122671;}i:708;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"hybris";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"hybris";}i:2;i:122672;}i:709;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:122678;}i:710;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:124:" pedagógica, nuestra creencia de que el hombre puede hacer lo que no puede Dios, a saber, manipular a otros para salvarlos.";}i:2;i:122679;}i:711;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:122803;}i:712;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:122803;}i:713;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:517:"Muchos comienzan recientemente a darse cuenta de la inexorable destrucción que las tendencias actuales de producción implican para el medio ambiente, pero las personas aisladas tienen un poder muy restringido para cambiar estas tendencias. La manipulación de hombres y mujeres iniciada en la escuela ha llegado también a un punto sin retorno, y la mayoría de las personas aún no se han percatado de ello. Fomentan todavía la reforma escolar, tal como Henry Ford II propone unos nuevos automóviles ponzoñosos.";}i:2;i:122805;}i:714;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123322;}i:715;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123322;}i:716;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:430:"Daniel Bell dice que nuestra época se caracteriza por una extrema disyunción entre las estructuras cultural y social; una dedicada a actitudes apocalípticas y la otra a la toma tecnocrática de decisiones. Esto es sin duda verdadero respecto de muchos reformadores de la educación que se sienten impulsados a condenar casi todo aquello que caracteriza a las escuelas modernas —y proponen simultáneamente nuevas escuelas—.";}i:2;i:123324;}i:717;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123754;}i:718;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:123754;}i:719;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:6:"En su ";}i:2;i:123756;}i:720;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:123762;}i:721;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:43:"Estructura de las revoluciones científicas";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:43:"Estructura de las revoluciones científicas";}i:2;i:123763;}i:722;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:123806;}i:723;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:518:" , Thomas Kuhn aduce que dicha disonancia precede inevitablemente a la aparición de un nuevo paradigma cognoscitivo. Los hechos que informaban aquellos que observaban la caída libre, aquellos que volvían del otro lado de la Tierra y aquellos que usaban el nuevo telescopio, no se ajustaban a la visión cósmica tolemaica. Súbitamente, se aceptó el paradigma newtoniano. La disonancia que caracteriza a muchos jóvenes de hoy no es tanto cognoscitiva como un asunto de actitudes —un sentimiento acerca de cómo ";}i:2;i:123807;}i:724;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:124325;}i:725;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"no";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"no";}i:2;i:124326;}i:726;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:124328;}i:727;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:150:" puede ser una sociedad tolerable—. Lo sorprendente respecto de esta disonancia es la capacidad de un número muy grande de personas para tolerarla.";}i:2;i:124329;}i:728;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:124479;}i:729;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:124479;}i:730;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:742:"La capacidad para ir tras metas incongruentes exige una explicación. Según Max Gluckman, todas las sociedades poseen procedimientos para ocultar tales disonancias de sus miembros. Los rituales pueden ocultar a sus participantes incluso discrepancias y conflictos entre principio social y organización social. Mientras un individuo no sea explícitamente consciente del carácter ritual del proceso a través del cual se le inició en las fuerzas que moldean su cosmos, no puede romper el conjuro y moldear un nuevo cosmos. Mientras no nos percatemos del ritual a través del cual la escuela moldea al consumidor progresivo —el recurso principal de la economía—, no podremos romper el conjuro de esta economía y dar forma a una nueva.";}i:2;i:124481;}i:731;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:125224;}i:732;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:125224;}i:733;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:22:"Espectro institucional";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:125224;}i:2;i:125224;}i:734;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:125224;}i:735;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:26:" +## Espectro institucional";}i:2;i:125224;}i:736;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:125224;}i:737;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1182:"La mayoría de los esquemas utópicos y escenarios futurísticos requieren nuevas y costosas tecnologías que habrían de venderse a las naciones ricas y pobres por igual. Herman Kahn ha encontrado alumnos en Venezuela, Argentina y Colombia. Las fantasías de Sergio Bernardes para su Brasil del año 2000 centellean con más maquinaria nueva de la que hoy posee Estados Unidos, que para entonces estará recargado con los obsoletos emplazamientos para misiles, aeropuertos para reactores y ciudades de las décadas de los años sesenta-setenta. Los futuristas inspirados en Buckminster Fuller se apoyarían más bien en dispositivos más baratos y exóticos. Cuentan con que se acepte una tecnología nueva pero posible, que al parecer nos permitiría hacer más con menos —monorrieles ligeros en vez de transporte supersónico, viviendas verticales en vez de dispersión horizontal—. Todos los planificadores futuristas de hoy tratan de hacer económicamente factible lo técnicamente posible, negándose a la vez a enfrentar las inevitables consecuencias sociales: el creciente anhelo de todos los hombres por bienes y servicios que seguirán siendo privilegio de unos pocos.";}i:2;i:125252;}i:738;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:126434;}i:739;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:126434;}i:740;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:905:"Creo que un futuro deseable depende, en primer lugar, de nuestra voluntad de elegir una vida de acción en vez de una vida de consumo, de que engendremos un estilo de vida que nos permita ser espontáneos, independientes y, sin embargo, relacionarnos uno con otro, en vez de mantener un estilo de vida que sólo nos permite hacer y deshacer, producir y consumir —un estilo de vida que es sólo una estación en el camino hacia el agotamiento y la contaminación del entorno—. El futuro depende más de nuestra elección de instituciones que mantengan una vida de acción y menos de que desarrollemos nuevas ideologías y tecnologías. Necesitamos un conjunto de pautas que nos permitan reconocer aquellas instituciones que apoyan el desarrollo personal en vez del enviciamiento, como también la voluntad de dedicar nuestros recursos tecnológicos preferentemente a dichas instituciones de desarrollo.";}i:2;i:126436;}i:741;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:127341;}i:742;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:127341;}i:743;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:800:"La elección se sitúa entre dos tipos institucionales radicalmente opuestos, ejemplificados ambos en ciertas instituciones existentes, aunque uno de esos tipos caracteriza de tal manera la época contemporánea que casi la define. A este tipo dominante yo propondría llamarlo la institución manipulativa. El otro tipo existe, pero sólo precariamente. Las instituciones que se ajustan a él son más humildes y menos notorias. No obstante, las tomo como modelos de un futuro más deseable. Las llamo “convivenciales” y sugiero colocarlas a la izquierda institucional, para mostrar que hay instituciones situadas entre ambos extremos y para ilustrar cómo las instituciones históricas pueden cambiar de color conforme se desplazan desde un facilitar la actividad a un organizar la producción.";}i:2;i:127343;}i:744;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128143;}i:745;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128143;}i:746;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:651:"Dicho espectro, que se desplaza de izquierda a derecha, se ha usado por lo general para caracterizar a los hombres y sus ideologías, y no a nuestras instituciones sociales y a sus estilos. Esta categorización de los hombres, sea como individuos o como grupos, suele producir más calor que luz. Pueden suscitarse poderosas objeciones contra el uso de una convención corriente, pero al hacerlo espero desplazar los términos del debate de un plano estéril a uno fértil. Se evidenciará que los hombres de izquierda no siempre se caracterizan por su oposición a las instituciones manipulativas, a las que coloco en el extremo derecho del espectro.";}i:2;i:128145;}i:747;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128796;}i:748;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:128796;}i:749;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:168:"Las instituciones modernas más influyentes se agolpan al lado derecho del espectro. Hacia él se ha desplazado la coerción legal, conforme ha pasado de las manos del ";}i:2;i:128798;}i:750;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:128966;}i:751;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"sheriff";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"sheriff";}i:2;i:128967;}i:752;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:128974;}i:753;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:796:" a las del FBI y del Pentágono. La guerra moderna se ha convertido en una empresa sumamente profesional cuyo negocio es matar. Ha llegado al punto en que su eficiencia se mide por el recuento de cuerpos. Sus capacidades pacificadoras dependen de su poder para convencer a amigos y enemigos de la ilimitada potencia letal de la nación. Las balas y los productos químicos modernos son tan eficaces que a un ínfimo precio son capaces de matar o mutilar infaliblemente al “cliente”. Pero los costos de entrega aumentan vertiginosamente; el coste de un vietnamita muerto subió de 360 000 dólares en 1967 a 450 000 dólares en 1969. Sólo economías a una escala cercana al suicidio de la raza harían económicamente eficiente el arte militar moderno. Se está haciendo más obvio el efecto ";}i:2;i:128975;}i:754;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:129771;}i:755;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"boomerang";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"boomerang";}i:2;i:129772;}i:756;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:129781;}i:757;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:355:" en la guerra: cuanto mayor es el recuento de cuerpos de vietnamitas muertos, tantos más enemigos consigue Estados Unidos por todo el mundo; asimismo, tanto más debe gastar Estados Unidos en crear otra institución manipulativa —motejada cínicamente como de “pacificación”— en un vano intento por absorber los efectos secundarios de la guerra.";}i:2;i:129782;}i:758;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:130137;}i:759;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:130137;}i:760;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1663:"En este mismo lado del espectro hallamos también organismos sociales que se especializan en la manipulación de sus clientes. Semejante a la organización militar, tienden a crear efectos contrarios a sus objetivos conforme crece el ámbito de sus operaciones. Estas instituciones sociales son igualmente contraproductivas, pero lo son de manera menos evidente. Muchas adoptan una imagen simpática y terapéutica para encubrir este efecto paradójico. Por ejemplo, hasta hace un par de siglos, las cárceles servían como medio para detener a las personas hasta que se les sentenciaba, se les mutilaba, se les mataba o se les exiliaba; en ocasiones se usaban deliberadamente como forma de tortura. Sólo recientemente comenzamos a pretender que encerrar a la gente en jaulas tendrá un efecto benéfico sobre su carácter y comportamiento. Ahora, más que unos pocos están empezando a entender que la cárcel incrementa tanto la calidad de los criminales como su cantidad, que es perfectamente capaz de hacer de un simple inconforme un criminal endurecido. No obstante, es mucho menor el número de los que al parecer entienden que las clínicas psiquiátricas, hogares de reposo y orfanatos hacen algo muy parecido. Estas instituciones proporcionan a sus clientes la destructiva autoimagen del psicótico, del excedido en años o del niño abandonado, y proveen la justificación lógica para la existencia de ciertas profesiones, tal como las cárceles poseen sus guardias. La afiliación a instituciones que se encuentran en este extremo del espectro se consigue de dos maneras, ambas coercitivas: mediante compromiso obligado o mediante servicio selectivo.";}i:2;i:130139;}i:761;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:131802;}i:762;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:131802;}i:763;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1802:"En el extremo opuesto del espectro se sitúan unas instituciones que se distinguen por el uso espontáneo —las instituciones “convivenciales”—. Las conexiones telefónicas, las líneas de metro, los recorridos de los carteros, los mercados y lonjas no tienen necesidad de convencernos de su necesidad. Los sistemas de alcantarillado, de agua potable, los parques y veredas son instituciones que los hombres usan sin tener que estar institucionalmente convencidos de que les conviene hacerlo. Todas las instituciones exigen, por cierto, cierta reglamentación. Pero el funcionamiento de instituciones que existen para usarse más que para producir algo, requiere de normas cuya índole es totalmente diferente de la que exigen las instituciones-tratamiento, que son manipulativas. Las normas que rigen a las instituciones para uso tienen por fin principal evitar abusos que frustrarían su accesibilidad general. Las veredas deben mantenerse libres de obstrucciones, el uso industrial de agua potable debe someterse a ciertos límites y el juego de pelota debe restringirse a zonas especiales dentro de un parque. Actualmente necesitamos una legislación especial para evitar el abuso de nuestras líneas telefónicas por parte de computadoras, el abuso del servicio de correo por parte de los anunciantes y la contaminación de nuestros sistemas de alcantarillado por los desechos industriales. La reglamentación de las instituciones convivenciales fija límites para su empleo; conforme uno pasa del extremo convivencial del espectro al manipulativo, las normas van exigiendo cada vez más un consumo o participación no queridos. El diferente coste de la adquisición de clientes es precisamente una de las características que distingue a las instituciones conviviales de las manipulativas.";}i:2;i:131804;}i:764;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:133606;}i:765;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:133606;}i:766;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:792:"En ambos extremos del espectro encontramos instituciones de servicio, pero a la derecha, el servicio es una manipulación impuesta y al cliente se le convierte en víctima de la publicidad, la agresión, el adoctrinamiento, la prisión o el electrochoque. A la izquierda, el servicio es una mayor oportunidad de límites definidos formalmente, mientras el cliente sigue siendo un agente libre. Las instituciones del ala derecha tienden a procesos de producción altamente complejos y costosos en los que gran parte de la complicación y el gasto se ocupan en convencer a los consumidores de que no pueden vivir sin el producto o tratamiento ofrecido por la institución. Las instituciones del ala izquierda tienden a redes que facilitan la composición o cooperación iniciada por el cliente.";}i:2;i:133608;}i:767;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:134400;}i:768;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:134400;}i:769;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1251:"Las instituciones manipulativas de la derecha son formadoras de hábito, “adictivas”, social y psicológicamente. La adicción social, o escalada, consiste en la tendencia a prescribir un tratamiento intensificado si dosis menores no han rendido los resultados deseados. La adicción psicológica, o habituamiento, se produce cuando los consumidores se envician con la necesidad de una cantidad cada vez mayor del proceso o del producto. Las instituciones de la izquierda que uno mismo pone en actividad tienden a autolimitarse. Al revés de los procesos de producción que identifican la satisfacción con el mero acto del consumo, estas redes sirven a un objetivo que va más allá de su uso repetido. Una persona levanta el teléfono cuando quiere decir algo a otra, y cuelga una vez terminada la comunicación deseada. A excepción hecha de los adolescentes, no usa el teléfono por el puro placer de hablar ante el receptor. Si el teléfono no es el mejor modo de ponerse en comunicación, las personas escribirán una carta o harán un viaje. Las instituciones de la derecha, como podemos ver claramente en el caso de las escuelas, invitan compulsivamente al uso repetitivo y frustran las maneras alternativas de lograr resultados similares.";}i:2;i:134402;}i:770;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:135653;}i:771;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:135653;}i:772;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:620:"Hacia la izquierda del espectro institucional, pero no en el extremo mismo, podemos colocar a las empresas que compiten entre sí en la actividad que les es propia, pero que no han empezado a ocupar la publicidad de manera notable. Encontramos aquí las lavanderías manuales, las pequeñas panaderías, los peluqueros y, para hablar de profesionales, algunos abogados y profesores de música. Son por consiguiente característicamente del ala izquierda las personas que han institucionalizado sus servicios, pero no su publicidad. Consiguen clientes mediante su contacto personal y la calidad relativa de sus servicios.";}i:2;i:135655;}i:773;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136275;}i:774;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136275;}i:775;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:632:"Los hoteles y las cafeterías se acercan algo más al centro. Las grandes cadenas hoteleras como la Hilton que gastan inmensas cantidades en vender su imagen, a menudo se comportan como si estuvieran dirigiendo instituciones de la derecha. No obstante, las empresas Hilton y Sheraton no ofrecen nada más —de hecho dan frecuentemente menos— que alojamientos de precio similar y dirigidos independientemente. En lo esencial, un letrero de hotel atrae al viajero como lo hace un signo caminero. Dice más bien: “Detente, aquí hay una cama para ti”, y no: “¡Deberías preferir una cama de hotel a una banca en el parque!”";}i:2;i:136277;}i:776;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136909;}i:777;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:136909;}i:778;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:454:"Los productores de artículos de primera necesidad y de la mayoría de los bienes efímeros pertenecen a la parte central de nuestro espectro. Satisfacen demandas genéricas y agregan al costo de producción y distribución todo lo que el mercado soporte en costos publicitarios, en anuncios y envases. Cuanto más básico sea el producto —trátese de bienes o de servicios— tanto más tiende la competencia a limitar el costo de venta del artículo.";}i:2;i:136911;}i:779;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:137365;}i:780;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:137365;}i:781;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1353:"La mayoría de los fabricantes de bienes de consumo se han ido mucho más a la derecha. Tanto directa como indirectamente, producen demandas de accesorios que hinchan el precio real de compra muy por encima del coste de producción. La General Motors y la Ford producen medios de transporte, pero también, y esto es más importante, manipulan el gusto del público de manera tal que la necesidad de transporte se expresa como una demanda de coches privados y no de autobuses públicos. Venden el deseo de controlar una máquina, correr a grandes velocidades con lujosa comodidad, al tiempo que ofrecen el espejismo de la evasión. Pero lo que venden no es tan sólo un asunto de motores inútilmente poderosos, de artilugios superfluos o de suplementos nuevos que los fabricantes han tenido que agregar obligados por Ralph Nader y los grupos que presionan en pro de un aire limpio. La lista de precios incluye dispositivos anticontaminantes, cinturones de seguridad, climatización; pero también comprende otros costes que no se le declaran abiertamente al conductor: los gastos de publicidad y de ventas de la empresa, el combustible, el mantenimiento y las refacciones, el seguro, el interés sobre el crédito, como también costes menos tangibles, como la pérdida de tiempo, el buen humor y el aire respirable en nuestras congestionadas ciudades.";}i:2;i:137367;}i:782;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:138720;}i:783;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:138720;}i:784;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:345:"Un corolario particularmente interesante de nuestro examen de instituciones socialmente útiles es el sistema de carreteras “públicas”. Este importante elemento del coste total de los automóviles merece un análisis más dilatado, pues conduce directamente a la institución derechista en la que estoy más interesado, a saber, la escuela.";}i:2;i:138722;}i:785;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139067;}i:786;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139069;}i:787;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:37:"Falsos servicios de utilidad pública";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:139069;}i:2;i:139069;}i:788;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:139069;}i:789;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:42:" +### Falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:139069;}i:790;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139069;}i:791;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:558:"El sistema de carreteras es una red para la locomoción a través de distancias relativamente grandes. En su condición de red, parecería corresponderle estar a la izquierda en el espectro institucional. Pero en este caso debemos hacer una distinción que esclarecerá tanto la naturaleza de las carreteras como la naturaleza de los verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Los caminos que son genuinamente para todos, son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Las supercarreteras son cotos privados, cuyo coste se le encaja parcialmente al público.";}i:2;i:139113;}i:792;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139671;}i:793;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:139671;}i:794;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:887:"Los sistemas de teléfonos, correos y caminos son redes, y ninguno es gratis. El acceso a la red de teléfonos está limitado por cobros sobre tiempo ocupado en cada llamada. Estas tarifas son relativamente bajas y podrían reducirse sin cambiar la naturaleza del sistema. El uso del sistema telefónico no está en absoluto limitado por lo que se transmita, aunque lo emplean mejor quienes pueden hablar frases coherentes en el lenguaje del interlocutor, una capacidad que poseen todos los que desean usar la red. El franqueo suele ser barato. El uso del sistema postal se ve ligeramente limitado por el precio de la pluma y el papel, y algo más por la capacidad de escribir. Aún así, cuando alguien que no sabe escribir tiene un pariente o un amigo a quien pueda dictarle una carta, el sistema postal está a su disposición, tal como lo está si quiere despachar una cinta grabada.";}i:2;i:139673;}i:795;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:140560;}i:796;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:140560;}i:797;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:675:"El sistema de carreteras no llega a estar disponible de manera similar para alguien que tan sólo aprenda a conducir. Las redes telefónica y postal existen para servir a quienes deseen usarlas, mientras el sistema de carreteras sirve principalmente como accesorio del automóvil privado. Las primeras son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública, mientras el último es un servicio público para los dueños de coches, camiones y autobuses. Los servicios de utilidad pública existen en pro de la comunicación entre los hombres: las carreteras, como otras instituciones de la derecha, existen en pro de un producto. Tal como hicimos notar, los fabricantes de automóviles ";}i:2;i:140562;}i:798;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141237;}i:799;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:141238;}i:800;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141246;}i:801;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:71:" simultáneamente tanto los coches como la demanda de coches. Asimismo ";}i:2;i:141247;}i:802;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141318;}i:803;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"producen";}i:2;i:141319;}i:804;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:141327;}i:805;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:318:" la demanda de carreteras de varias vías, puentes y campos petrolíferos. El coche privado es el foco de una constelación de instituciones del ala derecha. El elevado coste de cada elemento lo dicta la complicación del producto básico, y vender el producto básico es enviciar a la sociedad en el paquete conjunto.";}i:2;i:141328;}i:806;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:141646;}i:807;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:141646;}i:808;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:423:"Planificar un sistema vial como un verdadero servicio de utilidad pública discriminaría a aquellos para quienes la velocidad y el confort individualizado son los valores primarios de transporte, y favorecería a aquellos que valoran la fluidez y el lugar de destino. Es la diferencia entre una red extendidísima con acceso máximo para los viajeros y otra que ofrezca sólo un acceso privilegiado a una zona restringida.";}i:2;i:141648;}i:809;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:142071;}i:810;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:142071;}i:811;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1544:"La transferencia de una institución moderna a las naciones en desarrollo permite probar esto con mejor claridad. En los países muy pobres, los caminos suelen ser apenas lo bastante buenos como para permitir el tránsito mediante camiones especiales de eje elevado, cargados de víveres, reses o personas. Este tipo de país debería usar sus limitados recursos para construir una telaraña de pistas que llegaran a todas sus regiones y debería restringir la importancia de vehículos a dos o tres modelos diferentes muy duraderos que puedan transitar por malos caminos a baja velocidad. Esto simplificaría el mantenimiento continuo de estos vehículos y proporcionaría una máxima fluidez y elección de puntos de destino a todos los ciudadanos. Esto exigiría proyectar vehículos para todo servicio con la simplicidad del Ford T, utilizando las aleaciones más modernas para garantizar su durabilidad, con un límite de velocidad incorporado de unos 25 kilómetros por hora a lo más, y lo bastante firme como para rodar por el terreno más áspero. No se ofrecen estos vehículos en el mercado porque no hay demanda de ellos. De hecho sería preciso cultivar esa demanda, muy posiblemente al amparo de una legislación estricta. Actualmente, cada vez que una demanda de esta especie se hace sentir un poco, se le descarta rápida y desdeñosamente mediante una publicidad contraria, encaminada a la venta universal de las máquinas que extraen hoy de los contribuyentes estadunidenses el dinero necesario para construir supercarreteras.";}i:2;i:142073;}i:812;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:143617;}i:813;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:143617;}i:814;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:679:"Para “mejorar” el transporte, todos los países, hasta los más pobres, proyectan ahora sistemas viales concebidos para coches de pasajeros y remolques de alta velocidad que se ajustan a la minoría, pendiente del velocímetro, compuesta por productores y consumidores en las clases selectas. Este planteamiento a menudo se justifica racionalmente pintándolo como un ahorro del recurso más precioso de un país pobre: el tiempo del médico, del inspector escolar o del funcionario público. Estos hombres, naturalmente, sirven casi exclusivamente a la misma gente que posee un coche o espera tenerlo algún día. Los impuestos locales y las escasas divisas se derrochan en ";}i:2;i:143619;}i:815;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:144298;}i:816;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:37:"falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:37:"falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:144299;}i:817;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:144336;}i:818;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:".";}i:2;i:144337;}i:819;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:144338;}i:820;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:144338;}i:821;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:735:"La tecnología “moderna” transferida a los países pobres puede dividirse en tres categorías: bienes, fábricas que los hacen e instituciones de servicios —principalmente escuelas— que convierten a los hombres en productores y consumidores modernos. La mayor parte de los países gastan la mayor proporción de su presupuesto, y con mucho, en escuelas. Los graduados fabricados con escuelas crean entonces una demanda de otros servicios conspicuos de utilidad pública, tales como potencia industrial, carreteras pavimentadas, hospitales modernos y aeropuertos, y éstos crean a su vez un mercado para los bienes hechos para países ricos y, al cabo de un tiempo, la tendencia a importar fábricas anticuadas para producirlos.";}i:2;i:144340;}i:822;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145075;}i:823;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145075;}i:824;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:490:"De todos los “falsos servicios de utilidad pública”, la escuela es el más insidioso. Los sistemas de carreteras producen sólo demanda de coches. Las escuelas crean una demanda para el conjunto completo de instituciones modernas que llenan el extremo derecho del espectro. A un hombre que pusiera en duda la necesidad de carreteras se le tacharía de romántico; al que ponga en tela de juicio la necesidad de escuelas se le ataca de inmediato: un ser sin entrañas o un imperialista.";}i:2;i:145077;}i:825;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145567;}i:826;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145569;}i:827;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:55:"Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:145569;}i:2;i:145569;}i:828;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:145569;}i:829;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:60:" +### Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública";}i:2;i:145569;}i:830;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:145569;}i:831;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:737:"Al igual que las carreteras, las escuelas dan a primera vista la impresión de estar igualmente abiertas para todos los interesados. De hecho están abiertas sólo para quienes renueven sin cejar sus credenciales. Así como las carreteras crean la impresión de que su nivel actual de costes anuales es necesario para que la gente pueda moverse, así se supone que las escuelas son indispensables para alcanzar la competencia que exige una sociedad que use la tecnología moderna. Hemos expuesto las autopistas como servicios de utilidad pública espurios observando cómo dependen de los automóviles privados. Las escuelas se fundan en la hipótesis igualmente espuria de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza curricular.";}i:2;i:145631;}i:832;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:146368;}i:833;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:146368;}i:834;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:798:"Las carreteras son las consecuencias del deseo y la necesidad de movilizarse que se pervierten para convertirlos en demanda de coches privados. Las escuelas pervierten la natural inclinación a desarrollarse y aprender convirtiéndola en demanda de instrucción. La demanda de una madurez manufacturada es mucho más la abnegación de la actividad iniciada por uno mismo que la demanda de bienes manufacturados. Las escuelas no sólo están a la derecha de las carreteras y los coches, tienen su lugar cerca del extremo del espectro institucional ocupado por los asilos totales. Incluso los productores de recuentos de cuerpos matan solamente cuerpos. Al hacer que los hombres abdiquen de la responsabilidad de su propio desarrollo, la escuela conduce a muchos a una especie de suicidio espiritual.";}i:2;i:146370;}i:835;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:147168;}i:836;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:147168;}i:837;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1122:"Las carreteras las pagan en parte quienes las utilizan, puesto que los peajes e impuestos al combustible se obtienen sólo de los conductores. La escuela, en cambio, es un sistema perfecto de tributación regresiva, en el que los privilegios cabalgan sobre el lomo de todo público pagador. La escuela fija un gravamen por cabeza sobre la promoción. El subconsumo de distancias recorridas por carretera no es nunca tan costoso como el subconsumo de escolarización. El hombre que no posea un coche en Los Ángeles posiblemente esté casi inmovilizado, pero si se ingenia de algún modo para llegar a su lugar de trabajo, podrá conseguir y conservar un empleo. El desertor escolar carece de vía alternativa. El habitante suburbano en su Lincoln nuevo y su primo campesino que conduce una vieja carcacha se aprovechan más o menos igual de la carretera, aunque el vehículo del uno cueste 30 veces más que el del otro. El valor de la escolarización de un hombre es función del número de años que ha permanecido en escuelas y de la carestía de éstas. La ley no obliga a conducir, en cambio obliga a ir a la escuela.";}i:2;i:147170;}i:838;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148292;}i:839;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148292;}i:840;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:367:"El análisis de las instituciones según su actual emplazamiento en un espectro continuo izquierda-derecha me permite esclarecer mi convicción de que el cambio social fundamental debe comenzar con un cambio en la conciencia que se tiene de las instituciones y explicar por qué la dimensión de un futuro viable recae en el rejuvenecimiento del estilo institucional.";}i:2;i:148294;}i:841;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148661;}i:842;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:148661;}i:843;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:549:"Durante la década 1960-1970, unas instituciones, nacidas en diversas épocas después de la Revolución francesa, llegaron a su vejez; los sistemas de escuelas públicas fundados en la época de Jefferson o de Atatürk, junto con otros que se iniciaron después de la segunda Guerra Mundial, se hicieron todos burocráticos, autojustificantes y manipulativos. Lo mismo les ocurrió a los sistemas de seguridad social, a los sindicatos, a las principales Iglesias y cuerpos diplomáticos, a la atención de los ancianos y a los servicios funerarios.";}i:2;i:148663;}i:844;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149212;}i:845;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149212;}i:846;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:568:"Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay un mayor parecido ente los sistemas escolares de Colombia, Inglaterra, la Unión Soviética y Estados Unidos, que entre las escuelas de este último de fines del siglo pasado y las de hoy o las de Rusia en ese tiempo. Las escuelas son hoy obligatorias, sin término definido y competitivo. Esa misma convergencia en el estilo institucional afecta la atención médica, la comercialización, la administración de personal y la vida política. Todos estos procesos institucionales tienden a apilarse en el extremo manipulativo del espectro.";}i:2;i:149214;}i:847;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149782;}i:848;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:149782;}i:849;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:325:"La consecuencia de esta convergencia de instituciones es la fusión de burocracias mundiales. El estilo, el sistema de ordenamiento jerárquico y la parafernalia (desde el libro de texto a la computadora) se normalizan en los consejos de planificación de Costa Rica o de Afganistán, según los modelos de Europa occidental.";}i:2;i:149784;}i:850;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:150109;}i:851;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:150109;}i:852;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:292:"Las burocracias parecen centrarse en todas partes en la misma tarea: promover el crecimiento de las instituciones de la derecha. Se ocupan de la fabricación de cosas, la fabricación de normas rituales y la fabricación —y remodelación— de la “verdad ejecutiva”, la ideología o el ";}i:2;i:150111;}i:853;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:150403;}i:854;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"fiat";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"fiat";}i:2;i:150404;}i:855;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:150408;}i:856;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:744:" que establece el valor presente que debiera atribuirse a lo que ellas producen. La tecnología proporciona a estas burocracias un poder creciente a la mano derecha de la sociedad. La mano izquierda parece marchitarse y no porque la tecnología sea menos capaz de aumentar el ámbito de la actividad humana y de proporcionar tiempo para el despliegue de la imaginación individual y para la creatividad personal, sino porque ese uso de la tecnología no aumenta el poder de la élite que la administra. El director de correos no tiene control sobre el uso esencial de ese servicio; la telefonista o el directivo de la compañía telefónica carecen de poder para impedir que se preparen adulterios, asesinatos o subversiones usando sus líneas.";}i:2;i:150409;}i:857;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151153;}i:858;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151153;}i:859;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:275:"En la elección entre la derecha y la izquierda institucional está en juego la naturaleza misma de la vida humana. El hombre debe elegir entre ser rico en cosas o tener libertad para usarlas. Debe elegir entre estilos alternativos de vida y programas conexos de producción.";}i:2;i:151155;}i:860;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151430;}i:861;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:151430;}i:862;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:245:"Aristóteles ya había descubierto que “hacer y actuar” son diferentes, y de hecho tan diferentes que lo uno jamás incluye lo otro. “Porque ni es el actuar una manera de hacer, ni el hacer una manera del verdadero actuar. La arquitectura ";}i:2;i:151432;}i:863;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:151677;}i:864;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"techne";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"techne";}i:2;i:151678;}i:865;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:151684;}i:866;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:367:" es una manera de hacer… dar nacimiento a algo cuyo origen está en su hacedor y no en la cosa. El hacer siempre tiene una finalidad que no es él mismo, y no así la acción, puesto que la buena acción es en sí misma un fin. La perfección en el hacer es un arte; la perfección en el actuar, una virtud.”[^n11] La palabra que Aristóteles usó para hacer fue ";}i:2;i:151685;}i:867;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152052;}i:868;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"poesis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"poesis";}i:2;i:152053;}i:869;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152059;}i:870;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:30:" , y la que usó para actuar, ";}i:2;i:152060;}i:871;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152090;}i:872;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"praxis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"praxis";}i:2;i:152091;}i:873;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:152097;}i:874;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1043:". El movimiento hacia la derecha de una institución indica que se la está reestructurando para aumentar su capacidad de “hacer”, mientras que si se desplaza hacia la izquierda indica que se la está reestructurando para permitir un mayor “actuar” o “praxis”. La tecnología moderna ha aumentado la capacidad del hombre para dejar a las máquinas el “hacer” cosas y ha aumentado el tiempo que puede dedicar a “actuar”. El “hacer” las cosas cotidianas imprescindibles ha dejado de ocupar su tiempo. El desempleo es la consecuencia de esta modernización: es la ociosidad del hombre para quien no hay nada que “hacer” y que no sabe cómo “actuar”. El desempleo es la triste ociosidad del hombre que, al revés de Aristóteles, cree que hacer cosas o trabajar es virtuoso y que la ociosidad es mala. El desempleo es la experiencia del hombre que ha sucumbido a la ética protestante. Según Weber, el hombre necesita el ocio para poder trabajar. Según Aristóteles, el trabajo es necesario para poder tener ocio.";}i:2;i:152098;}i:875;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153141;}i:876;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153141;}i:877;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:435:"La tecnología proporciona al hombre tiempo discrecional que puede llenar ya sea haciendo, ya sea actuando. Toda nuestra cultura tiene abierta ahora la opción entre un triste desempleo o un ocio feliz. Depende del estilo institucional que la cultura elija. Esta elección habría sido inconcebible en una cultura antigua fundada en la agricultura campesina o en la esclavitud. Ha llegado a ser inevitable para el hombre posindustrial.";}i:2;i:153143;}i:878;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153578;}i:879;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:153578;}i:880;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:685:"Una manera de llenar el tiempo disponible es estimular mayores demandas de consumo de bienes y, simultáneamente, de producción de servicios. Lo primero implica una economía que proporciona una falange cada vez mayor de cosas siempre novedosas que pueden hacerse, consumirse y someterse a reciclaje. Lo segundo implica el vano intento de “hacer” acciones virtuosas, haciendo aparecer como tales los productos de las instituciones de “servicios”. Esto conduce a la identificación de la escolaridad con la educación, del servicio médico con la salud, de los programas con la recreación, de la velocidad con la locomoción eficaz. La primera opción lleva ahora el apodo de ";}i:2;i:153580;}i:881;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:154265;}i:882;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"desarrollo.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"desarrollo.";}i:2;i:154266;}i:883;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:154277;}i:884;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154278;}i:885;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154278;}i:886;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:244:"La manera radicalmente alternativa de llenar el tiempo disponible consiste en una gama limitada de bienes más durables y en proporcionar acceso a instituciones que puedan aumentar la oportunidad y apetencia de las acciones humanas recíprocas.";}i:2;i:154280;}i:887;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154524;}i:888;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154524;}i:889;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:418:"Una economía de bienes duraderos es exactamente lo contrario de una economía fundada en la obsolescencia programada. Una economía de bienes duraderos significa una restricción en la lista de mercancías. Los bienes habrían de ser de tal especie que diesen un máximo de oportunidad para “actuar” en algo con ellos: artículos hechos para montarlos uno mismo, para autoayudarse, para su reempleo y reparación.";}i:2;i:154526;}i:890;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154944;}i:891;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:154944;}i:892;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:934:"El complemento de una lista de bienes durables, reparables y reutilizables no es un aumento de servicios producidos institucionalmente, sino más bien una estructura institucional que eduque constantemente en la acción, en la participación, en la autoayuda. El movimiento de nuestra sociedad desde el presente —en el que todas las instituciones gravitan hacia una burocracia posindustrial— a un futuro de convivencialidad posindustrial —en el que la intensidad de la acción sería preponderante sobre la producción— debe comenzar con una renovación del estilo de las instituciones de servicio y, antes que nada, por una renovación de la educación. Un futuro deseable y factible depende de nuestra disposición a invertir nuestro saber tecnológico en el desarrollo de instituciones convivenciales. En el terreno de las investigaciones sobre educación, esto equivale a exigir que se trastroquen las tendencias actuales.";}i:2;i:154946;}i:893;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:155881;}i:894;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:155881;}i:895;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:29:"Compatibilidades irracionales";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:155881;}i:2;i:155881;}i:896;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:155881;}i:897;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:33:" +## Compatibilidades irracionales";}i:2;i:155881;}i:898;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:155881;}i:899;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1032:"[^n12] Creo que la crisis contemporánea de la educación nos obliga más bien a modificar la idea de un aprendizaje públicamente prescrito y no los métodos usados para hacerlo cumplir. La proporción de desertores —especialmente de alumnos de los primeros años de bachillerato y de maestros de primaria— señala que las bases están pidiendo un enfoque totalmente nuevo. Al “practicante del aula” que se estima un profesor liberal se le ataca cada vez más por todos lados. El movimiento pro escuela libre, que confunde disciplina con adoctrinamiento, le ha adjudicado el papel de elemento destructivo y autoritario. El tecnólogo educativo demuestra sostenidamente la inferioridad del profesor para medir y modificar la conducta. Y la administración escolar para la que trabaja lo obliga a inclinarse tanto ante Summerhill como ante Skinner, poniendo en evidencia que el aprendizaje obligatorio no puede ser una empresa liberal. No debe asombrar que el índice de maestros desertores esté superando el de los alumnos.";}i:2;i:155916;}i:900;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:156948;}i:901;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:156948;}i:902;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:786:"El compromiso que Estados Unidos ha contraído de educar obligatoriamente a sus menores se demuestra tan vano como el pretendido compromiso norteamericano de democratizar obligatoriamente a los vietnamitas. Las escuelas convencionales obviamente no pueden hacerlo. El movimiento pro escuela libre seduce a los educadores no convencionales, pero en definitiva lo hace en apoyo de la ideología convencional de la escolarización. Y lo que prometen los tecnólogos de la educación, a saber, que sus investigaciones y desarrollo —si se les dota de fondos suficientes— pueden ofrecer alguna especie de solución final a la resistencia de la juventud contra el aprendizaje obligatorio, suena tan confiado y demuestra ser tan fatuo como las promesas hechas por los tecnólogos militares.";}i:2;i:156950;}i:903;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:157736;}i:904;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:157736;}i:905;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1399:"Las críticas dirigidas contra el sistema escolar estadunidense por parte de los conductistas, y las que provienen de la nueva raza de educadores raciales, parecen diametralmente opuestas. Los conductistas aplican las investigaciones sobre educación a la “inducción de instrucción autotélica mediante paquetes de aprendizaje individualizados”. El estilo conductista choca con la idea de hacer que los jóvenes ingresen por voluntad propia en unas comunas liberadas que les invitan a ingresar, las cuales estarían supervisadas por adultos. No obstante, bajo una perspectiva histórica, ambas no son sino manifestaciones contemporáneas de las metas, aparentemente contradictorias, pero en verdad complementarias, del sistema escolar público. Desde los comienzos de este siglo, las escuelas han sido protagonistas del control social por una parte y de la cooperación libre por la otra, poniéndose ambos aspectos al servicio de la “buena sociedad” a la que se concibe como una estructura corporativa altamente organizada y de suave funcionamiento. Sometidos al impacto de una urbanización intensa, los niños se convierten en un recurso natural que las escuelas han de moldear para luego alimentar la máquina industrial. Las políticas progresistas y el culto a la eficiencia coincidieron con el crecimiento de la escuela pública estadunidense.[^n13] La orientación vocacional y la ";}i:2;i:157738;}i:906;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159137;}i:907;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:17:"junior highschool";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:17:"junior highschool";}i:2;i:159138;}i:908;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159155;}i:909;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:67:"[^n14] fueron dos importantes resultados de este tipo de conceptos.";}i:2;i:159156;}i:910;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:159223;}i:911;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:159223;}i:912;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:620:"Parece, por consiguiente, que el intento de producir cambios específicos en el comportamiento, que puedan medirse y de los que pueda responsabilizarse al encargado del proceso, es sólo el anverso de la medalla, cuyo reverso es la pacificación de la nueva generación dentro de enclaves especialmente proyectados que los inducirán a entrar en el sueño de sus mayores. Estos seres pacificados en sociedad están bien descritos por Dewey, quien quiere que “hagamos de cada una de nuestras escuelas una vida comunitaria en embrión, activa, con tipos de ocupaciones que reflejen la vida de la sociedad en pleno, y la ";}i:2;i:159225;}i:913;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159845;}i:914;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"impregnen";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"impregnen";}i:2;i:159846;}i:915;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:159855;}i:916;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1399:" con el espíritu del arte, de la historia, de la ciencia”. Bajo esta perspectiva histórica, sería un grave error interpretar la actual controversia a tres bandas entre el establecimiento escolar, los tecnólogos de la educación y las escuelas libres como el preludio de una revolución en la educación. Esta controversia refleja más bien una etapa de un intento para convertir a grandes trancos un viejo sueño en hecho y convertir finalmente todo aprendizaje valedero en el resultado de una enseñanza profesional. La mayoría de las alternativas educativas propuestas convergen hacia metas que son inmanentes a la producción del hombre cooperativo cuyas necesidades individuales se satisfacen mediante su especialización en el sistema estadunidense: están orientadas hacia el mejoramiento de lo que yo llamo —a falta de una mejor expresión— la sociedad escolarizada. Incluso los críticos aparentemente radicales del sistema escolar no están dispuestos a abandonar la idea de que tienen una obligación para con los jóvenes, especialmente para con los pobres, la obligación de hacerlos pasar por el proceso, sea mediante amor o mediante odio, para meterlos en una sociedad que necesita especialización disciplinada tanto de sus productores como de sus consumidores y, asimismo, el pleno compromiso de todos ellos con la ideología que antepone a todo el crecimiento económico.";}i:2;i:159856;}i:917;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161255;}i:918;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161255;}i:919;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:534:"La disensión enmascara la contradicción inherente a la idea misma de escuela. Los sindicatos establecidos de profesores, los brujos de la tecnología y los movimientos de liberación escolar refuerzan el compromiso de la sociedad entera con los axiomas fundamentales de un mundo escolarizado, más o menos del modo en que muchos movimientos pacifistas y de protesta refuerzan el compromiso de sus miembros —sean negros, mujeres, jóvenes o pobres— con la búsqueda de justicia mediante el crecimiento del ingreso nacional bruto.";}i:2;i:161257;}i:920;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161791;}i:921;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:161791;}i:922;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:477:"Es fácil anotar algunos de los postulados que ahora pasan inadvertidos a la crítica. En primer lugar está la creencia compartida de que la conducta que se ha adquirido ante los ojos de un pedagogo es de especial valor para el alumno y de especial provecho para la sociedad. Esto está relacionado con el supuesto de que el hombre social nace sólo en la adolescencia, y que nace adecuadamente sólo si madura en la escuela-matriz, que algunos desean hacer dulce mediante el ";}i:2;i:161793;}i:923;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:162270;}i:924;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:14:"laissez-faire,";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:14:"laissez-faire,";}i:2;i:162271;}i:925;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:162285;}i:926;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:921:"[^n15] otros quieren llenar de artilugios mecánicos y unos terceros buscan barnizar con una tradición liberal. Está finalmente una visión común de la juventud, psicológicamente romántica y políticamente conservadora. Según esta visión, los cambios de la sociedad deben llevarse a cabo agobiando a los jóvenes con la responsabilidad de transformarla —pero sólo después de que en su momento se han liberado de la escuela—. Para una sociedad fundada en tales postulados es fácil ir creando un sentido de su responsabilidad respecto de la educación de la nueva generación, y esto inevitablemente significa que algunos hombres pueden fijar, especificar y evaluar las metas personales de otros. En un “párrafo tomado de una enciclopedia china imaginaria” Jorge Luis Borges trata de evocar el mareo que debe producir ese intento. Nos dice que los animales están divididos en las clases siguientes: “ ";}i:2;i:162286;}i:927;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163207;}i:928;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"a)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"a)";}i:2;i:163208;}i:929;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163210;}i:930;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:30:" pertenecientes al Emperador, 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jarrón, ";}i:2;i:163512;}i:979;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163546;}i:980;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"n)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"n)";}i:2;i:163547;}i:981;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163549;}i:982;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:248:" que de lejos parecen moscas”. Ahora bien, semejante taxonomía no aparece a menos que alguien estime que puede servir para sus fines: en este caso, supongo, ese alguien era un cobrador de impuestos. Para él, al menos, esta taxonomía bestiaria ";}i:2;i:163550;}i:983;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163798;}i:984;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"tiene";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"tiene";}i:2;i:163799;}i:985;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:163804;}i:986;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:118:" que haber tenido sentido, tal como la taxonomía de objetivos educativos tiene sentido para los autores científicos.";}i:2;i:163805;}i:987;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:163923;}i:988;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:163923;}i:989;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:472:"La visión de hombres dotados de una lógica tan inescrutable, y autorizados para evaluar su ganado, debe haber producido en el campesino un helado sentimiento de impotencia. Los estudiantes, por motivos parecidos, tienden a sentirse paranoicos cuando se someten seriamente a un currículum. Inevitablemente se asustan aún más que mi imaginario campesino chino, porque no es su ganado, sino sus objetivos vitales los que están siendo marcados con un signo inescrutable.";}i:2;i:163925;}i:990;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:164397;}i:991;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:164397;}i:992;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:67:"Este pasaje de Borges es fascinante, porque evoca la lógica de la ";}i:2;i:164399;}i:993;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:164466;}i:994;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:25:"compatibilidad irracional";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:25:"compatibilidad irracional";}i:2;i:164467;}i:995;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:164492;}i:996;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:800:" que hace a las burocracias de Kafka y de Koestler tan siniestras y no obstante tan evocadoras de la vida cotidiana. El encadenamiento implacable de las reglas parece embrujar a quienes se vuelven cómplices de ellas y los empuja a hacer prueba de una disciplina todavía más ciega. Es la lógica creada por la conducta burocrática. Y se convierte en la lógica de una sociedad que exige que a los administradores de sus instituciones educativas se les considere públicamente responsables de la modificación del comportamiento que producen en sus clientes. Los estudiantes a los que se puede motivar para valorar los paquetes educativos que sus profesores les obligan a consumir son comparables a los campesinos chinos que pueden ajustar sus rebaños al formulario de impuestos que ofrece Borges.";}i:2;i:164493;}i:997;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165293;}i:998;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165293;}i:999;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:347:"Durante el transcurso de las dos últimas generaciones triunfó en algún momento en la cultura norteamericana un compromiso con la terapia, y vino a considerarse a los profesores como los terapeutas cuyas recetas todos los hombres necesitan, si es que desean gozar de la libertad y la igualdad con las cuales, según la Constitución, han nacido.";}i:2;i:165295;}i:1000;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165642;}i:1001;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:165642;}i:1002;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:119:"Ahora los profesores-terapeutas siguen adelante al proponer como paso siguiente el tratamiento educativo vitalicio. El ";}i:2;i:165644;}i:1003;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:165763;}i:1004;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"estudio";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"estudio";}i:2;i:165764;}i:1005;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:165771;}i:1006;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:366:" de este tratamiento está sujeto a discusión: ¿debiera adoptar la forma de una asistencia constante de los adultos al aula? ¿O la de éxtasis electrónico? ¿O de sesiones periódicas de sensibilización? Todos los educadores están prontos a conspirar para extender los muros del aula y agrandarla, con la meta de transformar la cultura completa en una escuela.";}i:2;i:165772;}i:1007;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:166138;}i:1008;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:166138;}i:1009;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:971:"Detrás de la retórica y del alboroto, la controversia sobre el futuro de la educación que tiene lugar en Estados Unidos es más conservadora que el debate en otros ámbitos de la política común. Respecto de las relaciones exteriores, por lo menos, una minoría organizada nos recuerda constantemente que el país debe renunciar a su papel de policía del mundo. Los economistas radicales, y ahora incluso sus profesores, menos radicales, ponen en duda la convivencia del crecimiento conjunto como meta. Hay grupos de presión para favorecer la medicina preventiva y no la curativa y otros propugnan por la fluidez en vez de la velocidad en el transporte. Sólo en el ámbito de la educación permanecen dispersas las voces articuladas que piden una desescolarización radical de la sociedad. Existe una carencia de argumentación persuasiva y de un liderazgo maduro encaminados a quitar el apoyo oficial a todas y cada una de las instituciones que tienen por fin el ";}i:2;i:166140;}i:1010;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:167111;}i:1011;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"aprendizaje";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"aprendizaje";}i:2;i:167112;}i:1012;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:167123;}i:1013;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:306:" obligatorio. Por el momento, la desescolarización radical de la sociedad es todavía una causa sin partido. Esto sorprende especialmente en un periodo de resistencia creciente, aunque caótica, a todas las formas de instrucción planificada institucionalmente, por parte de los jóvenes de 12 a 17 años.";}i:2;i:167124;}i:1014;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:167430;}i:1015;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:167430;}i:1016;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1076:"Los innovadores educativos siguen suponiendo que las instituciones educativas funcionan como embudos para los programas que ellos envasan. Para los fines de mi argumento da lo mismo que estos embudos tengan la forma de un aula, de un transmisor de televisión o de una “zona liberada”. Es igualmente ajeno al asunto si los envases suministrados son ricos o pobres, calientes o fríos, duros y mensurables (como Matemáticas III) o imposibles de evaluar (como la sensibilización). Lo que interesa es que se suponga que la educación es el resultado de un proceso institucional dirigido por el educador. Mientras las relaciones continúen siendo aquellas que existen entre un proveedor y un consumidor, el trabajo de investigación sobre educación continuará siendo un proceso circular. Acumulará pruebas científicas en apoyo de la necesidad de más paquetes educativos y del perfeccionamiento de los métodos de entrega, tal como cierta rama de las ciencias sociales puede probar la necesidad de acrecentar la distribución de los productos de la institución militar.";}i:2;i:167432;}i:1017;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168508;}i:1018;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168508;}i:1019;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:190:"Una revolución educativa se apoya en una doble inversión: una nueva orientación del trabajo de investigación y una nueva comprensión del estilo educativo de una contracultura emergente.";}i:2;i:168510;}i:1020;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168700;}i:1021;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:168700;}i:1022;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:650:"La investigación operativa trata ahora de optimizar la eficiencia de una estructura heredada —un marco de referencia que jamás se pone en tela de juicio—. Este marco de referencia tiene la estructura sintáctica de un embudo para paquetes de enseñanza. La alternativa sintáctica respecto del mismo es una red o trama educativa para el montaje autónomo de recursos bajo el control personal de cada aprendiz. Esta estructura alternativa de una institución educativa yace ahora en el punto ciego conceptual de nuestra investigación operativa. Si la investigación se enfocara en él, ello constituiría una auténtica revolución científica.";}i:2;i:168702;}i:1023;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169352;}i:1024;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169352;}i:1025;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:619:"El punto ciego de los trabajos de investigación en educación refleja la parcialidad cultural de una sociedad en la que el crecimiento tecnológico se ha confundido con el control tecnocrático. Para el tecnócrata, el valor de un entorno aumenta conforme pueda programarse un mayor número de contactos entre un hombre y su medio ambiente. Es este mundo, las elecciones abiertas para el observador o el planificador deben estar acordes con los deseos de quienes están sometidos a una observación y a quienes se denomina los “beneficiarios”. La libertad se reduce a la elección entre unas mercancías envasadas.";}i:2;i:169354;}i:1026;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169973;}i:1027;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:169973;}i:1028;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:647:"La contracultura emergente afirma los valores del contenido semántico por encima de la eficiencia de una sintaxis mayor y más rígida. Valora la riqueza de la connotación por encima del poder de la sintaxis para producir riquezas. Valora la consecuencia imprevisible de la instrucción profesional. Esta reorientación hacia la sorpresa personal, y no hacia los valores producidos por la institución, es capaz de perturbar el orden establecido hasta que podamos separar la creciente disponibilidad de las herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan el encuentro del creciente control del tecnócrata sobre lo que ocurre cuando la gente se reúne.";}i:2;i:169975;}i:1029;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170622;}i:1030;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170622;}i:1031;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:241:"Nuestras actuales instituciones educativas están al servicio de las metas del profesor. Las estructuras de relación que necesitamos son las que permitan a cada hombre definirse él mismo aprendiendo y contribuyendo al aprendizaje de otros.";}i:2;i:170624;}i:1032;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170866;}i:1033;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170866;}i:1034;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:22:"Tramas del aprendizaje";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:170866;}i:2;i:170866;}i:1035;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:170866;}i:1036;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:26:" +## Tramas del aprendizaje";}i:2;i:170866;}i:1037;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:170866;}i:1038;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:445:"En un capítulo anterior examiné aquello que se está convirtiendo en una queja común acerca de las escuelas una queja que se hace sentir por ejemplo, en un informe reciente de la Carnegie Commission: en las escuelas los alumnos matriculados se someten ante maestros diplomados a fin de obtener sus propios diplomas; ambos quedan frustrados y ambos culpan a los recursos insuficientes —dinero, tiempo o edificios— de su mutua frustración.";}i:2;i:170894;}i:1039;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:171339;}i:1040;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:171339;}i:1041;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1167:"Una crítica semejante conduce a muchos a pensar si no será posible concebir un estilo diferente de aprendizaje. Paradójicamente, si a esas mismas personas se les insta a especificar cómo adquirieron lo que saben y estiman, admitirán prontamente que con mayor frecuencia lo aprendieron fuera y no dentro de la escuela. Su conocimiento de hechos, lo que entienden de la vida y de su trabajo les vino de la amistad o del amor, de leer, del ejemplo de sus iguales o de la incitación de un encuentro callejero. O tal vez aprendieron lo que saben por medio del ritual de iniciación de una pandilla callejera, de un hospital, de la redacción de un periódico, de un taller de fontanería o de una oficina de seguros. La alternativa a la dependencia respecto de las escuelas no es el uso de recursos públicos para algún nuevo dispositivo que “haga” aprender a la gente; es más bien la creación de un nuevo estilo de relación educativa entre el hombre y su medio. Para propiciar este estilo será necesaria una modificación de la idea que nos hacemos del crecimiento, de los útiles necesarios para aprender y de la calidad y estructura de la vida cotidiana.";}i:2;i:171341;}i:1042;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:172508;}i:1043;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:172508;}i:1044;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:671:"Las actitudes ya están cambiando. Ha desaparecido la orgullosa dependencia respecto de la escuela. En la industria del conocimiento se acrecienta la resistencia del consumidor. Muchos profesores y alumnos, contribuyentes y patronos, economistas y policías, preferirían no seguir dependiendo de las escuelas. Lo que impide que su frustración dé forma a otras instituciones es una carencia no sólo de imaginación, sino también, con frecuencia, de un lenguaje apropiado y de un interés personal ilustrado. No pueden visualizar ya sea una sociedad desescolarizada, ya sean unas instituciones educativas en una sociedad que haya privado de apoyo oficial a la escuela.";}i:2;i:172510;}i:1045;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173181;}i:1046;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173181;}i:1047;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:664:"En este capítulo me propongo mostrar que lo contrario de la escuela es posible: que podemos apoyarnos en el aprendizaje automotivado en vez de contratar profesores para sobornar u obligar al estudiante a hallar el tiempo y la voluntad de aprender, que podemos proporcionar al aprendiz nuevos vínculos con el mundo en vez de continuar canalizando todos los programas educativos por medio del profesor. Examinaré algunas de las características que distinguen la escolarización del aprendizaje y esbozaré cuatro categorías principales de instituciones que serían atractivas no sólo para muchas personas, sino también para muchos grupos de intereses comunes.";}i:2;i:173183;}i:1048;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173847;}i:1049;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173849;}i:1050;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:65:"Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:173849;}i:2;i:173849;}i:1051;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:173849;}i:1052;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:70:" +### Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada";}i:2;i:173849;}i:1053;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:173849;}i:1054;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:812:"Estamos acostumbrados a considerar las escuelas como una variable que depende de la estructura política y económica. Si podemos cambiar el estilo de la dirección política o promover los intereses de una clase u otra, suponemos que el sistema escolar cambiará también. En cambio, las instituciones educativas que propondré están ideadas para servir a una sociedad que no existe ahora, aunque la actual frustración respecto de las escuelas tiene en sí el potencial de una fuerza importante para poner en movimiento un cambio hacia nuevas configuraciones sociales. Contra este planteamiento se ha suscitado una objeción de peso: ¿por qué canalizar energías para construir puentes hacia ninguna parte, en vez de organizarlas primero para cambiar no las escuelas, sino el sistema político y económico?";}i:2;i:173921;}i:1055;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174733;}i:1056;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174733;}i:1057;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:183:"No obstante, esta objeción subestima la naturaleza política y económica del sistema escolar en sí, así como el potencial político inherente a cualquier oposición eficaz a ella.";}i:2;i:174735;}i:1058;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174918;}i:1059;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:174918;}i:1060;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:509:"En un sentido fundamental, las escuelas han dejado de ser dependientes de la ideología profesada por cualquier gobierno u organización de mercados. Otras instituciones pueden diferir de un país a otro: la familia, el partido, la Iglesia, la prensa. Pero el sistema escolar tiene por doquier la misma estructura, y en todas partes el currículum oculto tiene el mismo efecto. De modo invariable, modela al consumidor que valora los bienes institucionales sobre los servicios no profesionales de un prójimo.";}i:2;i:174920;}i:1061;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:175429;}i:1062;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:175429;}i:1063;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:704:"El currículum oculto de la escolarización inicia en todas partes al ciudadano en el mito de que algunas burocracias guiadas por el conocimiento científico son eficientes y benevolentes. Por doquiera, este mismo currículum inculca en el alumno el mito de que la mayor producción proporcionará una vida mejor. Y por doquiera crea el hábito —que se contradice a sí mismo— de consumo de servicios y de producción enajenante, la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional y el reconocimiento de los escalafones institucionales. El currículum oculto sustenta la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional, el reconocimiento por los profesores y cualquiera que sea la ideología preponderante.";}i:2;i:175431;}i:1064;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176135;}i:1065;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176135;}i:1066;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:420:"En otras palabras, las escuelas son fundamentalmente semejantes en todos los países, sean éstos fascistas, democráticos o socialistas, grandes o pequeños, ricos o pobres. La identidad del sistema escolar nos obliga a reconocer la profunda identidad en todo el mundo, del mito, del modo de producción y del método de control social, pese a la gran variedad de mitologías en las cuales encuentra expresión el mito.";}i:2;i:176137;}i:1067;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176557;}i:1068;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176557;}i:1069;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:378:"En vista de esta identidad, es ilusorio pretender que las escuelas son, en algún sentido profundo, unas variables dependientes. Esto significa que esperar un cambio social o económico concebido convencionalmente, es también una ilusión. Más aún, esta ilusión concede a la escuela —el órgano de reproducción de la sociedad de consumo— una inmunidad casi indiscutida.";}i:2;i:176559;}i:1070;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176937;}i:1071;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:176937;}i:1072;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:606:"Al llegar a este punto es cuando adquiere importancia el ejemplo de China. Durante tres milenios, China protegió el aprendizaje superior por medio de un divorcio total entre el proceso del aprendizaje y el privilegio conferido por los exámenes para optar a altos cargos públicos. Para llegar a ser una potencia mundial y una nación-Estado moderno, China tuvo que adoptar el estilo internacional de escolarización. Sólo una mirada retrospectiva nos permitirá descubrir si la Gran Revolución Cultural resultará haber sido el primer intento logrado de desescolarizar las instituciones de la sociedad.";}i:2;i:176939;}i:1073;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:177545;}i:1074;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:177545;}i:1075;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:646:"Incluso la creación a retazos de nuevos organismos educativos que fuesen lo inverso de la escuela sería un ataque sobre el eslabón más sensible de un fenómeno ubicuo, el cual es organizado por el Estado en todos los países. Un programa político que no reconozca explícitamente la necesidad de la desescolarización no es revolucionario; es demagogia que pide más de lo mismo. Todo programa político importante de esta década debiera medirse con este rasero: ¿hasta dónde es claro afirmar la necesidad de la desescolarización —y qué directrices ofrece para asignar la calidad educativa de la sociedad hacia la cual se encamina—?";}i:2;i:177547;}i:1076;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178193;}i:1077;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178193;}i:1078;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:403:"La lucha contra el dominio que ejercen el mercado mundial y la política de las grandes potencias puede estar fuera del alcance de ciertas comunidades o países pobres, pero esta debilidad es una razón más para hacer hincapié en la importancia que tiene liberar a cada sociedad mediante una inversión de su estructura educativa, cambio este que no está más allá de los medios de ninguna sociedad.";}i:2;i:178195;}i:1079;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178598;}i:1080;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178600;}i:1081;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:75:"Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:178600;}i:2;i:178600;}i:1082;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:178600;}i:1083;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:80:" +### Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales";}i:2;i:178600;}i:1084;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:178600;}i:1085;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1136:"Un buen sistema educativo debería tener tres objetivos: proporcionar a todos aquellos que lo quieren el acceso a recursos disponibles en cualquier momento de sus vidas; dotar a todos los que quieran compartir lo que saben del poder de encontrar a quienes quieran aprender de ellos, y, finalmente, dar a todo aquel que quiera presentar al público un tema de debate la oportunidad de dar a conocer su argumento. Un sistema como éste exigiría que se aplicaran a la educación unas garantías constitucionales. Los aprendices no podrían ser sometidos a un currículum obligatorio o a una discriminación fundada en la posesión o carencia de un certificado o diploma. Ni se obligaría tampoco al público a mantener, mediante una retribución regresiva, un gigantesco aparato profesional de educadores y edificios que de hecho disminuye las posibilidades que el público tiene de acceder a los servicios que la profesión está dispuesta a ofrecer en el mercado. Debería usar la tecnología moderna para lograr que la libre expresión, la libre reunión y la prensa libre fuesen universales y, por consiguiente, plenamente educativas.";}i:2;i:178682;}i:1086;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:179818;}i:1087;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:179818;}i:1088;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:930:"Las escuelas están proyectadas a partir del supuesto de que cada cosa en la vida tiene un secreto; de que la calidad de la vida depende de conocer ese secreto; de que los secretos pueden conocerse en ordenadas sucesiones, y de que sólo los profesores pueden revelar adecuadamente esos secretos. Una persona de mente escolarizada concibe el mundo como una pirámide de paquetes clasificados accesible sólo a aquellos que llevan los rótulos apropiados. Las nuevas instituciones educativas destrozarían esta pirámide. Su propósito debe ser facilitar el acceso al aprendiz, permitirle mirar al interior de la sala de control o del parlamento, si no puede entrar por la puerta. Además, esas nuevas instituciones deberían ser canales a los que el aprendiz tuviese acceso sin credenciales ni títulos de linaje —espacios públicos en los que iguales y mayores situados fuera de su horizonte inmediato se harían accesibles—.";}i:2;i:179820;}i:1089;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:180750;}i:1090;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:180750;}i:1091;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:691:"Pienso que no más de cuatro —y posiblemente hasta tres— “canales” distintos o centros de intercambio podrían contener todos los recursos necesarios para el aprendizaje real. El niño crece en un mundo de cosas, rodeado de personas que sirven de modelos para habilidades y valores. Encuentra seres como él, sus iguales, que le incitan a discutir, a competir, a cooperar, a entender, y si el niño es afortunado, se ve expuesto a la confrontación o a la crítica de un mayor experimentado que realmente se preocupe. Cosas, modelos, iguales y mayores son cuatro recursos, cada uno de los cuales requiere un tipo diferente de ordenamiento para asegurar que todos tengan acceso a él.";}i:2;i:180752;}i:1092;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:181443;}i:1093;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:181443;}i:1094;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:980:"Usaré las palabras “trama de oportunidad” en vez de “red” para designar las maneras específicas de proporcionar acceso a cada uno de los cuatro conjuntos de recursos. Desafortunadamente, “red” se emplea con frecuencia para designar los canales reservados a los materiales seleccionados por terceros para el adoctrinamiento, la instrucción y la recreación. Pero también puede usarse para los servicios postal o telefónico, que son primariamente accesibles para personas que quieren enviarse mensajes entre sí. Ojalá tuviésemos otra palabra para designar tales estructuras reticulares a fin de tener un acceso recíproco, una palabra que no evocase tanto una trampa, menos degradada por el uso corriente, y que sugiriese más el hecho de que cualquier ordenamiento de esta especie abarca aspectos legales, organizativos y técnicos. No habiendo hallado dicho término, trataré de redimir el único disponible, usándolo como sinónimo de “trama educativa”.";}i:2;i:181445;}i:1095;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182425;}i:1096;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182425;}i:1097;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:181:"Lo que se precisa son nuevas redes, de la cuales el público pueda disponer fácilmente y que estén concebidas para difundir una igualdad de oportunidades para aprender y enseñar.";}i:2;i:182427;}i:1098;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182608;}i:1099;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:182608;}i:1100;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:710:"Para dar un ejemplo: en la televisión y en los magnetófonos se usa el mismo nivel de tecnología. Todos los países latinoamericanos han introducido la televisión: en Bolivia, el gobierno financió una estación transmisora de televisión, que se construyó hace siete años, y no hay más de 7 000 televisores para cuatro millones de ciudadanos. El dinero empozado hoy en instalaciones de televisión por toda América Latina podría haber dotado de magnetófonos a un ciudadano de cada cinco. Además, el dinero habría bastado para proporcionar un número casi ilimitado de cintas grabadas, con puestos de entrega incluso en aldeas perdidas, como también para un amplio suministro de cintas no grabadas.";}i:2;i:182610;}i:1101;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183320;}i:1102;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183320;}i:1103;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:540:"Esta red de magnetófonos sería, por supuesto, radicalmente diferente de la red actual de televisión. Proporcionaría oportunidades a la libre expresión: letrados y analfabetos podrían, por igual, registrar, preservar, difundir y repetir sus opiniones. La inversión actual en televisión, en cambio, proporciona a los burócratas, sean políticos o educadores, el poder de rociar el continente con programas producidos institucionalmente, que ellos —o sus patrocinadores— deciden que son buenos para el pueblo o que éste los pide.";}i:2;i:183322;}i:1104;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183862;}i:1105;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183864;}i:1106;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"Cuatro redes";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:183864;}i:2;i:183864;}i:1107;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:183864;}i:1108;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:17:" +### Cuatro redes";}i:2;i:183864;}i:1109;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:183864;}i:1110;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:471:"El planteamiento de nuevas instituciones educativas no debiera comenzar por las metas administrativas de un rector director, ni por las metas pedagógicas de un educador profesional, ni por las metas de aprendizaje de una clase hipotética de personas. No debe iniciarse con la pregunta: “¿Qué debiera aprender alguien?”, sino con la pregunta: “¿Con qué tipos de cosas y personas podrían querer ponerse en contacto los que buscan aprender a fin de aprender?”";}i:2;i:183883;}i:1111;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:184354;}i:1112;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:184354;}i:1113;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1628:"Alguien que quiera aprender sabe que necesita tanto información como reacción crítica respecto del uso de esta información por parte de otra persona. La información puede almacenarse en personas y en cosas. En un buen sistema educativo el acceso a las cosas debiera estar disponible con sólo pedirlo el aprendiz, mientras el acceso a los informantes requeriría además el conocimiento de terceros. La crítica puede asimismo provenir de dos direcciones: de los iguales o de los mayores, esto es, de compañeros de aprendizaje cuyos intereses inmediatos concuerden con los míos, o de aquellos que me concederán una parte de su experiencia superior. Los iguales pueden ser colegas con quienes suscitar un debate, compañeros para una caminata o lectura juguetona y deleitable (o ardua), retadores en cualquier clase de juegos. Los mayores pueden ser asesores acerca de qué destreza aprender, qué método usar, qué compañía buscar en un momento dado. Pueden ser guías respecto a la pregunta correcta que hay que plantear entre iguales y a la deficiencia de las respuestas a que lleguen. La mayoría de estos recursos son abundantes. Pero convencionalmente ni se les percibe como recursos educativos, ni es fácil el acceso a ellos para fines de aprendizaje, especialmente para los pobres. Debemos idear nuevas estructuras de relación que se monten con el deliberado propósito de facilitar el acceso a estos recursos para el uso de cualquiera que esté motivado a buscarlos para su educación. Para montar estas estructuras tramadas se requieren disposiciones administrativas, tecnológicas y especialmente legales.";}i:2;i:184356;}i:1114;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:185984;}i:1115;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:185984;}i:1116;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:289:"Los recursos educativos suelen rotularse según las metas curriculares de los educadores. Propongo hacer lo contrario, y rotular cuatro enfoques diferentes que permitan al estudiante conseguir el acceso a cualquier recurso educativo que pueda ayudarle a definir y lograr sus propias metas:";}i:2;i:185986;}i:1117;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186275;}i:1118;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186275;}i:1119;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:468:"_1_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Objetos Educativos. Que faciliten el acceso a cosas o procesos usados para el aprendizaje formal. Algunas de estas cosas pueden reservarse para ese fin, almacenadas en bibliotecas, agencias de alquiler, laboratorios y salas de exposición, tales como museos y teatros; otras pueden estar en uso cotidiano en fábricas, aeropuertos o puestas en granjas, pero a disposición de estudiantes como aprendices o en horas de descanso.";}i:2;i:186277;}i:1120;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186745;}i:1121;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:186745;}i:1122;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:259:"_2_. Servicios de habilidades. Que permitan a unas personas hacer una lista de sus habilidades, las condiciones según las cuales están dispuestas a servir de modelos a otros que quieran aprender esas habilidades y las direcciones en que se les puede hallar.";}i:2;i:186747;}i:1123;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187006;}i:1124;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187006;}i:1125;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:219:"_3_. Servicio de búsqueda de Compañero. Una red de comunicaciones que permita a las personas describir la actividad de aprendizaje a la que desean dedicarse, con la esperanza de hallar un compañero para la búsqueda.";}i:2;i:187008;}i:1126;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187227;}i:1127;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187227;}i:1128;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:412:"_4_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Educadores Independientes, los cuales pueden figurar en un catálogo que indique las direcciones y las descripciones —hechas por ellos mismos— de profesionales, paraprofesionales e independientes, conjuntamente con las condiciones de acceso a sus servicios. Tales educadores, como veremos, podrían elegirse mediante encuestas o consultando a sus clientes anteriores.";}i:2;i:187229;}i:1129;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187641;}i:1130;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187643;}i:1131;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:54:"Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:187643;}i:2;i:187643;}i:1132;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:187643;}i:1133;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:59:" +### Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos";}i:2;i:187643;}i:1134;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:187643;}i:1135;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:645:"Las cosas son recursos básicos para aprender. La calidad del entorno y la relación de una persona con él determinarán cuánto aprenderá incidentalmente. El aprendizaje formal exige el acceso especial a cosas corrientes, por una parte o, por la otra, el acceso fácil y seguro a cosas especiales hechas con fines educativos. Un ejemplo del primer caso es el derecho especial a hacer funcionar o a desarmar una máquina en un garaje. Un ejemplo del segundo caso es el derecho general a usar un ábaco, una computadora, un libro, un jardín botánico o una máquina retirada de la producción y puesta a plena disposición de unos estudiantes.";}i:2;i:187704;}i:1136;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:188349;}i:1137;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:188349;}i:1138;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:958:"En la actualidad, la atención se centra en la disparidad entre niños ricos y pobres en cuanto a su acceso a cosas y en la manera en que pueden aprender de ellas. La OEO[^n16] y otros organismos, siguiendo este planteamiento, se concentran en igualar las posibilidades de cada cual, tratando de proveer de un mayor instrumental educativo a los pobres. Un punto de partida más radical sería reconocer que, en la ciudad, a ricos y pobres se les mantiene igualmente alejados de manera artificial de las cosas que los rodean. Los niños nacidos en la era de los plásticos y de los expertos en eficiencia deben traspasar dos barreras que obstaculizan sus entendimientos: una incorporada a las cosas y la otra construida en torno a las instituciones. El diseño industrial crea un mundo de cosas que ofrecen resistencia a la comprensión de su naturaleza interna, y las escuelas tapian al aprendiz respecto del mundo de las cosas en su escenario significativo.";}i:2;i:188351;}i:1139;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:189309;}i:1140;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:189309;}i:1141;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:974:"Después de una breve visita a Nueva York, una mujer de una aldea mexicana me dijo que le había impresionado que las tiendas vendiesen “solamente productos muy maquillados con cosméticos”. Entendí que ella quería decir que los productos industriales “hablan” a sus clientes acerca de sus encantos y no acerca de su naturaleza. La industria ha rodeado a la gente de artefactos hechos de manera que sólo a los especialistas les está permitido entender su mecanismo interno. Al no especialista que intenta hacer marchar el reloj o hacer sonar el teléfono o hacer funcionar la máquina de escribir, se le desalienta con la advertencia de que se romperá si lo intenta. Puede que se le diga qué hace funcionar un radio de transistores, pero no puede descubrirlo por sí mismo. Este tipo de diseño tiende a reforzar una sociedad no inventiva, en la que los expertos encuentran cada vez más fácil esconderse detrás de su pericia y más allá de una evaluación.";}i:2;i:189311;}i:1142;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190285;}i:1143;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190285;}i:1144;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:453:"El entorno creado por el hombre ha llegado a ser tan inescrutable como la naturaleza lo es para el primitivo. Al mismo tiempo, los materiales educativos los ha monopolizado la escuela. Los objetos educativos simples han sido costosamente empacados por la industria del conocimiento. Se han convertido en herramientas especializadas para los educadores profesionales, y se ha inflado su coste al obligarles a estimular ya sea entornos, ya sea profesores.";}i:2;i:190287;}i:1145;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190740;}i:1146;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:190740;}i:1147;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:807:"El profesor es celoso del libro de texto al que define como su instrumento profesional. El estudiante puede llegar a odiar el laboratorio porque lo asocia con tareas escolares. El administrador racionaliza su actitud protectora hacia la biblioteca como una defensa de un instrumental público costoso contra quienes quisieran jugar con ella más bien que aprender. En esta atmósfera, el estudiante usa con excesiva frecuencia el mapa, el laboratorio, la enciclopedia o el microscopio sólo en los escasos momentos en que el currículum le dice que debe hacerlo. Incluso los grandes clásicos se convierten en arte de la “novatada” universitaria, en vez de señalar una nueva dirección en la vida de una persona. La escuela aparta las cosas del uso cotidiano al rotularlas como instrumentos educativos.";}i:2;i:190742;}i:1148;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:191549;}i:1149;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:191549;}i:1150;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:450:"Para que podamos desescolarizar será preciso invertir ambas tendencias. El entorno físico general debe hacerse accesible, y aquellos recursos físicos de aprendizaje que han sido reducidos a instrumentos de enseñanza deben llegar a estar disponibles para el aprendizaje autodirigido. Usar cosas sólo como partes de un currículum puede tener un efecto incluso peor que apartarlas del entorno general. Puede corromper las actitudes de los alumnos.";}i:2;i:191551;}i:1151;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:192001;}i:1152;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:192001;}i:1153;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:663:"Los juegos son un caso de este tipo. No me refiero a los “juegos” del departamento de educación física (tales como el futbol o el baloncesto), que las escuelas usan para generar ingresos y prestigio y en los que han hecho sustanciosas inversiones de capital. Como lo saben muy bien los mismos atletas, estas empresas, que adoptan la forma de torneos guerreros, han minado el aspecto juguetón de los deportes y se usan para reforzar la naturaleza competitiva de las escuelas. Hablo más bien de los juegos educativos que pueden proporcionar una manera singular de entender los sistemas formales. Un amigo mío fue a un mercado mexicano con un juego llamado ";}i:2;i:192003;}i:1154;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:192666;}i:1155;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"Wff’n Proff";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"Wff’n Proff";}i:2;i:192667;}i:1156;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:192680;}i:1157;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:480:" , que consta de varios dados en los que están impresos 12 símbolos lógicos. Mostró a unos niños qué combinaciones formaban una frase bien hecha —unas dos o tres de las muchas posibles— e, inductivamente, al cabo de la primera hora, algunos mirones también captaron el principio. A las pocas horas, jugando pruebas lógicas formales, algunos niños eran capaces de iniciar a otros en las pruebas formales de la lógica de proposiciones. Los otros simplemente se fueron.";}i:2;i:192681;}i:1158;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:193161;}i:1159;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:193161;}i:1160;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1033:"Para algunos niños dichos juegos son en efecto una forma especial de liberar la educación, puesto que les permite descubrir que los sistemas formales se fundan en axiomas mutables y que las operaciones conceptuales tienen un carácter lúdico. Son asimismo simples, baratos y en buena parte pueden organizarlos los jugadores mismos. Cuando se usan fuera del currículum, tales juegos dan una oportunidad para identificar y desarrollar el talento poco común, mientras que el psicólogo escolar identificará a menudo a quienes posean dicho talento como a personas en peligro de llegar a ser antisociales, enfermas o desequilibradas. Dentro de la escuela, cuando se usan en forma de torneos, a los juegos no sólo se les saca de la esfera de la recreación, a menudo se convierten en instrumentos para transformar al alumno juguetón en un espíritu competitivo y la falta de razonamiento abstracto en signo de inferioridad. Un ejercicio que para ciertos tipos de carácter es liberador, se convierte en camisa de fuerza para otros.";}i:2;i:193163;}i:1161;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194196;}i:1162;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194196;}i:1163;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:397:"El control de la escuela sobre el instrumental educativo tiene además otro efecto. Aumenta enormemente el coste de esos materiales baratos. Una vez que su uso se restringe a unas horas programadas, se paga a profesionales que supervisen su adquisición, almacenamiento y uso. Entonces los estudiantes descargan su rabia contra la escuela sobre el instrumental, que es preciso adquirir nuevamente.";}i:2;i:194198;}i:1164;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194595;}i:1165;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:194595;}i:1166;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:811:"Algo paralelo a la intocabilidad de los útiles educativos es la impenetrabilidad de la moderna chatarra. En la década de 1930 cualquier muchacho que se respetara sabía reparar un automóvil, pero ahora los fabricantes de coches multiplican los alambres y apartan los manuales de todo el que no sea un mecánico especializado. En un periodo anterior un radio viejo contenía suficientes bobinas y condensadores como para construir un transmisor que hiciera chillar por realimentación a todos los radios del vecindario. Los radios de transistores son más portátiles, pero nadie se atreve a desarmarlos. En los países altamente industrializados sería inmensamente difícil cambiar esto, pero al menos en los países del Tercer Mundo debemos insistir en ciertas cualidades educativas incorporadas al objeto.";}i:2;i:194597;}i:1167;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:195408;}i:1168;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:195408;}i:1169;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:911:"Para ilustrar mi argumento, permítaseme presentar un modelo: gastando 10 millones de dólares sería posible conectar 40 000 aldeas de un país como Perú mediante una telaraña de pistas de un metro ochenta de ancho y mantenerlas funcionando; además, dotar al país de 200 000 burros mecánicos de tres ruedas —cinco por aldea como promedio—. Pocos países pobres de ese tamaño gastan menos de esa cantidad cada año en coches y caminos, cuyo uso, el de ambos, se limita principalmente a los ricos y a sus empleados, mientras la gente pobre queda atrapada en sus aldeas. Cada uno de estos pequeños vehículos, simples pero duraderos, equipados con un motor de seis caballos de fuerza, costaría 125 dólares. Un “burro” podría andar a 24 kilómetros por hora, y trasladaría cargas de unos 400 kilogramos (es decir, la mayoría de las cosas que suelen moverse, aparte de troncos y vigas de acero).";}i:2;i:195410;}i:1170;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196321;}i:1171;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196321;}i:1172;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:587:"El atractivo político que dicho sistema de transporte tendría para el campesinado es obvio. Igualmente obvio es el motivo por el cual quienes detentan el poder —y por tanto poseen, automáticamente, un coche— no están interesados en gastar dinero en pistas semejantes y en obstruir los caminos con burros motorizados. El burro universal podría funcionar sólo si los dirigentes de un país impusieran un límite de, digamos, 40 kilómetros por hora y adaptaran sus instituciones públicas a ese límite. El modelo no podría funcionar si estuviese concebido sólo como un parche.";}i:2;i:196323;}i:1173;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196910;}i:1174;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:196910;}i:1175;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1113:"No es éste el lugar apropiado para examinar en detalle la factibilidad política, social, económica, financiera y técnica de este modelo. Deseo solamente indicar que los considerandos educativos pueden ser de primordial importancia cuando se elige una alternativa semejante frente a un transporte que usa relativamente más capital que mano de obra. Aumentando el coste unitario de cada burro 20% se haría posible planificar la producción de todas sus piezas de modo que, hasta donde fuera posible, cada futuro dueño pasase de uno a dos meses haciendo y entendiendo su máquina y fuese capaz de repararla. Con este coste adicional sería asimismo posible descentralizar la producción en fábricas dispersas. Las ventajas adicionales provendrían no sólo de incluir los costes educativos en el proceso de construcción. Más significativo todavía, un motor duradero que prácticamente cualquiera podría aprender a reparar y que podría usar como arado y como bomba aquel que lo entendiera, produciría unos beneficios educativos mucho más elevados que los inescrutables motores de los países avanzados.";}i:2;i:196912;}i:1176;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:198025;}i:1177;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:198025;}i:1178;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:995:"No sólo la chatarra, sino los lugares presuntamente públicos de la ciudad moderna se han vuelto impenetrables. En la sociedad estadunidense se excluye a los niños de la mayoría de las cosas y lugares con el argumento de que son privados. Pero incluso en las sociedades que han declarado el fin de la propiedad privada se aparta a los niños de las mismas cosas y lugares porque estos últimos se consideran un ámbito especial y peligroso para el no iniciado. A partir de la pasada generación el patio de los ferrocarriles se hizo tan inaccesible como el cuartel de bomberos. Sin embargo, con un poco de ingenio no sería difícil eliminar los peligros en esos lugares. El desescolarizar los artefactos de la educación haría necesario poner a disposición los artefactos y procesos —y reconocer su valor educativo—. Algunos trabajadores, sin duda, encontrarían molesto hacerlos accesibles a los aprendices, pero esta molestia debe valorarse comparándola con las ventajas educativas.";}i:2;i:198027;}i:1179;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199022;}i:1180;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199022;}i:1181;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:654:"Los automóviles privados podrían desterrarse de Manhattan. Hace cinco años esto era impensable. Ahora, ciertas calles de Nueva York se cierran a ciertas horas, y esta tendencia probablemente continuará. De hecho, la mayoría de las calles transversales deberían cerrarse al tránsito automotriz y el estacionamiento debería prohibirse en todas partes. En una ciudad abierta al pueblo, los materiales de enseñanza, que ahora se encierran en almacenes y laboratorios, podrían diseminarse en depósitos abiertos a la calle y gestionarse de manera independiente para que los adultos y los niños pudiesen visitarlos sin peligro de que los atropellen.";}i:2;i:199024;}i:1182;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199678;}i:1183;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:199678;}i:1184;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1094:"Si las metas de la educación ya no estuviesen dominadas por las escuelas y los maestros de escuela, el mercado para los aprendices sería mucho más variado y la definición de “artefactos educativos” sería menos restrictiva. Podría haber talleres de herramientas, bibliotecas, laboratorios y salas de juegos. Los laboratorios fotográficos y prensas offset permitirían el florecimiento de diarios vecinales. Algunos centros de aprendizaje abiertos a la calle podrían contener cabinas para mirar programas de televisión en circuito cerrado, otros podrían poseer útiles de oficina para usar y para reparar. Los tocadiscos del tipo tragamonedas y de tipo corriente serían de uso diario, especializándose algunos en música clásica, otros en melodías folclóricas internacionales, otros en jazz. Las filmotecas competirían entre sí y con la televisión comercial. Los locales de museos abiertos al público podrían ser redes para poner en circulación muestras de arte antiguo y moderno, originales y reproducciones, tal vez administradas por los diversos museos metropolitanos.";}i:2;i:199680;}i:1185;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:200774;}i:1186;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:200774;}i:1187;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:589:"El personal profesional necesario para esta red se parecería mucho más a unos custodios, guardias de museo o bibliotecarios de servicio público que a unos profesores. Desde la tienda de biología de la esquina podrían dirigir a sus clientes a la colección de caracoles del museo o señalarles cuándo habría una exhibición de videocintas de biología en determinadas cabinas de televisión. Podrían dar indicaciones para el control de plagas, dietas y otras clases de medicina preventiva. Podrían remitir a quienes necesitaran consejos a “mayores” que pudiesen proporcionarlo.";}i:2;i:200776;}i:1188;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201365;}i:1189;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201365;}i:1190;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:534:"El financiamiento de una red de “objetos de aprendizaje” puede encararse de dos maneras. Una comunidad podría fijar un presupuesto máximo para este fin y disponer que todas las partes de la red estuviesen abiertas a todos los visitantes a ciertas horas razonables. O bien la comunidad podría decidir proporcionar a los ciudadanos unos bonos o derechos limitados, según sus edades, que les darían acceso especial a ciertos materiales costosos y escasos, dejando en cambio otros materiales más simples a disposición de todos.";}i:2;i:201367;}i:1191;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201901;}i:1192;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:201901;}i:1193;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:561:"Encontrar recursos para materiales hechos específicamente para educar es sólo un aspecto —y tal vez el menos costoso— de la construcción de un mundo educativo. El dinero que hoy se gasta en la parafernalia sagrada del ritual escolar podría liberarse para proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos un mejor acceso a la vida real de la ciudad. Podrían otorgarse incentivos tributarios especiales a quienes emplearan niños de ocho a 14 años durante un par de horas diarias si las condiciones de empleo fuesen humanas. Deberíamos volver a la tradición de la ";}i:2;i:201903;}i:1194;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:202464;}i:1195;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"bar mitzvah";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"bar mitzvah";}i:2;i:202465;}i:1196;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:202476;}i:1197;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:667:" o de la confirmación. Quiero decir con esto que debiéramos primero restringir y luego eliminar la privación de derechos y deberes civiles de los menores, y permitir que un muchacho de 12 años llegue a ser plenamente responsable de su participación en la vida de la comunidad. Muchas personas de “edad escolar” saben más acerca de su vecindario que los trabajadores sociales o los concejales. Naturalmente que hacen también preguntas más incómodas y proponen soluciones que amenazan a la burocracia. Debería permitírseles llegar a la mayoría de edad de modo que pusieran sus conocimientos y capacidad de indagación al servicio de un gobierno popular.";}i:2;i:202477;}i:1198;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203144;}i:1199;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203144;}i:1200;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:351:"Hasta hace poco era fácil subestimar los peligros de la escuela en comparación con los peligros de un periodo de aprendizaje en la policía, en el cuerpo de bomberos o en la industria del espectáculo. Este argumento deja de ser válido con gran frecuencia. Visité recientemente una iglesia metodista de Harlem ocupada por un grupo de los llamados ";}i:2;i:203146;}i:1201;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:203497;}i:1202;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"Young Lords";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"Young Lords";}i:2;i:203498;}i:1203;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:203509;}i:1204;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:349:" como protesta por la muerte de Julio Rodan, un muchacho puertorriqueño al que se encontró ahorcado en su celda carcelaria. Yo conocía a los líderes del grupo, que habían pasado un semestre en Cuernavaca. Cuando me sorprendí al no hallar a uno de ellos, Juan, en el grupo, me dijeron: “Volvió a la heroína y a la Universidad del Estado”.";}i:2;i:203510;}i:1205;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203859;}i:1206;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:203859;}i:1207;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1296:"Para desencadenar el potencial educativo encerrado en la gigantesca inversión de nuestra sociedad en instalaciones y útiles pueden usarse el planteamiento, los incentivos y la legislación. No existirá el acceso pleno a los objetos educativos mientras se permita a empresas comerciales conjugar las defensas legales que la Carta Fundamental reserva a la vida privada de las personas con el poder económico que les confieren sus millones de clientes y miles de empleados, accionistas y proveedores. Una parte considerable de los conocimientos prácticos y teóricos del mundo y la mayoría de sus procesos y equipos de producción están encerrados entre los muros de firmas comerciales, apartados de sus clientes, empleados y accionistas, como también del público en general, cuyas leyes e instalaciones les permiten funcionar. El dinero que se gasta en publicidad en los países capitalistas podrían canalizarse hacia la educación en y por parte de la General Electric, NBC-TV o cervezas Budweiser. Es decir, las fábricas y oficinas deberían reorganizarse de forma tal que su funcionamiento cotidiano fuese más accesible al público y de maneras que hiciesen posible el aprendizaje, y, en verdad, podrían hallarse modos de pagar a las compañías lo que la gente aprendiese en ellas.";}i:2;i:203861;}i:1208;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:205157;}i:1209;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:205157;}i:1210;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:983:"Es posible que un conjunto de objetos e informaciones científicas aún más valioso esté apartado del acceso general —e incluso de los científicos competentes— bajo el pretexto de la seguridad nacional. Hasta hace poco la ciencia era el único foro que funcionaba como el sueño de un anarquista. Cada hombre capaz de realizar investigaciones tenía más o menos las mismas oportunidades que otros en cuanto a acceso a su instrumental y a ser escuchado por la comunidad de iguales. Ahora la burocratización y la organización han puesto a gran parte de la ciencia fuera del alcance del público. En efecto, lo que solía ser una red internacional de información científica ha sido escindida en una lid de grupos competidores. Tanto a los miembros como a los artefactos de la comunidad científica se les ha encerrado en programas nacionales y corporativos para logros prácticos y para el radical empobrecimiento de los hombres que mantienen estas naciones y corporaciones.";}i:2;i:205159;}i:1211;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206142;}i:1212;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206142;}i:1213;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:752:"En un mundo que controlan y poseen naciones y compañías, nunca será posible sino un acceso limitado a los objetos educativos. Pero un mejor acceso a aquellos objetos que pueden compartirse para fines educativos puede ilustrarnos lo suficiente como para traspasar estas barreras políticas finales. Las escuelas públicas transfieren el control sobre los usos educativos de los objetos de manos privadas a manos profesionales. La inversión institucional de las escuelas podría dar al individuo el poder de volver a exigir el derecho a usarlos para su educación. Si el control privado o corporativo sobre el aspecto educativo de las “cosas” se lograse extinguir gradualmente, podría comenzar a aparecer un tipo de propiedad realmente pública.";}i:2;i:206144;}i:1214;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206896;}i:1215;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206898;}i:1216;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:24:"Servicios de habilidades";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:206898;}i:2;i:206898;}i:1217;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:206898;}i:1218;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:29:" +### Servicios de habilidades";}i:2;i:206898;}i:1219;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:206898;}i:1220;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:942:"Al revés de lo que ocurre con una guitarra, a un profesor de ese instrumento no se le puede clasificar en un museo, ni lo puede poseer el público, ni se le puede tomar en alquiler en un almacén de elementos educativos. Los profesores de habilidades pertenecen a una clase de recursos que es diferente de la de los objetos necesarios para aprender una habilidad. Esto no quiere decir que sean indispensables en todos los casos. Puedo alquilar no sólo una guitarra, sino también lecciones de guitarra grabadas en cintas y gráficos que ilustren los acordes, y con estos elementos puedo enseñarme yo mismo a tocar la guitarra. De hecho, este sistema puede presentar ventajas si las cintas disponibles son mejores que los profesores disponibles, o si las únicas horas en que puedo aprender guitarra son nocturnas o si las melodías que quiero interpretar son desconocidas en mi país o si soy tímido y prefiero meter la pata sin testigos.";}i:2;i:206929;}i:1221;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:207871;}i:1222;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:207871;}i:1223;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:400:"El canal que se usa para registrar a los profesores de habilidades y comunicarse con ellos debe ser diferente al descrito para objetos. Una cosa está disponible a petición del usuario —o podría estarlo— mientras una persona llega formalmente a ser una fuente de enseñanza de habilidades sólo cuando considere serlo y pueda asimismo restringir la ocasión, el lugar y el método a su tamaño.";}i:2;i:207873;}i:1224;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208273;}i:1225;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208273;}i:1226;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:509:"Es también necesario distinguir a los profesores de los iguales de los que uno desearía aprender. Los iguales que desean seguir una búsqueda común deben partir de capacidades o intereses comunes; se juntan para ejercitar o mejorar una habilidad que comparten: baloncesto, baile, construcción de un campamento, debate sobre las próximas elecciones. Por otra parte, la primera transmisión de una habilidad supone el reunir a alguien que posea una destreza con alguien que no la posea y quiera adquirirla.";}i:2;i:208275;}i:1227;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208784;}i:1228;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:208784;}i:1229;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:925:"Un “modelo de habilidad” es una persona que posee una habilidad y está dispuesta a demostrar su práctica. Frecuentemente el aprendiz en potencia precisa el recurso de una demostración de esta clase. Los inventos modernos nos permiten registrar demostraciones en cinta, en película o en gráficos; no obstante, sería de esperar que la demostración personal continuase gozando de gran demanda, especialmente en las habilidades de comunicación. En nuestro Centro, en Cuernavaca, han aprendido español unos 10 000 adultos —en su mayoría personas muy motivadas que deseaban obtener una cuasi-fluidez en un segundo idioma—. Cuando se les plantea la elección entre una instrucción cuidadosamente programada en un laboratorio de idiomas o sesiones rutinarias con otros dos estudiantes y una persona cuyo idioma nativo es el español y que se ciñe a una rutina rígida, la mayoría prefiere la segunda alternativa.";}i:2;i:208786;}i:1230;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:209711;}i:1231;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:209711;}i:1232;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:623:"Respecto de la mayor parte de las habilidades ampliamente compartidas, que una persona demuestre su habilidad es el único recurso humano que llegamos a necesitar u obtener. Ya sea para hablar o para conducir, para cocinar o para usar equipos de comunicaciones, a menudo apenas nos damos cuenta de la instrucción y el aprendizaje formales, especialmente después de nuestra primera experiencia con los materiales en cuestión. No veo razón por la cual no pudiesen aprenderse de igual manera otras habilidades complejas, tales como los aspectos mecánicos de la cirugía, tocar el violín, leer o usar listas y catálogos.";}i:2;i:209713;}i:1233;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210336;}i:1234;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210336;}i:1235;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:637:"Un estudiante bien motivado que no lucha contra una desventaja determinada a menudo no necesita más ayuda humana que la que puede proporcionar alguien que puede demostrar a quien lo solicite cómo hacer lo que el aprendiz quiere hacer. Aquello de insistir a personas diestras en que antes de demostrar su habilidad certifiquen que son pedagogos es el resultado de la insistencia de una de dos alternativas: o que la gente aprenda lo que no quiere saber, o bien que todos —incluso quienes sufren de alguna desventaja especial— aprendan ciertas cosas, en un momento dado de sus vidas, y preferentemente en circunstancias específicas.";}i:2;i:210338;}i:1236;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210975;}i:1237;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:210975;}i:1238;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:617:"Lo que crea una escasez de habilidades en el mercado educativo de hoy es el requisito institucional de que quienes pueden demostrarlas no pueden hacerlo a menos de otorgárseles pública confianza por medio de un certificado. Insistimos en que aquellos que ayudan a terceros a adquirir una habilidad habrían de saber también diagnosticar las dificultades de aprendizaje y ser capaces de motivar a la gente a aprender habilidades. En resumen, les exigimos ser pedagogos. Habría abundancia de personas que pueden demostrar habilidades tan pronto aprendiéramos a reconocerlas fuera de la profesión de la enseñanza.";}i:2;i:210977;}i:1239;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:211594;}i:1240;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:211594;}i:1241;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:547:"Cuando se está enseñando a unos principitos, es comprensible, aunque ha dejado de ser justificable, la insistencia de sus padres en que el profesor y la persona dotada de habilidades se conjuguen en una misma persona. Pero el que todos los padres aspiren a tener un Aristóteles para su Alejandro es obviamente insostenible. Las personas que pueden inspirar a los estudiantes y demostrar una técnica son tan escasas, y tan difíciles de reconocer, que hasta los principitos consiguen con mayor frecuencia un sofista y no un verdadero filósofo.";}i:2;i:211596;}i:1242;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212143;}i:1243;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212143;}i:1244;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:690:"Una demanda de habilidades escasas puede satisfacerse rápidamente aun cuando hay un número pequeño de personas que las demuestren, pero debe facilitarse el acceso a dichas personas. Durante la década de 1940-1950, los reparadores de radios, la mayoría de los cuales no estudiaron su trabajo en escuelas, penetraron en el interior de América con no más de dos años de retraso respecto a la llegada de los radios a la región. Permanecieron allí hasta que los radios de transistores, baratos e imposibles de reparar, los dejaron cesantes. Las escuelas técnicas no logran realizar lo que algunos reparadores de radios podrían hacer sin problemas: restauraciones útiles y duraderas.";}i:2;i:212145;}i:1245;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212835;}i:1246;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:212835;}i:1247;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:756:"Ciertos intereses privados y convergentes conspiran hoy para impedir que una persona comparta su habilidad. A quien posee la habilidad le beneficia su escasez y no su reproducción. Al maestro que se especializa en transmitir la habilidad le beneficia la renuencia del artesano a ofrecer su propio taller para aprendices. Al público se le adoctrina con la creencia de que las habilidades son valiosas y de fiarse sólo si son el resultado de una escolarización formal. El mercado de trabajo depende de hacer escasas las habilidades y de mantenerlas escasas, ya sea proscribiendo su uso a transmisión no autorizada, o bien haciendo cosas que puedan operar y reparar sólo quienes tengan acceso a herramientas o informaciones que se mantienen en déficit.";}i:2;i:212837;}i:1248;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213593;}i:1249;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213593;}i:1250;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:397:"De este modo, las escuelas producen escasez de personas especializadas. Un buen ejemplo de esto es el número decreciente de enfermeras en Estados Unidos, debido al rápido aumento de programas universitarios de cuatro años en ese ramo. Las mujeres de familias más pobres que anteriormente se habrían alistado en un programa de dos o tres años, se han alejado por completo de dicha profesión.";}i:2;i:213595;}i:1251;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213992;}i:1252;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:213992;}i:1253;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:919:"Otra manera de mantener la escasez de habilidades es insistir en maestros diplomados. Si se alentara a las enfermeras a adiestrar a otras enfermeras, y si a las enfermeras se les empleara de acuerdo con su habilidad demostrada para poner inyecciones, trazar gráficos y dar medicinas, pronto se terminaría la escasez de enfermeras capacitadas. Los certificados tienden hoy a coartar la libertad de la educación al convertir el derecho civil de compartir conocimientos en el privilegio de la libertad académica que ahora se confiere sólo a los empleados de alguna escuela. Para garantizar el acceso a un intercambio eficaz de habilidades necesitamos leyes que generalicen la libertad académica. El derecho a enseñar cualquier habilidad debería estar amparado por la libertad de expresión. Una vez que se eliminen las restricciones sobre la enseñanza, pronto desaparecerán también las relativas al aprendizaje.";}i:2;i:213994;}i:1254;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:214913;}i:1255;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:214913;}i:1256;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1017:"El profesor de habilidades necesita algún incentivo para otorgar sus servicios a un alumno. Hay por lo menos dos maneras sencillas de comenzar a canalizar fondos públicos hacia profesores no diplomados. Una sería institucionalizar los servicios de habilidades mediante la creación de centros de habilidades, libres y abiertos al público. Dichos centros podrían y deberían establecerse en zonas industriales, al menos para habilidades que son un requisito indispensable para ingresar en ciertos noviciados o aprendizajes —habilidades tales como la lectura, la mecanografía, la contabilidad, los idiomas extranjeros, la programación de computadoras y la manipulación de números, la lectura de lenguajes especiales (como el de los circuitos eléctricos), la manipulación de ciertas máquinas, etc.—. Otro planteamiento sería proporcionar a ciertos grupos de la población una moneda educativa válida para asistir a centros de habilidades en los que otros clientes habrían de pagar tarifas comerciales.";}i:2;i:214915;}i:1257;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:215932;}i:1258;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:215932;}i:1259;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:609:"Un planteamiento mucho más radical consistiría en crear un “banco” para el intercambio de habilidades. A cada ciudadano se le abriría un crédito básico con el que pudiese adquirir habilidades fundamentales. Luego, se beneficiaría con créditos adicionales enseñando, ya fuera en centros de habilidades organizados, en casa o sobre la marcha. Sólo aquellos que hubiesen enseñado a otros durante un lapso equivalente podrían solicitar el tiempo de profesores más avanzados. Se promovería una élite enteramente nueva, una élite formada por quienes hubiesen ganado su educación compartiéndola.";}i:2;i:215934;}i:1260;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:216543;}i:1261;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:216543;}i:1262;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:632:"¿Deberían los padres tener el derecho a ganar crédito educativo para sus hijos? Como una disposición de este tipo daría nuevas ventajas a las clases privilegiadas, podría compensarse otorgando un crédito mayor a los desfavorecidos. El funcionamiento de un servicio de habilidades dependería de la existencia de organismos que facilitarían el desarrollo de información —listas de personas— y asegurarían su uso libre y barato. Dicho organismo podría proporcionar servicios auxiliares de prueba y certificación y ayudaría a poner en vigor la legislación necesaria para quebrar e impedir las prácticas monopólicas.";}i:2;i:216545;}i:1263;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:217177;}i:1264;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:217177;}i:1265;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:478:"La libertad de un servicio universal de habilidades podría estar garantizada fundamentalmente por leyes que permitiesen la discriminación sólo de acuerdo con habilidades verificadas y no según el historial educativo. Una garantía semejante requiere inevitablemente un control público sobre las pruebas que puedan usarse para determinar quiénes están capacitados para el mercado laboral. De otra manera sería posible reintroducir subrepticiamente complejas baterías de ";}i:2;i:217179;}i:1266;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:217657;}i:1267;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"test";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"test";}i:2;i:217658;}i:1268;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:217662;}i:1269;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:532:" en el lugar mismo de trabajo que servirían para selección social. Mucho podría hacerse a fin de lograr objetividad en las pruebas de competencia en habilidades, como por ejemplo permitir que se comprobara sólo el manejo de máquinas o sistemas específicos. Las pruebas de mecanografía (en las que se mediría la velocidad, el número de errores y se valoraría el saber tomar dictados), el dominio de un sistema contable o de una grúa hidráulica, la codificación en Cobol,[^n17] etc., pueden fácilmente hacerse objetivas.";}i:2;i:217663;}i:1270;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:218195;}i:1271;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:218195;}i:1272;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:821:"De hecho, muchas de las verdaderas habilidades de importancia práctica pueden verificarse de ese modo. Y para los fines de administración de personal es mucho más útil una prueba sobre el nivel presente de competencia en determinada habilidad que la información sobre el hecho de que 20 años atrás una persona dejó satisfecho a su profesor respecto de un currículum en el que se enseñaba mecanografía, taquigrafía y contabilidad. Naturalmente puede ponerse en duda la necesidad misma de una comprobación oficial de habilidades: yo tengo la convicción de que el hecho de imponer ciertas restricciones constituye una mejor garantía para el derecho que un hombre tiene a que su reputación no sufra daños indebidos provenientes de una rotulación, que la garantía lograda al prohibir pruebas de competencia.";}i:2;i:218197;}i:1273;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219018;}i:1274;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219020;}i:1275;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:35:"Servicio de búsqueda de compañero";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:219020;}i:2;i:219020;}i:1276;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:219020;}i:1277;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:40:" +### Servicio de búsqueda de compañero";}i:2;i:219020;}i:1278;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219020;}i:1279;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:487:"En el peor de los casos, las escuelas reúnen condiscípulos en la misma habitación y los someten a la misma secuencia de tratamiento en matemáticas, educación cívica y lenguaje. En el mejor, permiten a cada estudiante elegir un curso de entre un número limitado de ellos. En cualquier caso, se forman grupos de iguales en torno a las metas de los profesores. Un sistema conveniente de educación permitiría a cada persona especificar la actividad para la cual busca un compañero.";}i:2;i:219062;}i:1280;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219549;}i:1281;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:219549;}i:1282;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:461:"La escuela ofrece efectivamente a los niños una oportunidad para escapar de sus casas y encontrar nuevos amigos. Pero al mismo tiempo, este proceso inculca en ellos la idea de que deberían elegir sus amigos entre aquellos con quienes han sido congregados. El invitar a los menores desde su más tierna infancia a conocer, evaluar y buscar a otros los prepararía para mantener durante toda su vida el interés por buscar nuevos asociados para nuevos empeños.";}i:2;i:219551;}i:1283;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220012;}i:1284;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220012;}i:1285;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:895:"A un buen jugador de ajedrez siempre le gusta hallar un buen adversario, y a un novato le alegra hallar otro. Los clubes les sirven para este fin. Las personas que quieren conversar sobre determinados libros o artículos probablemente pagarían por hallar compañeros de debate. Los que quieren practicar juegos, ir de excursión, construir estanques para peces o motorizar bicicletas se tomarán molestias considerables para hallar compañeros para ello. El premio de sus esfuerzos es encontrar esos compañeros. Las buenas escuelas tratan de poner al descubierto los intereses comunes de los estudiantes matriculados en los mismos programas. Lo inverso de la escuela sería una institución que aumentase las posibilidades de que las personas que en un determinado momento compartiesen el mismo interés específico, pudiesen encontrarse independientemente de que tuviesen otra cosa en común.";}i:2;i:220014;}i:1286;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220909;}i:1287;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:220909;}i:1288;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:664:"La enseñanza de habilidades no proporciona beneficios iguales a ambas partes, como lo hace la reunión de iguales. Tal como he señalado, al profesor de habilidades debe ofrecérsele algún otro incentivo aparte de las satisfacciones de enseñar. La enseñanza de habilidades es un asunto de repetir una y otra vez ciertas rutinas y de hecho es más tediosa para los alumnos que más la necesitan. Un servicio de habilidades necesita dinero o créditos u otros incentivos tangibles para funcionar, aun cuando el servicio mismo produjese su propia moneda. Un sistema de búsqueda de compañero no precisaría tales incentivos, sino sólo una red de comunicaciones.";}i:2;i:220911;}i:1289;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:221575;}i:1290;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:221575;}i:1291;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:678:"Las cintas, los sistemas de informática, la instrucción programada y la reproducción de formas y de sonidos tienden a disminuir la necesidad de recurrir a profesores humanos para muchas habilidades; aumentan la eficiencia de los profesores y el número de habilidades que uno puede conseguir a lo largo de su vida. Paralelamente a este aspecto se ha creado la necesidad creciente de encontrarse con gente interesada en disfrutar de la habilidad recientemente adquirida. Una estudiante que haya aprendido griego antes de sus vacaciones querrá conversar en griego sobre política cretense cuando regrese. Un mexicano de Nueva York quiere hallar a otros lectores de la revista ";}i:2;i:221577;}i:1292;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222255;}i:1293;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"Siempre!";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"Siempre!";}i:2;i:222256;}i:1294;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222264;}i:1295;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:6:" o de ";}i:2;i:222265;}i:1296;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222271;}i:1297;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"Los Agachados";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"Los Agachados";}i:2;i:222272;}i:1298;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:222285;}i:1299;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:169:" , la más popular de las historietas. Algún otro quiere encontrar compañeros que, como él, desearían aumentar su interés en la obra de James Baldwin o de Bolívar.";}i:2;i:222286;}i:1300;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222455;}i:1301;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222455;}i:1302;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:448:"El funcionamiento de una red para búsqueda de compañeros sería simple. El usuario se identificaría por su nombre y dirección y describiría la actividad para la cual estuviese buscando compañero. Una computadora le remitiría los nombres y direcciones de todos aquellos que hubiesen introducido la misma descripción. Es asombroso que un servicio público tan sencillo no se haya usado nunca en gran escala para actividades de valor público.";}i:2;i:222457;}i:1303;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222905;}i:1304;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:222905;}i:1305;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:507:"En su forma más rudimentaria, la comunicación entre cliente y computadora podría establecerse por correo. En las grandes ciudades, unas máquinas de escribir conectadas a una computadora podrían proporcionar respuestas instantáneas. La única manera de conseguir que la computadora entregase un nombre y dirección sería anotar una actividad para la cual se buscase un compañero. Las personas que utilizasen el sistema llegarían a ser conocidas únicamente por sus posibles compañeros de actividad.";}i:2;i:222907;}i:1306;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223414;}i:1307;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223414;}i:1308;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:570:"Un complemento de la computadora podría ser una red de pizarras o cuadros de anuncios y de avisos clasificados de periódico, consistentes en listas de actividades para las cuales no se hubiese hallado compañero mediante la computadora. No sería necesario dar nombres. Los lectores interesados introducirían entonces sus nombres en el sistema. Es posible que un sistema de búsqueda de compañero, con patrocinio público, sea la única manera de garantizar la libertad de reunión y de adiestrar a la gente en el ejercicio de esta actividad cívica tan fundamental.";}i:2;i:223416;}i:1309;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223986;}i:1310;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:223986;}i:1311;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:404:"El derecho a la libre reunión ha sido reconocido políticamente y aceptado socialmente. Deberíamos entender ahora que este derecho está restringido por leyes que hacen obligatorias ciertas formas de reunión. Éste es en particular el caso de las instituciones que reclutan según edad, clase o sexo, y que consumen muchísimo tiempo. El ejército es un ejemplo. La escuela es otro aún más ofensivo.";}i:2;i:223988;}i:1312;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224392;}i:1313;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224392;}i:1314;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:463:"Desescolarizar significa abolir el poder de una persona para obligar a otra a asistir a una reunión. Significa también reconocer el derecho de cualquier persona, de cualquier edad o sexo, a convocar una reunión. Este derecho se ha visto drásticamente disminuido por la institucionalización de las reuniones. “Reunión” se refería originalmente al resultado del acto individual de juntarse. Ahora se refiere al producto institucional de algún organismo.";}i:2;i:224394;}i:1315;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224857;}i:1316;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:224857;}i:1317;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:593:"La capacidad de las instituciones de servicio para adquirir clientes ha sobrepasado con mucho la capacidad de las personas para ser oídas con independencia de los medios de información institucional, que reaccionan ante personas individuales sólo si son noticias vendibles. Deberían existir servicios de búsqueda de compañero para personas que quisiesen reunir a otras, de modo que fuese tan fácil como la campana de la aldea que convocaba a los aldeanos a un cabildo. Los edificios escolares —dudosamente adaptables para otros fines— podrían cumplir en muchos casos este objetivo.";}i:2;i:224859;}i:1318;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:225452;}i:1319;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:225452;}i:1320;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1197:"De hecho, el sistema escolar puede encontrarse pronto con un problema que las Iglesias han enfrentado anteriormente: qué hacer con el espacio sobrante que ha quedado con la defección de los fieles. Las escuelas son difíciles de vender como templos. Una manera de continuar manteniéndolas en uso sería entregar esos edificios al vecindario. Cada cual podría manifestar lo que haría en el aula y cuándo, y algunos anuncios pondrían los programas disponibles en conocimiento de quien indagara. El acceso a “clase” sería gratis —o se compraría con bonos educativos—. El “profesor” podría incluso pagarse según el número de alumnos que atrajese por cualquier periodo completo de dos horas. Me imagino que los líderes muy jóvenes y los grandes educadores serían los dos tipos de persona más destacados en semejante sistema. Podría seguirse igual planteamiento respecto de la educación superior. Podría dotarse a los estudiantes de bonos educativos que los hicieran acreedores a 10 horas anuales de consulta con el profesor de su elección y, para el resto de su aprendizaje, se apoyaría en la biblioteca, la red para búsqueda de compañeros y los periodos de aprendiz.";}i:2;i:225454;}i:1321;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:226651;}i:1322;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:226651;}i:1323;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:797:"Naturalmente, debemos reconocer la probabilidad de que se abuse de esos dispositivos públicos de búsqueda para fines inmorales y de explotación, tal como se ha abusado de los teléfonos y del correo. Se requeriría cierta protección semejante a la que se usa para esas redes. En otras páginas he propuesto un sistema de búsqueda de compañero que permitiría usar sólo una información impresa pertinente, más el nombre y la dirección del averiguador. Un sistema de esta especie sería prácticamente a prueba de abusos. Otra medida sería permitir que se agregase cualquier libro, película, programa de televisión u otro artículo que figurase en un catálogo especial. La preocupación acerca de los peligros del sistema no debe hacernos perder de vista sus beneficios, tanto mayores.";}i:2;i:226653;}i:1324;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:227450;}i:1325;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:227450;}i:1326;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:337:"Algunos que comparten mi preocupación por la libertad de expresión y la reunión alegarán que el sistema de búsqueda de compañero es un medio artificial de juntar personas y que no lo utilizarían los pobres —que son quienes más lo necesitan—. Hay personas que auténticamente se alborotan cuando uno sugiere montar encuentros ";}i:2;i:227452;}i:1327;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:227789;}i:1328;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"ad hoc";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"ad hoc";}i:2;i:227790;}i:1329;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:227796;}i:1330;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:475:" que no tengan su raíz en la vida de una comunidad local. Otros reaccionan cuando uno sugiere usar una computadora para entresacar y conjuntar intereses que algunos clientes del sistema hayan definido. No es posible reunir a las personas de una manera tan impersonal, dicen. La búsqueda en común debe estar arraigada en una historia de experiencias compartidas a muchos niveles, y debe nacer de esta experiencia —el desarrollo de instituciones vecinales, por ejemplo—.";}i:2;i:227797;}i:1331;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:228272;}i:1332;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:228272;}i:1333;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1203:"Simpatizo con estas objeciones, pero creo que no comprenden el verdadero sentido de lo que persigo y no dan tampoco con lo que ellos mismos persiguen. En primer lugar, el retorno a la vida vecinal como centro primario de expresión creativa podría de hecho ser contraproducente para volver a establecer los vecindarios como unidades políticas. Centrar las demandas sobre el barrio o vecindario podría, en efecto, descuidar un importante aspecto liberador de la vida urbana —el que una persona pueda participar simultáneamente en varios grupos de sus iguales—. Además, existe un sentido importante: personas que jamás han vivido juntas en una comunidad física pueden tener ocasionalmente muchas más experiencias por compartir que quienes se han conocido desde la infancia. Las grandes religiones han reconocido siempre la importancia de estos encuentros lejanos, y los fieles han hallado siempre libertad mediante ellos: los peregrinajes, el monacato y el mutuo apoyo de templos y santuarios son reflejos de este reconocimiento. La conjunción de iguales podría ayudar significativamente a hacer explícitas las numerosas comunidades en potencia, aunque reprimidas, que existen en la ciudad.";}i:2;i:228274;}i:1334;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:229477;}i:1335;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:229477;}i:1336;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1125:"Las comunidades locales son valiosas. Son también una realidad que se desvanece conforme los hombres dejan que las instituciones definan cada vez más sus círculos de relación social. En un libro reciente, Milton Kotler mostró que el imperialismo del “centro” de la ciudad priva al barrio de su significación política. El intento proteccionista de resucitar la barriada como unidad cultural sólo sirve de apoyo a este imperialismo burocrático. Lejos de apartar artificialmente a la gente de su contexto local para unirla con grupos abstractos, el servicio de búsqueda de compañero alentaría un renacer de la vida local en las ciudades de las cuales está desapareciendo hoy en día. Un hombre que recupere su iniciativa para llamar a sus prójimos a sostener una conversación significativa, puede dejar de conformarse con estar separado de ellos por el protocolo oficinesco o por la etiqueta suburbana. Habiendo visto por una vez que el hacer cosas en conjunto depende del decidir hacerlo, la gente posiblemente insista incluso en que su comunidad local se haga más abierta al intercambio político creativo.";}i:2;i:229479;}i:1337;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:230604;}i:1338;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:230604;}i:1339;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:486:"Debemos reconocer que la vida urbana tiende a hacerse inmensamente costosa conforme a los habitantes de la ciudad se les enseña a confiar en complejos servicios institucionales para satisfacer cada una de sus necesidades. Es extraordinariamente costoso incluso mantenerla en un nivel mínimo de habitabilidad. El servicio de búsqueda de compañero de aprendizaje en la ciudad podría ser un primer paso para romper la dependencia de los ciudadanos respecto de servicios burocráticos.";}i:2;i:230606;}i:1340;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231092;}i:1341;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231092;}i:1342;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:497:"Sería también una medida esencial para proporcionar nuevos medios de establecer la confianza pública. En una sociedad escolarizada hemos llegado a confiar cada día más en el juicio profesional de educadores sobre el efecto de su propia labor para decidir en quién podemos o no confiar: vamos al médico, al abogado o al psicólogo porque confiamos en que cualquiera que ha tenido la cantidad requerida de tratamiento educativo especializado a manos de otros colegas merece nuestra confianza.";}i:2;i:231094;}i:1343;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231591;}i:1344;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:231591;}i:1345;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:779:"En una sociedad desescolarizada, los profesionales ya no pueden reclamar la confianza de sus clientes a partir de su historial curricular o asegurar su prestigio con sólo remitir a sus clientes a otros profesionales que dieron aprobación a su escolarización. En vez de depositar su confianza en profesionales, debería ser posible, en cualquier momento, que cualquier presunto cliente consultase con otros clientes experimentados sobre la calidad del servicio prestado por un profesional mediante otra red de comunicación de intereses comunes fácilmente montada en una computadora o mediante muchos otros medios. Podría considerarse a tales redes como servicios de utilidad pública que permitiesen a los estudiantes elegir a sus profesores o a los pacientes, sus médicos.";}i:2;i:231593;}i:1346;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:232372;}i:1347;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:232374;}i:1348;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:24:"Educadores profesionales";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:232374;}i:2;i:232374;}i:1349;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:232374;}i:1350;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:29:" +### Educadores profesionales";}i:2;i:232374;}i:1351;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:232374;}i:1352;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:823:"Conforme los ciudadanos tengan nuevas posibilidades de elección, nuevas posibilidades de aprendizaje, su disposición a buscar directivos debiera aumentar. Podemos contar con que experimentarán más hondamente tanto su propia independencia como su necesidad de guía. Conforme estén liberados de la manipulación por parte de terceros, debieran aprender a beneficiarse de la disciplina que otros han adquirido durante toda su vida. El desescolarizar la educación debiera más bien aumentar, y no ahogar, la búsqueda de hombres de sabiduría práctica que estuviesen dispuestos a apoyar al recién llegado en su aventura educativa. Conforme los maestros en su arte abandonan la pretensión de ser informantes superiores o modelos de habilidades, comenzará a parecer verdadera la sabiduría superior que parecen poseer.";}i:2;i:232405;}i:1353;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233228;}i:1354;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233228;}i:1355;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:675:"Al aumentar la demanda de maestros debiera aumentar también la oferta. Conforme se desvanezca el maestro de escuela, se suscitarán condiciones que harán aparecer la vocación del educador independiente. Esto puede parecer casi contradictorio; a tal punto han llegado a ser complementarios escuelas y profesores. Sin embargo éste es exactamente el resultado a que tendería el desarrollo de los primeros servicios educativos —y lo que se precisaría para hacer posible el aprovecharlos plenamente—, pues los padres y otros “educadores naturales” necesitan un guía, las personas que aprenden necesitan ayuda, y las redes necesitan personas que las hagan funcionar.";}i:2;i:233230;}i:1356;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233905;}i:1357;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:233905;}i:1358;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:829:"Los padres necesitan orientación para dirigir a sus hijos por el camino que conduce a la independencia educativa responsable. Los aprendices necesitan líderes experimentados cuando se topan con un terreno arduo. Estas dos necesidades son muy distintas: la primera es una necesidad de pedagogía, la segunda una necesidad de dirección intelectual en todas las demás ramas del conocimiento. La primera exige conocimiento del aprendizaje humano y de los recursos educativos, la segunda exige sabiduría fundada en la experiencia en cualquier clase de exploración. Ambos tipos de experiencia son indispensables para una empresa educativa eficaz. Las escuelas envasan estas funciones en un solo papel —y hacen que el ejercicio independiente de cualquiera de ellas se vuelva, si no algo lleno de desdoro, al menos sospechoso—.";}i:2;i:233907;}i:1359;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:234736;}i:1360;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:234736;}i:1361;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:246:"De hecho deberían distinguirse tres tipos de competencia educativa especial: una, crear y manejar los tipos de servicios o redes educativas esbozadas aquí; otra, guiar a estudiantes y padres en el uso de estas redes, y una tercera, actuar como ";}i:2;i:234738;}i:1362;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:234984;}i:1363;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:18:"primus inter pares";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:18:"primus inter pares";}i:2;i:234985;}i:1364;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:235003;}i:1365;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:450:" al emprender difíciles viajes de exploración intelectual. Sólo las dos primeras pueden concebirse como ramas de una profesión independiente: administradores educativos y consejeros pedagógicos. No se precisaría mucha gente para proyectar y gestionar las redes que he estado describiendo, pero sí gente con un profundo entendimiento de la educación y la administración, con una perspectiva muy diferente y hasta opuesta a la de las escuelas.";}i:2;i:235004;}i:1366;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:235454;}i:1367;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:235454;}i:1368;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1178:"Si bien una profesión educativa independiente de esta especie daría la bienvenida a muchas personas que las escuelas excluyen, excluiría asimismo a muchas que las escuelas declaran aptas. El establecimiento y gestión de redes educativas precisaría de algunos proyectistas y administradores, pero no en la cantidad ni del tipo que exige la administración de escuelas. La disciplina estudiantil, las relaciones públicas, la contratación, supervisión y despido de profesores no tendrían lugar ni equivalente en las redes que he estado describiendo. Tampoco la creación de currícula, la compra de libros de texto, el entretenimiento de lugares e instalaciones, ni la supervisión de competencias atléticas interescolares. La custodia de niños, el planteamiento de lecciones y la anotación de datos archivables, que ocupan ahora tanto tiempo de los profesores, tampoco figurarían en la gestión de las redes educativas. En cambio, para el funcionamiento de las tramas de aprendizaje se necesitarían algunas de las habilidades y actitudes que se esperan actualmente del personal de un museo, de una biblioteca, de una agencia para contratación de directivos o de un ";}i:2;i:235456;}i:1369;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:236634;}i:1370;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:18:"maître d’hôtel";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:18:"maître d’hôtel";}i:2;i:236635;}i:1371;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:236653;}i:1372;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:7:".[^n18]";}i:2;i:236654;}i:1373;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:236661;}i:1374;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:236661;}i:1375;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:854:"Los administradores educativos de hoy en día se preocupan de controlar a profesores y estudiantes de modo que queden satisfechos unos terceros —fideicomisarios, legislaturas y jefes de empresas—. Los constructores y administradores de las redes antedichas tendrían que demostrar tener genio para ponerse a sí mismos y a terceras personas donde no estorbasen a la gente, para facilitar encuentros entre estudiantes, modelos de habilidades, líderes educativos y objetos educativos. Muchas de las personas a las que hoy atrae la enseñanza son profundamente autoritarias y no serían capaces de hacerse cargo de esta tarea: construir servicios o bolsas de intercambio educativo significaría facilitar a la gente —en especial a los jóvenes— el ir en pos de metas que pudieren contradecir los ideales del gerente que hiciese posible tal empeño.";}i:2;i:236663;}i:1376;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:237517;}i:1377;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:237517;}i:1378;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:853:"Si pudiesen hacer su aparición las redes que he descrito, el recorrido educativo que siguiese cada estudiante sería cosa suya o propia, y sólo mirado retrospectivamente podría adquirir las características de un programa reconocible. El estudiante sensato buscaría periódicamente el consejo profesional: ayuda para fijarse una nueva meta, comprensión penetrante de las dificultades habidas, elección entre algunos métodos posibles. Incluso ahora, la mayoría de las personas admitirán que los servicios importantes que les prestaron sus profesores fueron consejos o asesoramiento de esta especie, dados en una reunión casual o durante una conversación personal. En un mundo desescolarizado, los pedagogos también harían valer sus métodos y serían capaces de realizar aquello que los profesores frustrados pretenden emprender hoy en día.";}i:2;i:237519;}i:1379;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:238372;}i:1380;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:238372;}i:1381;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:990:"Mientras los administradores de redes se concentrarían principalmente en la construcción y el mantenimiento de cambios que dieran acceso a recursos, el pedagogo ayudaría al estudiante a hallar el sendero que le pudiese conducir a mayor velocidad hacia su meta. Si un estudiante quisiese aprender cantonés hablado de un vecino chino, el pedagogo estaría a mano para juzgar el aprovechamiento y pericia de ambos y para ayudarles a elegir el libro de texto y los métodos más adecuados para sus talentos, caracteres y tiempo disponible para estudiar. Podría aconsejar al mecánico de aviación en ciernes sobre los mejores lugares para practicar como aprendiz. Podría recomendar libros o alguno que quisiese hallar compañeros con garra para debatir sobre historia de África. Al igual que el administrador de redes, el consejero pedagógico se vería a sí mismo como un educador profesional. El acceso a cualquiera de ambos podrían lograrlo las personas usando sus bonos educativos.";}i:2;i:238374;}i:1382;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:239364;}i:1383;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:239364;}i:1384;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1038:"El papel del iniciador o líder educativo, del maestro o “verdadero” líder es algo más elusivo que el de administrador profesional o de pedagogo. Esto se debe a que el liderazgo es en sí algo difícil de definir. En la práctica, una persona es un líder si la gente sigue su iniciativa y se convierten en aprendices de sus descubrimientos progresivos. Esto frecuentemente presupone una visión profética de normas enteramente nuevas —muy comprensibles en el presente— en las cuales el “error” actual se convertirá en “acierto”. En una sociedad que respetaría el derecho a convocar asambleas a través del sistema de búsqueda de compañero, la capacidad de tomar la iniciativa educativa sobre un tema específico sería tan amplia como el acceso mismo al aprendizaje. Pero, naturalmente, hay una enorme diferencia entre la iniciativa que toma alguien para convocar una provechosa reunión para debatir este ensayo y la capacidad de alguien para servir de líder en la exploración sistemática de sus implicaciones.";}i:2;i:239366;}i:1385;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:240404;}i:1386;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:240404;}i:1387;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1045:"El liderazgo tampoco depende del hecho de estar en lo cierto. Tal como señala Thomas Kuhn, en un periodo de paradigmas en constante variación, la mayoría de los más distinguidos líderes tiene la probabilidad de haber incurrido en error cuando se someten a una prueba retrospectiva. La condición de líder intelectual se funda en una disciplina intelectual y una imaginación superiores, y en la disposición a asociarse con otros en el ejercicio de aquéllas. Por ejemplo, el aprendiz puede pensar que existe una analogía entre el Movimiento Antiesclavista de Estados Unidos o la Revolución cubana y lo que está ocurriendo en Harlem. El educador que sea al mismo tiempo historiador podría mostrarle cómo advertir las fallas de dicha analogía. Puede recorrer de nuevo su camino como historiador. Puede invitar al aprendiz a participar en las investigaciones que realice. En ambos casos iniciará a su alumno en el aprendizaje de un arte crítico —que es escaso en la escuela— y que no puede comprarse ni con dinero ni con favores.";}i:2;i:240406;}i:1388;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241451;}i:1389;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241451;}i:1390;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:519:"La relación entre maestro y discípulo no se limita a la disciplina intelectual. Tiene su equivalente en las artes, en física, en religión, en psicoanálisis y en pedagogía. Encaja en el montañismo, en la platería y en política, en ebanistería y en administración de personal. Lo que es común en todas las verdaderas relaciones maestro-discípulo es el hecho de que ambos tienen conciencia de que su mutua relación es literalmente inapreciable y de maneras muy diferentes constituye un privilegio para ambos.";}i:2;i:241453;}i:1391;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241972;}i:1392;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:241972;}i:1393;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:939:"Los charlatanes, los demagogos, los proselitistas, los maestros corrompidos, los sacerdotes simoniacos, los pillos, los taumaturgos y los mesías han demostrado ser capaces de asumir el papel de líderes y han demostrado así los peligros que para un discípulo tiene la dependencia respecto del maestro. Las diversas sociedades han adoptado diversas medidas para protegerse de estos maestros falsificados. Los hindúes se apoyaron en el sistema de castas. Los judíos orientales, en la condición de discípulo espiritual de los rabinos, los grandes periodos de la cristiandad en una vida ejemplar de virtud monástica, y otros periodos en el orden jerárquico. Nuestra sociedad confía en los certificados dados por escuelas. Es dudoso que ese procedimiento constituya una criba más eficaz, pero si se pretendiese que lo es, podría alegarse en contra que lo hace al costo de casi hacer desaparecer la condición de discípulo personal.";}i:2;i:241974;}i:1394;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:242913;}i:1395;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:242913;}i:1396;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:312:"En la práctica el límite entre el profesor de habilidades y los líderes educadores antes señalados será siempre confuso, y no hay razones prácticas para que no pueda lograrse el acceso a ciertos líderes descubriendo al “maestro” en el profesor rutinario que inicia a unos estudiantes en su disciplina.";}i:2;i:242915;}i:1397;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243227;}i:1398;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243227;}i:1399;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:460:"Por otra parte, lo que caracteriza la verdadera relación maestro-discípulo es su carácter de inapreciable. Aristóteles dice de ella: “Es un tipo de amistad moral, no fundada en términos fijos: hace un regalo, o hace lo que hace, como a un amigo”. Tomás de Aquino dice de este tipo de enseñanza que inevitablemente es un acto de amor y de compasión. Este tipo de enseñanza es siempre un lujo para el profesor y una forma de recreación (en griego, ";}i:2;i:243229;}i:1400;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:243689;}i:1401;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"schole";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"schole";}i:2;i:243690;}i:1402;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:243696;}i:1403;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:97:") para él y para su discípulo: una actividad significativa para ambos, sin propósito ulterior.";}i:2;i:243697;}i:1404;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243794;}i:1405;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:243794;}i:1406;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:953:"Contar con que haya personas dotadas dispuestas a proveer una auténtica dirección intelectual es obviamente necesario incluso en nuestra sociedad, pero podría dictarse como norma ahora. Debemos construir primero una sociedad en la cual los actos profesionales mismos recuperen un valor más elevado que el de hacer cosas y manipular gente. En una sociedad así, la enseñanza exploratoria, inventiva, creativa, se contaría lógicamente entre las formas más elevadas del “ocio”. Pero no es necesario esperar hasta el advenimiento de la utopía. Incluso ahora, una de las consecuencias más importantes de la desescolarización y del establecimiento de sistemas para búsqueda de compañero sería la iniciativa que algunos “maestros” pudiesen tomar para congregar discípulos que congeniasen. Daría también, como hemos visto, oportunidades amplias para que los discípulos en potencia compartiesen informaciones o seleccionasen un maestro.";}i:2;i:243796;}i:1407;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:244749;}i:1408;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:244749;}i:1409;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:838:"Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones que pervierten una profesión al meter en un solo paquete varios papeles por desempeñar. Los hospitales hacen cada vez más imposible la atención en el hogar —y luego justifican la hospitalización como un beneficio para el enfermo—. Simultáneamente, la legitimidad y las posibilidades de ejercer de un médico vienen a depender de modo creciente de su asociación con un hospital, si bien su dependencia es mucho menor que la de los profesores respecto de las escuelas. Igual cosa podría decirse de los tribunales, que atiborran sus calendarios conforme nuevas transacciones adquieren solemnidad legal, demorando así la justicia. En cada uno de estos casos el resultado es un servicio escaso a un coste mayor, y un mayor ingreso para los miembros menos competentes de la profesión.";}i:2;i:244751;}i:1410;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:245589;}i:1411;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:245589;}i:1412;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:933:"Mientras las profesiones más antiguas monopolicen los mayores ingresos y prestigio, será difícil reformarlas. La profesión de maestro de escuela debiera ser fácil de reformar, no sólo debido a su origen más reciente. La profesión educativa pretende ahora un monopolio global; reclama ser la única competente para impartir el aprendizaje no sólo a sus propios novicios sino también a los de otras profesiones. Esta expansión excesiva la hace vulnerable ante cualquier otra profesión que reclame el derecho a enseñar a sus propios aprendices. Los maestros de escuela están abrumadoramente mal pagados y frustrados por la estrecha fiscalización del sistema escolar. Los más emprendedores y dotados de entre ellos hallarían probablemente un trabajo más simpático, una mayor independencia y hasta mejores ingresos al especializarse como modelos de habilidades, administradores de redes o especialistas en orientación.";}i:2;i:245591;}i:1413;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:246524;}i:1414;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:246524;}i:1415;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:564:"Finalmente, es más fácil romper la dependencia del alumno matriculado respecto del profesor diplomado que su dependencia de otros profesionales —por ejemplo, que la de un paciente hospitalizado respecto de su médico—. Si las escuelas dejaran de ser obligatorias, aquellos profesores cuya satisfacción reside en el ejercicio de la autoridad pedagógica en el aula se quedarían sólo con los alumnos para quienes fuese atractivo ese estilo. La desaparición de nuestra actual estructura profesional podría comenzar con la deserción del maestro de escuela.";}i:2;i:246526;}i:1416;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247090;}i:1417;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247090;}i:1418;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:360:"La desaparición de las escuelas ocurriría inevitablemente —y ocurriría a velocidad sorprendente—. No puede postergarse por más tiempo, y no hace ninguna falta promoverlo vigorosamente, porque ya está ocurriendo. Lo que vale la pena es tratar de orientarla en una dirección prometedora, pues puede dirigirse en dos direcciones diametralmente opuestas.";}i:2;i:247092;}i:1419;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247452;}i:1420;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:247452;}i:1421;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:595:"La primera sería la ampliación del mandato del pedagogo y su control creciente sobre la sociedad, incluso fuera de la escuela. Con la mejor intención y tan sólo ampliando la retórica usada hoy como en las aulas, la crisis actual de las escuelas podría proporcionar a los educadores la excusa para usar todas las redes de la sociedad contemporánea para enviarnos sus mensajes —para nuestro bien—. La desescolarización que no podemos detener, podría significar el advenimiento de un “mundo feliz” dominado por algunos bien intencionados administradores de instrucción programada.";}i:2;i:247454;}i:1422;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248049;}i:1423;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248049;}i:1424;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:568:"Por otra parte, el hecho de que tanto los gobiernos como los empleados, los contribuyentes, los pedagogos despiertos y los administradores escolares advierten con creciente claridad que la enseñanza graduada de currícula en pro de unos certificados se ha hecho perjudicial, podría ofrecer a grandes masas humanas una oportunidad única: la de preservar el derecho de tener un acceso parejo a los instrumentos tanto para aprender, como para competir con otros lo que saben o creen. Pero esto exigiría que la revolución educativa estuviese guiada por ciertas metas:";}i:2;i:248051;}i:1425;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248619;}i:1426;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248619;}i:1427;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248621;}i:1428;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"1.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"1.";}i:2;i:248622;}i:1429;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248624;}i:1430;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:142:" Liberar el acceso a las cosas, mediante la abolición del control que hoy ejercen unas personas e instituciones sobre sus valores educativos.";}i:2;i:248625;}i:1431;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248767;}i:1432;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248767;}i:1433;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248769;}i:1434;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"2.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"2.";}i:2;i:248770;}i:1435;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248772;}i:1436;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:112:" Liberar la coparticipación de habilidades al garantizar la libertad de enseñarlas o de ejercitarlas a pedido.";}i:2;i:248773;}i:1437;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248885;}i:1438;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:248885;}i:1439;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248887;}i:1440;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"3.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"3.";}i:2;i:248888;}i:1441;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:248890;}i:1442;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:252:" Liberar los recursos críticos y creativos de la gente por medio de un regreso a la capacidad de las personas para convocar y organizar reuniones —capacidad crecientemente monopolizada por instituciones que afirman estar al servicio del público—.";}i:2;i:248891;}i:1443;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249143;}i:1444;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249143;}i:1445;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:249145;}i:1446;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:"4.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:"4.";}i:2;i:249146;}i:1447;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:249148;}i:1448;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:496:" Liberar al individuo de la obligación de moldear sus expectativas según los servicios ofrecidos por cualquier profesión establecida —proporcionándole la oportunidad de aprovechar la experiencia de sus iguales y de confiarse al profesor, guía, consejero o curandero de su elección—. La desescolarización de la sociedad difuminará inevitablemente las distinciones entre economía, educación y política, sobre las que se funda ahora la estabilidad del orden mundial y de las naciones.";}i:2;i:249149;}i:1449;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249645;}i:1450;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:249645;}i:1451;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:792:"Nuestra reseña de las instituciones educativas nos lleva a modificar nuestra imagen del hombre. La criatura que las escuelas necesitan como cliente no tiene ni la autonomía ni la motivación para crecer por su cuenta. Podemos reconocer la escolarización como la culminación de una empresa prometeica, y hablar acerca de su alternativa refiriéndonos a un mundo adecuado para que en él viva un hombre epimeteico. Ya que nos es posible imaginar el reemplazo del embudo escolástico por una trama de intercambios y hacer que el mundo vuelva a ser visible mediante múltiples posibilidades de comunicación, sólo nos queda, al final de este esfuerzo, esperar que la naturaleza epimeteica del hombre aparezca, porque este renacimiento no depende de nuestros proyectos ni de nuestra voluntad.";}i:2;i:249647;}i:1452;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250440;}i:1453;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250440;}i:1454;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:34:"Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:250440;}i:2;i:250440;}i:1455;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:250440;}i:1456;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:38:" +## Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico";}i:2;i:250440;}i:1457;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250440;}i:1458;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:463:"Nuestra sociedad se parece a la máquina implacable que una vez vi en una juguetería neoyorquina consistía en un cofrecillo metálico con un interruptor que, al tocarlo se abría de golpe descubriendo una mano mecánica. Unos dedos cromados se estiraban hacia la tapa y la cerraban desde el interior. Era una caja; uno esperaba poder sacar algo de ella, pero no contenía sino un mecanismo para cerrarla. Este artilugio es lo opuesto a la “caja” de Pandora.";}i:2;i:250480;}i:1459;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250943;}i:1460;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:250943;}i:1461;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:162:"La Pandora original, “la dadora de todo”, era una diosa de la Tierra en la Grecia prehistórica y matriarcal que dejó escapar todos los males de su ánfora (";}i:2;i:250945;}i:1462;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:251107;}i:1463;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:6:"pythos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:6:"pythos";}i:2;i:251108;}i:1464;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:251114;}i:1465;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:391:"). Pero cerró la tapa antes de que pudiera escapar la esperanza. La historia del hombre moderno comienza con la degradación del mito de Pandora y llega a su término con el cofrecillo que se cierra solo. Es la historia del empeño prometeico por forjar instituciones a fin de encerrar los males desencadenados. Es la historia de una esperanza que declina y de unas expectativas crecientes.";}i:2;i:251115;}i:1466;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:251506;}i:1467;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:251506;}i:1468;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:530:"Para comprender lo que esto significa debemos redescubrir la diferencia entre expectativa y esperanza. Esperanza, en su sentido vigoroso, significa fe confiada en la bondad de la naturaleza; mientras expectativa, tal como la emplearé aquí, significa fiarse en resultados planificados y controlados por el hombre. La esperanza centra el deseo en una persona de la que aguardamos un regalo. La expectativa promete una satisfacción que proviene de un proceso predecible que producirá aquello que tenemos el derecho de exigir. El ";}i:2;i:251508;}i:1469;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:252038;}i:1470;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:252039;}i:1471;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:252044;}i:1472;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:135:" prometeico ha eclipsado actualmente la esperanza. La supervivencia de la raza humana depende de que se la descubra como fuerza social.";}i:2;i:252045;}i:1473;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252180;}i:1474;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252180;}i:1475;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:669:"La Pandora original fue enviada a la Tierra con un frasco que contenía todos los males; de las cosas buenas, contenía sólo la esperanza. El hombre primitivo vivía en este mundo de la esperanza. Para subsistir confiaba en la munificencia de la naturaleza, en los regalos de los dioses y en los instintos de su tribu. Los griegos del periodo clásico comenzaron a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. En la versión que dieron de Pandora, ésta soltó tanto males como bienes. La recordaban principalmente por los males que había desencadenado. Y, lo que es más significativo, olvidaron que “la dadora de todo” era también la custodia de la esperanza.";}i:2;i:252182;}i:1476;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252851;}i:1477;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:252851;}i:1478;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1335:"Los griegos contaban la historia de dos hermanos, Prometeo y Epimeteo. El primero advirtió al segundo que no se metiera con Pandora. Éste, en cambio, casó con ella. En la Grecia clásica, al nombre Epimeteo, que significa “percepción tardía” o “visión ulterior”, se le daba el significado de “lerdo” o “tonto”. Para la época en que Hesíodo relataba el cuento en su forma clásica, los griegos se habían convertido en patriarcas moralistas y misóginos que se espantaban ante el pensamiento de la primera mujer. Construyeron una sociedad racional y autoritaria. Los hombres proyectaron instituciones mediante las cuales programaron enfrentarse a todos los males desencadenados. Llegaron a percatarse de su poder para conformar el mundo y hacerlo producir servicios que aprendieron también a esperar. Querían que sus artefactos moldearan sus propias necesidades y las exigencias futuras de sus hijos. Se convirtieron en legisladores, arquitectos y autores, hacedores de constituciones, ciudades y obras de arte que sirviesen de ejemplo para su progenie. El hombre primitivo contaba con la participación mística en ritos sagrados para iniciar a los individuos en las tradiciones de la sociedad, pero los griegos clásicos reconocieron como verdaderos hombres sólo a aquellos ciudadanos que permitían que la ";}i:2;i:252853;}i:1479;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254188;}i:1480;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:254189;}i:1481;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254196;}i:1482;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:102:" (educación) los hiciera aptos para ingresar en las instituciones que sus mayores habían proyectado.";}i:2;i:254197;}i:1483;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:254299;}i:1484;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:254299;}i:1485;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:70:"El mito en desarrollo refleja la transición desde un mundo en que se ";}i:2;i:254301;}i:1486;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254371;}i:1487;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:13:"interpretaban";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:13:"interpretaban";}i:2;i:254372;}i:1488;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254385;}i:1489;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:31:" los sueños a un mundo en que ";}i:2;i:254386;}i:1490;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254417;}i:1491;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"se hacían";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"se hacían";}i:2;i:254418;}i:1492;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254428;}i:1493;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:183:" oráculos. Desde tiempos inmemoriales, se había adorado a la diosa de la Tierra en las laderas del monte Parnaso, que era el centro y el ombligo de la tierra. Allí, en Delphos (de ";}i:2;i:254429;}i:1494;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254612;}i:1495;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"delphys";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"delphys";}i:2;i:254613;}i:1496;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:254620;}i:1497;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1117:" , la matriz), dormía Gaia, hermana de Caos y de Eros. Su hijo, Pitón, el dragón, cuidaba sus sueños lunares y húmedos de rocío, hasta que Apolo, el dios del Sol, el arquitecto de Troya, se alzó al Oriente, mató al dragón y se apoderó de la cueva de Gaia. Los sacerdotes de Apolo se hicieron cargo del templo de la diosa. Emplearon a una doncella de la localidad, la sentaron en un trípode, sobre el ombligo humeante de la tierra, y la adormecieron con emanaciones. Luego pusieron sus declaraciones extáticas en hexámetros rimados de profecías que se cumplían por la misma influencia que ejercían. De todo el Peloponeso venían hombres a traer sus problemas ante Apolo. Se consultaba el oráculo sobre posibles alternativas sociales, tales como las medidas que se debían adoptar frente a una peste o una hambruna, sobre cuál era la constitución conveniente para Esparta o cuáles los emplazamientos propicios para ciudades que más tarde se llamaron Bizancio y Caledonia. La flecha que nunca yerra se convirtió en un símbolo de Apolo. Todo lo referente a él adquirió un fin determinado y útil.";}i:2;i:254621;}i:1498;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:255738;}i:1499;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:255738;}i:1500;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:6:"En la ";}i:2;i:255740;}i:1501;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:255746;}i:1502;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"República";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"República";}i:2;i:255747;}i:1503;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:255757;}i:1504;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:573:" , al describir el Estado ideal, Platón ya excluye la música popular. En las ciudades se permitiría sólo el arpa y la lira de Apolo, porque únicamente la armonía de éstas crea “la tensión de la necesidad y la tensión de la libertad, la tensión de lo infortunado y la tensión de lo afortunado, la tensión del valor y la tensión de la templanza, dignas del ciudadano”. Los habitantes de la ciudad se espantaron ante la flauta de Pan y su poder para despertar los instintos. Sólo “los pastores pueden tocar las flautas (de Pan) y esto sólo en el campo”.";}i:2;i:255758;}i:1505;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256331;}i:1506;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256331;}i:1507;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:229:"El hombre se hizo responsable de las leyes bajo las cuales quería vivir y de moldear el medio ambiente a su propia semejanza. La iniciación primitiva que daba la Madre Tierra a una vida mítica se transformó en la educación (";}i:2;i:256333;}i:1508;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:256562;}i:1509;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:7:"paideia";}i:2;i:256563;}i:1510;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:256570;}i:1511;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:52:") del ciudadano que se sentiría a gusto en el foro.";}i:2;i:256571;}i:1512;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256623;}i:1513;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:256623;}i:1514;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"Para el primitivo, el mundo estaba regido por el destino, los hechos y la necesidad. Al robar el fuego de los dioses, Prometeo convirtió los hechos en problemas, puso en tela de juicio la necesidad y desafió al destino. El hombre clásico tramó un contexto civilizado para la perspectiva humana. Se percataba de que podía desafiar al trío destino-naturaleza-entorno, pero sólo bajo su propio riesgo. El hombre contemporáneo va aún más lejos; intenta crear el mundo a su semejanza, contribuir y planificar su entorno, y descubre entonces que sólo puede hacerlo a condición de rehacerse continuamente para ajustarse a él. Debemos enfrentarnos ahora al hecho de que es el hombre mismo el que está en juego.";}i:2;i:256625;}i:1515;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:257341;}i:1516;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:257341;}i:1517;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1596:"La vida en Nueva York produce una visión peculiar de lo que es y de lo que podría ser, y sin esta visión, la vida en Nueva York se hace imposible. En las calles de Nueva York, un niño jamás toca nada que no haya sido ideado, proyectado, planificado y vendido científicamente a alguien. Hasta los árboles están allí porque el Departamento de Parques así lo decidió. Los chistes que el niño escucha por televisión han sido programados a gran coste. La basura con que juega en las calles de Harlem está hecha de paquetes deshechos ideados para un tercero. Hasta los deseos y los temores están moldeados institucionalmente. El poder y la violencia están organizados y administrados: las pandillas, frente a la policía. El aprendizaje mismo se define como el consumo de una materia, que es el resultado de programas investigados, planificados y promocionados. Lo que allí haya de bueno, es el producto de alguna institución especializada. Sería tonto pedir algo que no pudiese producir alguna institución. El niño de la ciudad no puede esperar nada que esté más allá del posible desarrollo del proceso institucional. Hasta a su fantasía se le urge a producir ciencia ficción. Puede experimentar la sorpresa poética de lo no planificado sólo a través de sus encuentros con la “mugre”, el desatino o el fracaso: la cáscara de naranja en la cuneta, el charco en la calle, el quebrantamiento del orden, del programa o de la máquina son los únicos despegues para el vuelo de la fantasía creadora. El “viaje” se convierte en la única poesía al alcance de la mano.";}i:2;i:257343;}i:1518;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:258939;}i:1519;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:258939;}i:1520;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1193:"Como nada deseable hay que no haya sido planificado, el niño ciudadano pronto llega a la conclusión de que siempre podremos idear una institución para cada una de nuestras apetencias. Toma por descontado el poder del proceso para crear valor. Ya sea que la meta fuere juntarse con un compañero, integrar un barrio o adquirir habilidades de lectura, se la definirá de tal modo que su logro pueda proyectarse técnicamente. El hombre que sabe que nada que está en demanda deja de producirse llega pronto a esperar que nada de lo que se produce pueda carecer de demanda. Si puede proyectarse un vehículo lunar, también puede proyectarse la demanda de viajes a la Luna. No ir donde uno puede sería subversivo. Desenmascararía, mostrándola como una locura, la suposición de que cada demanda satisfecha trae consigo el descubrimiento de otra, mayor aún, e insatisfecha. Esa percepción detendría el progreso. No producir lo que es posible dejaría a la ley de las “expectativas crecientes” al descubierto, en calidad de eufemismo para expresar una brecha creciente de frustración, que es el motor de la sociedad, fundado en la coproducción de servicios y en la demanda creciente.";}i:2;i:258941;}i:1521;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260134;}i:1522;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260134;}i:1523;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:774:"El estado mental del habitante de la ciudad moderna aparece en la tradición mitológica sólo bajo la imagen del Infierno: Sísifo, que por un tiempo había encadenado a Tánatos (la muerte), debe empujar una pesada roca cerro arriba hasta el pináculo del Infierno, y la piedra siempre se escapa de sus manos cuando está a punto de llegar a la cima. Tántalo, a quien los dioses invitaron a compartir la comida olímpica, y que aprovechó la ocasión para robarles el secreto de la preparación de la ambrosía que todo lo cura, sufre hambre y sed eternas, de pie en un río cuyas aguas se le escapan y a la sombra de árboles cuyos frutos no alcanza. Un mundo de demandas siempre crecientes no sólo es malo; el único término adecuado para nombrarlo es “Infierno”.";}i:2;i:260136;}i:1524;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260910;}i:1525;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:260910;}i:1526;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:586:"El hombre ha desarrollado la frustradora capacidad de pedir cualquier cosa porque no puede visualizar nada que una institución no pueda hacer por él. Rodeado por herramientas todopoderosas, el hombre queda reducido a ser instrumento de sus instrumentos. Cada una de las instituciones ideadas para exorcizar alguno de los males primordiales se ha convertido en un ataúd a prueba de errores y de cierre automático y hermético para el hombre. El hombre está atrapado en las cajas que fabrica para encerrar los males que Pandora dejó escapar. El oscurecimiento de la realidad por el ";}i:2;i:260912;}i:1527;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:261498;}i:1528;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:4:"smog";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:4:"smog";}i:2;i:261499;}i:1529;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:261503;}i:1530;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:123:" producido por nuestras propias herramientas nos rodea. Súbitamente nos hallamos en la oscuridad de nuestra propia trampa.";}i:2;i:261504;}i:1531;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:261627;}i:1532;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:261627;}i:1533;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:845:"Hasta la realidad ha llegado a depender de la decisión humana. El mismo presidente que ordenó la ineficaz invasión de Camboya podría ordenar de igual manera el uso eficaz del átomo. El “interruptor Hiroshima” puede cortar hoy el ombligo de la tierra. El hombre ha adquirido el poder de hacer que Caos anonade a Eros y a Gaia. Esta nueva capacidad del hombre, el poder cortar el ombligo de la tierra, es un recuerdo constante de que nuestras instituciones no sólo crean sus propios fines, sino que tienen también el poder de señalar su propio fin y el nuestro. El absurdo de las instituciones modernas se evidencia en el caso de la institución militar. Las armas modernas pueden defender la libertad, la civilización y la vida únicamente aniquilándolas. En lenguaje militar, seguridad significa la capacidad de eliminar la Tierra.";}i:2;i:261629;}i:1534;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:262474;}i:1535;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:262474;}i:1536;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1887:"El absurdo subyacente en las instituciones no militares no es menos manifiesto. No hay en ellas un interruptor que active sus poderes destructores, pero tampoco lo necesitan. Sus dedos ya atenazan la tapa del mundo. Crean a mayor velocidad necesidades que satisfacciones, y en el proceso de tratar de satisfacer las necesidades que engendran, consumen la tierra. Esto vale para la agricultura y la manufactura, y no menos para la medicina y la educación. La agricultura moderna envenena y agota el suelo. La “revolución verde” puede, mediante nuevas semillas, triplicar la producción de una hectárea —pero sólo con un aumento proporcionalmente mayor de fertilizantes, insecticidas, agua y energía—. Fabricar estas cosas, como los demás bienes, contamina los océanos y la atmósfera y degrada recursos irreemplazables. Si la combustión continúa aumentando según los índices actuales, pronto consumiremos el oxígeno de la atmósfera sin poder reemplazarlo con igual presteza. No tenemos razones para creer que la fisión o la fusión puedan reemplazar la combustión sin peligros iguales o mayores. Los expertos en medicina reemplazan a las parteras y prometen convertir al hombre en otra cosa: genéticamente planificado, farmacológicamente endulzado y capaz de enfermedades más prolongadas. El ideal contemporáneo es un mundo panhigiénico: un mundo en el que todos los contactos entre los hombres, y entre los hombres y su mundo, sean el resultado de la previsión y la manipulación. La escuela se ha convertido en el proceso planificado que labra al hombre para un mundo planificado, en la trampa principal para entrampar al hombre en la trampa humana. Se supone que moldea a cada hombre a un nivel adecuado para desempeñar un papel en este juego mundial. De manera inexorable, cultivamos, elaboramos, producimos y escolarizamos el mundo hasta acabar con él.";}i:2;i:262476;}i:1537;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264363;}i:1538;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264363;}i:1539;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:341:"La institución militar es evidentemente absurda. Más difícil se hace enfrentar el absurdo de las instituciones no militares. Es aún más aterrorizante, precisamente porque funciona inexorablemente. Sabemos qué interruptor debe quedar abierto para evitar un holocausto atómico. No hay interruptor para detener un apocalipsis ecológico.";}i:2;i:264365;}i:1540;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264706;}i:1541;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:264706;}i:1542;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:577:"En la antigüedad clásica, el hombre descubrió que el mundo podía forjarse según los planes del hombre, y, junto con este descubrimiento, advirtió que ello era inherentemente precario, dramático y cómico. Fueron creándose las instituciones democráticas y dentro de su estructura se supuso que el hombre era digno de confianza. Lo que se esperaba del debido proceso legal y la confianza en la naturaleza humana se mantenía en equilibrio recíproco. Se desarrollaron las profesiones tradicionales y con ellas las instituciones necesarias para el ejercicio de aquéllas.";}i:2;i:264708;}i:1543;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265285;}i:1544;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265285;}i:1545;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:559:"Subrepticiamente, la confianza en el proceso institucional ha reemplazado la dependencia respecto de la buena voluntad humana personal. El mundo ha perdido su dimensión humana y ha readquirido la necesidad de los tiempos primitivos. Pero mientras el caos de los bárbaros estaba constantemente ordenado en nombre de dioses misteriosos y antropomórficos, hoy en día la única razón que puede ofrecerse para que el mundo esté como está es la planificación del hombre. El hombre se ha convertido en el juguete de científicos, ingenieros y planificadores.";}i:2;i:265287;}i:1546;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265846;}i:1547;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:265846;}i:1548;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:460:"Vemos esta lógica en otros y en nosotros mismos. Conozco una aldea mexicana en la que no pasa más de media docena de autos cada día. Un mexicano estaba jugando al dominó sobre la nueva carretera asfaltada frente a su casa —en donde probablemente se había sentado y había jugado desde muchacho—. Un coche pasó velozmente y lo mató. El turista que me informó del hecho estaba profundamente conmovido y, sin embargo, dijo: “Tenía que sucederle”.";}i:2;i:265848;}i:1549;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:266308;}i:1550;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:266308;}i:1551;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1152:"A primera vista, la observación del turista no difiere de la de un bosquimano que relata la muerte de algún fulano que se hubiera topado con un tabú y por consiguiente hubiera muerto. Pero las dos afirmaciones poseen significados diferentes. El primitivo puede culpar a alguna entidad trascendente, tremenda y ciega, mientras el turista está pasmado ante la inexorable lógica de la máquina. El primitivo no siente responsabilidad; el turista la siente, pero la niega. Tanto en el primitivo como en el turista están ausentes la modalidad clásica del drama, el estilo de la tragedia, la lógica del empeño individual y de la rebelión. El hombre primitivo no ha llegado a tener conciencia de ello, y el turista la ha perdido. El mito del bosquimano y el mito del norteamericano están compuestos ambos de fuerzas inertes, inhumanas. Ninguno de los dos experimenta una rebeldía trágica. Para el bosquimano, el suceso se ciñe a las leyes de la magia, para el norteamericano se ciñe a las leyes de la ciencia. El suceso le pone bajo el hechizo de las leyes de la mecánica, que para él gobiernan los sucesos físicos, sociales y psicológicos.";}i:2;i:266310;}i:1552;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:267462;}i:1553;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:267462;}i:1554;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:566:"El estado de ánimo de 1971 es propicio para un cambio importante de dirección en busca de un futuro esperanzador. A las metas institucionales las contradicen continuamente los resultados institucionales. El programa para la pobreza produce más pobres, la guerra en Asia acrecienta los Vietcong, la ayuda técnica engendra más subdesarrollo. Las clínicas para control de nacimientos incrementan los índices de supervivencia y provocan aumentos de población; las escuelas producen más desertores, y el atajar un tipo de contaminación suele aumentar otro tipo.";}i:2;i:267464;}i:1555;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268030;}i:1556;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268030;}i:1557;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:516:"Los consumidores se enfrentan al claro hecho de que cuanto más pueden comprar, tanto más engaño han de tragar. Hasta hace poco parecía lógico que pudiera echarse la culpa de esta inflación pandémica de disfunciones ya fuese al retraso de los descubrimientos científicos respecto de las exigencias tecnológicas, ya fuese a la perversidad de los enemigos étnicos, ideológicos o de clase. Han declinado las expectativas tanto respecto de un milenario científico como de una guerra que acabe con las guerras.";}i:2;i:268032;}i:1558;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268548;}i:1559;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:268548;}i:1560;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:795:"Para el consumidor avezado no hay manera de regresar a una ingenua confianza en las tecnologías mágicas. Demasiadas personas han tenido la experiencia de computadoras que se descomponen, infecciones hospitalarias y saturación dondequiera que haya tráfico en la carretera, en el aire o en el teléfono. Hace apenas 10 años, la sabiduría convencional preveía una mejor vida fundada en los descubrimientos científicos. Ahora, los científicos asustan a los niños. Los viajes a la Luna proporcionan una fascinante demostración de que el fallo humano puede casi eliminarse entre los operarios de sistemas complejos —sin embargo, esto no mitiga los temores ante la posibilidad de que un fallo humano que consista en no consumir conforme a las instrucciones pueda escapar a todo control—.";}i:2;i:268550;}i:1561;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269345;}i:1562;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269345;}i:1563;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:443:"Para el reformador social tampoco hay modo de regresar a las premisas de la década de los años cuarenta. Se ha desvanecido la esperanza de que el problema de distribuir con justicia los bienes pueda evadirse creándolos en abundancia. El coste de la cesta mínima que satisfaga los gustos contemporáneos se ha ido a las nubes, y lo que hace que un gusto sea moderno es el hecho de que aparezca como anticuado antes de haber sido satisfecho.";}i:2;i:269347;}i:1564;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269790;}i:1565;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:269790;}i:1566;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:424:"Los límites de los recursos de la tierra ya se han evidenciado. Ninguna nueva avenida de la ciencia o la tecnología podría proveer a cada hombre del mundo de los bienes y servicios de que disponen ahora los pobres de los países ricos. Por ejemplo, se precisaría extraer 100 veces las cantidades actuales de hierro, estaño, cobre y plomo para lograr esa meta, incluso con la alternativa tecnológica más “liviana”.";}i:2;i:269792;}i:1567;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270216;}i:1568;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270216;}i:1569;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:324:"Por fin, los profesores, médicos y trabajadores sociales caen en la cuenta de que sus diversos tratamientos profesionales tienen un aspecto —por lo menos— en común: crean nuevas demandas para los tratamientos profesionales que proporcionan, a una mayor rapidez con la que pueden proporcionar instituciones de servicio.";}i:2;i:270218;}i:1570;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270542;}i:1571;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:270542;}i:1572;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1346:"Se está haciendo sospechosa no sólo una parte, sino la lógica misma de la sabiduría convencional. Incluso las leyes de la economía parecen poco convincentes fuera de los estrechos parámetros aplicables a la región social y geográfica en la que se encuentra la mayor parte del dinero. En efecto, el dinero es el circulante más barato, pero sólo en una economía encaminada hacia una eficiencia medida en términos monetarios. Tanto los países capitalistas como los comunistas en sus diversas formas están dedicados a medir la eficiencia en relación con el coste/beneficio expresado en dólares. El capitalismo se jacta de un nivel más elevado de vida para afirmar su superioridad. El comunismo hace alarde de una mayor tasa de crecimiento como índice de su triunfo final. Pero bajo cualquiera de ambas ideologías el coste total de aumentar la eficiencia se incrementa geométricamente. Las instituciones de mayor tamaño compiten con fiereza por los recursos que no están anotados en ningún inventario: el aire, el océano, el silencio, la luz del sol y la salud. Ponen en evidencia la escasez de estos recursos ante la opinión pública sólo cuando están casi irremediablemente degradados. Por doquiera, la naturaleza se vuelve ponzoñosa, la sociedad inhumana, la vida interior se ve invadida y la vocación personal ahogada.";}i:2;i:270544;}i:1573;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:271890;}i:1574;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:271890;}i:1575;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:741:"Una sociedad dedicada a la institucionalización de los valores identifica la producción de bienes y servicios con la demanda de los mismos. La educación que le hace a uno necesitar el producto está incluida en el precio del producto. La escuela es la agencia de publicidad que le hace a uno creer que necesita la sociedad tal y como está. En dicha sociedad el valor marginal ha llegado a ser constantemente autotrascendente. Obliga a los consumidores más grandes —son pocos— a competir por tener el poder de agotar la tierra, por llenarse sus propias panzas hinchadas, por disciplinar a los consumidores de menor tamaño, y por poner fuera de acción a quienes aún encuentran satisfacción en arreglárselas con lo que tienen. El ";}i:2;i:271892;}i:1576;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:272633;}i:1577;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:272634;}i:1578;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:272639;}i:1579;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:137:" de la insaciabilidad es por tanto la fuente misma de la depredación física, de la polarización social y de la pasividad psicológica.";}i:2;i:272640;}i:1580;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:272777;}i:1581;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:272777;}i:1582;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:878:"Cuando los valores se han institucionalizado en procesos planificados y técnicamente construidos, los miembros de la sociedad moderna creen que la buena vida consiste en tener instituciones que definan los valores que tanto ellos como su sociedad creen que necesitan. El valor institucional puede definirse como el nivel de producción de una institución. El valor correspondiente del hombre se mide por su capacidad para consumir y degradar estas producciones institucionales y crear así una demanda nueva —y aún mayor—. El valor del hombre institucionalizado depende de su capacidad como incinerador. Para emplear una imagen, ha llegado a ser el ídolo de sus artesanías. El hombre se autodefiende ahora como el horno en que se queman los valores producidos por sus herramientas. Y no hay límites para su voracidad. Su acto es el acto de Prometeo llevado al extremo.";}i:2;i:272779;}i:1583;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:273657;}i:1584;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:273657;}i:1585;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:600:"El agotamiento y la contaminación de los recursos de la tierra es, por encima de todo, el resultado de una corrupción de la imagen que el hombre tiene de sí mismo, de una regresión en su conciencia. Algunos tienden a hablar acerca de una mutación de la conciencia colectiva que conduce a concebir al hombre como un organismo que no depende de la naturaleza y de las personas, sino más bien de instituciones. Esta institucionalización de valores esenciales, esta creencia en que un proceso planificado de tratamiento da finalmente unos resultados deseados por quien recibe el tratamiento, este ";}i:2;i:273659;}i:1586;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274259;}i:1587;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:274260;}i:1588;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274265;}i:1589;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:70:" de consumidor, se halla en el núcleo mismo de la falacia prometeica.";}i:2;i:274266;}i:1590;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:274336;}i:1591;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:274336;}i:1592;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:194:"Los empeños por encontrar un nuevo equilibrio en el medio ambiente global dependen de la desinstitucionalización de los valores. La sospecha de que algo estructural anda mal en la visión del ";}i:2;i:274338;}i:1593;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274532;}i:1594;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"homo faber";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"homo faber";}i:2;i:274533;}i:1595;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:274543;}i:1596;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:863:" es común en una creciente minoría de países tanto capitalistas como comunistas y “subdesarrollados”. Esta sospecha es la característica compartida por una nueva élite. A ella pertenece gente de todas las clases, ingresos, creencias y civilizaciones. Se han vuelto suspicaces respecto de los mitos de la mayoría: de las utopías científicas, del diabolismo ideológico y de la expectativa de que la distribución de bienes y servicios se hará con igualdad. Comparten con la mayoría la sensación de estar atrapados, de percatarse de que la mayor parte de las nuevas pautas adoptadas por amplio consenso conducen a resultados que se oponen descaradamente a sus metas propuestas. No obstante, mientras la mayoría de los prometeicos astronautas en ciernes sigue evadiendo el problema fundamental, la minoría emergente se muestra crítica respecto del ";}i:2;i:274544;}i:1597;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275407;}i:1598;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:15:"deus ex machina";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:15:"deus ex machina";}i:2;i:275408;}i:1599;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275423;}i:1600;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:295:" científico, de la panacea ideológica y de la cacería de diablos y brujas. Esta minoría comienza a dar forma a su sospecha de que nuestros constantes engaños nos atan a las instituciones contemporáneas como las cadenas ataban a Prometeo a su roca. La esperanza, la confianza y la ironía (";}i:2;i:275424;}i:1601;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275719;}i:1602;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"eironeia";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"eironeia";}i:2;i:275720;}i:1603;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:275728;}i:1604;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:75:") clásica deben conspirar para dejar al descubierto la falacia prometeica.";}i:2;i:275729;}i:1605;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:275804;}i:1606;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:275804;}i:1607;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:325:"Solía pensarse que Prometeo significaba “previsión” y aun llegó a traducirse por “aquel que hace avanzar la Estrella Polar”. Privó astutamente a los dioses del monopolio del fuego, enseñó a los hombres a usarlo para forjar el hierro, se convirtió en el dios de los tecnólogos y terminó con cadenas de hierro.";}i:2;i:275806;}i:1608;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276131;}i:1609;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276131;}i:1610;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:420:"La Pitonisa de Delfos fue reemplazada por una computadora que se cierne sobre cuadros de instrumentos y tarjetas perforadas. Los exámenes del oráculo cedieron el paso a los códigos de programación. El timonel humano entregó el rumbo a la máquina cibernética. Emerge la máquina definitiva para dirigir nuestros destinos. Los niños se imaginan volando en sus máquinas espaciales, lejos de una Tierra crepuscular.";}i:2;i:276133;}i:1611;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276553;}i:1612;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276553;}i:1613;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:350:"Mirando desde las perspectivas del Hombre de la Luna, Prometeo pudo reconocer a Gaia como el planeta de la Esperanza y como el Arco de la Humanidad. Un sentido nuevo de la finitud de la Tierra y una nueva nostalgia pueden ahora abrir los ojos del hombre y hacerle ver por qué su hermano Epimeteo, al desposar a Pandora, eligió desposar a la Tierra.";}i:2;i:276555;}i:1614;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276905;}i:1615;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:276905;}i:1616;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:470:"Al llegar aquí el mito griego se convierte en esperanzada profecía, pues nos dice que el hijo de Prometeo fue Deucalión, el Timonel del Arca, quien, como Noé, navegó sobre el Diluvio para convertirse en el padre de la humanidad nueva que, con ayuda de Pirra, hija de Epimeteo y de Pandora, sacó de la tierra. Por ello nos es necesario comprender el sentido de ese Pithos que Pandora obtuvo de los dioses y que es el inverso de la Caja: nuestro Vaso y nuestra Arca.";}i:2;i:276907;}i:1617;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277377;}i:1618;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277377;}i:1619;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:193:"Necesitamos ahora un nombre para quienes valoran más la esperanza que las expectativas. Necesitamos un nombre para quienes aman más a la gente que a los productos, para aquellos que creen que";}i:2;i:277379;}i:1620;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277573;}i:1621;a:3:{i:0;s:4:"code";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:162:" + +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros. +";i:1;N;}i:2;i:277573;}i:1622;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:26:"markdowku_githubcodeblocks";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:168:" +``` +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros. +```";}i:2;i:277573;}i:1623;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277573;}i:1624;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:101:"Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que aman la tierra en la que podemos encontrarnos unos con otros,";}i:2;i:277743;}i:1625;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277845;}i:1626;a:3:{i:0;s:4:"code";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:118:" + +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés. +";i:1;N;}i:2;i:277845;}i:1627;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:26:"markdowku_githubcodeblocks";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:124:" +``` +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés. +```";}i:2;i:277845;}i:1628;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:277845;}i:1629;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:236:"Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que colaboran con su hermano Prometeo en alumbrar el fuego y en dar forma al hierro, pero que lo hacen para acrecentar así su capacidad de entender y cuidar y ser guardián del prójimo, sabiendo que";}i:2;i:277971;}i:1630;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278208;}i:1631;a:3:{i:0;s:4:"code";i:1;a:2:{i:0;s:149:" + +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes. +";i:1;N;}i:2;i:278208;}i:1632;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:26:"markdowku_githubcodeblocks";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:155:" +``` +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes. +```";}i:2;i:278208;}i:1633;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278208;}i:1634;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:85:"[^n19] A esto hermanos y hermanas esperanzados sugiero llamarlos hombres epimeteicos.";}i:2;i:278365;}i:1635;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278451;}i:1636;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278451;}i:1637;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:34:"Apéndice: una elección que hacer";i:1;i:2;i:2;i:278451;}i:2;i:278451;}i:1638;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:2;}i:2;i:278451;}i:1639;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:38:" +## Apéndice: una elección que hacer";}i:2;i:278451;}i:1640;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:278451;}i:1641;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:796:"De generación en generación nos hemos esforzado por llegar a la educación de un mundo mejor y para hacerlo hemos desarrollado sin cesar la escolaridad. Hasta ahora, la empresa se ha pagado con un fracaso. ¿Y qué hemos aprendido si no es a constreñir a los niños para que suban la escalera sin fin de la educación que, lejos de conducir a la igualdad buscada, sólo favorece al que se adelantó a los otros o al que tiene mejor salud o al que se beneficia de una mejor preparación? Peor aún, la enseñanza obligatoria parece minar la voluntad personal de aprender. Por último, al saber considerado como una mercancía, que hay que almacenar y distribuir, pronto se le considera como un bien sometido a las garantías de la propiedad individual y, por lo mismo, tiende a volverse escaso.";}i:2;i:278491;}i:1642;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:279287;}i:1643;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:279287;}i:1644;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1182:"Comenzamos a percibir que este esfuerzo por desarrollar la educación pública mediante una escolaridad obligatoria está a punto de perder su legitimidad desde el punto de vista social, pedagógico y económico. Frente a esta crisis, los espíritus críticos no se contentan ya con remedios clásicos, ¡sino que proponen unos mucho más violentos! Imaginan, por ejemplo, sistemas de crédito educativo que permitirían a cada uno comprar la educación de su elección en un mercado no controlado, o bien, proponen retirarle a las escuelas la responsabilidad en materia de educación para dársela a los medios modernos de información y al aprendizaje en los sitios de trabajo. Algunos, aislados, entrevén la necesidad de destruir los fundamentos institucionales de la escuela, como le sucedió a la Iglesia en el transcurso de los dos últimos siglos. Ciertos reformadores proponen reemplazar la escuela universal por nuevos y diferentes sistemas que pretenden preparar mejor para la vida en una sociedad moderna… En síntesis, estamos frente a una elección: podemos contentarnos con desmantelar las escuelas o podemos ir más lejos y desescolarizar por completo la sociedad.";}i:2;i:279289;}i:1645;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:280471;}i:1646;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:280471;}i:1647;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:642:"Todas esas proposiciones en favor de instituciones educativas nuevas se reparten, de hecho, en tres categorías: las reformas que llevan al “salón de clases” sin tocar el sistema escolar; luego, la dispersión de clases “liberadas” en toda la sociedad; por último, la transformación de la misma sociedad en un inmenso salón de clases. Pero estos tres enfoques del problema —clase reformada, liberada o que englobe al mundo entero— los consideramos como tres etapas de la escalada del proceso educativo a través de las cuales se afirmará la empresa de un control todavía más sutil y más invasor del que habrá reemplazado.";}i:2;i:280473;}i:1648;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:281115;}i:1649;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:281115;}i:1650;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1357:"Si por mi parte estoy convencido de que conviene poner un término al reino de la escuela (desenlace que, por otra parte, creo ineluctable), es porque me parece que esta desaparición de una convicción ilusoria nos debería llenar de esperanza. Sin embargo, no estoy por ello menos consciente de que, llegados a este término de la “era escolar”, podríamos muy bien entrar en la de una escuela totalitaria que sólo el nombre distinguiría del asilo de alienados o de un campo de concentración donde educación, corrección y reajuste serían por fin sinónimos. Creo, en consecuencia, que el desmantelamiento de la escuela nos fuerza a ver más allá de su inminente desaparición y nos constriñe a enfrentar las posibilidades fundamentales de elección en materia de educación: ya sea que elijamos trabajar en la constitución de un arsenal educativo aterrador, con el objeto de acrecentar de golpe la fuerza de una enseñanza que trata de un mundo sin cesar más ensombrecido, más amenazador para el hombre; ya sea que intentemos poner en orden las condiciones necesarias para el surgimiento de una nueva era donde la tecnología se pondrá al servicio de una sociedad más simple, más transparente, de suerte que todos los hombres puedan descubrir lo que los rodea y servirse de las herramientas que hoy en día dan forma a sus propias vidas.";}i:2;i:281117;}i:1651;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:282474;}i:1652;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:282476;}i:1653;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:36:"La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:282476;}i:2;i:282476;}i:1654;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:282476;}i:1655;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:41:" +### La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas";}i:2;i:282476;}i:1656;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:282476;}i:1657;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:897:"Debemos distinguir entre “educación” y “escolaridad” si queremos ver surgir más claramente esa elección que se nos ofrece. Comprendo que conviene distinguir entre los objetivos humanistas del profesor y los efectos inherentes a la estructura inalterable de la escuela. Con toda seguridad esta estructura no es evidente a primera vista, pero sólo su existencia explica cierta forma de instrucción transmitida a todos y que escapa al control del docente o del consejo de profesores. En efecto, un mensaje se inscribe indeleble: sólo la escolaridad es capaz de preparar la entrada en la sociedad. Por ello, lo que no se enseña en la escuela se le retira su valor y, por lo mismo ¡lo que se aprende fuera de ella no vale la pena conocerse! Eso es lo que llamo la enseñanza oculta de las escuelas que define los límites en los cuales se efectúan los pretendidos cambios de programas.";}i:2;i:282519;}i:1658;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:283416;}i:1659;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:283416;}i:1660;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1156:"Sin defendernos de ella, esta enseñanza no varía de una escuela a otra ni de un lugar a otro. En todas partes los niños deben congregarse en grupos, según la edad; luego, alrededor de 30 toman su lugar frente a un profesor diplomado en razón de 150, incluso 1 000 horas, al año o más, No importa si el programa oficial intenta enseñar los principios del fascismo o del liberalismo, del catolicismo o del socialismo, o si pretende ponerse al servicio de una “liberación”, ya que en todos los casos la institución se arroga el derecho de definir las actividades propias que conducen a una “educación” legitima. Poco importa, igualmente, si el objetivo confesado de la escuela es producir ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o médicos, en la medida en que sin el diploma no se es un ciudadano verdadero o un doctor reconocido… Aunque todas las reuniones no se hagan en el mismo recinto, aunque incluso se consideren, de una manera o de otra, necesarias (cortar caña es trabajo del cañero; reformarse, el del prisionero, y seguir una parte del programa, el de los estudiantes), no hay en lo anterior ninguna diferencia.";}i:2;i:283418;}i:1661;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:284574;}i:1662;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:284574;}i:1663;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:758:"Nos enfrentamos a una especie de directiva secreta que quiere que los estudiantes aprendan antes que nada que la educación sólo tiene valor una vez que se adquirió en el seno de la universidad mediante un método graduado de consumo, y se le promete que el éxito social dependerá de la cantidad de saber consumido, Están convencidos de que vale mucho más instruirse a distancia de lo que es el mundo. El hecho de que la escolaridad imponga esta regla secreta en un programa educativo la distingue inmediatamente de otras formas de educación planificada. Todos los sistemas escolares del planeta tienen características comunes en relación con su rendimiento institucional y la razón de ello es ese “programa oculto” común a todas las escuelas.";}i:2;i:284576;}i:1664;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:285334;}i:1665;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:285334;}i:1666;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:791:"Hay que entender bien que ese programa oculto modifica la concepción que tenemos de la adquisición del saber y hace de la actividad personal una mercancía de la que la escuela cree detentar el monopolio. A un bien de consumo le damos hoy en día el nombre de “educación”: un producto cuya fabricación la asegura una institución oficial llamada “escuela”. En consecuencia, henos ahí con el fin de medir la duración y el costo del tratamiento aplicado al estudiante (en Estados Unidos, el diplomado de una pequeña universidad regional y el de uno de los colegios de la “liga de la hieda”[^n20] tienen cubiertos los mismos 135 “créditos”,[^n21] ¡pero están plenamente conscientes de la diferente cotización de sus “títulos” en la bolsa de valores educativos!).";}i:2;i:285336;}i:1667;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286127;}i:1668;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286127;}i:1669;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:672:"En todos los países convertidos al ideal escolar, el saber se considera como un bien de primera necesidad, como un asunto de sobrevivencia y, de la misma forma, como una moneda de cambio más fácilmente convertible que los rublos y los dólares. Cuando hablamos de alienación estamos de tal manera habituados al vocabulario marxista que sólo pensamos frecuentemente en la del trabajador en relación con su trabajo desde la perspectiva de una sociedad de clases; hoy en día nos sería necesario reconocer otra forma de la alienación, la del hombre frente al saber cuando este último, transformado en producto de un servicio, hace de quien lo adquiere un consumidor.";}i:2;i:286129;}i:1670;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286801;}i:1671;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:286801;}i:1672;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:609:"Entre más educación “consume” un ser humano, más hace fructificar su posesión y se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del conocimiento. La educación definió una nueva pirámide de clases, en la medida en que los grandes consumidores de saber —esos portadores de bonos del tesoro del conocimiento— pueden inmediatamente pretender dar servicios de un valor más eminente a su sociedad. Ellos representan las inversiones seguras en el portafolio del capital humano de una sociedad y sólo ellos tienen un pronto acceso a las herramientas más poderosas o menos extendidas de la producción.";}i:2;i:286803;}i:1673;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:287412;}i:1674;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:287412;}i:1675;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:810:"De esa manera, ese programa secreto definió implícitamente la naturaleza de la educación: permite medirla y establecer qué nivel de productividad da derecho a su consumo. Disponemos entonces de la posibilidad de justificar la creciente correlación entre los empleos y los privilegios que manan de ellos. En ciertas sociedades esos privilegios se conocerán bajo la forma de ingresos personales más considerables; en otras, será un acceso fácil a servicios todavía poco desarrollados o a una formación más favorecida, sin olvidar un creciente prestigio (por otra parte, en el momento mismo en que, en nombre de la educación, se reclaman crecientes privilegios, la fosa entre la formación y la competencia profesional se acrecienta, como lo muestran ciertos estudios, en particular el de Ivar Berg, ";}i:2;i:287414;}i:1676;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288224;}i:1677;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:60:"La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:60:"La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación";}i:2;i:288225;}i:1678;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288285;}i:1679;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:2:").";}i:2;i:288286;}i:1680;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:288288;}i:1681;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:288288;}i:1682;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:550:"Querer hacer pasar a todos los seres humanos por las etapas sucesivas de la adquisición del saber nos lleva a recordar la búsqueda de los alquimistas y a mirar bien ahí: en el “gran arte” del final de la Edad Media encontraremos con toda seguridad los orígenes profundos de la idea de escolaridad. Consideramos a justo título que Jan Amos Komensky fue uno de los grandes precursores de las teorías de la escuela moderna. Más conocido con el nombre de Comenius, Jan Amos era obispo de Moravia y se decía “pansofista” y pedagogo. En su ";}i:2;i:288290;}i:1683;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288840;}i:1684;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:15:"Didactica Magna";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:15:"Didactica Magna";}i:2;i:288841;}i:1685;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:288856;}i:1686;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:958:" describe las escuelas como medios para “enseñar todo a todo el mundo” y podemos ver en él como un anteproyecto de la producción en la cadena del saber, ya que quería hacer la educación a la vez mejor y menos costosa, con el fin de permitir a todos el acceso a la condición de hombre. Pero sería insuficiente ver en Comenius una suerte de predecesor de nuestros expertos en métodos pedagógicos. Experto en alquimia, utilizaba su jerga para describir el arte de educar a los niños. Como se sabe, los alquimistas buscaban trasmutar el plomo vil, los elementos vulgares, en oro, haciendo pasar sus espíritus destilados por las 12 etapas del enriquecimiento. Es evidente que si veían en eso una manera de enriquecerse a sí mismos, pretendían trabajar en nombre del interés general, y sus sucesivos fracasos no los desalentaban, ya que su “ciencia” les permitía encontrar en ella las razones y justificar la continuación de sus esfuerzos.";}i:2;i:288857;}i:1687;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:289815;}i:1688;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:289815;}i:1689;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:82:"En esta perspectiva, la pedagogía abría un nuevo capítulo en la historia de la ";}i:2;i:289817;}i:1690;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:289899;}i:1691;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:"Ars Magna";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:"Ars Magna";}i:2;i:289900;}i:1692;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:289909;}i:1693;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:514:" : la educación se volvía, en efecto, la búsqueda de una especie de método alquímico destinado a hacer surgir un nuevo tipo de hombre capaz de adaptarse a un medio creado por la magia científica. Y, al igual que en la alquimia, cualquiera que fuera la suma consagrada a cada generación para edificar escuelas, el resultado es que la mayoría de aquellos a los que se les enseña no responden a esa “afinación” y pronto hay que rechazarlos como no aptos para existir en un mundo concebido por el hombre.";}i:2;i:289910;}i:1694;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290424;}i:1695;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290424;}i:1696;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:463:"Los reformadores en materia de educación que admiten el fracaso de las escuelas se reparten en tres categorías. Los más respetables son seguramente los grandes maestros en alquimia que prometen mejores escuelas; los más seductores, esos magos populares que anuncian la transformación de cada cocina en un laboratorio alquímico; los más aterradores, esos nuevos “masones” del universo que buscan transformar el mundo en un vasto templo de la enseñanza.";}i:2;i:290426;}i:1697;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290889;}i:1698;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:290889;}i:1699;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1336:"Veamos, en particular, entre esos maestros alquimistas del momento, a los directores de investigación que emplean o patrocinan las grandes fundaciones. Están persuadidos de que las escuelas, si pudieran de alguna manera mejorarse, se volverían empresas más económicamente viables que venderían un más vasto conjunto de servicios. En cuanto a aquellos cuyo interés se dirige hacia los programas, pretenden que éstos no están adaptados o están sobrepasados. De esa manera se conciben nuevos programas en los que se introducen mercancías al gusto del momento: cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación femenina, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. Se denuncia la pasividad (con toda seguridad es un mal) y, para remediarla, se concede a los estudiantes que ellos mismos decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y de qué manera. Algunos dicen que las escuelas son prisiones y, en consecuencia, se aconseja a los jefes de establecimientos dar su asentimiento a salidas educativas: un horizonte de pupitres y de muros se sustituye, por ejemplo, por una calle de Harlem cuidadosamente delimitada. Por último, la psicología está de moda y se instaura la terapia de grupos en el salón de clases. La escuela, que se consideraba el todo aprender de todos, se vuelve hoy en día el universo de todos los niños.";}i:2;i:290891;}i:1700;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:292227;}i:1701;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:292227;}i:1702;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:531:"Otros críticos se levantan para subrayar que las escuelas no utilizan suficientemente los recursos de la ciencia moderna. Surge el deseo de que los hombres de ciencia inventen algún medicamento que consuman los niños para que el instructor pueda modificar más fácilmente sus comportamientos. Se habla de transformar las escuelas en casinos educativos. Hay quienes quisieran “electrificar” el salón de clases y, por poco que crean ser buenos discípulos de McLuhan, helos ahí reemplazando el pizarrón y los manuales por ";}i:2;i:292229;}i:1703;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:292760;}i:1704;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"happenings";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"happenings";}i:2;i:292761;}i:1705;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:292771;}i:1706;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:265:" en los que se ofrece toda la batería de aparatos de comunicación. Si admiran a Skinner, afirman que la aplicación de sus teorías permitirá una acción más eficaz sobre el comportamiento de los estudiantes que la de los antiguos maestros, hoy pasados de moda.";}i:2;i:292772;}i:1707;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293037;}i:1708;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293037;}i:1709;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:361:"Que algunas de estas reformas tengan efectos felices, es innegable. La práctica de la escuela tradicional está en un fuerte proceso de disminución en las escuelas experimentales. A veces los padres tienen un sentimiento mayor de participación. Los alumnos designados por sus profesores para seguir cursillos de aprendizaje adquieren frecuentemente un mayor ";}i:2;i:293039;}i:1710;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:293400;}i:1711;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:12:"savoir faire";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:12:"savoir faire";}i:2;i:293401;}i:1712;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:293413;}i:1713;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:384:"[^n22] que el de sus camaradas que permanecen en clase (conocí niños que mejoraban sus conocimientos de español en el laboratorio de lengua, porque preferían jugar con los botones de las grabadoras que conversar con sus iguales puertorriqueños). Sin embargo, todas esas mejoras intervienen en límites estrechos y previsibles, ya que no llegan al programa oculto de las escuelas.";}i:2;i:293414;}i:1714;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293798;}i:1715;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:293798;}i:1716;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:846:"A algunos reformadores les gustaría liberarse de esa regla secreta de las escuelas públicas, pero sólo lo logran raras veces. Las escuelas “activas”, que conducen al desarrollo de otras escuelas del mismo tipo, sólo crean una engañosa ilusión: la liberación permanece como un espejismo, incluso si la constricción a los cursos obligatorios se interrumpe con frecuencia por periodos de ociosidad. Que se busque agradar a alguien para convencerlo de asistir a los cursos es, bien mirado, ¡más insidioso todavía que la obligación legal y el apoyo de la brigada de los menores! Mejor que una presencia consentida a disgusto, la que embauca lleva más fácilmente a creer en la necesidad del tratamiento educativo. El docente tolerante hace al alumno correr un creciente riesgo de sentirse incapaz de vivir fuera del refugio acolchado.";}i:2;i:293800;}i:1717;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294646;}i:1718;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294646;}i:1719;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:322:"¿En qué difiere la enseñanza suministrada en las nuevas escuelas? Aunque se facilite por el consenso de un grupo, más que por los decretos del cuerpo docente, se trata siempre de adquirir competencias que la sociedad reconoce, lo que no cambia en nada el problema. La apariencia cambia; la realidad profunda permanece.";}i:2;i:294648;}i:1720;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294970;}i:1721;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:294970;}i:1722;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:786:"Para ser verdaderas escuelas de libertad, les sería necesario llenar dos condiciones. En primer lugar, deben administrarse de tal suerte que no permitan a la regla secreta de la enseñanza aplicarse, es decir, que los escolares, definidos como tales, ubicados frente a profesores reconocidos, no asistan a una sucesión de cursos graduados. En segundo lugar, esas escuelas deberían proporcionar un marco en el que todos los participantes, docentes y alumnos, puedan liberarse de los postulados sobre los que reposa, sin que lo sepamos, una sociedad escolarizada. A veces escuchamos enunciar la primera condición en los objetivos que se propone una escuela “activa”. En cuanto a la segunda, por lo general no se le pone atención, y ciertamente no es el objetivo de esas escuelas.";}i:2;i:294972;}i:1723;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:295758;}i:1724;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:295760;}i:1725;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:40:"Los postulados secretos de la educación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:295760;}i:2;i:295760;}i:1726;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:295760;}i:1727;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:45:" +### Los postulados secretos de la educación";}i:2;i:295760;}i:1728;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:295760;}i:1729;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:935:"No es necesario, en esta fase, distinguir entre la regla secreta y aquélla sobre la que, sin darnos cuenta, se funda la idea de la escolaridad. El programa oculto constituye una especie de ritual iniciático que podemos concebir como un preparativo para el ingreso en la sociedad moderna. Por intermedio de la escuela el programa adquiere su dimensión institucional. Detrás del velo de la ceremonia ritual, las contradicciones se encuentran disimuladas para los participantes. ¿Cómo, en efecto, conciliar el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad social fundada en el reconocimiento de un orden jerárquico que finalmente el rito impone? Pero una vez reconocidos en lo que son, los ritos ya no llegan a mantener la ilusión; ese fenómeno es aparente en el caso de la escolaridad. No obstante, la ceremonia reposa sobre postulados aceptados inconscientemente a los que las escuelas “privadas” podrían dar nuevo vigor.";}i:2;i:295807;}i:1730;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:296742;}i:1731;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:296742;}i:1732;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:551:"A primera vista, se nos reprochará que hagamos un juicio de orden general sobre las escuelas “activas” y más precisamente, en 1971, sobre las de Estados Unidos, las de Canadá y las de Alemania del Oeste en donde ellas parecen querer ser el más hermoso adorno de un renacimiento. A decir verdad, nuestra generalización sólo se dirige a las empresas experimentales que pretenden ser instituciones educativas. Para evitar cualquier menosprecio debemos examinar con más atención la relación que hay entre “educación” y “escolaridad”.";}i:2;i:296744;}i:1733;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:297295;}i:1734;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:297295;}i:1735;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:372:"Con mucha frecuencia olvidamos que la educación no es una invención antigua. Ese sustantivo se desconocía antes de la Reforma. En Francia se habla por vez primera de la educación de los niños en un manuscrito de 1498. Era el año en que Erasmo llegó a residir en Oxford, en que a Savonarola lo quemaron en Florencia, en que Durero trazaba los primeros apuntes de su ";}i:2;i:297297;}i:1736;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297669;}i:1737;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"Apocalipsis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"Apocalipsis";}i:2;i:297670;}i:1738;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297681;}i:1739;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:153:" , que todavía hoy evoca con fuerza la atmósfera sombría, la impresión de un inminente desastre que pesaba sobre ese periodo. En inglés, la palabra ";}i:2;i:297682;}i:1740;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297835;}i:1741;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"educación";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"educación";}i:2;i:297836;}i:1742;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:297846;}i:1743;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:607:" apareció por primera vez en 1530. Ese año, Enrique VIII repudiaba a Catalina de Aragón y la Iglesia luterana se separaba de Roma con la dieta de Augsburgo. Hay que esperar todavía un siglo para que la idea de “educación” se manifieste en el imperio español. En 1611, Lope de Vega habla de la educación como de una novedad. Ese año, la universidad de San Marcos en Lima celebraba su 60 aniversario. Centros de saber existían antes de que la palabra “educación” formara parte del lenguaje familiar. Se “leía” a los autores clásicos; se estudiaba el derecho; no se enseñaba a vivir…";}i:2;i:297847;}i:1744;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:298454;}i:1745;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:298454;}i:1746;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1208:"En el siglo XVI, en el corazón de todas las disputas teológicas se encontraba la necesidad de encontrar justificaciones, de las que la política supo servirse bien para explicar las grandes masacres de la época. En la Iglesia, cismas intervinieron y se hizo posible sostener convicciones diferentes sobre el punto de saber en qué medida el hombre nace pecador, corrompido o sometido a la predestinación. Desde el siglo XVII, el acuerdo se rehizo sobre un punto: el hombre nace no apto para la vida social, en consecuencia es necesario prepararlo proponiéndole una educación. Así, la educación se volvió lo opuesto de la competencia adquirida en la vida cotidiana y terminó por significar un método de tratamiento más que el simple saber de hechos de la existencia y la capacidad de servirse de herramientas que dan forma a la vida concreta del hombre. Progresivamente la educación se transformó en un servicio que había que producir, para el bien de todos, mercancía intangible que se recibía de la misma manera en que la Iglesia visible había conferido anteriormente la gracia invisible. El hombre, nacido en la estupidez original, debía ahora presentar cartas de creencia a la sociedad.";}i:2;i:298456;}i:1747;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:299664;}i:1748;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:299664;}i:1749;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:850:"La escuela y la educación mantuvieron relaciones comparables a las de la Iglesia y la religión o, en una perspectiva más general, a las que se establecen entre el rito y el mito; el rito crea y sostiene al mito; detenta una función mitopoiética. El mito inspira el “programa” por el que se perpetúa. La educación representa a la vez todo un conjunto de justificaciones sobre el plano social y un concepto para el que no podemos encontrar análogos específicos en otras culturas (fuera de la teología cristiana). La educación por el método de la escolaridad distingue fundamentalmente a las escuelas de otras instituciones de enseñanza que existieron en otras épocas. Ése es un aspecto que no hay que despreciar si queremos hacer aparecer las insuficiencias de las “escuelas” llamadas privadas, no estructuradas o independientes.";}i:2;i:299666;}i:1750;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:300516;}i:1751;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:300516;}i:1752;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:721:"Con el fin de sobrepasar una simple reforma de la clase, una escuela activa debe todavía rechazar el programa secreto de la escolaridad descrito anteriormente. Una escuela activa ideal intentaría proporcionar una educación esforzándose en evitar que esa educación se utilice para establecer o justificar una estructura de clase y se vuelva un patrón maestro para medir al alumno con cierto rasero. Debería, en consecuencia, no someter a este último a una represión, a un control o intentar definirlo de cualquier manera. Pero mientras las escuelas activas intenten proporcionar una “educación general”, no están en condiciones de sobrepasar una concepción fundada en los postulados secretos de la escuela.";}i:2;i:300518;}i:1753;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301239;}i:1754;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301239;}i:1755;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:420:"Entre sus principios, hay uno que Peter Schrag, en una perspectiva particular, definió como el “síndrome de inmigración”, que nos incita a tratar a todos los seres humanos como si fueran recién llegados que deben someterse a un proceso de naturalización. Sólo los consumidores garantizados del saber se admiten en la ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen iguales, sólo por el periodo de gestación en el seno del ";}i:2;i:301241;}i:1756;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:301661;}i:1757;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"Alma mater";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"Alma mater";}i:2;i:301662;}i:1758;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:301672;}i:1759;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:33:" podrán acceder a esta igualdad.";}i:2;i:301673;}i:1760;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301706;}i:1761;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:301706;}i:1762;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:993:"Otro postulado conduce a creer que el hombre, nacido inmaduro, debe adquirir su “madurez” en el transcurso del primer periodo de su existencia para después formar parte de una sociedad civilizada. Esta idea de una “maduración” es, con toda seguridad, contraria a otra convicción que define al hombre como el mamífero que, por el mecanismo de la evolución y con el concurso de la selección natural entre sus maestros primates, adquirió el carácter específico de permanecer durante toda su vida “inmaduro” —lo que constituye su “gracia” particular—. Pero, en conformidad con la fijación ideológica sobre la madurez, nos persuadimos de que es necesario, después de su nacimiento, mantener al ser humano apartado de su medio natural y hacerlo pasar por una matriz social para que adquiera las cualidades necesarias para la vida cotidiana. Las escuelas activas son capaces de llenar esta función frecuentemente mucho mejor que escuelas de un modelo menos atractivo.";}i:2;i:301708;}i:1763;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:302701;}i:1764;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:302701;}i:1765;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:175:"Los establecimientos educativos liberados comparten con quienes lo son menos otra característica: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la educación. Ponen una institución ";}i:2;i:302703;}i:1766;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:302878;}i:1767;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:16:"in loco parentis";}i:2;i:302879;}i:1768;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:302895;}i:1769;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:497:". Perpetúan la idea de que la enseñanza, si se realiza fuera del círculo familiar, debe estar asegurada por una “agencia” cuyo docente es sólo un representante. En una sociedad escolarizada, la misma familia se reduce a ser sólo una “agencia de aculturación”. En cuanto a los organismos educativos que emplean profesores para promover la política de su consejo administrativo, se vuelven instrumentos al servicio de una despersonalización de las relaciones entre personas privadas.";}i:2;i:302896;}i:1770;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:303393;}i:1771;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:303393;}i:1772;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:734:"Naturalmente, numerosas escuelas activas funcionan sin profesores acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una amenaza seria para los sindicatos de maestros, pero, no por ello, ponen en peligro la estructura social fundada en un reconocimiento de las profesiones. Una escuela en la que los miembros del consejo administrativo eligen y nombran a los profesores, sin preocuparse de saber si detentan certificados, una licencia o una credencial sindical, no atenta contra la legitimidad de la profesión de enseñante; no más que una encargada de un prostíbulo clandestino, en un país donde un trabajo así, para ser legal, debe hacerse bajo el control de la policía, ¡no cuestiona la legitimidad de la profesión más antigua del mundo!";}i:2;i:303395;}i:1773;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304129;}i:1774;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304129;}i:1775;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:751:"La mayoría de los que enseñan en escuelas activas no tienen la oportunidad de trabajar en su nombre. Aseguran la tarea de la enseñanza en nombre de un consejo; en nombre de sus alumnos asumen la función menos evidente de la enseñanza y sirven a la educación bajo su aspecto casi místico en nombre de toda “la sociedad”. La mejor prueba de ello es que pasan todavía más tiempo que sus colegas de la enseñanza pública reuniéndose en comisiones con el objeto de planificar el método por el cual la escuela debería educar. La duración de esas reuniones ha incitado a muchos docentes de alma generosa, una vez que sus ilusiones se han disipado, a pasar de la escuela pública a la enseñanza privada, para luego ir todavía más allá…";}i:2;i:304131;}i:1776;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304882;}i:1777;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:304882;}i:1778;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:857:"Todos los establecimientos de enseñaza pretenden “formar hombres” en una tarea de mejoramiento del futuro, pero no les permiten cumplirla antes de que hayan adquirido una sólida tolerancia frente a las maneras de vivir de sus mayores. Es siempre una educación que prepara para la vida, más que adquirida en la vida cotidiana. Muy pocas escuelas activas pueden evitar esa trampa. Sin embargo, hay que reconocer que contribuyen a la aparición de un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán sus diplomas sobre la sociedad, sino más bien porque los padres que eligen educar a sus hijos sin beneficiarse de los servicios de enseñanza “ordenados según la regla” pertenecen frecuentemente a una minoría radical, y porque el interés que aportan a ese problema, el gusto que tienen de educar a sus hijos, los mantiene en su modo de vida.";}i:2;i:304884;}i:1779;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:305741;}i:1780;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:305743;}i:1781;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:54:"Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:305743;}i:2;i:305743;}i:1782;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:305743;}i:1783;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:59:" +### Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación";}i:2;i:305743;}i:1784;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:305743;}i:1785;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:806:"La especie más peligrosa entre los reformadores en materia de educación es la que pretende demostrar que el saber puede producirse y venderse de manera mucho más eficaz en un mercado libre que en el que controla la escuela. Pretenden que una capacidad puede fácilmente adquirirse por medio de un modelo, aunque el aprendiz considere poco esta adquisición como de interés evidente. Afirman también que un sistema de asignación individualizado proporciona un poder de compra más igualitario en materia de educación. Piden, por último, que se distinga entre el método de adquisición y el que mide los resultados (lo que me parece una necesidad muy evidente). Pero sería erróneo creer que la instauración de un mercado abierto del saber representaría una solución opuesta a la de hoy en día.";}i:2;i:305804;}i:1786;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:306610;}i:1787;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:306610;}i:1788;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:716:"Esta sustitución aboliría, ciertamente, lo que llamamos el programa secreto de la escolaridad (el hecho de que hay que seguir a determinadas edades programas graduados). Un mercado abierto daría, en primer lugar, la impresión de que vamos al encuentro de esos principios en los que reposa una sociedad escolarizada: el “síndrome de la inmigración”, el monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el rito de la integración progresiva. Pero, por lo mismo, un mercado libre de educación proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables ocasiones para influir en secreto, con el fin de encerrar a cada hombre en los múltiples y pequeños compartimentos que una tecnocracia todavía más desarrollada podría crear.";}i:2;i:306612;}i:1789;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:307328;}i:1790;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:307328;}i:1791;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:2079:"La confianza puesta desde hace decenios en la escolarización del ser humano ha hecho del saber una mercancía de una especie particular. Como lo hemos visto, todos consideran ahora el saber como un artículo de primera necesidad y, al mismo tiempo, como la moneda de cambio más preciosa de la sociedad. Esta transformación del saber en bien de consumo se refleja, igualmente, en nuestro comportamiento de todos los días, incluso en el lenguaje familiar. Así, verbos que describen una actividad personal, como “aprender”, “alojarse”, “sanarse”, nos hacen irresistiblemente pensar en servicios cuya distribución está más o menos asegurada. Pensamos que es necesario resolver los problemas de la habitación, de los cuidados médicos, etc., sin recordar un solo instante que los hombres podrían curarse o edificar sus casas por ellos mismos. Todo es cuestión de servicios y el adolescente, en lugar de aprender, por ejemplo, a ocuparse de su abuela, aprende a manifestarse frente al asilo de ancianos donde no hay camas disponibles. ¿El desmantelamiento de la escuela sería, pues, suficiente para conducir a la desaparición de esas actitudes? (Mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución norteamericana se continuaba exigiendo la filiación a una Iglesia como condición para cualquier candidatura a un puesto oficial). Con mayor razón, ¿el cierre de las escuelas permitiría evitar que tuviéramos acceso a baterías de pruebas para medir el nivel de educación? Si ése no es el caso, esta nueva situación conduciría a la obligación, para cada uno, de adquirir un mínimo de mercancías en el depósito del saber. La ambición de medir científicamente el valor de cada hombre se vincula sin dificultad con el sueño del alquimista de hacer a todo hombre “educable” con el fin de guiarlo hacia una humanidad “verdadera”. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado libre, llegaremos a un entorno sometido al control de los terapeutas-pedagogos, a una matriz universal donde cada hombre se alimentaría con fluidos elegidos.";}i:2;i:307330;}i:1792;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309409;}i:1793;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309409;}i:1794;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:516:"Las escuelas limitan por ahora la competencia del profesor al salón de clases. No le permiten reivindicar la existencia del hombre para una región. Desde esta perspectiva, renunciar a la escuela haría desaparecer esta frágil barrera y conferiría una legitimidad semejante a la invasión pedagógica de la vida privada de cada uno. Podría conducir a una lucha encarnizada por la adquisición del saber en un mercado libre del conocimiento y a la edificación, bajo apariencias igualitarias, de una meritocracia.";}i:2;i:309411;}i:1795;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309927;}i:1796;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:309927;}i:1797;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1516:"Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones (ni incluso las más eficaces) que pretenden hacer de la información, de la comprensión y de la sabiduría rasgos d comportamiento susceptibles de contrastarse (y medirlos conduce a detentar la llave que abre las puertas del éxito y del poder). El sistema chino, por ejemplo, ofrecía, en el plano de la educación, una estimulante eficacia definiendo una clase relativamente abierta, cuyos privilegios dependían de la adquisición de un saber mesurable. Alrededor de 2 000 años antes de Cristo, parece que el emperador de China interrogaba cada tres años a sus administradores. Después de tres veces, les daba responsabilidades mayores o los echaba para siempre. Algunos 1 000 años más tarde, el primer emperador Chang estableció un verdadero examen para sus funcionarios. Música, tiro con arco y aritmética constituían los temas impuestos. Cada tres años, los concursos se abrían a los candidatos. Uno sobre 100 lograba franquear las tres series de pruebas que le conferían sucesivamente los títulos de “genio en hierbas”, de “perfecto letrado” y de “dispuesto para el servicio del emperador”. La selección era, pues, muy severa, y se le dedicaba la mayor importancia a los examinadores; así, por ejemplo, en el segundo nivel, en el que era necesario redactar una composición, el texto del candidato lo volvía a copiar un secretario antes de dárselo al jurado, a fin de que sus miembros no pudieran reconocer la caligrafía del autor.";}i:2;i:309929;}i:1798;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:311445;}i:1799;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:311445;}i:1800;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:605:"Más tarde, la promoción a rango de mandarín no daba necesariamente derecho a uno de los puestos deseados. Permitía solamente participar en el sorteo de esos empleos. Ninguna escuela apareció en China antes de la época de las luchas con los poderes europeos. El caso del imperio chino es único entre las grandes naciones, ya que no poseía ni Iglesia oficial ni sistema escolar, pero pudo durante cerca de 3 000 años reclutar su élite gubernamental sin fundar una vasta aristocracia hereditaria. El acceso a esa élite estaba reservado a la familia del emperador y a los que pasaban los exámenes.";}i:2;i:311447;}i:1801;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312052;}i:1802;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312052;}i:1803;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:800:"Voltaire y sus contemporáneos elogiaron el sistema chino, donde la promoción se fundaba en las pruebas dadas de un saber. Los exámenes de ingreso en la administración aparecieron en Francia en 1791; después, Napoleón los abolió. ¿Qué habría sucedido si, para propagar las ideas de la Revolución, se hubiera elegido el mandarinato en lugar del sistema escolar que inevitablemente sostiene al nacionalismo y a la disciplina militar? De hecho, Napoleón se erigió en el defensor de la escuela politécnica y del colegio de pensionados… Más que inspirarse en el mandarinato, las instituciones educativas se calcaron del modelo jesuita de la promoción ritual en el interior de una estructura jerárquica cerrada; de esa forma, las sociedades occidentales eligieron legitimar a sus élites.";}i:2;i:312054;}i:1804;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312854;}i:1805;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:312854;}i:1806;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1041:"Los jefes de establecimientos escolares se volvieron, de alguna forma, los abades de una cadena mundial de monasterios en donde todos se dedicaron a acumular conocimientos que les permitieran acceder a la tierra prometida, paraíso terrestre sometido a las leyes del envejecimiento planificado que se desborda sin cesar. Eso nos recuerda el esfuerzo de los calvinistas que arrasaron todos los monasterios para, finalmente, transformar Ginebra en un vasto claustro. Tenemos, por lo tanto, razones para temer que el desmantelamiento de la escuela permita la aparición de una fábrica del saber a escala mundial. A menos que transformemos la idea que nos hemos hecho de la enseñanza o del saber, la desaparición de la escuela corre el riesgo de conducir a una situación donde, de un lado, se utilizará el sistema del mandarinato para separar el aprendizaje del saber de la prueba de control y, del otro, la sociedad se comprometerá a proporcionar la terapéutica necesaria a cualquier hombre para que pueda entrar en la “edad de oro”.";}i:2;i:312856;}i:1807;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:313897;}i:1808;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:313897;}i:1809;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:380:"Ni los alquimistas, ni los magos, ni los masones pueden resolver el problema que nos plantea la crisis de la enseñanza, La desescolarización de nuestra concepción del mundo exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza, a la vez, ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa porque busca hacer del hombre un ser social sometiéndolo a un tratamiento con métodos técnicos apropiados.";}i:2;i:313899;}i:1810;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:314279;}i:1811;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:314279;}i:1812;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:13:"Adherirse al ";}i:2;i:314281;}i:1813;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:314294;}i:1814;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:314295;}i:1815;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:314300;}i:1816;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:827:" tecnocrático nos conduce a querer poner en marcha todo lo que es técnicamente realizable, poco importa si sus beneficiarios son forzosamente poco numerosos o si no experimentan su deseo. Sobre todo la privatización o la frustración de la mayoría de los seres humanos nunca entran en la línea de cuenta. Si, por ejemplo, es posible concebir el tratamiento mediante la bomba de cobalto, es necesario que la ciudad de Tegucigalpa disponga de aparatos adaptados en cada uno de sus dos grandes hospitales. Con todos esos créditos puestos ahí se habría podido luchar en toda Honduras contra la proliferación de parásitos… Las velocidades supersónicas sugieren que conviene inmediatamente acelerar los viajes de algunos. ¿Los vuelos a Marte? ¡Se encontrará siempre una razón para que parezcan indispensables! En el ";}i:2;i:314301;}i:1817;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315128;}i:1818;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:315129;}i:1819;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315134;}i:1820;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:341:" tecnocrático la pobreza está modernizada: ¿existían soluciones antiguas? Nuevos monopolios vienen a prohibirlas. A la penuria de los bienes de primera necesidad se agrega la conciencia de la diferencia sin cesar cada vez más grande entre los servicios técnicamente realizables y los que en la práctica son accesibles a las mayorías.";}i:2;i:315135;}i:1821;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:315476;}i:1822;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:315476;}i:1823;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:80:"Un profesor se vuelve “educador” desde el momento en que se incorpora a ese ";}i:2;i:315478;}i:1824;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315558;}i:1825;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"ethos";}i:2;i:315559;}i:1826;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:315564;}i:1827;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:968:" tecnocrático. Actúa inmediatamente como si la educación fuera una empresa tecnológica concebida para insertar al hombre en el entorno que crea el “progreso” de la ciencia. Se niega a ver la evidencia: el envejecimiento de todos los bienes programados se paga muy caro (el costo de la formación del personal capaz de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas es sin cesar más alto). Parece olvidar que el precio creciente de las herramientas tiene consecuencias igualmente graves en el plano de la educación: en el momento mismo en que los horarios de trabajo disminuyen, se vuelve imposible el aprendizaje en los lugares de empleo donde se ha hecho de él el privilegio de un pequeño número. En todo el mundo el precio del coste de la educación de los hombres para la sociedad crece más rápidamente que la productividad de la economía en su conjunto, mientras menos y menos hombres experimentan el sentimiento de hacerse razonablemente útiles a la comunidad.";}i:2;i:315565;}i:1828;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:316533;}i:1829;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:316535;}i:1830;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:50:"La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:316535;}i:2;i:316535;}i:1831;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:316535;}i:1832;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:55:" +### La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático";}i:2;i:316535;}i:1833;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:316535;}i:1834;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:608:"Educar para una sociedad de consumo resulta en formar consumidores. La reforma de la clase, su desaparición o su crecimiento no son ni más ni menos que métodos que, a pesar de sus diferencias aparentes, se dirigen a la formación de consumidores de bienes inmediatamente pasados de moda. La sobrevivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden definir constantemente la dicha del hombre asimilado al consumo de los productos más recientes depende de las instituciones educativas (desde las escuelas hasta las agencias publicitarias) que transforman la educación en un medio de control social.";}i:2;i:316592;}i:1835;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:317200;}i:1836;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:317200;}i:1837;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:704:"En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, las considerables inversiones en materia de enseñanza hacen más evidentes las contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En esos países, el aumento ideológico del progreso ilimitado reposa en la idea de que el efecto igualitario de una formación permanente contrabalancea la influencia inversa de la regla del envejecimiento perpetuo. La legitimidad de la sociedad industrial depende de la credibilidad de la escuela, cualquiera que sea el partido en el poder. En tales condiciones, el público manifiesta un interés súbito por libros como el reporte de Charles Silberman a la comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el título ";}i:2;i:317202;}i:1838;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:317906;}i:1839;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:55:"Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:55:"Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)";}i:2;i:317907;}i:1840;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:317962;}i:1841;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:311:" ; esta investigación inspira confianza en la medida en que la acusación que el autor lanza contra la escuela está apoyada sólidamente. Pero tales estudios se dirigen a salvar el sistema tratando de corregir sus fallas más evidentes. Por lo mismo, pueden suscitar un nuevo ascenso de esperanzas engañosas.";}i:2;i:317963;}i:1842;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318274;}i:1843;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318274;}i:1844;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:548:"Por todas partes crecientes inversiones consagradas a las escuelas vuelven la absurdidad de la empresa escolar más evidente. Puede parecer paradójico que los pobres sean sus primeras víctimas. En el fondo, eso es lo que muestra el reporte de la comisión de encuestas Wright en Ontario: a propósito de la enseñanza superior, los miembros de la comisión señalan que las capas pobres de la población las subvencionaban desde el punto de vista de la imposición de manera desproporcionada, ya que los ricos eran casi los únicos beneficiarios.";}i:2;i:318276;}i:1845;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318824;}i:1846;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:318824;}i:1847;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:435:"Esta observación podría inmediatamente hacerse en otra parte. En la URSS, un sistema de cuota aplicado durante muchos decenios parece favorecer la admisión a la universidad de los hijos de los trabajadores a expensas de las hijas e hijos de universitarios. Actualmente estos últimos son sobrerrepresentados en las clases superiores y terminales de la enseñanza rusa y en una proporción todavía más grande que en Estados Unidos.";}i:2;i:318826;}i:1848;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:319261;}i:1849;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:319261;}i:1850;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:923:"El 8 de marzo de 1971, el juez Warren E. Burger hacía público el veredicto unánime de la corte en el caso Griggs contra la sociedad Duke Power. Fundándose en la voluntad expresada por el Congreso en el artículo que concierne a la igualdad de oportunidades en la ley de 1964, la corte resolvió por unanimidad que cualquier “diploma” exigido a un candidato por un empleo (o cualquier prueba seguida) debía “medir al hombre en relación con un trabajo dado” y no “al hombre mismo en un plano abstracto”. Además, correspondía al empresario probar que sus exigencias en materia de diplomas constituía una “medida razonable de la calificación requerida”. Mediante estas consideraciones, los jueces querían evitar que las pruebas y diplomas exigidos no se utilizaran en provecho de una discriminación racial, pero la lógica del razonamiento podría también aplicarse a cualquier exigencia de un “ ";}i:2;i:319263;}i:1851;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:320186;}i:1852;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:8:"pedigree";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:8:"pedigree";}i:2;i:320187;}i:1853;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:320195;}i:1854;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:159:" educativo” en materia de empleo. Es tiempo de formar causa contra la “gran estafa de la formación profesional” denunciada tan justamente por Ivar Berg.";}i:2;i:320196;}i:1855;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:320355;}i:1856;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:320355;}i:1857;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1127:"En los países pobres, las escuelas sirven para justificar el atraso económico de una nación: a la mayoría de los ciudadanos se le mantiene apartada de los magros medios modernos de producción y de consumo, pero todos sueñan con beneficiarse de los favores de la economía franqueando el umbral de una escuela. La repartición jerárquica de los privilegios y del poder ya no depende, en nuestros días y en el plano de la legitimidad, de una descendencia de ancestros, de la herencia, del favor del príncipe, incluso de una lucha sin cuartel en el mercado económico o en el campo de batalla. Su verdadera legitimidad la encuentra en una forma más sutil del capitalismo donde la institución encargada de conferirla se encuentra en la escolaridad obligatoria. Quien aprovechó los servicios de la escuela vuelve entonces al subprivilegiado responsable de su desgracia: es un mal consumidor del saber. Esta justificación de la desigualdad social no resiste siempre el examen de los hechos y los regímenes populares tienen cada vez más dificultades para disimular las contradicciones entre la propaganda y la realidad.";}i:2;i:320357;}i:1858;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321484;}i:1859;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321484;}i:1860;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:512:"Desde hace 10 años, Cuba se esfuerza por promover el crecimiento rápido de la educación popular dando confianza a la mano de obra disponible sin tomar en cuenta la calificación profesional. Al principio, el éxito de esta campaña (en particular la disminución espectacular del número de analfabetos) se ha citado como prueba de que las tasas de crecimiento limitadas de los otros sistemas escolares latinoamericanos eran imputables a la corrupción, al militarismo y a la economía de mercado capitalista.";}i:2;i:321486;}i:1861;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321998;}i:1862;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:321998;}i:1863;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:293:"Sin embargo, la lógica de la escolarización se hace sentir manifiestamente a consecuencia de los esfuerzos de Castro por “reproducir” al hombre nuevo mediante la escuela. Incluso si los estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en la zafra y sostienen activamente los ideales igualitarios del ";}i:2;i:322000;}i:1864;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:322293;}i:1865;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:10:"compañero";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:10:"compañero";}i:2;i:322294;}i:1866;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:322304;}i:1867;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:761:" Fidel, la universidad cultiva cada año una nueva cosecha de consumidores conscientes de su saber, prontos a acceder a nuevos niveles de consumo. Al mismo tiempo, el doctor Castro debe enfrentarse a la evidencia de que el sistema escolar nunca producirá suficiente mano de obra técnica diplomada. Esos diplomados que obtienen los nuevos empleos destruyen por su conservadurismo los resultados conseguidos por los cuadros no diplomados que llegaron a su posición mediante una formación en el taller. No basta con acusar a los docentes para explicar los fracasos de un gobierno revolucionario que quiere con todas sus fuerzas una institucionalización de la mano de obra siguiendo un programa secreto que garantice la producción de una burguesía universal.";}i:2;i:322305;}i:1868;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323066;}i:1869;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323068;}i:1870;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:48:"Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:323068;}i:2;i:323068;}i:1871;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:323068;}i:1872;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:53:" +### Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales";}i:2;i:323068;}i:1873;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323068;}i:1874;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:532:"Contra esta voluntad de adquirir privilegios y poder que poseen quienes detentan la competencia profesional en nombre de sus pretendidos derechos, no sabríamos imaginar una revolución sin acusar a la concepción misma de la adquisición del saber. Lo que nos conduce, en primer lugar, a considerar la cuestión de la responsabilidad en ese ámbito, ya se trate de enseñar o de instruir. Dar a conocer una mercancía sólo se consigue si imaginamos que resulta de la acción institucional o que satisface objetivos institucionales";}i:2;i:323123;}i:1875;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323655;}i:1876;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323655;}i:1877;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:240:"Para disipar este mal encantamiento, el hombre debe volver a encontrar el sentido de su responsabilidad personal cuando aprende o enseña. De esa forma se pondrá un término a esta nueva alienación donde vivir e instruirse no se toparán.";}i:2;i:323657;}i:1878;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323897;}i:1879;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:323897;}i:1880;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1489:"Recobrar el poder de aprender o de enseñar tiene como consecuencia que el profesor, al tomar el riesgo de inmiscuirse en la vida privada de otros, debe asumir la responsabilidad de sus resultados; de la misma manera, el estudiante que se pone bajo la influencia de un profesor debe sentirse responsable de su propia educación. En esa perspectiva, las instituciones educativas —si realmente son necesarias— irán teniendo el aspecto de centros abiertos a todos, donde cada uno pueda encontrar lo que busca, donde uno, por ejemplo, tenga acceso a un piano, el otro, a un horno de cerámica o a registros, libros, diapositivas, etc. Hoy en día, las escuelas, los estudios de televisión y otros sitios similares están concebidos para que los profesionales los utilicen. Desescolarizar la sociedad quiere decir, ante todo, rechazar el estatus profesional del oficio que, por orden de antigüedad, viene, justo después, del más viejo del mundo, por el que entiendo la enseñanza. La calificación de los profesores constituye ahora una traba al derecho a la palabra, de igual forma que la estructura corporativa y la credencial profesional de los periodistas representan una traba al derecho de la libertad de información. La regla de la presencia obligatoria es contraria a la libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad sólo sabría concebirse como una mutación cultural por la que un pueblo vuelve a encontrar el poder de gozar de sus libertades constitucionales.";}i:2;i:323899;}i:1881;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325388;}i:1882;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325388;}i:1883;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:534:"Instruirse, enseñar, concierne a hombres que saben que nacieron libres y que no tienen, para adquirir esa libertad, que recurrir a un tratamiento apropiado. ¿Cuándo, por lo general, aprendemos? Cuando hacemos lo que nos interesa. ¿No somos, la mayor parte de nosotros, curiosos? Queremos comprender, darle un sentido a lo que se encuentra frente a nosotros, a lo que nos concierne. ¿No somos capaces de una relación personal con otros a menos de que seamos embrutecidos por un trabajo inhumano o fascinados por el ideal escolar?";}i:2;i:325390;}i:1884;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325924;}i:1885;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:325924;}i:1886;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:721:"El hecho de que los habitantes de países ricos apenas se instruyan por sí mismos no constituye una prueba de lo contrario. Es más bien la consecuencia de una vida en un entorno donde paradójicamente no encuentran nada que aprender en la medida en que su medio está en gran parte “programado”. Están sin cesar frustrados por la estructura de una sociedad contemporánea en la que lo real, sobre lo que las decisiones podrían apoyarse, se ha vuelto de una naturaleza inasible. Viven, efectivamente, en un medio donde las herramientas que sería posible utilizar con fines creadores se vuelven productos de lujo, donde los canales de comunicación pertenecen a algunos que únicamente pueden hablar a la multitud.";}i:2;i:325926;}i:1887;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:326647;}i:1888;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:326649;}i:1889;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:51:"Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:326649;}i:2;i:326649;}i:1890;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:326649;}i:1891;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:56:" +### Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación";}i:2;i:326649;}i:1892;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:326649;}i:1893;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:720:"Un mito moderno quisiera hacemos creer que el sentimiento de impotencia que hoy en día experimenta la mayoría de los hombres sería consecuencia de la tecnología capaz de crear solamente vastos sistemas. Pero no es sólo la tecnología la que inventa esos sistemas, la que crea herramientas inmensamente poderosas, la que teje canales de comunicación en sentido único; por el contrario, mejor utilizada, la tecnología podría proporcionar a cada hombre la posibilidad de entender mejor su medio, de trabajarlo con sus propias manos, de comunicar mejor que en el pasado. Esta utilización de la tecnología, contrariamente a las tendencias actuales, constituye la verdadera alternativa al problema de la educación.";}i:2;i:326707;}i:1894;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:327427;}i:1895;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:327427;}i:1896;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1186:"Para que un hombre pueda crecer, lo que necesita es el libre acceso a las cosas, a los sitios, a los métodos, a los acontecimientos, a los documentos. Tiene necesidad de ver, de tocar, de manipular, gustoso de asir todo lo que le rodea en un medio que no esté desprovisto de sentido. Ese acceso se le rehúsa hoy en día. Cuando el saber se ha vuelto un producto, adquiere la protección que se dispensa a la propiedad privada, De esa forma, un principio que se concibió para preservar la vida personal de cada uno se utiliza para justificar las prohibiciones que se lanzan contra aquellos que no portan los documentos necesarios. En las escuelas los profesores conservan sus propios conocimientos, a menos que esos conocimientos se inserten en el programa del momento. Los media informan, pero omiten todo lo que se considera impropio para la difusión. Los especialistas se encierran en su jerga y se necesitan vulgarizadores para asegurar su traducción. Los cuerpos profesionales protegen los diplomas y la burocracia los secretos. Todas las profesiones detentan el poder de echar de su ámbito a las personas no autorizadas; sucede lo mismo con las instituciones y las naciones.";}i:2;i:327429;}i:1897;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:328615;}i:1898;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:328615;}i:1899;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:685:"Ni la estructura política ni la estructura profesional de nuestras sociedades, tanto en el Oeste como en el Este, podrían resistir la desaparición de estas prohibiciones, el trastrocamiento de esta posibilidad de tener a capas enteras de la población apartadas de lo que podría servirles. El acceso a los hechos que preconizamos no se satisface con una simple operación “etiquetas-verdad”. Es necesario construir este acceso a la realidad (y todo lo que pedimos de la publicidad es una garantía que no sea mentirosa). El acceso a la realidad constituye la alternativa fundamental en materia de educación frente a un sistema de enseñanza que sólo se propone hablar de él.";}i:2;i:328617;}i:1900;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:329302;}i:1901;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:329302;}i:1902;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:843:"Abolir el derecho al secreto profesional (incluso cuando la opinión del hombre profesional es que ese secreto sirve al bien común) representa, como hemos querido demostrarlo, un objetivo político mucho más radical que la reivindicación tradicional de nacionalizar o de controlar democráticamente las herramientas de producción. La socialización de las herramientas, sin la socialización efectiva de los conocimientos técnicos, tiende a poner el “capital del saber” en la posición que anteriormente ocupaba el financiero. Si el tecnócrata pretende apoderarse del poder es que él detenta una parte capital en la sociedad del saber secreto y reservado al pequeño número. Para proteger el valor de sus acciones y para aumentarlo, imagina una vasta organización que hace difícil, incluso imposible, el acceso al saber técnico.";}i:2;i:329304;}i:1903;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:330147;}i:1904;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:330147;}i:1905;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:994:"El hombre motivado necesita un tiempo relativamente corto para adquirir una capacidad que quiere utilizar —lo que tendemos a olvidar en una sociedad donde los profesores monopolizan la posibilidad de acceder a cualquier actividad y detentan el poder de acusar de charlatanería a todos aquellos que no se someten—. ¿En las industrias y en la investigación se requieren muchas capacidades que sean tan terribles, complejas y peligrosas como manejar un coche? Ese saber se adquiere muy pronto con la ayuda de un igual. No todos los seres están dotados para el ejercicio de la lógica matemática, pero quienes lo están hacen progresos rápidos desafiándose mutuamente en partidos de juegos educativos. En Cuernavaca uno de 20 niños es capaz de vencerme en esos juegos después de 15 días de entrenamiento. En cuatro meses, la gran mayoría de los adultos que vinieron a nuestro centro a aprender español llegaron a un nivel de conocimiento suficiente para atacar problemas abstractos.";}i:2;i:330149;}i:1906;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:331143;}i:1907;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:331143;}i:1908;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1143:"Una primera etapa de acceso a conocimientos consistiría en encontrar ventajas diversas para aquellos que, poseedores de una capacidad, quisieran compartirla. Eso, inevitablemente, chocaría con intereses de grupos profesionales y sindicatos. Esta multiplicidad de posibles aprendizajes tiene, sin embargo, con qué seducirnos. ¿Está prohibido imaginar a alguien que sabe a la vez conducir, reparar el teléfono, instalar plomería, actuar como partera y dibujar planos arquitectónicos? A esos, como decimos, se opondrían los grupos de interés y los consumidores disciplinados, diciendo muy alto que el público no podría prescindir de una garantía profesional (argumento cuya validez es cada vez menos evidente a los ojos de las asociaciones de defensa del consumidor). Debemos tomar mucho más en serio la objeción que los economistas harían de esta socialización de las capacidades: el “progreso”, dirían, se frenaría si el saber (títulos, capacidades y todo lo demás…) se democratiza. La mejor respuesta ¿no sería mostrar las tasas de crecimiento de los absurdos en materia económica que engendra el sistema escolar?";}i:2;i:331145;}i:1909;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:332288;}i:1910;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:332288;}i:1911;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:940:"Poder aproximar a quienes están deseosos de compartir sus conocimientos no es garantía de que haya adquisición de un saber. Dicho acceso está limitado no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos y el de los sindicatos, sino también por una tecnología de penuria. Las capacidades que hoy en día valen son las que se aplican al funcionamiento de “herramientas” concebidas de tal manera que no puedan generalizarse. Efectivamente, esas “herramientas” sirven para producir bienes o servicios de los que todos quieren gozar, pero esto último sólo se concede a un pequeño número y sólo pocos saben utilizarlas. Únicamente algunos privilegiados, por ejemplo, sobre el conjunto de los que sufren una determinada enfermedad, pueden beneficiarse de los descubrimientos de una investigación médica compleja, y todavía son menos los médicos que obtienen los conocimientos necesarios para utilizar dichas tecnologías.";}i:2;i:332290;}i:1912;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333230;}i:1913;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333230;}i:1914;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:555:"Sin embargo, la investigación médica ha permitido crear un maletín de auxilios que permite a los enfermeros de la armada, después de sólo algunos meses de formación, obtener en el campo de batalla resultados muy superiores a los de los verdaderos médicos de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A un nivel todavía más inmediato, ¿no podría cualquier campesina aprender a reconocer y a curar las enfermedades infecciosas más comunes si investigadores médicos prepararan los remedios y las instrucciones necesarias para un determinado sector geográfico?";}i:2;i:333232;}i:1915;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333787;}i:1916;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:333787;}i:1917;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:508:"Todos estos ejemplos buscan ilustrar el hecho de que simples consideraciones educativas bastan para exigir una importante reducción de la importancia dada a las profesiones que se oponen a las relaciones entre los hombres de ciencia y la mayoría de quienes quieren tener acceso a esta ciencia. Si se prestara atención a esta demanda, todos los hombres podrían aprender a utilizar las herramientas de ayer, vueltas más eficaces y más durables gracias a la ciencia de hoy, para crear el mundo de mañana.";}i:2;i:333789;}i:1918;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:334297;}i:1919;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:334297;}i:1920;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:731:"Por desgracia, es la tendencia contraria la que impera. Conozco una zona costera de América del Sur donde la mayoría de los habitantes viven de la pesca. Disponen de pequeñas embarcaciones y la introducción del motor auxiliar ha representado para ellos una verdadera revolución, de consecuencias a veces dramáticas. En el sector que estudié, la mitad de los motores comprados entre 1945 y 1950 funcionan todavía gracias a constante mantenimiento; por el contrario, los que se compraron en 1965 ya no funcionan porque no se concibieron para repararse. El progreso técnico proporciona a la mayoría de los seres humanos instrumentos inútiles, demasiado costosos, privándolos de las herramientas más simples que necesitan.";}i:2;i:334299;}i:1921;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335030;}i:1922;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335030;}i:1923;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:465:"Desde 1940, considerables progresos se han realizado en el ámbito de los materiales metálicos, plásticos y de fibrocemento que se utilizan en la construcción, lo que debería darle a muchos seres humanos la posibilidad de construir sus propias casas. Pero en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, mientras que en 1948 más de 30% de las habitaciones individuales las habían construido sus propietarios, a fines de 1960 ese porcentaje había caído a menos de 20 puntos.";}i:2;i:335032;}i:1924;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335497;}i:1925;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:335497;}i:1926;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1002:"El descenso del nivel de las capacidades por efecto de lo que se llama el “desarrollo económico” es aún más visible en América Latina. Ahí, la mayoría de los habitantes construyen todavía ellos mismos sus casas. Utilizan frecuentemente adobe y cal, materiales cuya utilidad es muy alta en clima cálido y húmedo. En otros sitios edifican casas con placas de chapa, cartón y otros desperdicios de la civilización industrial… En lugar de proporcionar a los habitantes herramientas simples y elementos estandarizados, sólidos, fácilmente reemplazables o reparables, los gobernantes de esos países se lanzaron a una política de producción masiva de habitaciones de interés social. Es, sin embargo, evidente que ninguno de ellos puede darse el lujo de proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas a la mayoría de los habitantes. Por todas partes esta política prohibí a las masas adquirir los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para la construcción de casas más decentes.";}i:2;i:335499;}i:1927;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:336501;}i:1928;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:336503;}i:1929;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"header";i:1;a:3:{i:0;s:33:"Una pobreza libremente consentida";i:1;i:3;i:2;i:336503;}i:2;i:336503;}i:1930;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"section_open";i:1;a:1:{i:0;i:3;}i:2;i:336503;}i:1931;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:19:"markdowku_headeratx";i:1;b:1;i:2;i:5;i:3;s:38:" +### Una pobreza libremente consentida";}i:2;i:336503;}i:1932;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:336503;}i:1933;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:923:"Darse cuenta de las posibilidades de educación nos permite ver que cualquier sociedad posindustrial debe disponer de un herramental de base cuya misma naturaleza no permita el desarrollo del control tecnocrático. Debemos, en efecto, esforzarnos por hacer surgir una sociedad donde el saber científico pueda estar, de alguna forma, abierto a las herramientas útiles, a las piezas de ensamble en unidades de dimensiones limitadas, para que sean comprensibles a los hombres. Dicho herramental permite asociarse para cumplir una tarea o, como todo mil usos lo sabe instintivamente, descubrirlas sirviéndose de ellas para nuevas posibilidades de uso. Por la combinación de posibilidades de acceso siempre abiertas a lo que sucede a nuestro alrededor y por los límites impuestos al poder de las herramientas será posible visualizar una “economía de subsistencia” capaz de utilizar las ventajas de la ciencia moderna.";}i:2;i:336543;}i:1934;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:337466;}i:1935;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:337466;}i:1936;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:629:"Desarrollar dicha economía servirá a los intereses de la aplastante mayoría de los habitantes de países pobres, pero también es la única alternativa posible en los países ricos frente a la creciente contaminación, la explotación, la construcción de un mundo cada vez más ensombrecido. Como lo hemos señalado, derribar el mito del “producto nacional bruto” no se concibe sin atacar al mismo tiempo el de la “educación nacional bruta” (que conduce a la capitalización de la mano de obra). Una economía igualitaria no podría existir en una sociedad en la que el derecho de producir lo confieren las escuelas.";}i:2;i:337468;}i:1937;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338097;}i:1938;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338097;}i:1939;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:268:"Construir una economía de subsistencia moderna no depende de invenciones científicas nuevas. Su edificación pasa por una elección deliberada del conjunto de la sociedad que debe definir límites fundamentales al desarrollo de las burocracias y de las tecnocracias.";}i:2;i:338099;}i:1940;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338367;}i:1941;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:338367;}i:1942;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1386:"Estos límites pueden definirse de diferente manera, pero su utilidad dependerá de que se tomen en cuenta las verdaderas dimensiones de la existencia. (La posición del Congreso contra el desarrollo del transporte supersónico va en buena dirección.) Estas restricciones que se impondría voluntariamente la sociedad deben dirigirse a problemas simples, accesibles a todos; podríamos aquí retomar el ejemplo de los aviones supersónicos. Lo que guiaría la elección sería la conciencia de la necesidad de un disfrute igual de los frutos del saber científico. Los franceses dicen que se necesitarían mil años para enseñarle a un país a ocuparse de una vaca; no se necesitarían dos generaciones para ayudar a todos los habitantes de América Latina o de África a utilizar (o a reparar) motores auxiliares de vehículos simplificados, de bombas, de maletines médicos, de construcciones de hormigón, si la concepción de esos equipamientos no cambiara casi cada año. Obtener igual provecho de las adquisiciones de la técnica conduciría, sin duda, a una vida donde el gozo estaría presente, gozo, con sentido, de las relaciones establecidas entre los hombres, y como al mismo tiempo los hombres vivirían en un medio en donde el absurdo ya no tendría sitio, el derecho igual a los bienes de la sociedad se confundiría finalmente con la igualdad en materia de educación.";}i:2;i:338369;}i:1943;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:339755;}i:1944;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:339755;}i:1945;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:875:"Hoy en día es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre la austeridad. La razón que por costumbre se da para explicar la impotencia actual de la mayoría se sitúa en una perspectiva (económica o política) de clases, y por lo general no nos damos cuenta de que las nuevas estructuras de clase impuestas por una sociedad escolarizada son más fácilmente controladas por los intereses establecidos. Sin duda alguna, una organización imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad definió un conjunto social en el interior del cual una minoría posee una influencia desproporcionada sobre la opinión de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática, el poder de un pequeño número de “capitalistas del saber” es capaz de impedir la formación de una verdadera opinión pública por el control de las técnicas científicas y de los medios de comunicación entre los hombres.";}i:2;i:339757;}i:1946;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:340632;}i:1947;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:340632;}i:1948;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:592:"Las garantías constitucionales dadas a la libertad de expresión, de prensa, de reunión, se dirigían a asegurar el acceso del gobierno por el pueblo. La electrónica moderna, las prensas offset, las computadoras, los teléfonos podrían representar un equipamiento capaz de dar un sentido completamente nuevo a esas libertades. Por desgracia, todas esas conquistas técnicas se utilizan para acrecentar el poder de los banqueros del conocimiento, en lugar de servir para tejer las verdaderas redes que proporcionarían oportunidades iguales de encuentro a la mayoría de los seres humanos.";}i:2;i:340634;}i:1949;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341226;}i:1950;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341226;}i:1951;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:271:"Desescolarizar la estructura social y cultural exige utilizar la tecnología para hacer posible una política de participación. Sobre la base de una coalición de la mayoría se podrían determinar los límites del secreto y del poder creciente sin que exista dictadura.";}i:2;i:341228;}i:1952;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341499;}i:1953;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341499;}i:1954;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:130:"Necesitamos un entorno nuevo en el cual crecer para conocer una sociedad sin clases o entraremos en el “mundo feliz” donde el ";}i:2;i:341501;}i:1955;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341631;}i:1956;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:11:"big brother";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:11:"big brother";}i:2;i:341632;}i:1957;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341643;}i:1958;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:43:"[^n23] estará ahí para educarnos a todos.";}i:2;i:341644;}i:1959;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341687;}i:1960;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:341687;}i:1961;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:28:"[^n01:] Penrose B. Jackson, ";}i:2;i:341689;}i:1962;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341717;}i:1963;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:95:"Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:95:"Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968";}i:2;i:341718;}i:1964;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:341813;}i:1965;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:88:" , U. S. 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Traducidos por Robin Milner-Gulland y Peter Levi, y con una introducción de los traductores. Publicado por E. P. Dutton & Co., 1962, y reimpreso con su autorización.]";}i:2;i:344222;}i:2064;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344415;}i:2065;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344415;}i:2066;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:103:"[^n20:] Las 14 más célebres universidades de Estados Unidos constituyen esta “liga de la hiedra” ";}i:2;i:344417;}i:2067;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:344520;}i:2068;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:12:"(ivy league)";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:12:"(ivy league)";}i:2;i:344521;}i:2069;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:344533;}i:2070;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:228:". (Son miembros de ella, por ejemplo, Yale, Harvard, Princeton…) Es una asociación sin objetivo definido, pero que conserva la tradición de grandeza. Saca su nombre de la hiedra que recubre los edificios más antiguos. (T.)]";}i:2;i:344534;}i:2071;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344762;}i:2072;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344762;}i:2073;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:191:"[^n21:] El hecho de asistir a los cursos representa cierto número de créditos por semestre. Para tener acceso al diploma es necesario haber cubierto un número de 135 en cuatro años. (T.)]";}i:2;i:344764;}i:2074;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344955;}i:2075;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344955;}i:2076;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:42:"[^n22:] En francés, en el original. (T.)]";}i:2;i:344957;}i:2077;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344999;}i:2078;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"p_open";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:344999;}i:2079;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:45:"[^n23:] Alusiones al libro de Aldous Huxley, ";}i:2;i:345001;}i:2080;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345046;}i:2081;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:14:"Un mundo feliz";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:14:"Un mundo feliz";}i:2;i:345047;}i:2082;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345061;}i:2083;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:26:" , y al de George Orwell, ";}i:2;i:345062;}i:2084;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:1;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:1;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345088;}i:2085;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:5:"1984.";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:5:"1984.";}i:2;i:345089;}i:2086;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:25:"markdowku_italicunderline";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:4;i:1;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:4;i:3;s:1:"_";}i:2;i:345094;}i:2087;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"cdata";i:1;a:1:{i:0;s:1:"]";}i:2;i:345095;}i:2088;a:3:{i:0;s:7:"p_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:345096;}i:2089;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:345097;}i:2090;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"document_end";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:345097;}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/e/e5bd9d606d6c0c7f5328d52b67fe2e16.xhtml b/data/cache/e/e5bd9d606d6c0c7f5328d52b67fe2e16.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd190ef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/e/e5bd9d606d6c0c7f5328d52b67fe2e16.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,2114 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="la_sociedad_desescolarizada">La sociedad desescolarizada</h1> +<div class="level1"> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La sociedad desescolarizada","hid":"la_sociedad_desescolarizada","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":1,"range":"0-31"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit2" id="introduccion">Introducción</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Debo a Everett Reimer el interés que tengo por la educación pública hasta el día de 1958 en que nos conocimos en Puerto Rico jamás había yo puesto en duda el valor de hacer obligatoria la escuela para todos. Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Desde 1966 en adelante, Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca, organizó anualmente dos seminarios alrededor de mi diálogo con Reimer. Centenares de personas de todo el mundo participaron en estos encuentros. Quiero recordar en este lugar a dos de ellos que contribuyeron particularmente a nuestro análisis y que en el entretiempo murieron: Augusto Salazar Bondy y Paul Goodman. Los ensayos escritos para el boletín <em>Cidoc Informa</em> y reunidos en este libro se desarrollaron a partir de mis notas de seminario. El último capítulo contiene ideas que me surgieron después de mis conversaciones con Erich Fromm en torno al Mutterrecht de Bachofen. +</p> + +<p> +Durante estos años Valentina Borremans constantemente me urgía a poner a prueba nuestro pensar enfrentándolo a las realidades de América Latina y de África. Este libro refleja su convencimiento de que no sólo las instituciones sino el <em>ethos</em> de la sociedad deben ser “desescolarizados”. +</p> + +<p> +La educación universal por medio de la escolarización no es factible. No sería más factible si se intentara mediante instituciones alternativas construidas según el estilo de las escuelas actuales. Ni nuevas actitudes de los maestros hacia sus alumnos, ni la proliferación de nuevas herramientas y métodos físicos o mentales (en el aula o en el dormitorio), ni, finalmente, el intento de ampliar la responsabilidad del pedagogo hasta que englobe las vidas completas de sus alumnos, dará por resultado la educación universal. La búsqueda actual de nuevos <em>embudos</em> educacionales debe revertirse hacia la búsqueda de su antípoda institucional: <em>tramas</em> educacionales que aumenten la oportunidad para que cada cual transforme cada momento de su vida en un momento de aprendizaje, de compartir, de interesarse. Confiamos en estar aportando conceptos necesarios para aquellos que realizan investigaciones sobre la educación —y asimismo para aquellos que buscan alternativas para otras industrias de servicio establecidas—. +</p> + +<p> +Me propongo examinar algunas cuestiones inquietantes que surgen una vez que adoptamos como hipótesis que la sociedad puede desescolarizarse, buscar pautas que puedan ayudarnos a discernir instituciones dignas de desarrollo por cuanto apoyan el aprendizaje en un medio desescolarizado, y esclarecer las metas personales que ampararían el advenimiento de una Edad de Ocio <em>(schole)</em> opuesta como tal a una economía dominada por las industrias de servicio. +</p> + +<p> +IVÁN ILLICH +</p> + +<p> +<em>Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978</em> +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Introducci\u00f3n","hid":"introduccion","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":2,"range":"32-3004"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit3" id="por_que_debemos_privar_de_apoyo_oficial_a_la_escuela">Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Muchos estudiantes en especial los que son pobres saben intuitivamente qué hacen por ellos las escuelas los adiestran a confundir proceso y sustancia. Una vez que estos dos términos se hacen indistintos, se adopta una nueva lógica: cuanto más tratamiento haya, tanto mejor serán los resultados. Al alumno se le “escolariza” de ese modo para confundir enseñanza con saber, promoción al curso siguiente con educación, diploma con competencia, y fluidez con capacidad para decir algo nuevo. A su imaginación se la “escolariza” para que acepte servicio en vez de valor. Se confunde el tratamiento médico tomándolo por cuidado de la salud, el trabajo social por mejoramiento de la vida comunitaria, la protección policiaca por tranquilidad, el equilibrio militar por seguridad nacional, la mezquina lucha cotidiana por trabajo productivo. La salud, el saber, la dignidad, la independencia y el quehacer creativo quedan definidos como poco más que el desempeño de las instituciones que afirman servir a estos fines, y su mejoramiento se hace dependiente de la asignación de mayores recursos a la administración de hospitales, escuelas y demás organismos correspondientes. +</p> + +<p> +En estos ensayos mostraré que la institucionalización de los valores conduce inevitablemente a la contaminación física, a la polarización social y a la impotencia psicológica: tres dimensiones en un proceso de degradación global y de miseria modernizada. Explicaré cómo este proceso de degradación se acelera cuando unas necesidades no materiales se transforman en demanda de bienes; cuando a la salud, a la educación, a la movilidad personal, al bienestar o a la cura psicológica se las define como el resultado de servicios o de “tratamientos”. Hago esto porque creo que la mayoría de las investigaciones actualmente en curso acerca del futuro tienden a abogar por incrementos aún mayores en la institucionalización de valores y que debemos definir algunas condiciones que permitieran que ocurriese lo contrario. Precisamos investigaciones sobre el posible uso de la tecnología para crear instituciones que atiendan a la acción recíproca, creativa y autónoma entre personas y a la emergencia de valores que los tecnócratas no puedan controlar sustancialmente. Necesitamos investigación en líneas generales para la futurología actual. +</p> + +<p> +Quiero suscitar la cuestión general acerca de la mutua definición, de la naturaleza del hombre y de la naturaleza de las instituciones modernas, que caracteriza nuestra visión del mundo y nuestro lenguaje. Para hacerlo, he elegido a la escuela como mi paradigma, y por consiguiente trato sólo indirectamente de otros organismos burocráticos del Estado corporativo: la familia consumidora, el partido, el ejército, la Iglesia, los medios informativos. Mi análisis del currículum oculto de la escuela debería poner en evidencia que la educación pública se beneficiaría con la desescolarización de la sociedad, tal como la vida familiar, la política, la seguridad, la fe y la comunicación se beneficiarían con un proceso análogo. +</p> + +<p> +Quiero comenzar este estudio esforzándome en hacer comprender qué es lo que la desescolarización de una sociedad escolarizada podría significar. En este contexto debiera ser más fácil entender mi elección de los cinco aspectos específicos pertinentes respecto de este proceso, los cuales abordaré en los capítulos siguientes. +</p> + +<p> +No sólo la educación sino la propia realidad social se han escolarizado. Cuesta más o menos lo mismo escolarizar tanto al rico como al pobre en igual dependencia. El gasto anual por alumno en los arrabales y los suburbios ricos de cualquiera de 20 ciudades de Estados Unidos está comprendido dentro de unos mismos márgenes —y hasta es favorable al pobre en ciertos casos—.[^n01] +</p> + +<p> +Tanto el pobre como el rico dependen de escuelas y hospitales que guían sus vidas, forman su visión del mundo y definen para ellos qué es legítimo y qué no. Ambos consideran irresponsable medicarse uno mismo, y ven a la organización comunitaria, cuando no la pagan quienes detentan la autoridad, como una forma de agresión y subversión. Para ambos grupos, apoyarse en el tratamiento institucional hace sospechoso el logro independiente. El subdesarrollo progresivo de la confianza en sí mismo y en la comunidad es incluso más típico en Westchester que en el norte de Brasil. Por doquiera, no tan sólo la educación sino la sociedad en conjunto, necesitan “desescolarización”. +</p> + +<p> +Las burocracias del bienestar social pretenden un monopolio profesional, político y financiero sobre la imaginación social, fijando normas sobre qué es valedero y qué es factible. Este monopolio está en las raíces de la modernización de la pobreza. Cada necesidad simple para la que se halla una respuesta institucional permite la invención de una nueva clase de pobres y una nueva definición de la pobreza. Hace 10 años, lo normal en México era nacer y morir en su propia casa, y ser enterrado por sus amigos. Sólo las necesidades del alma las atendía la Iglesia institucionalizada. Ahora, comenzar y acabar la vida en casa se convierten en <em>signos</em> , ya sea de pobreza, ya sea de privilegio especial. El morir y la muerte han quedado bajo la administración institucional del médico y de los empresarios de pompas fúnebres. +</p> + +<p> +Una vez que una sociedad ha convertido ciertas necesidades básicas en demandas de bienes producidos científicamente, la pobreza queda definida por normas que los tecnócratas pueden cambiar a voluntad. “Pobre” es quien no llega a satisfacer ciertas normas del consumo obligatorio. En México son pobres aquellos que carecen de tres años de escolaridad, y en Nueva York aquellos que carecen de doce. +</p> + +<p> +Los pobres siempre han sido socialmente impotentes. Apoyarse cada vez más en la atención y el cuidado institucionales agrega una nueva dimensión a su indefensión: la impotencia psicológica, la incapacidad de valerse por sí mismos. Los campesinos del altiplano andino son explotados por el terrateniente y el comerciante —una vez que se asientan en Lima llegan a depender, además, de los jefazos políticos y están desarmados por su falta de escolaridad—. La pobreza moderna conjuga la pérdida del poder sobre las circunstancias con una pérdida de la potencia personal. Esta modernización de la pobreza es un fenómeno mundial y está en el origen del subdesarrollo contemporáneo. Adopta aspectos diferentes, por supuesto, en países ricos y países pobres. +</p> + +<p> +Probablemente se siente más intensamente en las ciudades estadunidenses. En ninguna otra parte se da un tratamiento más costoso a la pobreza. En ninguna otra parte el tratamiento de la pobreza produce tanta dependencia, ira, frustración y nuevos requerimientos. Y en ninguna otra parte es tan evidente que la pobreza —una vez modernizada— ha llegado a hacerse resistente al tratamiento con dólares y requiere de una revolución institucional. +</p> + +<p> +Hoy en día, en Estados Unidos, el negro y hasta el vagabundo pueden aspirar a un nivel de tratamiento profesional que habría sido inconcebible hace dos generaciones y que a la mayoría de la gente del Tercer Mundo le parece grotesca. Por ejemplo, los pobres de Estados Unidos pueden contar con un vigilante escolar que lleve a sus hijos de regreso a la escuela hasta que lleguen a los 17 años o con un médico que les remita a una cama de hospital que cuesta 60 dólares diarios —el equivalente al ingreso de tres meses para la mayor parte de la gente en el mundo—. Pero ese cuidado los hace sólo más dependientes de un tratamiento ulterior, y los hace cada vez más incapaces de organizar sus propias vidas en torno a sus propias experiencias y recursos dentro de sus propias comunidades. +</p> + +<p> +Los estadunidenses pobres están en una posición singular para hablar sobre el predicamento que amenaza a todos los pobres de un mundo en vías de modernización. Están descubriendo que no hay cantidad alguna de dólares que pueda eliminar la destructividad inherente de las instituciones de bienestar social, una vez que las jerarquías profesionales de estas instituciones han convencido a la sociedad de que sus servicios son moralmente necesarios. Los pobres de los núcleos urbanos centrales de Estados Unidos pueden demostrar con su propia experiencia la falacia sobre la que está construida la legislación social en una sociedad “escolarizada”. +</p> + +<p> +William O. Douglas, miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, hizo la observación de que “la única manera de establecer una observación es financiarla”. El corolario es asimismo verdadero. Sólo al desviar los dólares que ahora afluyen a las instituciones que actualmente tratan la salud, la educación y el bienestar social, podrá detenerse el progresivo empobrecimiento que ahora proviene del aspecto paralizante de las mismas instituciones. +</p> + +<p> +Debemos tener esto presente al evaluar los programas de ayuda federales. A modo de ejemplo: entre 1965 y 1968, en las escuelas de Estados Unidos se gastaron más de 3 000 millones de dólares para compensar las desventajas de unos seis millones de niños. Al programa se le conoce con el nombre de <em>Title One</em> (Artículo Primero). Es el programa compensatorio más costoso que jamás se haya intentado en parte alguna en materia de educación y, sin embargo, no es posible discernir ningún mejoramiento significativo en el aprendizaje de estos niños “desfavorecidos”. En comparación con sus condiscípulos del mismo curso que provienen de hogares de ingresos medios, han quedado aún más retrasados. Por lo demás, a lo largo de este programa, los profesionales descubrieron otros 10 millones de niños que se esforzaban sometidos a desventajas económicas y educativas. Se dispone ahora de nuevas razones para reclamar nuevos fondos federales. +</p> + +<p> +Este fracaso total en el intento de mejorar la educación de los pobres a pesar de un tratamiento más costoso puede explicarse de tres maneras: +</p> + +<p> +<em>1)</em> Tres mil millones de dólares son insuficientes para mejorar el aprovechamiento de seis millones de niños de modo apreciable; o bien, +</p> + +<p> +<em>2)</em> el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente: se requieren diferentes planes de estudio, una mejor administración, una concentración aún mayor de fondos sobre el niño pobre, y más investigaciones. Con ello se lograría el objetivo: o bien, +</p> + +<p> +<em>3)</em> la desventaja educativa no puede curarse apoyándose en una educación dentro de la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Lo primero es sin duda cierto en cuanto que el dinero se ha gastado a través del presupuesto escolar. El dinero se destinó efectivamente a las escuelas donde estaban la mayoría de los niños desfavorecidos, pero no se gastó en los niños mismos. Estos niños, a los que estaba destinado el dinero, constituían sólo alrededor de la mitad de los que asistían a las escuelas que añadieron el subsidio federal a sus presupuestos. De modo que el dinero se gastó en inspección y custodia, en indoctrinación y selección de papeles sociales, como también en educación, todo ello inextricablemente mezclado con los edificios e instalaciones, planes de estudio, profesores, administradores y otros componentes básicos de estas escuelas y, por consiguiente, con sus presupuestos. +</p> + +<p> +Los fondos adicionales permitieron a las escuelas atender desproporcionadamente a los niños relativamente más ricos que estaban “desfavorecidos” por tener que asistir a la escuela en compañía de los pobres. En el mejor de los casos, una pequeña proporción de cada dólar destinado a remediar las desventajas del niño pobre en su aprendizaje podía llegar hasta ese niño a través del presupuesto de la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Podría ser igualmente cierto que el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente. Pero ni siquiera la incompetencia poco común puede superar la del sistema escolar. Las escuelas resisten, por su estructura misma, la concentración del privilegio en quienes son, por otra parte, desfavorecidos. Los planes especiales de estudio, las clases separadas o más horas de estudio constituyen tan sólo más discriminación a un coste más elevado. +</p> + +<p> +Los contribuyentes no se han acostumbrado aún a ver que 3 000 millones de dólares se desvanezcan en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar como si se tratara del Pentágono. El gobierno actual tal vez estime que puede afrontar la ira de los educadores. Los estadunidenses de clase media no tienen nada que perder si se interrumpe el programa. Los padres pobres creen que sí pierden, pero, más todavía, están exigiendo el control de los fondos destinados a sus hijos. Un sistema lógico de recortar el presupuesto y, sería de esperar, de aumentar sus beneficios, consistiría en un sistema de becas escolares como el propuesto por Milton Friedman y otros. Los fondos se canalizarían al beneficiario, permitiéndole comprar su parte de escolaridad que elija. Si dicho crédito se limitara a unas compras que se ajustasen a un plan escolar de estudios, tendería a proporcionar una mayor igualdad de tratamiento, pero no aumentaría por ello la igualdad de las exigencias sociales. +</p> + +<p> +Debería ser obvio que incluso con escuelas de igual calidad un niño pobre rara vez se pondrá a la par de uno rico. Incluso si asisten a las mismas escuelas y comienzan a la misma edad, los niños pobres carecen de la mayoría de las oportunidades educativas que, al parecer, dispone el niño de clase media. Estas ventajas van desde la conversación y los libros en el hogar hasta el viaje de vacaciones y un sentido diferente de sí mismo, y actúan, para el niño que goza de ellas, tanto dentro de la escuela como fuera de ella. De modo que el estudiante más pobre se quedará atrás en tanto dependa de la escuela para progresar o aprender. Los pobres necesitan fondos que les permitan aprender y no obtener certificados del tratamiento de sus deficiencias presuntamente desproporcionadas. +</p> + +<p> +Todo esto es válido para naciones tanto ricas como pobres, pero aparece con aspecto diferente. En las naciones pobres, la pobreza modernizada afecta a más gente y más visiblemente, pero también —por ahora— más superficialmente. Dos de cada tres del total de niños latinoamericanos dejan la escuela antes de terminar el quinto grado, pero estos <em>desertores</em>[^n02] no están tan mal, como lo estarían en Estados Unidos. +</p> + +<p> +Hoy en día son pocos los países víctimas de la pobreza clásica, que era estable y menos paralizante. La mayoría de los países de América Latina han llegado al punto de “despegue” hacia el desarrollo económico y el consumo competitivo y, por lo tanto, hacia la pobreza modernizada: sus ciudadanos aprenden a pensar como ricos y a vivir como pobres. Sus leyes establecen un periodo escolar obligatorio de seis a 10 años. No sólo en Argentina, sino también en México o en Brasil, el ciudadano medio define una educación adecuada según las pautas estadunidenses, aun cuando la posibilidad de lograr esa prolongada escolarización esté restringida a una diminuta minoría. En estos países la mayoría ya está enviciada con la escuela, es decir, ha sido “escolarizada” para sentirse inferior respecto de quienes tienen una mejor escolaridad. Su fanatismo en favor de la escuela hace posible explotarlos por partida doble: permite aumentar la asignación de fondos públicos para la educación de unos pocos y aumentar la aceptación del control social por parte de la mayoría. +</p> + +<p> +Es paradójico que la creencia en la escolarización universal se mantenga más firme en los países en que el menor número de personas ha sido —y será— servido por las escuelas. Sin embargo, en América Latina la mayoría de los padres y de los hijos podrían seguir aún senderos diferentes hacia la educación. La proporción del ahorro nacional invertido en escuelas y maestros tal vez sea mayor que en los países ricos, pero estas inversiones son totalmente insuficientes para atender a la mayoría haciendo posible siquiera cuatro años de asistencia a la escuela. Fidel Castro habla como si quisiese avanzar directo a la desescolarización, cuando promete que para 1980 Cuba estará en condiciones de disolver su universidad, puesto que toda la vida cubana será una <em>experiencia educativa</em>. Sin embargo, en los niveles de primaria y secundaria, Cuba, al igual que otros países latinoamericanos, actúa como si el paso a través de un periodo definido como “la edad escolar” fuese una meta incuestionable para todos, sólo postergada por una escasez momentánea de recursos. +</p> + +<p> +Los dos engaños gemelos de un tratamiento más a fondo, tal como de hecho se proporciona en Estados Unidos —y como tan sólo se promete en América Latina— se complementan entre sí. Los pobres del Norte están siendo tullidos por el mismo tratamiento de 12 años cuya carencia marca a los pobres del Sur como irremediablemente retrasados. Ni en Norteamérica ni en América Latina logran los pobres igualdad a partir de escuelas obligatorias. Pero en ambas partes la sola existencia de la escuela desanima al pobre y lo invalida para asir el control de su propio aprendizaje. En todo el mundo la escuela tiene un efecto antieducacional sobre la sociedad: se le reconoce como la institución que se especializa en educación. La mayoría de las personas considera los fracasos de la escuela como una prueba de que la educación es una tarea muy costosa, muy compleja, siempre arcana y frecuentemente casi imposible. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela se apropia del dinero, de los hombres y de la buena voluntad disponibles para educación, y fuera de eso desalienta a otras instituciones respecto a asumir tareas educativas. El trabajo, el tiempo libre, la política, la vida ciudadana e incluso la vida familiar dependen de las escuelas, en lo concerniente a los hábitos y conocimientos que presuponen, en vez de convertirse ellos mismos en medios de educación. Tanto las escuelas como las otras instituciones que dependen de aquéllas llegan simultáneamente a tener un precio imposible. +</p> + +<p> +En Estados Unidos, los costes per cápita de la escolaridad han aumentado casi con igual rapidez que el coste del tratamiento médico. Pero este tratamiento más completo impartido por doctores y maestros ha mostrado resultados en continua declinación. Los gastos médicos concentrados sobre los mayores de 45 años se han duplicado varias veces durante un periodo de 40 años, dando como fruto un aumento de 3% en las probabilidades de vida de los varones. El incremento de los gastos educativos ha producido resultados aún más extraños; de otra manera el presidente Nixon no se habría sentido inclinado a prometer esta primavera que todo niño tendrá pronto el “derecho a leer” antes de dejar la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En Estados Unidos se precisarían 80 000 millones de dólares por año para proporcionar lo que los educadores consideran como tratamiento igualitario para todos en escuelas primaria y secundaria. Esto es bastante más del doble de los 36 000 millones que se están gastando ahora. Las predicciones de costes preparadas de modo independiente en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar y en la Universidad de Florida indican que para 1974 las cifras comparables serán de 107 000 millones contra los 45 000 millones proyectados ahora, y estas cifras omiten totalmente los enormes costes de lo que se denomina “educación superior”, cuya demanda está creciendo de manera más veloz. Estados Unidos, que en 1969 gastó casi 80 000 millones de dólares en “defensa”, incluyendo su despliegue en Vietnam, es obviamente demasiado pobre como para proporcionar igual escolaridad. El comité nombrado por el presidente para el estudio del financiamiento de las escuelas debiera preguntar no cómo mantener o cómo recortar tales costes, crecientes, sino cómo evitarlos. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela igual y obligatoria para todos debiera reconocerse por lo menos como algo económicamente impracticable. En América Latina, la cantidad de erario que se gasta en cada estudiante graduado oscila entre 350 y 1 500 veces el monto gastado en el ciudadano medio (es decir, el ciudadano que está en un término medio entre el más pobre y el más rico). En Estados Unidos la discrepancia es menor, pero la discriminación más aguda. Los padres más ricos, cerca de 10%, pueden permitirse proporcionar a sus hijos educación privada y ayudarles a beneficiarse de las donaciones de fundaciones. Pero además consiguen 10 veces el monto per cápita de fondos públicos si éste se compara con el gasto per cápita que se efectúa en los hijos de 10% de los más pobres. Las razones principales de que esto ocurra son que los muchachos ricos permanecen más tiempo en la escuela, que un año de universidad es desproporcionadamente más costoso que un año de escuela secundaria, y que la mayoría de las universidades privadas dependen —al menos indirectamente— de un financiamiento derivado de desgravámenes. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela obligatoria polariza inevitablemente a una sociedad y califica asimismo a las naciones del mundo según un sistema internacional de castas. A los países se los califica como castas cuya dignidad la determina el promedio de años de escolaridad de sus ciudadanos, tabla de calificación que se relaciona íntimamente con el producto nacional bruto per cápita y es mucho más dolorosa. +</p> + +<p> +La paradoja de las escuelas es evidente: el gasto creciente hace aumentar su destructividad en su propio país y en el extranjero. Esta paradoja debe convertirse en tema de debate público. Hoy por hoy se reconoce de manera general que el medio ambiente físico quedará destruido dentro de poco por la contaminación bioquímica a menos que invirtamos las tendencias actuales de producción de bienes físicos. Debería reconocerse asimismo que la vida social y personal está igualmente amenazada por la contaminación del Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar, subproducto inevitable del consumo obligatorio y competitivo del bienestar. +</p> + +<p> +La escalada de las escuelas es tan destructiva como la de las armas, si bien de manera menos visible. En todo el mundo, los costes de la escuela han aumentado con mayor velocidad que las matrículas y más velozmente por el producto nacional bruto (PNB); en todas partes los gastos en la escuela se quedan cada vez más cortos frente a las expectativas de padres, maestros y alumnos. Por doquiera, esta situación desalienta tanto la motivación como el financiamiento para una planificación en gran escala del aprendizaje no escolar. Estados Unidos está demostrando al mundo que ningún país puede ser lo bastante rico como para permitirse un sistema escolar que satisfaga las demandas que este mismo sistema crea con sólo existir, porque un sistema escolar que logre su meta escolariza a padres y alumnos en el valor supremo de un sistema escolar aún mayor, cuyo coste crece desproporcionadamente conforme se crea una demanda de grados superiores y éstos se hacen escasos. +</p> + +<p> +En vez de decir que una escolaridad pareja es impracticable por el momento, debemos reconocer que, en principio, es económicamente absurda, y que intentarla es intelectualmente castrante, socialmente polarizante y destruye la verosimilitud del sistema político que la promueve. +</p> + +<p> +La ideología de la escolaridad obligatoria no admite límites lógicos. La Casa Blanca proporcionó hace poco un buen ejemplo. El doctor Hutschnecker, el “psiquiatra” que atendió al señor Nixon antes de que fuese admitido como candidato, recomendó al presidente que todos los niños de seis a ocho años fueran examinados profesionalmente para cazar a aquellos que tuviesen tendencias destructivas, y que se les proporcionase a éstos tratamiento obligatorio. En caso necesario se exigiría su reeducación en instituciones especiales. Este memorándum enviado al presidente por su doctor pasó al Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar para que examinaran su valía. En efecto, unos campos de concentración preventivos para predelincuentes serían un adelanto lógico respecto del sistema escolar. +</p> + +<p> +El que todos tengan iguales oportunidades de educarse es una meta deseable y factible, pero identificar con ello la escolaridad obligatoria es confundir la salvación con la Iglesia. La escuela ha llegado a ser la religión del proletariado modernizado, y hace promesas huecas a los pobres de la era tecnológica. La nación-Estado la ha adoptado, reclutando a todos los ciudadanos dentro de un currículum graduado que conduce a diplomas consecutivos no distintos a los rituales de iniciación y promociones hieráticas de antaño. El Estado moderno se ha arrogado el deber de hacer cumplir el juicio de sus educadores mediante vigilantes bien intencionados y cualificaciones exigidas para conseguir trabajos, de modo muy semejante al que siguieron los reyes españoles que hicieron cumplir los juicios de sus teólogos mediante los conquistadores y la Inquisición. +</p> + +<p> +Hace dos siglos Estados Unidos dio al mundo la pauta en un movimiento para privar de apoyo oficial al monopolio de una sola Iglesia. Ahora necesitamos la separación constitucional respecto del monopolio de la escuela quitando de esa manera el apoyo oficial a un sistema que conjuga legalmente el prejuicio con la discriminación. El primer artículo de una Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre apropiada para una sociedad moderna, humanista, concordaría con la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de Estados Unidos: “El Estado no dictará ley alguna respecto del establecimiento de la educación”. No habrá ningún ritual obligatorio para todos. +</p> + +<p> +Para poner en vigencia esta separación entre Estado y escuela, necesitamos una ley que prohíba la discriminación en la contratación de personal, en las votaciones o en la admisión a los centros de enseñanza fundados en la previa asistencia a algún plan de estudios. Esta garantía no excluiría pruebas de competencia para una función o cargo, pero eliminaría la absurda discriminación actual en favor de una persona que aprende una destreza determinada con el mayor de los gastos del erario público o —lo que es igualmente probable— que ha podido obtener un diploma que no tiene relación con ninguna habilidad o trabajo útiles. Una separación constitucional del Estado y la escuela puede llegar a ser psicológicamente eficaz sólo si protege al ciudadano de la posibilidad de ser descalificado por cualquier aspecto de su carrera escolar. +</p> + +<p> +Con la escolaridad no se fomenta ni el deber ni la justicia porque los educadores insisten en aunar la instrucción y la certificación. El aprendizaje y la asignación de funciones sociales se funden en la escolarización. No obstante que aprender significa adquirir una nueva habilidad o entendimiento, la promoción depende de la opinión que otros se hayan formado de uno. Aprender es con frecuencia el resultado de una instrucción, pero ser elegido para una función o categoría en el mercado del trabajo depende cada vez más del tiempo que se ha asistido a un centro de instrucción. +</p> + +<p> +Instrucción es la selección de circunstancias que facilitan el aprendizaje. Las funciones se asignan fijando un currículum de condiciones que el candidato debe satisfacer para pasar la valla. La escuela vincula la instrucción —pero no el aprendizaje— con estas funciones. Esto no es ni razonable ni liberador. No es razonable porque no liga unas cualidades o competencias sobresalientes con las funciones por desempeñar, sino con el proceso mediante el cual se supone que habrán de adquirirse dichas cualidades. No libera ni educa porque la escuela reserva la instrucción para aquellos cuyos pasos en el aprendizaje se ajustan a unas medidas aprobadas de control social. +</p> + +<p> +El currículum se ha empleado siempre para asignar el rango social. En ocasiones podía ser prenatal: el karma le adjudica a uno a determinada casta y el linaje a la aristocracia. El currículum podía adoptar la forma de un ritual de ordenaciones sacras y secuenciales, o bien podía consistir en una sucesión de hazañas guerreras o cinegéticas, o bien las promociones ulteriores podían depender de una serie de previos favores regios. La escolaridad universal tenía por objeto separar la adjudicación de las funciones de la historia personal de cada uno: se ideó para dar a todos una oportunidad igual de obtener cualquier cargo. Aún ahora muchos creen erróneamente que la escuela asegura que la confianza pública dependa de unos logros sobresalientes en el saber. Pero en vez de haber igualado las posibilidades, el sistema escolar ha monopolizado su distribución. +</p> + +<p> +Para separar la competencia del currículum, debe convertirse en tabú toda indagación acera del historial de aprendizaje de cada persona, tal como las indagaciones acerca de su filiación política, su asistencia a la iglesia, linaje, hábitos sexuales o antecedentes raciales. Deben dictarse leyes que prohíban la discriminación basada en una previa escolaridad. Evidentemente, las leyes no pueden impedir el prejuicio contra el no escolarizado —ni se pretende con ellas obligar a nadie a casarse con un autodidacta—, pero pueden desaprobar la discriminación justificada. +</p> + +<p> +Otra gran ilusión en la que se apoya el sistema escolar es la creencia de que la mayor parte del saber es el resultado de la enseñanza. La enseñanza puede, en verdad, contribuir a ciertos tipos de aprendizaje en ciertas circunstancias. Pero la mayoría de las personas adquieren la mayor parte de su conocimiento fuera de la escuela, y cuando este conocimiento se da en ella, sólo es en la medida en que, en unos cuantos países ricos, la escuela se ha convertido en el lugar de confinamiento de las personas durante una parte cada vez mayor de sus vidas. +</p> + +<p> +Lo principal del aprendizaje sobreviene casualmente, e incluso el aprendizaje más intelectual no es el resultado de una instrucción programada. Los niños normales aprenden su lenguaje de manera informal, aunque con mayor rapidez si sus padres les prestan atención. La mayoría de las personas que aprenden bien un segundo idioma lo hacen a consecuencia de circunstancias aleatorias y no de una enseñanza ordenada. Llegan a vivir con sus abuelos, o viajan o se enamoran de algún extranjero. La lectura fácil proviene con igual frecuencia de la escuela o de actividades extracurriculares de este tipo. La mayoría de quienes leen profusamente y con placer tan sólo creen que aprendieron a hacerlo en la escuela; cuando se les discute esto, descartan fácilmente este espejismo. +</p> + +<p> +Pero el hecho de que aún ahora gran parte del aprendizaje parece suceder al azar y como subproducto de alguna otra actividad definida como trabajo u ocio no significa que el aprendizaje planificado no beneficie la instrucción planificada. Al estudiante poderosamente motivado que se enfrenta con la tarea de adquirir una habilidad nueva y compleja puede aprovecharle mucho la disciplina que hoy en día se asocia mentalmente con el maestro de viejo cuño que antaño enseñaba lectura, hebreo, catecismo o multiplicación de memoria. La escuela ha hecho que este tipo de enseñanza rutinaria sea escasa y mal reputada; no obstante hay muchas destrezas que un estudiante motivado puede dominar en pocos meses si se le enseña de este modo tradicional. Esto vale tanto para los códigos como para su desciframiento; tanto para los segundos o terceros idiomas como para la lectura y la escritura, e igualmente para lenguajes especiales como el álgebra, la programación de computadoras, el análisis químico, o para destrezas manuales como la mecanografía, la relojería, la fontanería, las instalaciones domésticas de electricidad, la reparación de televisores, o para bailar, conducir vehículos y bucear. +</p> + +<p> +En algunos casos, ser aceptado en un programa de aprendizaje dirigido a una determinada habilidad podría presuponer competencia en alguna otra habilidad, pero ciertamente no se haría depender del proceso mediante el cual se hubieran adquirido tales habilidades previamente requeridas. La reparación de televisores presupone saber leer y algo de matemáticas; el bucear, ser buen nadador, y el conducir, muy poco de ambas cosas. +</p> + +<p> +El progreso en el aprendizaje es mensurable. Es fácil calcular los recursos óptimos de tiempo y materiales que un adulto corriente motivado necesita. El coste de enseñar un segundo idioma europeo occidental hasta un elevado nivel de fluidez oscila entre 400 y 600 dólares en Estados Unidos, y para una lengua oriental el tiempo requerido de instrucción podría duplicarse. Esto sería todavía poquísimo en comparación con el coste de 12 años de escolaridad en la ciudad de Nueva York (condición para ingresar en el Departamento de Higiene) —casi 15 000 dólares—. Sin duda no sólo el maestro, sino también el impresor y el farmacéutico protegen sus oficios mediante el espejismo público de que el adiestramiento para aprenderlos es muy costoso. +</p> + +<p> +En la actualidad, las escuelas se apropian de antemano de la mayor parte de los fondos para educación. La instrucción rutinaria, que cuesta menos que una escolarización comparable, es ahora un privilegio de quienes son lo bastante ricos como para pasarse por alto las escuelas, y de aquellos a quienes el ejército o las grandes firmas les proporcionan un adiestramiento en el trabajo mismo. En un programa de desescolarización progresiva para Estados Unidos, en un comienzo habría escasez de recursos para el adiestramiento rutinario. Pero finalmente no habría impedimento alguno para cualquiera que en cualquier momento de su vida quisiese elegir una instrucción entre centenares de habilidades definibles y a cargo del Estado. +</p> + +<p> +Ahora mismo podrían proporcionarse calificaciones educativas aceptables en cualquier centro de enseñanza de oficios en cantidades limitadas para personas de cualquier edad, y no sólo para pobres. Yo concibo dicha calificación (o crédito) en forma de un pasaporte educativo o de una “tarjeta de educrédito” entregada a cada ciudadano al nacer. A fin de favorecer a los pobres, que probablemente no usarían sus cuotas anuales a temprana edad, podría estipularse que los usuarios tardíos de tales “títulos” acumulados ganasen interés. Dichos créditos permitirían a la mayoría adquirir las habilidades de mayor demanda, cuando les conviene, de manera mejor, más rápida, más barata y con menos efectos subsidiarios desfavorables que en la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Se me objetará la falta de profesores, pero esto es plantear mal el problema, pues, por una parte, la demanda de una habilidad crece sólo al ponerse en práctica en una comunidad y, por otra, un hombre que ejerza una habilidad puede también enseñarla. Pero, actualmente, aquellos que usan una habilidad que está en demanda y que precisan un profesor humano tienen estímulos negativos para compartir con otros estas habilidades. Esto lo hacen o maestros que monopolizan las licencias, o sindicatos que protegen sus intereses gremiales. Unos centros de enseñanza de oficios o habilidades a los que los clientes juzgaran por sus resultados, y no por el personal que empleasen o por el proceso que se utilizasen, abrirían oportunidades insospechables de trabajo, frecuentemente incluso para aquellos que hoy se consideran inempleables. Verdaderamente no hay motivo para que tales centros no estuviesen en el lugar mismo de trabajo; el patrono y su personal proporcionarían tanto la instrucción como trabajos a quienes eligiesen utilizar sus créditos educativos de esta manera. +</p> + +<p> +En 1956 se suscitó la necesidad de enseñar rápidamente español a varios centenares de maestros, trabajadores sociales y curas de la arquidiócesis de Nueva York, de modo que pudiesen comunicarse con los puertorriqueños. Mi amigo Gerry Morris anunció en español por una radioemisora que necesitaba hispanohablantes nativos que viviesen en Harlem. Al día siguiente unos 200 adolescentes se alineaban frente a su oficina; de entre ellos eligió cuatro docenas —muchos de ellos desertores escolares—. Los instruyó en el uso del Manual de Instrucción del Instituto del Servicio Exterior de Estados Unidos, para español, concebido para el uso de lingüistas con licenciatura, y al cabo de una semana sus profesores se manejaban solos —cada uno de ellos a cargo de cuatro neoyorkinos que querían hablar el idioma—. En el plazo de seis meses se había cumplido la misión. El cardenal Spellman podía afirmar que tenía 127 parroquias en cada una de las cuales había por lo menos tres miembros de su personal que podían conversar en español. Ningún programa escolar podría haber logrado iguales resultados. +</p> + +<p> +Los profesores de habilidades escasean por la creencia en el valor de los títulos. La certificación es una manera de manipular el mercado y es concebible sólo para una mente escolarizada. La mayoría de los profesores de artes y oficios son menos diestros, tienen menor inventiva y son menos comunicativos que los mejores artesanos y maestros. La mayoría de los profesores de español o de francés de bachillerato no hablan esos idiomas con la corrección con que lo harían alumnos después de un semestre de rutinas competentes. Unos experimentos llevados a cabo por Ángel Quintero en Puerto Rico sugieren que muchos adolescentes, si se les dan los adecuados incentivos, programas y acceso a las herramientas, son mejores que la mayoría de los maestros de escuela para iniciar a los de su edad en la exploración científica de las plantas, las estrellas y la materia, y en el descubrimiento de cómo y por qué funciona un motor o un radio. +</p> + +<p> +Las oportunidades para el aprendizaje de habilidades pueden multiplicarse enormemente si abrimos el “mercado”. Esto depende de reunir al maestro correcto con el alumno correcto cuando éste está altamente motivado dentro de un programa inteligente, sin la restricción del currículum. +</p> + +<p> +La instrucción libre y rutinaria es una blasfemia subversiva para el educador ortodoxo. Ella desliga la adquisición de destrezas de la educación “humana”, que la escuela empaca conjuntamente, y fomenta así el aprendizaje sin título no menos que la enseñanza sin título para fines imprevisibles. +</p> + +<p> +Hay actualmente una propuesta registrada que a primera vista parece sumamente sensata. La preparó Christopher Jencks, del Center for the Study of Public Policy, y está patrocinada por la Office of Economic Opportunity. Propone poner unos “bonos” o “títulos” educativos o donaciones, para pagar el coste de los estudios, en manos de padres y estudiantes para que los gasten en las escuelas que elijan. Tales bonos individuales podrían ser un importante avance en la dirección correcta. Necesitamos que se garantice a cada ciudadano el derecho a una parte igual de los recursos educativos derivados de los impuestos, el derecho a verificar esa parte, y el derecho a entablar juicio si le es denegada. Es una forma de garantía contra la tributación regresiva. +</p> + +<p> +Pero la propuesta de Jencks comienza con la ominosa declaración de que “los conservadores, los liberales y los radicales se han quejado en una u otra ocasión de que el sistema educativo estadunidense da a los educadores profesionales un incentivo demasiado pequeño para que proporcionen una educación de gran calidad a la mayoría de los niños”. La propuesta se condena sola al proponer donaciones para pagar unos estudios que tendrían que gastar en escolarizarse. +</p> + +<p> +Esto es como dar a un inválido un par de muletas, advirtiéndole que las use sólo si les amarra los extremos. En su forma actual, la propuesta de estos bonos educativos hace el juego no sólo a los educadores profesionales sino también a los racistas, a los promotores de escuelas religiosas y a otros cuyos intereses son socialmente disociantes. Sobre todo, los bonos educativos, cuyo uso se restrinja a las escuelas, hace el juego de quienes quieren continuar viviendo en una sociedad en la que el progreso social está ligado no al conocimiento comprobado, sino al historial de aprendizaje mediante el cual presuntamente se adquiere. Esta discriminación en favor de las escuelas que domina la exposición de Jencks sobre el refinamiento de la educación podría desacreditar uno de los principios que más perentoriamente se precisan para la reforma educativa: el retorno de la iniciativa y la responsabilidad del aprendizaje al aprendiz o a su tutor más inmediato. +</p> + +<p> +La desescolarización de la sociedad implica el reconocimiento de la naturaleza ambivalente del aprendizaje. La insistencia en la sola rutina podría ser un desastre; igual énfasis debe hacerse en otros tipos de aprendizaje. Pero si las escuelas son el lugar inapropiado para aprender una destreza, son lugares aún peores para adquirir una educación. La escuela realiza mal ambas tareas, en parte porque no distingue entre ellas. La escuela es ineficiente para instruir en destrezas por ser curricular. En la mayoría de las escuelas, un programa cuyo objetivo es mejorar una habilidad está siempre concatenado con otra tarea no pertinente. La historia está amarrada al derecho de usar el patio de juegos. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas son todavía menos eficientes en la creación de circunstancias que alienten el uso irrestricto, exploratorio, de habilidades adquiridas, para lo cual reservaré el término de “educación liberal”. El principal motivo es que la escuela es obligatoria y llega a convertirse en la escolaridad por la escolaridad: una estadía forzosa en compañía de profesores, que paga con el dudoso privilegio de continuar en dicha compañía. Así como la instrucción de destrezas debe ser liberada de restricciones curriculares, a la educación liberal debe desligársela de la asistencia obligatoria. Mediante dispositivos institucionales puede ayudarse tanto al aprendizaje de habilidades como a la educación encaminada a un comportamiento creativo e inventivo, pero ambas cosas son de naturaleza diferente y frecuentemente contraria. +</p> + +<p> +La mayoría de las destrezas pueden adquirirse y perfeccionarse mediante rutinas; porque la destreza o habilidad implica el dominio de una conducta definible y predecible. La instrucción de una destreza puede apoyarse, por consiguiente, en la simulación de las circunstancias en que se utilizará dicha destreza. En cambio, la educación en el empleo exploratorio y creativo de destrezas no puede descansar en sistemas rutinarios. La educación puede ser el resultado de la instrucción, aunque de una instrucción fundamentalmente opuesta a la rutina. Se apoya en la relación entre asociaciones que ya poseen algunas de la llaves que dan acceso a memorias almacenadas en la comunidad y por la comunidad. Se apoya en la sorpresa de la pregunta inesperada que abre nuevas puertas al cuestionario y a su asociado. +</p> + +<p> +El instructor de destrezas utiliza un conjunto de condiciones dadas que permiten al aprendiz desarrollar ciertas reacciones o respuestas precisas y definidas. El guía o maestro en educación se ocupa de ayudar a unos asociados a que se reúnan de modo que se dé el aprendizaje. Reúne a personas que parten de sus propias y no resueltas interrogantes. A lo más, ayuda al alumno a formular su perplejidad puesto que sólo un planteamiento claro le dará el poder de encontrar a su pareja, moverse como ella, explorar en ese momento la misma cuestión en el mismo contexto. +</p> + +<p> +En un comienzo parecería más difícil imaginar unos asociados o compañeros para fines educativos que hallar instructores de destrezas y compañeros para un juego. Una de las razones de que esto ocurra es el profundo temor que la escuela nos ha inculcado, un miedo que nos pone criticones. El intercambio intitulado de destrezas —a menudo destrezas inconvenientes— es más predecible y por tanto parece menos peligroso que las oportunidades ilimitadas de reunión para personas que comparten una cuestión en debate que es, en ese momento, social, intelectual y emocionalmente importante para ellas. +</p> + +<p> +El profesor brasileño Paulo Freire sabe esto por experiencia. Descubrió que cualquier adulto puede comenzar a leer en cosa de 40 horas si las primeras palabras que descifra están cargadas de significado político. Freire adiestra a sus maestros para trasladarse a una aldea y descubrir las palabras que designan asuntos actuales importantes, tales como el acceso a un pozo, o el interés compuesto de las deudas que han contraído con el <em>patrón</em>. Por la tarde, los aldeanos se reúnen para conversar sobre esas palabras clave. Comienzan a percatarse de que cada palabra permanece en el pizarrón incluso después de haberse desvanecido su sonido. Las letras continúan abriendo, como llaves, la realidad y haciéndola manejable como problema. Frecuentemente he presenciado cómo en unos participantes crece la conciencia social y cómo se ven impelidos a actuar políticamente con la misma velocidad con que aprenden a leer. Parecen tomar la realidad en sus manos conforme la escriben. +</p> + +<p> +Recuerdo a un hombre que se quejó del peso de los lápices: eran difíciles de manipular porque no pesaban como una pala, y recuerdo a otro que camino al trabajo se detuvo con sus compañeros y escribió con su azadón en el suelo la palabra de la que venía conversando: <em>agua</em>.[^n03] Desde 1962, mi amigo Freire ha pasado de exilio en exilio, principalmente porque rehúsa llevar a cabo sus sesiones en torno a palabras que hayan sido preseleccionadas por educadores aprobados y prefiere utilizar aquellas que los participantes llevan consigo a las clases. +</p> + +<p> +La reunión de personas con fines educativos sólo es posible cuando se han beneficiado de una verdadera escolaridad. Los que no necesitan de esa ayuda son una minoría, incluso entre aquellos que leen revistas serias. La mayoría no puede ni debe ser congregada en torno a una consigna, a una palabra, a una imagen, sino en torno a un problema elegido y definido por iniciativa de los participantes. El aprendizaje creativo, exploratorio, requiere sujetos de igual perplejidad ante los mismos términos o problemas. Las grandes universidades realizan el vano intento de aparejarlos multiplicando sus cursos y por lo general fracasan en la medida en que están ligados al currículum, a la estructura de cursos y a una administración burocrática. En las escuelas, tal como en las universidades, la mayoría de los recursos se gasta en comprar el tiempo y la motivación de un número reducido de personas para encarar problemas predeterminados en un escenario definido de forma ritual. La alternativa más radical para la escuela sería una red o servicio que diera a cada hombre la misma oportunidad de compartir sus intereses actuales con otros motivados por iguales cuestiones. +</p> + +<p> +Permítaseme dar, como ejemplo de mi planteamiento, una descripción de cómo podría funcionar esta “unión” intelectual en la ciudad de Nueva York. Cada hombre, en cualquier momento y a un precio mínimo, podría identificarse ante una computadora con su dirección y su número de teléfono, indicando libro, artículos, película o grabación acerca de los cuales busca un compañero con el cual conversar. En un plazo de días podría recibir por correo la lista de otros que hubieran tomado recientemente la misma iniciativa. Esta lista le permitiría concertar por teléfono una reunión con personas que inicialmente se conocerían exclusivamente por el hecho de haber solicitado un diálogo sobre el mismo tema. +</p> + +<p> +Juntar personas de acuerdo con el interés que tengan sobre un título dado es radicalmente simple. Permite la identificación sobre la base de un deseo mutuo de conversar sobre una afirmación registrada por un tercero, y deja al individuo la iniciativa de concertar la reunión. Normalmente se hacen tres objeciones contra esta pureza esquelética. Las recojo no sólo para esclarecer la teoría que quiero ilustrar mediante mi propuesta —pues destacan la acendrada resistencia a desescolarizar la educación, a separar el aprendizaje del control social—, sino también porque pueden ayudar a sugerir unos recursos que no se emplean ahora para fines de aprendizaje. +</p> + +<p> +La primera objeción es: ¿por qué no podría la identificación de cada uno basarse en una idea o en un tema de debate? Ciertamente dichos términos subjetivos podrían usarse también en un sistema informático. Los partidos políticos, Iglesias, sindicatos, clubes, centros vecinales y sociedades profesionales organizan ya sus actividades educativas de este modo y, en efecto, actúan como escuelas. Todos ellos reúnen personas con el fin de explorar ciertos “temas”, que se abordan en cursos, seminarios y planes de estudio en los que unos presuntos “intereses comunes” están preen-vasados. Dicha “reunión por tema” está, por definición, centrado en el profesor: precisa una presencia autoritaria para definir ante los participantes el punto de partida de su debate. +</p> + +<p> +Por el contrario, reunirse para hablar de un libro, de una película, etc., sin otra explicación que un título o una referencia, deja al autor definir el lenguaje especial, los términos y el marco de referencia dentro del cual se plantea un determinado problema o hecho, y permite a quienes acepten este punto de partida identificarse uno con otro. Por ejemplo, reunir gente en torno a la idea de “revolución cultural” conduce generalmente o a la confusión o a la demagogia. Por otra parte, reunir a quienes se interesen en ayudarse mutuamente a entender un determinado artículo de Mao, Marcuse, Freud o Goodman se inscribe en la gran tradición del aprendizaje liberal, desde los <em>Diálogos</em> de Platón, que están construidos en torno a presuntas declaraciones de Sócrates, hasta los comentarios de Tomás de Aquino sobre Pedro Lombardo. La idea de reunir a las personas alrededor de un título es pues radicalmente diferente de la teoría sobre la que se fundaban, por ejemplo, los clubes de los “Grandes Libros”: en vez de apoyarse en la selección realizada por algunos catedráticos de Chicago, cualquier par de personas puede, como compañero de juego, elegir cualquier libro para analizarlo. +</p> + +<p> +La segunda objeción pregunta: ¿por qué la identificación de quienes buscan compañero no podría incluir información sobre edad, antecedentes, visión del mundo, competencia, experiencia y otras características definitorias? No hay en este caso razón alguna para que tales restricciones discriminatorias no pudiesen (y no debiesen) incorporarse en algunas de las numerosas universidades —con o sin muros— que podrían usar la reunión alrededor de títulos como el dispositivo básico para organizarse. Puedo imaginar un sistema ideal para fomentar las reuniones de personas interesadas en las que el autor del libro elegido podría estar presente o representado, o un sistema que garantice la presencia de un asesor competente, o uno al que tuviesen acceso sólo estudiantes matriculados en una facultad o escuela, o personas capaces de presentar una investigación específica sobre la obra que se discute. Cada una de estas restricciones, se me dirá, serviría a metas específicas de aprendizaje. Pero me temo que, en la mayoría de los casos, el motivo real para proponer tales restricciones es el desdén que proviene de presuponer que la gente es ignorante: los educadores quieren evitar que el ignorante se junte con el ignorante en torno a un texto que podrían no entender y que leen <em>sólo</em> porque están interesados en él. +</p> + +<p> +La tercera objeción: ¿por qué no proporcionar a quienes buscan compañero una ayuda incidental que facilite sus reuniones —espacio, horarios, selección de participantes, protección—? Esto lo hacen actualmente las escuelas con toda la ineficiencia que caracteriza a las grandes burocracias. Si dejáramos la iniciativa de las reuniones a los interesados en reunirse, unas organizaciones que nadie clasifica hoy como educativas harían mucho mejor este trabajo. Pienso en dueños de restaurantes, editores, servicios de recados telefónicos, directivos de trenes suburbanos que podrían promover sus servicios al hacerlos atractivos para reuniones educativas. +</p> + +<p> +En una primera reunión en, digamos, un café, los interesados podrían establecer sus identidades colocando el libro en debate junto a sus tazas. Las personas que tomaran la iniciativa de concertar tales reuniones aprenderían pronto qué elementos citar para encontrarse con la gente que buscan. El riesgo de que una conversación que uno mismo ha elegido le lleve a una pérdida de tiempo, a una decepción, e incluso a un desagrado es ciertamente menor que el riesgo que corre quien solicita ingresar en una universidad. Una reunión concertada por computadora para debatir un artículo de una revista de circulación nacional, celebrada en un café de la Cuarta Avenida, no obligaría a ninguno de los participantes a permanecer en compañía de sus nuevos conocidos por más tiempo del necesario para beber una taza de café, ni tendría que encontrarse con ellos de nuevo. La probabilidad de que ello le ayudara a disipar la opacidad de la vida en una ciudad moderna, a fomentar nuevas amistades, a abrir nuevos horizontes y profundizar en un trabajo elegido, es elevada. (El hecho de que de este modo el FBI podría conseguir un registro de las reuniones y lecturas que se hacen es innegable; el que esto pueda aún preocupar a alguien en 1970 es sólo divertido para un hombre libre, quien, quiéralo o no, aporta su cuota para ahogar a los espías en las nimiedades que recolectan.) +</p> + +<p> +Tanto el intercambio de destrezas como el encuentro con copartícipes se fundan en el supuesto de que educación <em>para todos</em> significa educación <em>por parte de todos</em>. No es el reclutamiento en una institución especializada, sino sólo la movilización de toda la población lo que puede conducir a una cultura popular. Los maestros titulados se han apropiado del derecho que todo hombre tiene de ejercer su competencia para aprender e instruir igualmente. La competencia del maestro está a su vez restringida a lo que pueda hacerse en la escuela. Además, el trabajo y el tiempo libre están, a consecuencia de ello, alienados el uno del otro: tanto del trabajador como del espectador se espera que lleguen al lugar de trabajo prestos a encajar en una rutina preparada para ellos. La adaptación en forma de diseño, instrucción y publicidad de un producto los moldea para desempeñar su papel de modo muy semejante a como lo hace la educación mediante la escolaridad. Una alternativa radical para una sociedad escolarizada exige no sólo mecanismos para la adquisición formal de destrezas y el uso educativo de éstas, implica un nuevo modo de encarar la educación informal o incidental. +</p> + +<p> +La educación incidental ya no puede regresar a las formas que el aprendizaje adoptó en la aldea o en la ciudad medieval. Mientras la sociedad tradicional se asemejaba más a un grupo de círculos concéntricos de estructuras significativas, el hombre moderno debe aprender cómo hallar significación en muchas estructuras con las que está relacionado de manera sólo marginal. En la aldea, el lenguaje, la arquitectura, el trabajo, la religión y las costumbres familiares eran compatibles entre sí, se explicaban y reforzaban mutuamente. Desarrollarse en una implicaba un desarrollo en las otras. Incluso el aprendizaje especializado era el subproducto de actividades especializadas, tales como la fabricación de zapatos o el canto de los salmos. Si un aprendiz no llegaba jamás a ser maestro o erudito, contribuía sin embargo a la fabricación de zapatos o a hacer solemnes los servicios litúrgicos. La educación no competía en tiempo ni con el trabajo ni con el ocio. Casi toda la educación era compleja, vitalicia y no planificada. +</p> + +<p> +La sociedad contemporánea es el resultado de diseños e intenciones conscientes, y las oportunidades educativas han de ser incorporadas a esos diseños. Ahora disminuirá la confianza que depositamos en la instrucción especializada y de tiempo completo a través de la escuela, y hemos de hallar nuevas maneras de aprender y enseñar: la calidad educativa de todas las instituciones debe aumentar una vez más. Pero ésta es una previsión muy ambigua. Podría significar que los hombres de la ciudad moderna serán cada día más las víctimas de un proceso eficaz de instrucción total y manipulación una vez que estén privados incluso del tenue asomo de independencia crítica que proporcionan hoy en día las escuelas liberales, cuando menos a algunos de sus alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +Podría significar también que los hombres se escudarán menos tras certificados adquiridos en la escuela y adquirirán así valor para ser “respondones” y controlar e instruir de ese modo a las instituciones en que participen. Para lograr esto último debemos darnos cuenta del valor social del trabajo y del ocio por el intercambio educativo que permiten. La participación efectiva en la política de una calle, de un puesto de trabajo o de un hospital es por lo tanto el mejor patrón para evaluar el valor de las diferentes instituciones en el plan de la educación. +</p> + +<p> +Hace poco dirigí la palabra a un grupo de estudiantes de los primeros años de bachillerato, empeñados en organizar un movimiento de resistencia a su enrolamiento obligatorio en la clase siguiente. Tenían por consigna “participación-no simulación”. Les decepcionaba que esto se entendiera como una petición de menos educación en vez de lo contrario, y me hicieron recordar la resistencia que opuso Karl Marx a un párrafo en el programa de Gotha que —hace 100 años— quería hacer ilegal el trabajo infantil. Se opuso a la proposición diciendo que la ecuación de los jóvenes solo podía producirse en el trabajo. Si el mayor fruto del trabajo del hombre debiera ser la educación que se deriva de éste y la oportunidad que el trabajo le da para iniciar la educación de otros, entonces la alimentación de la sociedad moderna en un sentido pedagógico es aún peor que su alienación económica. +</p> + +<p> +El mayor obstáculo en el camino de una sociedad que educa verdaderamente lo definió muy bien un amigo mío, negro de Chicago, quien me dijo que nuestra imaginación estaba “totalmente escuelada”. Permitimos al Estado verificar las deficiencias educativas universales de sus ciudadanos y establecer un organismo especializado para tratarlos. Compartimos así la ilusión de que podemos distinguir entre qué es educación necesaria para otros y qué no lo es, tal como generaciones anteriores establecieron leyes que definían qué era sagrado y qué profano. +</p> + +<p> +Durkheim reconoció que esta capacidad para dividir la realidad social en dos ámbitos era la esencia misma de la religión formal. Existen —razonó— religiones sin lo sobrenatural y religiones sin Dios, pero no hay ninguna que no subdivida el mundo en cosas, tiempo y personas que son sagradas y en otras que por consecuencia son profanas. Este penetrante alcance de Durkheim puede aplicarse a la sociología de la educación, pues la escuela es radicalmente divisoria de manera parecida. +</p> + +<p> +La existencia misma de las escuelas obligatorias divide cualquier sociedad en dos ámbitos: ciertos lapsos, procesos, tratamientos y profesiones son “académicos” y “pedagógicos”, y otros no lo son. Así, el poder de la escuela para dividir la realidad social no conoce límites: la educación se hace no terrenal, en tanto que el mundo se hace no educacional. +</p> + +<p> +A partir de Bonhoeffer, los teólogos contemporáneos han señalado la confusión que reina hoy en día entre el mensaje bíblico y la religión institucionalizada. Señalan la experiencia que la libertad y la fe cristianas suelen ganar con la secularización. Sus afirmaciones suenan inevitablemente blasfemas para muchos clérigos. En incuestionable que el proceso educativo ganará con la desescolarización de la sociedad aun cuando esta exigencia les suene a muchos escolares como una traición a la cultura. Pero es la cultura misma la que está siendo apagada hoy en las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +La secularización de la fe cristiana depende de la dedicación que pongan en ello los cristianos arraigados en la Iglesia. De manera muy parecida, la desescolarización de la educación depende del liderazgo de quienes se criaron en las escuelas. El currículum que cumplieron no puede servirles como excusa para la tarea: cada uno de nosotros sigue siendo responsable de lo que se ha hecho por él, aun cuando puede que no sea capaz sino de aceptar esta responsabilidad y servir de advertencia para otros. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Por qu\u00e9 debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela","hid":"por_que_debemos_privar_de_apoyo_oficial_a_la_escuela","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":3,"range":"3005-63676"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit4" id="fenomenologia_de_la_escuela">Fenomenología de la escuela</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Algunas palabras llegan a ser tan flexibles que pierden cualquier significación precisa y se usan para cualquier cosa entre éstas se cuentan “escuela” y “enseñanza”. Se filtran, como una amiba, por cualquier intersticio del lenguaje. Así, decimos que el ABM[^n04] enseñará a los rusos, la IBM enseñará a los niños negros, y el ejército puede llegar a ser la escuela de la nación. +</p> + +<p> +Por consiguiente, la búsqueda de alternativas en educación debe comenzar por un acuerdo acerca de lo que entendemos por “escuela”. Esto puede hacerse de varias maneras. Podemos comenzar por anotar las funciones latentes desempeñadas por los sistemas escolares modernos, tales como los de custodia, selección, adoctrinamiento y aprendizaje. Podríamos hacer un análisis de clientela y verificar cuál de estas funciones latentes favorece o desfavorece a maestros, patronos, niños, padres o a las profesiones. Podríamos repasar la historia de la cultura occidental y la información reunida por la antropología a fin de encontrar instituciones que desempeñaron un papel semejante al que hoy cumple la escolarización. Podríamos finalmente recordar los numerosos dictámenes normativos que se han hecho desde el tiempo de Comenius, o incluso desde Quintiliano, y descubrir a cuál de éstos se aproxima más el moderno sistema escolar. Pero cualquiera de estos enfoques nos obligaría a comenzar con ciertos supuestos acerca de una relación entre escuela y educación. +</p> + +<p> +Para crear un lenguaje en el que podamos hablar sobre la escuela sin ese incesante recurrir a la educación, he querido comenzar por algo que podría llamarse fenomenología de la escuela pública. Con este objeto definiré “escuela” como el proceso que especifica edad, se relaciona con maestros y exige asistencia de tiempo completo y un currículum obligatorio. +</p> + +<p> +1. <em>Edad</em>. La escuela agrupa a las personas según sus edades. Este agrupamiento se funda en tres premisas indiscutidas. A los niños les corresponde estar en la escuela. Los niños aprenden en la escuela. A los niños puede enseñárseles solamente en la escuela. Creo que estas tres premisas no sometidas a examen merecen ser seriamente puestas en duda. +</p> + +<p> +Nos hemos ido acostumbrando a los niños. Hemos decidido que deberían ir a la escuela, hacer lo que se les dice y no tener ingresos propios. Esperamos que sepan el lugar que ocupan y se comporten como niños. Recordamos, ya sea con nostalgia o con amargura, el tiempo en que también fuimos niños. Se espera de nosotros que toleremos la conducta infantil de los niños. La humanidad es, para nosotros, una especie simultáneamente atribulada y bendecida con la tarea de cuidar niños. No obstante, olvidamos que nuestro actual concepto de “niñez” sólo se desarrolló recientemente en Europa occidental, y hace aún menos en América.[^n05] +</p> + +<p> +La niñez como algo diferente de la infancia, la adolescencia o la juventud fue algo desconocido para la mayoría de los periodos históricos. Algunos siglos del cristianismo no tuvieron ni siquiera una idea de sus proporciones corporales. Los artistas pintaban al niño como un adulto en miniatura sentado en el brazo de su madre. Los niños aparecieron en Europa junto con el reloj de bolsillo y los prestamistas cristianos del Renacimiento. Antes de nuestro siglo ni los ricos ni los pobres supieron nada acerca de vestidos para niños, juegos para niños o de la inmunidad del niño ante la ley. Esas ideas comenzaron a desarrollarse en la burguesía. El hijo del obrero, el del campesino y el del noble vestían todos como lo hacían sus padres, jugaban como éstos y eran ahorcados igual que ellos. Después de que la burguesía descubriera la “niñez”, todo esto cambió. Sólo algunas Iglesias continuaron respetando por algún tiempo la dignidad y la madurez de los menores. Hasta el Concilio Vaticano II, se le decía a cada niño que un cristiano llega a tener discernimiento moral y libertad a la edad de siete años y a partir de entonces es capaz de caer en pecados por los cuales podrá ser castigado por toda una eternidad en el infierno. A mediados de este siglo, los padres de clase media comenzaron a tratar de evitar a sus niños el impacto de esta doctrina, y su modo de pensar sobre los niños es el que hoy prevalece en la Iglesia. +</p> + +<p> +Hasta el siglo pasado, los “niños” de padres de clase media se fabricaban en casa con la ayuda de preceptores y escuelas privadas. Sólo con el advenimiento de la sociedad industrial la producción en masa de la “niñez” comenzó a ser factible y a ponerse al alcance de la multitud. El sistema escolar es un fenómeno moderno, como lo es la niñez que lo produce. +</p> + +<p> +Puesto que hoy en día la mayoría de las personas viven fuera de las ciudades industriales, la mayoría de la gente no experimenta la niñez. En los Andes, uno labra la tierra cuando ha llegado a ser “útil”. Antes de esa edad, uno cuida las ovejas. Si se está bien nutrido, debe llegar a ser útil hacia los 11 años de edad, y de otro modo a los 12. Estaba yo conversando hace poco con Marcos, mi celador nocturno, sobre su hijo de 11 años que trabaja en una barbería. Hice en español la observación de que su hijo era todavía un <em>niño</em>. Marcos, sorprendido, contestó con inocente sonrisa: “Don Iván, creo que usted tiene razón”. Percatándome de que hasta el momento de mi observación Marcos había pensado en el muchacho en primer lugar como su “hijo”, me sentí culpable de haber hecho surgir el fantasma de la niñez entre dos personas sensatas. Naturalmente que si yo fuese a decir a un habitante de los barrios bajos de Nueva York que su hijo que trabaja es todavía un “niño”, no mostraría ninguna sorpresa. Sabe muy bien que a su hijo de 11 años debería permitírsele su niñez, y se resiente de que no sea así. El hijo de Marcos no ha sido afectado aún por el anhelo de tener niñez, el hijo del neoyorkino se siente desposeído. +</p> + +<p> +Así pues, la mayoría de la gente en el mundo o no quiere o no puede conceder una niñez moderna a sus críos. Pero también parece que la niñez es una carga para esos pocos a quienes se les concede. A muchos simplemente se les obliga a pasar por ella y no están en absoluto felices de desempeñar el papel de niños. Crecer pasando por la niñez significa estar condenado a un proceso de conflicto inhumano entre la conciencia de sí y el papel que impone una sociedad que está pasando por su propia edad escolar. Ni Stephen Dédalus ni Alexander Portnoy gozaron de la niñez y, según sospecho, tampoco nos gustó a muchos de nosotros ser tratados como niños. +</p> + +<p> +Si no existiese una institución de aprendizaje obligatorio y para una edad determinada, la “niñez” dejaría de fabricarse. Los menores de los países ricos se librarían de su destructividad, y los países pobres dejarían de rivalizar con la niñería de los ricos. Para que la sociedad pudiese sobreponerse a su edad de la niñez, tendría que hacerse vivible para los menores. La disyunción actual entre una sociedad adulta que pretende ser humanitaria y un ambiente escolar que remeda la realidad no puede seguir manteniéndose. +</p> + +<p> +El hecho de privar de apoyo oficial a las escuelas podría terminar también con la discriminación contra los nenes, los adultos y los ancianos en favor de los niños durante su adolescencia y juventud. Es probable que la decisión social de asignar recursos educativos preferentemente a aquellos ciudadanos que han dejado atrás la extraordinaria capacidad de aprendizaje de sus primeros años y no han llegado a la cúspide de su aprendizaje automotivado parezca grotesca cuando se vea retrospectivamente. +</p> + +<p> +La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños necesitan la escuela. La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños aprenden en la escuela. Pero esta sabiduría institucional es en sí el producto de escuelas, porque el sólido sentido común nos dice que sólo a niños se les puede enseñar en la escuela. Sólo segregando a los seres humanos en la categoría de la niñez podremos someterlos alguna vez a la autoridad de un maestro de escuela. +</p> + +<p> +2. <em>Profesores y alumnos</em>. Por definición, los niños son alumnos. La demanda por el medio ambiente escolar crea un mercado ilimitado para los profesores titulados. La escuela es una institución construida sobre el axioma de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza. Y la sabiduría institucional continúa aceptando este axioma, pese a las pruebas abrumadoras en sentido contrario. +</p> + +<p> +Todos hemos aprendido la mayor parte de lo que sabemos fuera de la escuela. Los alumnos hacen la mayor parte de su aprendizaje sin sus maestros y, a menudo, a pesar de éstos. Lo que es más trágico es que a la mayoría de los hombres las escuelas les enseñan su lección, aun cuando nunca vayan _a_ la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Toda persona aprende a vivir fuera de la escuela. Aprendemos a hablar, a pensar, a amar, a sentir, a jugar, a blasfemar, a politiquear y a trabajar sin la interferencia de un profesor. Ni siquiera los niños que están día y noche bajo la tutela de un maestro constituyen excepciones a la regla. Los huérfanos, los cretinos y los hijos de maestros de escuela aprenden la mayor parte de lo que aprenden fuera del proceso “educativo” programado para ellos. Los profesores han quedado mal parados en sus intentos de aumentar el aprendizaje entre los pobres. A los padres pobres que quieren que sus hijos vayan a la escuela no les preocupa tanto lo que aprendan como el certificado y el dinero que obtendrán. Y los padres de clase media confían sus hijos a un profesor para evitar que aprendan aquello que los pobres aprenden en la calle. Las investigaciones sobre educación están demostrando cada día más que los niños aprenden aquello que sus maestros pretenden enseñarles, no de éstos, sino de sus iguales, de las tiras cómicas, de la simple observación al pasar y, sobre todo, del solo hecho de participar en el ritual de la escuela. Las más de las veces los maestros obstruyen el aprendizaje de materias de estudio conforme se dan en la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +La mitad de la gente en nuestro mundo jamás ha estado en una escuela. No se han topado con profesores y están privados del privilegio de llegar a ser desertores escolares. No obstante, aprenden eficazmente el mensaje que la escuela enseña: que deben tener escuela y más y más escuela. La escuela les instruye acerca de su propia inferioridad mediante el cobrador de impuestos que les hace pagar por ella, mediante el demagogo que les suscita las esperanzas de tenerla, o bien mediante sus niños cuando éstos se ven enviciados por ella. De modo que a los pobres se les quita su respeto por sí mismos al suscribirse a un credo que concede la salvación sólo a través de la escuela. La Iglesia les da al menos la posibilidad de arrepentirse en la hora de su muerte. La escuela les deja con la esperanza (una esperanza falsificada) de que sus nietos la conseguirán. Esa esperanza es, por cierto, otro aprendizaje más que proviene de la escuela, pero no de los profesores. +</p> + +<p> +Los alumnos jamás han atribuido a sus maestros lo que han aprendido. Tanto los brillantes como los lerdos han confiado siempre en la memorización, la lectura y el ingenio para pasar sus exámenes, movidos por el garrote o por la obtención de una carrera ambicionada. +</p> + +<p> +Los adultos tienden a crear fantasías románticas sobre su periodo de escuela. Atribuyen retrospectivamente su aprendizaje al maestro cuya paciencia aprendieron a admirar. Pero esos mismos adultos se preocuparán por la salud mental de un niño que corriera a casa a contarles qué ha aprendido de cada uno de sus profesores. Las escuelas crean trabajos para maestros de escuela, independientemente de lo que aprendan de ellos sus alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +3. <em>Asistencia a jornada completa</em>. Cada mes veo una nueva lista de propuestas que hace al AID[^n06] alguna industria estadunidense, sugiriéndole reemplazar a los “practicantes del aula” latinoamericanos por unos disciplinados administradores de sistemas o simplemente por la televisión. Pero, aunque el profesor sea una maestra de primaria o un equipo de tipos con delantales blancos, y que logren enseñar la materia indicada en el catálogo o fracasen en el intento, el maestro profesional crea un entorno sagrado. +</p> + +<p> +La incertidumbre acerca del futuro de la enseñanza profesional pone al aula en peligro. Si los educadores profesionales se especializan en fomentar el aprendizaje tendrían que abandonar un sistema que exige entre 750 y 1 500 reuniones por año. Pero naturalmente los profesores hacen mucho más que eso. La sabiduría institucional de la escuela dice a los padres, a los alumnos y a los educadores que el profesor, para que pueda enseñar, debe ejercer su autoridad en un recinto sagrado. Esto es válido incluso para profesores cuyos alumnos pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo escolar en un aula sin muros. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela, por su naturaleza misma, tiende a reclamar la totalidad del tiempo y las energías de sus participantes. Esto a su vez hace del profesor un custodio, un predicador y un terapeuta. +</p> + +<p> +El maestro funda su autoridad sobre una pretensión diferente en cada uno de estos tres papeles. <em>El profesor-como-custodio</em> actúa como maestro de ceremonias que guía a sus alumnos a lo largo de un ritual dilatado y laberíntico. Es árbitro del cumplimiento de las normas y administra las intrincadas rúbricas de iniciación a la vida. En el mejor de los casos, monta la escena para la adquisición de una habilidad como siempre han hecho los maestros de escuela. Sin hacerse ilusiones acerca de producir ningún saber profundo, somete a sus alumnos a ciertas rutinas básicas. +</p> + +<p> +El <em>profesor-como-moralista</em> reemplaza a los padres, a Dios, al Estado. Adoctrina al alumno acerca de lo bueno y lo malo, no sólo en la escuela, sino en la sociedad en general. Se presenta <em>in loco parentis</em> para cada cual y asegura así que todos se sientan hijos del mismo Estado. +</p> + +<p> +El <em>profesor-como-terapeuta</em> se siente autorizado a inmiscuirse en la vida privada de su alumno a fin de ayudarle a desarrollarse como persona. Cuando esta función la desempeña un custodio y predicador, significa por lo común que persuade al alumno a someterse a una domesticación de su visión de la verdad y de su sentido de lo justo. +</p> + +<p> +La afirmación de que una sociedad liberal puede basarse en la escuela moderna, es paradójica. Todas las defensas de la libertad individual quedan anuladas en los tratos de un maestro de escuela con su alumno. Cuando el maestro funde en su persona las funciones de juez, ideólogo y médico, el estilo fundamental de la sociedad es pervertido por el proceso mismo que debiera preparar para la vida. Un maestro que combine estos tres poderes contribuye mucho más a la deformación del niño que las leyes que dictan su menor edad legal o económica, o que restringen su libertad de reunión o de vivienda. +</p> + +<p> +Los maestros no son en absoluto los únicos en ofrecer servicios terapéuticos. Los psiquiatras, los consejeros vocacionales y laborales, y hasta los abogados ayudan a sus clientes a decidir, a desarrollar sus personalidades y a aprender. Pero el sentido común le dice al cliente que dichos profesionales deben abstenerse de imponer sus opiniones sobre lo bueno y lo malo, o de obligar a nadie a seguir su consejo. Los maestros de escuelas y los curas son los únicos profesionales que se sienten con derecho para inmiscuirse en los asuntos privados de sus clientes al mismo tiempo que predican a un público obligado. +</p> + +<p> +Los niños no están protegidos ni por la Primera ni por la Quinta Enmienda[^n07] cuando están frente a ese sacerdote secular, el profesor. El niño tiene que enfrentarse con un hombre que usa una triple corona invisible y que, como la tiara papal, es el símbolo de la triple autoridad conjugada en una persona. Para el niño, el maestro pontifica como pastor, profeta y sacerdote —es a un mismo tiempo guía, maestro y administrador de un ritual sagrado—. Conjuga las pretensiones de los papas medievales en una sociedad constituida bajo la garantía de que tales pretensiones no serán jamás ejercidas conjuntamente por una institución establecida y obligatoria —la Iglesia o el Estado—. +</p> + +<p> +Definir a los niños como alumnos a jornada completa permite al profesor ejercer sobre sus personas una especie de poder que está mucho menos limitado por restricciones constitucionales o consuetudinarias que el poder detentado por el guardián de otros enclaves sociales. La edad cronológica de los niños los descalifica respecto de las salvaguardas que son de rutina para adultos situados en un asilo moderno —un manicomio, un monasterio o una cárcel—. +</p> + +<p> +Bajo la mirada autoritaria del maestro, los valores se confunden y las diferencias se borran. Las distinciones entre moralidad, legalidad y valor personal se difuminan y eventualmente se eliminan. Se hace sentir cada transgresión como un delito múltiple. Se cuenta con que el delincuente sienta que ha quebrantado una norma, que se ha comportado de modo inmoral y se ha abandonado. A un alumno que ha conseguido hábilmente ayuda en un examen se le dice que es un delincuente, un corrompido y un mequetrefe. +</p> + +<p> +La asistencia a clases saca a los niños del mundo cotidiano de la cultura occidental y los sumerge en un ambiente mucho más primitivo, mágico y mortalmente serio. La escuela no podría crear un enclave como éste, dentro del cual se suspende físicamente a los menores durante muchos años sucesivos de las normas de la realidad ordinaria, si no tuviera el poder de encarcelar físicamente a los menores durante esos años en su territorio sagrado. La norma de asistencia posibilita que el aula sirva de útero mágico, del cual el niño es dado periódicamente a luz al terminar el día escolar y el año escolar, hasta que es finalmente lanzado a la vida adulta. Ni la niñez universalmente prolongada ni la atmósfera sofocante del aula podrían existir sin las escuelas. Sin embargo, las escuelas, como canales obligatorios de aprendizaje, podrían existir sin ninguna de ambas y ser más represivas y destructivas que todo lo que hayamos podido conocer hasta la fecha. Para entender lo que significa desescolarizar la sociedad y no tan sólo reformar el sistema educativo establecido, debemos concentrarnos ahora en el currículum oculto de la escolarización. No nos ocupamos en este caso, y directamente, del currículum oculto de las calles del gueto, que deja marcado al pobre, o del currículum camuflado de salón, que beneficia al rico. Nos interesa más bien llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que el ceremonial o ritual de la escolarización misma constituye un currículum escondido de este tipo. Incluso el mejor de los maestros no puede proteger del todo a sus alumnos contra él. Este currículum oculto de la escolarización añade inevitablemente prejuicio y culpa a la discriminación que una sociedad practica contra algunos de sus miembros y realza el privilegio de otros con un nuevo título con el cual tener en menos a la mayoría. De modo igualmente inevitable, este currículum oculto sirve como ritual de iniciación a una sociedad de consumo orientada hacia el crecimiento, tanto para ricos como para pobres. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Fenomenolog\u00eda de la escuela","hid":"fenomenologia_de_la_escuela","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":4,"range":"63677-83021"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit5" id="ritualizacion_del_progreso">Ritualización del progreso</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +El graduado en una universidad ha sido escolarizado para cumplir un servicio selectivo entre los ricos del mundo sean cuales fueren sus afirmaciones de solidaridad con el Tercer Mundo, cada estadunidense que ha conseguido su título universitario ha tenido una educación que cuesta una cantidad cinco veces mayor que los ingresos medios de toda una vida en el seno de la mitad desheredada de la humanidad. A un estudiante latinoamericano se le introduce en esta exclusiva fraternidad acordándole para su educación un gasto por lo menos 350 veces mayor que el de sus conciudadanos de clase media. Salvo muy raras excepciones, el graduado universitario de un país pobre se siente más a gusto con sus colegas norteamericanos o europeos que con sus compatriotas no escolarizados, y a todos los estudiantes se les somete a un proceso académico que les hace sentirse felices sólo en compañía de otros consumidores de los productos de la máquina educativa. +</p> + +<p> +La universidad moderna sólo confiere el privilegio de disentir a aquellos que han sido comprobados y clasificados como fabricantes de dinero o detentadores de poder en potencia. A nadie se le conceden fondos provenientes de impuestos para que tengan así tiempo libre para autoeducarse o el derecho de educar a otros, a menos que al mismo tiempo puedan certificarse sus logros. Las escuelas eligen para cada nivel superior sucesivo a aquellos que en las primeras etapas del juego hayan demostrado ser buenos riesgos[^n08] para el orden establecido. Al tener un monopolio sobre los recursos para el aprendizaje y sobre la investidura de los papeles por desempeñar en la sociedad, la universidad invita a sus filas al descubridor y al disidente en potencia. Un grado siempre deja su tinta indeleble con el precio en el currículum de su consumidor. Los graduados universitarios diplomados encajan sólo en un mundo que pone un marbete con el precio en sus cuellos dándoles así el poder de pertenecer a un mundo donde todo recibe un valor mercantil. En cada país, el monto que consume el graduado universitario fija la pauta para todos los demás; si fueran gente civilizada con trabajo o cesantes habrán de aspirar al estilo de vida de los graduados universitarios. +</p> + +<p> +De este modo, la universidad tiene por efecto imponer normas de consumo en el trabajo o en el hogar, y lo hace en todo el mundo y bajo todos los sistemas políticos. Cuanto menos graduados universitarios hay en un país, tanto más sirven de modelo para el resto de la población sus ilustradas exigencias. La brecha entre el consumo de un graduado universitario y el de un ciudadano corriente es incluso más ancha en Rusia, China y Argelia que en Estados Unidos. Los coches, los viajes en avión y los magnetófonos confieren una distinción más notoria en un país socialista en donde únicamente un título, y no tan sólo el dinero, puede procurarlos. +</p> + +<p> +La capacidad de la universidad para fijar metas de consumo es algo nuevo. En muchos países la universidad adquirió este poder sólo en la década de los años sesenta, conforme la ilusión de acceso parejo a la educación pública comenzó a difundirse. Antes de entonces la universidad protegía la libertad de expresión de un individuo, pero no convertía automáticamente su conocimiento en riqueza. Durante la Edad Media, ser un estudioso significaba ser pobre y hasta mendicante. En virtud de su vocación, el estudioso medieval aprendía latín, se convertía en un <em>outsider</em> digno tanto de la mofa como de la estimación del campesino y del príncipe, del burgués y del clérigo. +</p> + +<p> +Para triunfar en el mundo, el escolástico tenía que ingresar primero en él, entrando en la carrera funcionaria, preferiblemente la eclesiástica. La universidad antigua era una zona liberada para el descubrimiento y el debate de ideas nuevas y viejas. Los maestros y los estudiantes se reunían para leer los textos de otros maestros, muertos mucho antes, y las palabras vivas de los maestros difuntos daban nuevas perspectivas a las falacias del mundo presente. La universidad era entonces una comunidad de búsqueda académica y de inquietud endémica. +</p> + +<p> +En la universidad multidisciplinaria moderna esta comunidad ha huido hacia las márgenes, en donde se junta en un apartamento, en la oficina de un profesor o en los aposentos del capellán. El propósito estructural de la universidad moderna guarda poca relación con la búsqueda tradicional. Desde los días de Gutenberg, el intercambio de la indagación disciplinada y crítica se ha trasladado en su mayor parte de la “cátedra” a la imprenta. La universidad moderna ha perdido por incumplimiento su posibilidad de ofrecer un escenario simple para encuentros que sean autónomos y anárquicos, enfocados hacia un interés y sin embargo espontáneos y vivaces, y ha elegido en cambio administrar el proceso mediante el cual se produce lo que ha dado en llamarse investigación y enseñanza. +</p> + +<p> +Desde el <em>Sputnik</em> , la universidad estadunidense ha estado tratando de ponerse a la par con el número de graduados que sacan los soviéticos. Ahora los alemanes están abandonando su tradición académica y están construyendo unos <em>campus</em> para ponerse a la par con los estadunidenses. Durante esta década quieren aumentar sus erogaciones en escuelas primarias y secundarias de 14 000 a 59 000 millones de marcos alemanes y triplicar los desembolsos para la instrucción superior. Los franceses se proponen elevar para 1980 a 10% de su PNB el monto gastado en escuelas, y la Fundación Ford ha estado empujando a países pobres de América Latina a elevar sus desembolsos per cápita para los graduados “respetables” a los niveles estadunidenses. Los estudiantes consideran sus estudios como la inversión que produce el mayor rédito monetario, y las naciones los ven como un factor clave para el desarrollo. +</p> + +<p> +Para la mayoría que va en pos de un grado universitario, la universidad no ha perdido prestigio, pero desde 1968 ha perdido notoriamente categoría entre sus creyentes. Los estudiantes se niegan a prepararse para la guerra, la contaminación y la perpetuación del prejuicio. Los profesores les ayudan en su recusación de la legitimidad del gobierno, de su política exterior, de la educación y del sistema de vida norteamericano. No pocos rechazan títulos y se preparan para una vida en una contracultura, fuera de la sociedad diplomada. Parecen elegir la vía de los Fraticelli medievales o de los Alumbrados de la Reforma, que fueron los <em>hippies</em> y desertores escolares de su época. Otros reconocen el monopolio de las escuelas sobre los recursos que ellos necesitan para construir una contrasociedad. Buscan apoyo el uno en el otro para vivir con integridad mientras se someten al ritual académico. Forman, por así decirlo, focos de herejía en medio de la jerarquía. +</p> + +<p> +No obstante, grandes sectores de la población general miran al místico moderno y al heresiarca moderno con alarma. Éstos amenazan la economía consumista, el privilegio democrático y la imagen que de sí mismo tiene Estados Unidos. Pero no es posible eliminarlos con sólo desearlo. Son cada vez menos aquellos a los que es posible reconvertir y reincorporar en las filas mediante sutilezas —como, por ejemplo, darles el cargo de enseñar como profesores su herejía—. De aquí la búsqueda de medios que hagan posible ya sea librarse de disidentes, ya sea disminuir la importancia de la universidad que les sirve de base para protestar. +</p> + +<p> +A los estudiantes y a la facultad que ponen en tela de juicio la legitimidad de la universidad, y lo hacen pagando un alto costo personal, no les parece por cierto estar fijando normas de consumo ni favoreciendo un sistema determinado de producción. Aquellos que han fundado grupos tales como el Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars y el North American Congress of Latin America (NACLA) han sido de los más eficaces para cambiar radicalmente la visión que millones de personas jóvenes tenían de países extranjeros. Otros más han tratado de formular interpretaciones marxistas de la sociedad norteamericana o han figurado entre los responsables de la creación de comunas. Sus logros dan nuevo vigor al argumento de que la existencia de la universidad es necesaria para una crítica social sostenida. +</p> + +<p> +No cabe duda de que en este momento la universidad ofrece una combinación singular de circunstancias que permite a algunos de sus miembros criticar el conjunto de la sociedad. Proporciona tiempo, movilidad, acceso a los iguales y a la información, así como cierta impunidad —privilegios de que no disponen igualmente otros sectores de la población—. Pero la universidad permite esta libertad sólo a quienes ya han sido profundamente iniciados en la sociedad de consumo y en la necesidad de alguna especie de escolaridad pública obligatoria. +</p> + +<p> +El sistema escolar de hoy en día desempeña la triple función que ha sido común a las Iglesias poderosas a lo largo de la historia. Es simultáneamente el depósito del mito de la sociedad, la institucionalización de las contradicciones de ese mito y el lugar donde ocurre el ritual que reproduce y encubre las disciplinas entre el mito y la realidad. El sistema escolar, y en particular la universidad, proporciona hoy grandes oportunidades para criticar el mito y para rebelarse contra las perversiones institucionales. Pero el ritual que exige tolerancia para con las contradicciones fundamentales entre mito e institución pasa todavía por lo general sin ponerse en tela de juicio, pues ni la crítica ideológica ni la acción social pueden dar a luz una nueva sociedad. Sólo el desencanto del ritual social central, el desligarse del mismo y reformarlo pueden llevar a cabo un cambio radical. +</p> + +<p> +La universidad estadunidense ha llegado a ser la etapa final del rito de iniciación más global que el mundo haya conocido. Ninguna sociedad histórica ha logrado sobrevivir sin ritual o mito, pero la nuestra es la primera que ha necesitado una iniciación tan aburrida, morosa, destructiva y costosa a su mito. La civilización mundial contemporánea es también la primera que estimó necesario racionalizar su ritual fundamental de iniciación en nombre de la educación. No podemos iniciar una reforma de la educación a menos que entendamos primero que ni el aprendizaje individual ni la igualdad social pueden acrecentarse mediante el ritual de la escolarización. No podremos ir más allá de la sociedad de consumo a menos que entendamos primero que las escuelas públicas obligatorias reproducen inevitablemente dicha sociedad, independientemente de lo que se enseñe en ellas. +</p> + +<p> +El proyecto de desmitologización que propongo no puede limitarse tan sólo a la universidad. Cualquier intento de reformar la universidad sin ocuparse del sistema del que forma parte integral es como tratar de hacer la reforma urbana en Nueva York, desde el piso decimosegundo hacia arriba. La mayor parte de las reformas introducidas en la enseñanza superior, equivalen a rascacielos construidos sobre chozas. Sólo una generación que se críe sin escuelas obligatorias será capaz de recrear la universidad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Ritualizaci\u00f3n del progreso","hid":"ritualizacion_del_progreso","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":5,"range":"83022-94214"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit6" id="el_mito_de_los_valores_institucionalizados">El mito de los valores institucionalizados</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela inicia asimismo el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin. Este mito moderno se funda en la creencia según la cual el sistema de producción produce inevitablemente algo de valor y que, por consiguiente, la producción produce necesariamente demanda. La escuela nos enseña que la instrucción produce aprendizaje. La existencia de las escuelas produce la demanda de escolaridad. Una vez que hemos aprendido a necesitar la escuela, todas nuestras actividades tienden a tomar la forma de relaciones de clientes respecto de otras instituciones especializadas. Una vez que se ha desacreditado al hombre o a la mujer autodidactos, toda actividad no profesional se hace sospechosa. En la escuela se nos enseña que el resultado de la asistencia es un aprendizaje valioso; que el valor del aprendizaje aumenta con el monto de la información de entrada y, finalmente, que este valor puede medirse y documentarse mediante grados y diplomas. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, el aprendizaje es la actividad humana que menos manipulación de terceros necesita. La mayor parte del aprendizaje no es la consecuencia de una instrucción. Es más bien el resultado de una participación a la que no se estorba en un entorno significativo. La mayoría de la gente aprende mejor “metiendo la cuchara” y, sin embargo, la escuela les hace identificar su desarrollo cognoscitivo personal con una programación y una manipulación complicadas. +</p> + +<p> +Una vez que un hombre o una mujer ha aceptado la necesidad de la escuela, es presa fácil de otras instituciones. Una vez que los jóvenes han permitido que a su imaginación la forme la instrucción curricular, están condicionados para las planificaciones institucionales de toda especie. La “institución” les ahoga el horizonte imaginativo. No se les puede traicionar, sólo engañar en el precio, porque se les ha enseñado a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. Para bien o para mal, ya no serán sorprendidos por terceros, pues se les ha enseñado qué pueden esperar de cualquier otra persona que ha sido enseñada como ellos. Esto es válido para el caso de otra persona o de una máquina. +</p> + +<p> +Esta transferencia de responsabilidad desde sí mismo a una institución garantiza la regresión social, especialmente desde el momento en que se ha aceptado como una obligación. Así, los rebeldes contra el <em>Alma Mater</em> a menudo “la consiguen” e ingresan en su facultad en vez de desarrollar la valentía de infectar a otros con su enseñanza personal y de asumir la responsabilidad de las consecuencias de tal enseñanza. Esto sugiere la posibilidad de una nueva historia de Edipo —Edipo Profesor, que “consigue” a su madre a fin de engendrar hijos de ella—. El hombre adicto a ser enseñado busca su seguridad en la enseñanza compulsiva. La mujer que experimenta su conocimiento como el resultado de un proceso quiere reproducirlo en otros. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito de los valores institucionalizados","hid":"el_mito_de_los_valores_institucionalizados","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":6,"range":"94215-97140"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit7" id="el_mito_de_la_medicion_de_los_valores">El mito de la medición de los valores</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Los valores institucionalizados que infunde la escuela son valores cuantificados. La escuela inicia a los jóvenes en un mundo en el que todo puede medirse, incluso su imaginación y hasta el hombre mismo. +</p> + +<p> +Pero el desarrollo personal no es una entidad mensurable. Es crecimiento en disensión disciplinada, que no puede medirse respecto a ningún cartabón, a ningún currículum, ni compararse con lo logrado por algún otro. En ese aprendizaje podemos emular a otros sólo en el empeño imaginativo, y seguir sus huellas más bien que remedar sus maneras de andar. El aprendizaje que yo aprecio es una recreación inmensurable. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas pretenden desglosar el aprendizaje en “materias”, para incorporar en el alumno un currículum hecho con estos ladrillos prefabricados y para medir el resultado con una escala internacional. Las personas que se someten a la norma de otros para la medida de su propio desarrollo personal pronto se aplican el mismo cartabón a sí mismos. Ya no es necesario ponerlos en su lugar, pues se colocan solos en sus casilleros correspondientes, se comprimen en el nicho que se les ha enseñado a buscar y, en el curso de este mismo proceso, colocan asimismo a sus prójimos en sus lugares, hasta que todo y todos encajan. +</p> + +<p> +Las personas que han sido escolarizadas hasta su talla dejan que la experiencia no mensurada se les escape entre los dedos. Para ellas, lo que no puede medirse se hace secundario, amenazante. No es necesario robarles su creatividad. Con la instrucción, han desaprendido a “hacer” lo suyo o a “ser” ellas mismas, y valoran sólo aquello que ha sido fabricado o podría fabricarse. +</p> + +<p> +Una vez que se ha escolarizado a las personas con la idea de que los valores pueden producirse y medirse, tienden a aceptar toda clase de clasificaciones jerárquicas. Existe una escala para el desarrollo de las naciones, otra para la inteligencia de los nenes, e incluso el avance hacia la paz puede medirse según un recuento de personas. En un mundo escolarizado, el camino hacia la felicidad está pavimentado con un índice de precios para el consumidor. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito de la medici\u00f3n de los valores","hid":"el_mito_de_la_medicion_de_los_valores","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":7,"range":"97141-99299"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit8" id="el_mito_de_los_valores_envasados">El mito de los valores envasados</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela vende currículum: un atado de mercancías hecho con el mismo proceso y con la misma estructura que cualquier otra mercancía. La producción del currículum para la mayoría de las escuelas comienza con la investigación presuntamente científica; fundados en ella los ingenieros de la educación predicen la demanda futura y las herramientas para la línea de montaje, dentro de los límites establecidos por presupuestos y tabúes. El distribuidor-profesor entrega el producto terminado al consumidor-alumno, cuyas reacciones son cuidadosamente estudiadas y tabuladas a fin de proporcionar datos para la investigación que servirán para preparar el modelo siguiente que podrá ser “desgraduado”, “concebido para alumnado”, “concebido para un trabajo en equipo”, “con ayudas visuales” o “centrado en temas”. +</p> + +<p> +El resultado del proceso de producción de un currículum se asemeja a cualquier otro artículo moderno de primera necesidad. Es un paquete de significados planificados, una mercancía cuyo “atractivo equilibrado” la hace comercializable para una clientela lo bastante grande como para justificar su elevado coste de producción. A los consumidores-alumnos se les enseña a ajustar sus deseos a valores comercializables. De modo que se les hace sentir culpables si no se comportan en conformidad con los resultados de los análisis de mercado y si no obtienen los grados y diplomas que los colocarán en la categoría laboral que se les ha inducido a esperar. +</p> + +<p> +Los educadores pueden justificar unos currícula más costosos fundándose en lo que han observado, a saber, que las dificultades de aprendizaje se elevan en proporción al costo del currículum. Ésta es una aplicación de aquella ley de Parkinson que dice que una labor se expande junto con los recursos disponibles para ejecutarla. Esta ley puede verificarse en todos los niveles de la escuela: por ejemplo, las dificultades de lectura han sido un tema principal de debate en que los grados per cápita en ellas se han aproximado a los niveles estadunidenses de 1950 —año en el cual las dificultades para aprender a leer llegaron a ser tema de importancia en las escuelas de Estados Unidos. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, los estudiantes saludables redoblan su resistencia a la enseñanza conforme se ven más cabalmente manipulados. Su resistencia no se debe al estilo autoritario de una escuela pública o al estilo seductor de algunas escuelas libres, sino al planteamiento fundamental común a todas las escuelas —la idea de que el juicio de una persona debiera determinar qué y cuándo debe aprender otra persona—. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito de los valores envasados","hid":"el_mito_de_los_valores_envasados","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":8,"range":"99300-101958"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit9" id="el_mito_del_progreso_que_se_perpetua_a_si_mismo">El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Los crecientes costes per cápita de la instrucción, aun cuando vayan acompañados por réditos de aprendizaje decrecientes, aumentan paradójicamente el valor del alumno o alumna ante sus propios ojos y su valor en el mercado. La escuela, casi al coste que sea, iza a empellones al alumno hasta el nivel del consumo curricular competitivo, hasta meterlo en el progreso hacia unos niveles cada vez más elevados. Los gastos que motivan al alumno a permanecer en la escuela se desbocan conforme asciende la pirámide. En niveles más altos adoptan el disfraz de nuevos estadios de futbol o programas llamados de Educación Internacional. Aunque no enseña ninguna otra cosa, la escuela enseña al menos el valor de la escalada: el valor de la manera estadunidense de hacer las cosas. +</p> + +<p> +La guerra de Vietnam se ajusta a la lógica prevaleciente. Su éxito se ha medido por el número de personas efectivamente tratadas con balas baratas descargadas a un coste inmenso, y a este cálculo salvaje se le llama desvergonzadamente “recuento de cuerpos”. Así como los negocios son los negocios, la acumulación inacabable de dinero, así también la guerra es el matar, la acumulación inacabable de cuerpos muertos. De manera semejante, la educación es escolarización, y este proceso sin término se cuenta en alumnos-hora. Los diferentes procesos son irreversibles y se justifican por sí mismos. Según las normas económicas, el país se hace cada vez más rico. Según las normas de la contabilidad mortal, la nación continúa ganando perennemente sus guerras. Y conforme a las normas escolares, la población se va haciendo cada vez más educada. +</p> + +<p> +El programa escolar está hambriento de un bocado cada vez mayor de instrucción, pero aun cuando esta hambre conduzca a una absorción sostenida, nunca da el gozo de saber algo a satisfacción. Cada tema llega envasado con la instrucción de continuar consumiendo una “oferta” tras otra, y el envase del año anterior es siempre anticuado para el consumidor del año en curso. El fraudulento negocio de los libros de texto está construido sobre esta demanda. Los reformadores de la educación prometen a cada generación lo último y lo mejor, y al público se le escolariza para pedir lo que ellos ofrecen. Tanto el desertor, a quien se le hace recordar a perpetuidad lo que se perdió, como el graduado, a quien se le hace sentir inferior a la nueva casta de estudiantes, saben exactamente dónde están situados en el ritual de engaños crecientes, y continúan apoyando una sociedad que, para denominar la brecha cada vez más ancha de frustración, usa el eufemismo de “revolución de expectativas crecientes”. +</p> + +<p> +Pero el crecimiento concebido como un consumo sin términos —el progreso eterno— no puede conducir jamás a la madurez. El compromiso con un ilimitado aumento cuantitativo vicia la posibilidad de un desarrollo orgánico. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El mito del progreso que se perpet\u00faa a s\u00ed mismo","hid":"el_mito_del_progreso_que_se_perpetua_a_si_mismo","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":9,"range":"101959-104921"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit10" id="el_juego_ritual_y_la_nueva_religion_mundial">El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +En las naciones desarrolladas, la edad para salir de la escuela excede el aumento de los años de vida probable. Dentro de una década se cortarán ambas curvas y crearán un problema para Jessica Mitford y para los profesionales que se interesan por la “educación terminal”. Me hace recordar la Edad Media tardía, cuando la demanda por los servicios de la Iglesia sobrepasó la duración de la vida, y se creó el “purgatorio” para purificar a las almas bajo el control papal antes de que pudiesen ingresar en la paz eterna. Lógicamente, esto condujo primero a un tráfico de indulgencias y luego a un intento de Reforma. El Mito del Consumo Sin Fin ocupa ahora el lugar de la creencia en la vida eterna. +</p> + +<p> +Arnold Toynbee señaló que la decadencia de una gran cultura suele ir acompañada por el surgimiento de una nueva Iglesia Universal que lleva la esperanza al proletariado interior mientras atiende al mismo tiempo las necesidades de una nueva casta guerrera. La escuela parece eminentemente apta para ser la Iglesia Universal de nuestra decadente cultura. Ninguna institución podría ocultar mejor a sus participantes la profunda discrepancia entre los principios sociales y la realidad social en el mundo de hoy. Secular, científica y negadora de la muerte, se ciñe estrechamente al ánimo moderno. Su apariencia clásica, crítica, la hace aparecer, si no antirreligiosa, al menos pluralista. Su currículum define la ciencia y la define a ella misma mediante la llamada investigación científica. Nadie completa la escuela —todavía—. No cierra sus puertas a nadie sin antes ofrecerle una oportunidad más: educación de recuperación, para adultos y de continuación. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela sirve como una eficaz creadora y preservadora del mito social debido a su estructura como juego ritual de promociones graduadas. La introducción a este ritual es mucho más importante que el asunto enseñado o el cómo se enseña. Es el juego mismo el que escolariza, el que se mete en la sangre y se convierte en hábito. Se inicia a una sociedad entera en el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin de servicios. Esto ocurre hasta tal punto que la formalidad de participar en el ritual sin término se hace obligatoria y compulsiva por doquier. La escuela ordena una rivalidad ritual en forma de juego internacional que obliga a los competidores a achacar los males del mundo a aquellos que no pueden o no quieren jugar. La escuela es un ritual de iniciación que introduce al neófito en la sagrada carrera del consumo progresivo, un ritual propiciatorio cuyos sacerdotes académicos son mediadores entre los creyentes y los dioses del privilegio y del poder, un ritual de expiación que sacrifica a sus desertores, marcándolos a fuego como chivos expiatorios del subdesarrollo. +</p> + +<p> +Incluso aquellos que en el mejor de los casos pasan unos pocos años en la escuela —y éste es el caso de la abrumadora mayoría en América Latina, Asia y África— aprenden a sentirse culpables debido a su subconsumo de escolarización. En México es obligatorio aprobar seis grados de escuela. Los niños nacidos en el tercio económico inferior tienen sólo dos posibilidades sobre tres de aprobar el primer grado. Si lo aprueban, tienen cuatro probabilidades sobre 100 de terminar la escolaridad obligatoria en el sexto grado. Si nacen en el tercio medio, sus probabilidades aumentan a 12 sobre 100. Con estas pautas, México ha tenido más éxito que la mayoría de las otras 26 repúblicas latinoamericanas en cuanto a proporcionar educación pública. +</p> + +<p> +Todos los niños saben, en todas partes, que se les ha dado una posibilidad, aunque desigual, en una lotería obligatoria, y la supuesta igualdad de la norma internacional realza ahora la pobreza original de esos niños con la discriminación autoinfligida que el desertor acepta. Se les ha escolarizado en la creencia de las expectativas crecientes y pueden racionalizar ahora su creciente frustración fuera de la escuela aceptando el rechazo de la gracia escolástica que les ha caído en suerte. Se les expulsa del paraíso porque, habiendo sido bautizados, no fueron a la Iglesia. Nacidos en pecado original, se les bautiza en el primer grado, pero van al Gehenna (que en hebreo significa “conventillo”) debido a sus faltas personales. Así como Max Weber examinó los efectos sociales de la creencia en que la salvación pertenecía a quienes acumulaban riqueza, podemos observar ahora que la gracia está reservada para aquellos que acumulan años de escuela. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El juego ritual y la nueva religi\u00f3n mundial","hid":"el_juego_ritual_y_la_nueva_religion_mundial","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":10,"range":"104922-109488"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit11" id="el_reino_venidero_la_universalizacion_de_las_expectativas">El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela conjuga las expectativas del consumidor expresadas en sus pretensiones, con las creencias del productor expresadas en su ritual. Es una expresión litúrgica del <em>cargocult</em>[^n09] que recorrió la Melanesia en la década de 1940-1950, que inyectaba en sus cultores la creencia de que si se colocaban una corbata negra sobre el torso desnudo, Jesús llegaría en un vapor trayendo una nevera, un par de pantalones y una máquina de coser para cada creyente. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela funde el crecimiento en humillante dependencia de un maestro con el crecimiento en el vano sentido de omnipotencia que es tan típico del alumno que quiere ir a enseñar a todas las naciones a salvarse. El ritual está moldeado según los severos hábitos de trabajo de los obreros de la construcción, y su finalidad es celebrar el mito de un paraíso terrestre de consumo sin fin, que es la única esperanza del desgraciado y el desposeído. +</p> + +<p> +A lo largo de la historia ha habido epidemias de insaciables expectativas en este mundo, especialmente entre grupos colonizados y marginales en todas las culturas. Los judíos tuvieron durante el Imperio romano sus Esenios y Mesías judíos, los siervos en la Reforma tuvieron su Thomas Münzer, los desposeídos indios desde el Paraguay hasta Dakota sus contagiosos bailarines. Estas sectas estaban siempre dirigidas por un profeta, y limitaban sus promesas a unos pocos elegidos. En cambio la espera del reino a que induce la escuela es impersonal más que profética, y universal más que local. El hombre ha llegado a ser el ingeniero de su propio Mesías y promete las limitadas recompensas de la ciencia a aquellos que somete a una progresiva tecnificación para su reino. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"El reino venidero la universalizaci\u00f3n de las expectativas","hid":"el_reino_venidero_la_universalizacion_de_las_expectativas","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":11,"range":"109489-111258"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit12" id="la_nueva_alienacion">La nueva alienación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela no sólo es la Nueva Religión Mundial. Es también el mercado de trabajo de crecimiento más veloz del mundo. La tecnificación de los consumidores ha llegado a ser el principal sector de crecimiento de la economía. Conforme el coste de la producción disminuye en las naciones ricas, se produce una concentración creciente de capital y trabajo en la vasta empresa de equipar al hombre para un consumo disciplinario. Durante la década pasada las inversiones de capital relacionadas directamente con el sistema escolar aumentaron con velocidad incluso mayor que los gastos para defensa. El desarme tan sólo aceleraría el proceso por el cual la industria del aprendizaje se encamina al centro de la economía nacional. La escuela proporciona oportunidades ilimitadas para el derroche legitimizado, mientras su destructividad pasa inadvertida y crece el coste de los paliativos. +</p> + +<p> +Si a quienes asisten a jornada completa agregamos los que enseñan a jornada completa, nos percatamos de que esta llamada superestructura ha llegado a ser el principal patrono de la sociedad. En Estados Unidos hay 62 millones en la escuela y 80 millones trabajando en otras cosas. Esto a menudo lo han olvidado los analistas neomarxistas cuando dicen que el proceso de desescolarización debe posponerse o dejarse pendiente hasta que otros desórdenes, considerados tradicionalmente como más importantes, los haya corregido una revolución económica y política. Pero hay que comprender que la escuela es una industria antes de querer edificar una estrategia revolucionaria realista. Para Marx, el coste de producir las demandas de bienes apenas si era significativo. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la mano de obra está empleada en la producción de demandas que puede satisfacer la industria que hace un uso intenso del capital. La mayor parte de este trabajo se realiza en la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En el esquema tradicional, la alienación era una consecuencia directa de que el trabajo se convirtiera en labor asalariada que privaba al hombre de su oportunidad para crear y recrearse. Ahora a los menores los prealienan las escuelas que los aíslan del mundo mientras juegan a ser productores y consumidores de su propio conocimiento, al que se concibe como una mercancía en el mercado en la escuela. La escuela hace de la alienación una preparación para la vida, privando así a la educación de realidad y al trabajo de creatividad. La escuela prepara para la alienante institucionalización de la vida al enseñar la necesidad de ser enseñado. Una vez que se aprende esta lección, la gente pierde su incentivo para desarrollarse con independencia; ya no encuentra atractivos en relacionarse y se cierra a las sorpresas que la vida ofrece cuando no está predeterminada por la definición institucional. La escuela emplea directa o indirectamente a una mayor parte de la población. La escuela o bien guarda a la gente de por vida o asegura el que encaje en alguna otra institución. +</p> + +<p> +La Nueva Iglesia Mundial es la industria del conocimiento, proveedora de opio y banco de trabajo durante un número creciente de años de la vida de un individuo. La desescolarización es por consiguiente fundamental para cualquier movimiento de liberación del hombre. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La nueva alienaci\u00f3n","hid":"la_nueva_alienacion","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":12,"range":"111259-114536"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit13" id="la_potencialidad_revolucionaria_de_la_desescolarizacion">La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La escuela no es de ningún modo, por cierto, la única institución moderna cuya finalidad primaria es moldear la visión de la realidad en el hombre. El currículum escondido de la vida familiar, de la conscripción militar, del llamado profesionalismo o de los medios informativos desempeña un importante papel en la manipulación institucional de la visión del mundo que tiene el hombre, de su lenguaje y de sus demandas. Pero la escuela esclaviza más profunda y sistemáticamente, puesto que sólo a ella se le acredita la función principal de formar el juicio crítico y, paradójicamente, trata de hacerlo haciendo que el aprender sobre sí mismo, sobre los demás y sobre la naturaleza dependa de un proceso preempacado. La escuela nos alcanza de manera tan íntima que ninguno puede esperar liberarse de ella mediante algo externo. +</p> + +<p> +Muchos de los que se autodenominan revolucionarios son víctimas de la escuela. Incluso ven la “liberación” como el producto de algo institucional. Sólo al librarse uno mismo de la escuela se disipa esa ilusión. El descubrimiento de que la mayor parte del aprendizaje no requiere enseñanza no puede ser ni manipulado ni planificado. Cada uno de nosotros es responsable de su propia desescolarización, y sólo nosotros tenemos el poder de hacerlo. No puede excusarse a nadie si no logra liberarse de la escolarización. El pueblo no pudo liberarse de la Corona sino hasta que al menos algunos de ellos se liberaron de la Iglesia establecida. No pueden liberarse del consumo progresivo hasta que no se liberen de la escuela obligatoria. +</p> + +<p> +Todos estamos metidos en la escolarización, tanto desde el aspecto de la producción como desde el del consumo. Estamos supersticiosamente convencidos de que el buen aprendizaje puede y debería producirse en nosotros —y de que podemos producirlo en otros—. Nuestro intento de desligarnos del concepto de escuela hará surgir las resistencias que hallamos en nosotros mismos cuando tratamos de renunciar al consumo ilimitado y a la ubicua suposición de que a los otros se les puede manipular por su propio bien. Nadie está totalmente exento de explotar a otros en el proceso de escolarización. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela es el más grande y más anónimo de todos los patrones. De hecho es el mejor empleo de un nuevo tipo de empresa, sucesora del gremio, de la fábrica y de la sociedad anónima. Las empresas multinacionales que han dominado la economía están siendo complementadas ahora, y puede que algún día sean suplantadas por organismos de servicio con planificación supranacional. Estas empresas presentan sus servicios de manera que hacen que todos los hombres se sientan obligados a consumirlos. Se rigen por una normativa internacional, redefiniendo el valor de sus servicios periódicamente y por doquiera a un ritmo aproximadamente parejo. +</p> + +<p> +El “transporte” que se apoya en nuevos coches y supercarreteras atiende a la misma necesidad institucionalmente envasada de comodidad, prestigio, velocidad y equipamiento, independientemente de que sus componentes los produzca o no el Estado. El aparato de la “atención médica” define una especie peculiar de salud, poco importa que sea el individuo o el Estado quien pague el servicio. La promoción graduada a fin de obtener diplomas ajusta al estudiante para ocupar un lugar en la misma pirámide internacional de mano de obra cualificada, independientemente de quien dirija la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En todos estos casos el empleo es un beneficio oculto: el chofer de un automóvil privado, el paciente que se somete a hospitalización o el alumno en el aula deben considerase como parte de una nueva clase de “empleados”. Un movimiento de liberación que se inicie en la escuela y, sin embargo, esté fundado en maestros y alumnos como explotados y explotadores simultáneamente, podría anticiparse a las estrategias revolucionarias del futuro; pues un programa radical de desescolarización podría adiestrar a la juventud en el nuevo estilo de revolución necesaria para desafiar a un sistema social que exhibe una “salud”, una “riqueza” y una “seguridad” obligatorias. +</p> + +<p> +Los riesgos de una rebelión contra la escuela son imprevisibles, pero no son tan horribles como los de una revolución que se inicie en cualquier otra institución principal. La escuela no está todavía organizada para defenderse con tanta eficacia como una nación-Estado, o incluso como una gran sociedad anónima. La liberación de la opresión de las escuelas podría ser incruenta. Las armas del vigilante escolar[^n10] y de sus aliados en los tribunales y en las agencias de empleo podrían tomar medidas muy crueles contra el o la delincuente individual, especialmente si fuese pobre, pero podrían ser a su vez impotentes si surgiera un movimiento de masas. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela se ha convertido en un problema social; se le ataca por todas partes, y los ciudadanos y los gobiernos patrocinan experimentos no convencionales en todo el mundo. Recurren a insólitos expedientes estadísticos a fin de preservar la fe y salvar las apariencias. El ánimo que existe entre algunos educadores es muy parecido al ánimo de los obispos católicos después del Concilio Vaticano. Los planes de estudio de las llamadas “escuelas libres” se parecen a las liturgias de las misas con música folclórica y rock. Las exigencias de los estudiantes de bachillerato para tener voz y voto en la elección de sus profesores son tan estridentes como las de los feligreses que exigen seleccionar a sus párrocos. Pero para la sociedad está en juego algo mucho mayor si una minoría significativa pierde su fe en la escolaridad. Esto pondría en peligro la supervivencia no sólo del orden económico construido sobre la coproducción de bienes y demandas, sino igualmente del orden político construido sobre la nación-Estado dentro del cual los estudiantes son dados a la luz por la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Nuestras alternativas posibles son harto claras. O continuamos creyendo que el aprendizaje institucionalizado es un producto que justifica una inversión ilimitada, o redescubrimos que la legislación, la planificación y la inversión, si de alguna manera encajan en la educación formal, debieran usarse principalmente para derribar las barreras que ahora obstaculizan las posibilidades de aprendizaje, el cual sólo puede ser una actividad personal. +</p> + +<p> +Si no ponemos en tela de juicio el supuesto de que el conocimiento valedero es una mercancía que en ciertas circunstancias puede metérsele a la fuerza al consumidor, la sociedad se verá cada día más dominada por siniestras seudoescuelas y totalitarios administradores de la información. Los terapeutas pedagógicos drogarán más a sus alumnos a fin de enseñarles mejor, y los estudiantes se drogarán más a fin de conseguir aliviarse de las presiones de los profesores y de la carrera por diplomas. Ejércitos cada día mayores de burócratas presumirán de maestros. El lenguaje del escolar ya se lo ha apropiado el publicista. Ahora el general y el policía tratarán de dignificar sus profesiones disfrazándose de educadores. En una sociedad escolarizada, las guerras y la represión civil encuentran una justificación racional educativa. La guerra pedagógica al estilo Vietnam se justificará cada vez más como la única manera de enseñar a la gente el valor superior del progreso inacabable. +</p> + +<p> +La represión se considerará como un empeño de misioneros por apresurar la venida del Mesías mecánico. Más y más países recurrirán a la tortura pedagógica puesta ya en práctica en Brasil y Grecia. Esta tortura pedagógica no se usa para extraer información o para satisfacer las necesidades psíquicas de unos sádicos. Se apoya en el terror aleatorio para romper la integridad de toda una población y convertirla en un material plástico para las enseñanzas inventadas por tecnócratas. La naturaleza totalmente destructiva y en constante progreso de la instrucción obligatoria cumplirá cabalmente su lógica final a menos que comencemos a librarnos desde ahora de nuestra <em>hybris</em> pedagógica, nuestra creencia de que el hombre puede hacer lo que no puede Dios, a saber, manipular a otros para salvarlos. +</p> + +<p> +Muchos comienzan recientemente a darse cuenta de la inexorable destrucción que las tendencias actuales de producción implican para el medio ambiente, pero las personas aisladas tienen un poder muy restringido para cambiar estas tendencias. La manipulación de hombres y mujeres iniciada en la escuela ha llegado también a un punto sin retorno, y la mayoría de las personas aún no se han percatado de ello. Fomentan todavía la reforma escolar, tal como Henry Ford II propone unos nuevos automóviles ponzoñosos. +</p> + +<p> +Daniel Bell dice que nuestra época se caracteriza por una extrema disyunción entre las estructuras cultural y social; una dedicada a actitudes apocalípticas y la otra a la toma tecnocrática de decisiones. Esto es sin duda verdadero respecto de muchos reformadores de la educación que se sienten impulsados a condenar casi todo aquello que caracteriza a las escuelas modernas —y proponen simultáneamente nuevas escuelas—. +</p> + +<p> +En su <em>Estructura de las revoluciones científicas</em> , Thomas Kuhn aduce que dicha disonancia precede inevitablemente a la aparición de un nuevo paradigma cognoscitivo. Los hechos que informaban aquellos que observaban la caída libre, aquellos que volvían del otro lado de la Tierra y aquellos que usaban el nuevo telescopio, no se ajustaban a la visión cósmica tolemaica. Súbitamente, se aceptó el paradigma newtoniano. La disonancia que caracteriza a muchos jóvenes de hoy no es tanto cognoscitiva como un asunto de actitudes —un sentimiento acerca de cómo <em>no</em> puede ser una sociedad tolerable—. Lo sorprendente respecto de esta disonancia es la capacidad de un número muy grande de personas para tolerarla. +</p> + +<p> +La capacidad para ir tras metas incongruentes exige una explicación. Según Max Gluckman, todas las sociedades poseen procedimientos para ocultar tales disonancias de sus miembros. Los rituales pueden ocultar a sus participantes incluso discrepancias y conflictos entre principio social y organización social. Mientras un individuo no sea explícitamente consciente del carácter ritual del proceso a través del cual se le inició en las fuerzas que moldean su cosmos, no puede romper el conjuro y moldear un nuevo cosmos. Mientras no nos percatemos del ritual a través del cual la escuela moldea al consumidor progresivo —el recurso principal de la economía—, no podremos romper el conjuro de esta economía y dar forma a una nueva. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarizaci\u00f3n","hid":"la_potencialidad_revolucionaria_de_la_desescolarizacion","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":13,"range":"114537-125223"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit14" id="espectro_institucional">Espectro institucional</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +La mayoría de los esquemas utópicos y escenarios futurísticos requieren nuevas y costosas tecnologías que habrían de venderse a las naciones ricas y pobres por igual. Herman Kahn ha encontrado alumnos en Venezuela, Argentina y Colombia. Las fantasías de Sergio Bernardes para su Brasil del año 2000 centellean con más maquinaria nueva de la que hoy posee Estados Unidos, que para entonces estará recargado con los obsoletos emplazamientos para misiles, aeropuertos para reactores y ciudades de las décadas de los años sesenta-setenta. Los futuristas inspirados en Buckminster Fuller se apoyarían más bien en dispositivos más baratos y exóticos. Cuentan con que se acepte una tecnología nueva pero posible, que al parecer nos permitiría hacer más con menos —monorrieles ligeros en vez de transporte supersónico, viviendas verticales en vez de dispersión horizontal—. Todos los planificadores futuristas de hoy tratan de hacer económicamente factible lo técnicamente posible, negándose a la vez a enfrentar las inevitables consecuencias sociales: el creciente anhelo de todos los hombres por bienes y servicios que seguirán siendo privilegio de unos pocos. +</p> + +<p> +Creo que un futuro deseable depende, en primer lugar, de nuestra voluntad de elegir una vida de acción en vez de una vida de consumo, de que engendremos un estilo de vida que nos permita ser espontáneos, independientes y, sin embargo, relacionarnos uno con otro, en vez de mantener un estilo de vida que sólo nos permite hacer y deshacer, producir y consumir —un estilo de vida que es sólo una estación en el camino hacia el agotamiento y la contaminación del entorno—. El futuro depende más de nuestra elección de instituciones que mantengan una vida de acción y menos de que desarrollemos nuevas ideologías y tecnologías. Necesitamos un conjunto de pautas que nos permitan reconocer aquellas instituciones que apoyan el desarrollo personal en vez del enviciamiento, como también la voluntad de dedicar nuestros recursos tecnológicos preferentemente a dichas instituciones de desarrollo. +</p> + +<p> +La elección se sitúa entre dos tipos institucionales radicalmente opuestos, ejemplificados ambos en ciertas instituciones existentes, aunque uno de esos tipos caracteriza de tal manera la época contemporánea que casi la define. A este tipo dominante yo propondría llamarlo la institución manipulativa. El otro tipo existe, pero sólo precariamente. Las instituciones que se ajustan a él son más humildes y menos notorias. No obstante, las tomo como modelos de un futuro más deseable. Las llamo “convivenciales” y sugiero colocarlas a la izquierda institucional, para mostrar que hay instituciones situadas entre ambos extremos y para ilustrar cómo las instituciones históricas pueden cambiar de color conforme se desplazan desde un facilitar la actividad a un organizar la producción. +</p> + +<p> +Dicho espectro, que se desplaza de izquierda a derecha, se ha usado por lo general para caracterizar a los hombres y sus ideologías, y no a nuestras instituciones sociales y a sus estilos. Esta categorización de los hombres, sea como individuos o como grupos, suele producir más calor que luz. Pueden suscitarse poderosas objeciones contra el uso de una convención corriente, pero al hacerlo espero desplazar los términos del debate de un plano estéril a uno fértil. Se evidenciará que los hombres de izquierda no siempre se caracterizan por su oposición a las instituciones manipulativas, a las que coloco en el extremo derecho del espectro. +</p> + +<p> +Las instituciones modernas más influyentes se agolpan al lado derecho del espectro. Hacia él se ha desplazado la coerción legal, conforme ha pasado de las manos del <em>sheriff</em> a las del FBI y del Pentágono. La guerra moderna se ha convertido en una empresa sumamente profesional cuyo negocio es matar. Ha llegado al punto en que su eficiencia se mide por el recuento de cuerpos. Sus capacidades pacificadoras dependen de su poder para convencer a amigos y enemigos de la ilimitada potencia letal de la nación. Las balas y los productos químicos modernos son tan eficaces que a un ínfimo precio son capaces de matar o mutilar infaliblemente al “cliente”. Pero los costos de entrega aumentan vertiginosamente; el coste de un vietnamita muerto subió de 360 000 dólares en 1967 a 450 000 dólares en 1969. Sólo economías a una escala cercana al suicidio de la raza harían económicamente eficiente el arte militar moderno. Se está haciendo más obvio el efecto <em>boomerang</em> en la guerra: cuanto mayor es el recuento de cuerpos de vietnamitas muertos, tantos más enemigos consigue Estados Unidos por todo el mundo; asimismo, tanto más debe gastar Estados Unidos en crear otra institución manipulativa —motejada cínicamente como de “pacificación”— en un vano intento por absorber los efectos secundarios de la guerra. +</p> + +<p> +En este mismo lado del espectro hallamos también organismos sociales que se especializan en la manipulación de sus clientes. Semejante a la organización militar, tienden a crear efectos contrarios a sus objetivos conforme crece el ámbito de sus operaciones. Estas instituciones sociales son igualmente contraproductivas, pero lo son de manera menos evidente. Muchas adoptan una imagen simpática y terapéutica para encubrir este efecto paradójico. Por ejemplo, hasta hace un par de siglos, las cárceles servían como medio para detener a las personas hasta que se les sentenciaba, se les mutilaba, se les mataba o se les exiliaba; en ocasiones se usaban deliberadamente como forma de tortura. Sólo recientemente comenzamos a pretender que encerrar a la gente en jaulas tendrá un efecto benéfico sobre su carácter y comportamiento. Ahora, más que unos pocos están empezando a entender que la cárcel incrementa tanto la calidad de los criminales como su cantidad, que es perfectamente capaz de hacer de un simple inconforme un criminal endurecido. No obstante, es mucho menor el número de los que al parecer entienden que las clínicas psiquiátricas, hogares de reposo y orfanatos hacen algo muy parecido. Estas instituciones proporcionan a sus clientes la destructiva autoimagen del psicótico, del excedido en años o del niño abandonado, y proveen la justificación lógica para la existencia de ciertas profesiones, tal como las cárceles poseen sus guardias. La afiliación a instituciones que se encuentran en este extremo del espectro se consigue de dos maneras, ambas coercitivas: mediante compromiso obligado o mediante servicio selectivo. +</p> + +<p> +En el extremo opuesto del espectro se sitúan unas instituciones que se distinguen por el uso espontáneo —las instituciones “convivenciales”—. Las conexiones telefónicas, las líneas de metro, los recorridos de los carteros, los mercados y lonjas no tienen necesidad de convencernos de su necesidad. Los sistemas de alcantarillado, de agua potable, los parques y veredas son instituciones que los hombres usan sin tener que estar institucionalmente convencidos de que les conviene hacerlo. Todas las instituciones exigen, por cierto, cierta reglamentación. Pero el funcionamiento de instituciones que existen para usarse más que para producir algo, requiere de normas cuya índole es totalmente diferente de la que exigen las instituciones-tratamiento, que son manipulativas. Las normas que rigen a las instituciones para uso tienen por fin principal evitar abusos que frustrarían su accesibilidad general. Las veredas deben mantenerse libres de obstrucciones, el uso industrial de agua potable debe someterse a ciertos límites y el juego de pelota debe restringirse a zonas especiales dentro de un parque. Actualmente necesitamos una legislación especial para evitar el abuso de nuestras líneas telefónicas por parte de computadoras, el abuso del servicio de correo por parte de los anunciantes y la contaminación de nuestros sistemas de alcantarillado por los desechos industriales. La reglamentación de las instituciones convivenciales fija límites para su empleo; conforme uno pasa del extremo convivencial del espectro al manipulativo, las normas van exigiendo cada vez más un consumo o participación no queridos. El diferente coste de la adquisición de clientes es precisamente una de las características que distingue a las instituciones conviviales de las manipulativas. +</p> + +<p> +En ambos extremos del espectro encontramos instituciones de servicio, pero a la derecha, el servicio es una manipulación impuesta y al cliente se le convierte en víctima de la publicidad, la agresión, el adoctrinamiento, la prisión o el electrochoque. A la izquierda, el servicio es una mayor oportunidad de límites definidos formalmente, mientras el cliente sigue siendo un agente libre. Las instituciones del ala derecha tienden a procesos de producción altamente complejos y costosos en los que gran parte de la complicación y el gasto se ocupan en convencer a los consumidores de que no pueden vivir sin el producto o tratamiento ofrecido por la institución. Las instituciones del ala izquierda tienden a redes que facilitan la composición o cooperación iniciada por el cliente. +</p> + +<p> +Las instituciones manipulativas de la derecha son formadoras de hábito, “adictivas”, social y psicológicamente. La adicción social, o escalada, consiste en la tendencia a prescribir un tratamiento intensificado si dosis menores no han rendido los resultados deseados. La adicción psicológica, o habituamiento, se produce cuando los consumidores se envician con la necesidad de una cantidad cada vez mayor del proceso o del producto. Las instituciones de la izquierda que uno mismo pone en actividad tienden a autolimitarse. Al revés de los procesos de producción que identifican la satisfacción con el mero acto del consumo, estas redes sirven a un objetivo que va más allá de su uso repetido. Una persona levanta el teléfono cuando quiere decir algo a otra, y cuelga una vez terminada la comunicación deseada. A excepción hecha de los adolescentes, no usa el teléfono por el puro placer de hablar ante el receptor. Si el teléfono no es el mejor modo de ponerse en comunicación, las personas escribirán una carta o harán un viaje. Las instituciones de la derecha, como podemos ver claramente en el caso de las escuelas, invitan compulsivamente al uso repetitivo y frustran las maneras alternativas de lograr resultados similares. +</p> + +<p> +Hacia la izquierda del espectro institucional, pero no en el extremo mismo, podemos colocar a las empresas que compiten entre sí en la actividad que les es propia, pero que no han empezado a ocupar la publicidad de manera notable. Encontramos aquí las lavanderías manuales, las pequeñas panaderías, los peluqueros y, para hablar de profesionales, algunos abogados y profesores de música. Son por consiguiente característicamente del ala izquierda las personas que han institucionalizado sus servicios, pero no su publicidad. Consiguen clientes mediante su contacto personal y la calidad relativa de sus servicios. +</p> + +<p> +Los hoteles y las cafeterías se acercan algo más al centro. Las grandes cadenas hoteleras como la Hilton que gastan inmensas cantidades en vender su imagen, a menudo se comportan como si estuvieran dirigiendo instituciones de la derecha. No obstante, las empresas Hilton y Sheraton no ofrecen nada más —de hecho dan frecuentemente menos— que alojamientos de precio similar y dirigidos independientemente. En lo esencial, un letrero de hotel atrae al viajero como lo hace un signo caminero. Dice más bien: “Detente, aquí hay una cama para ti”, y no: “¡Deberías preferir una cama de hotel a una banca en el parque!” +</p> + +<p> +Los productores de artículos de primera necesidad y de la mayoría de los bienes efímeros pertenecen a la parte central de nuestro espectro. Satisfacen demandas genéricas y agregan al costo de producción y distribución todo lo que el mercado soporte en costos publicitarios, en anuncios y envases. Cuanto más básico sea el producto —trátese de bienes o de servicios— tanto más tiende la competencia a limitar el costo de venta del artículo. +</p> + +<p> +La mayoría de los fabricantes de bienes de consumo se han ido mucho más a la derecha. Tanto directa como indirectamente, producen demandas de accesorios que hinchan el precio real de compra muy por encima del coste de producción. La General Motors y la Ford producen medios de transporte, pero también, y esto es más importante, manipulan el gusto del público de manera tal que la necesidad de transporte se expresa como una demanda de coches privados y no de autobuses públicos. Venden el deseo de controlar una máquina, correr a grandes velocidades con lujosa comodidad, al tiempo que ofrecen el espejismo de la evasión. Pero lo que venden no es tan sólo un asunto de motores inútilmente poderosos, de artilugios superfluos o de suplementos nuevos que los fabricantes han tenido que agregar obligados por Ralph Nader y los grupos que presionan en pro de un aire limpio. La lista de precios incluye dispositivos anticontaminantes, cinturones de seguridad, climatización; pero también comprende otros costes que no se le declaran abiertamente al conductor: los gastos de publicidad y de ventas de la empresa, el combustible, el mantenimiento y las refacciones, el seguro, el interés sobre el crédito, como también costes menos tangibles, como la pérdida de tiempo, el buen humor y el aire respirable en nuestras congestionadas ciudades. +</p> + +<p> +Un corolario particularmente interesante de nuestro examen de instituciones socialmente útiles es el sistema de carreteras “públicas”. Este importante elemento del coste total de los automóviles merece un análisis más dilatado, pues conduce directamente a la institución derechista en la que estoy más interesado, a saber, la escuela. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Espectro institucional","hid":"espectro_institucional","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":14,"range":"125224-139068"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit15" id="falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica">Falsos servicios de utilidad pública</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +El sistema de carreteras es una red para la locomoción a través de distancias relativamente grandes. En su condición de red, parecería corresponderle estar a la izquierda en el espectro institucional. Pero en este caso debemos hacer una distinción que esclarecerá tanto la naturaleza de las carreteras como la naturaleza de los verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Los caminos que son genuinamente para todos, son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Las supercarreteras son cotos privados, cuyo coste se le encaja parcialmente al público. +</p> + +<p> +Los sistemas de teléfonos, correos y caminos son redes, y ninguno es gratis. El acceso a la red de teléfonos está limitado por cobros sobre tiempo ocupado en cada llamada. Estas tarifas son relativamente bajas y podrían reducirse sin cambiar la naturaleza del sistema. El uso del sistema telefónico no está en absoluto limitado por lo que se transmita, aunque lo emplean mejor quienes pueden hablar frases coherentes en el lenguaje del interlocutor, una capacidad que poseen todos los que desean usar la red. El franqueo suele ser barato. El uso del sistema postal se ve ligeramente limitado por el precio de la pluma y el papel, y algo más por la capacidad de escribir. Aún así, cuando alguien que no sabe escribir tiene un pariente o un amigo a quien pueda dictarle una carta, el sistema postal está a su disposición, tal como lo está si quiere despachar una cinta grabada. +</p> + +<p> +El sistema de carreteras no llega a estar disponible de manera similar para alguien que tan sólo aprenda a conducir. Las redes telefónica y postal existen para servir a quienes deseen usarlas, mientras el sistema de carreteras sirve principalmente como accesorio del automóvil privado. Las primeras son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública, mientras el último es un servicio público para los dueños de coches, camiones y autobuses. Los servicios de utilidad pública existen en pro de la comunicación entre los hombres: las carreteras, como otras instituciones de la derecha, existen en pro de un producto. Tal como hicimos notar, los fabricantes de automóviles <em>producen</em> simultáneamente tanto los coches como la demanda de coches. Asimismo <em>producen</em> la demanda de carreteras de varias vías, puentes y campos petrolíferos. El coche privado es el foco de una constelación de instituciones del ala derecha. El elevado coste de cada elemento lo dicta la complicación del producto básico, y vender el producto básico es enviciar a la sociedad en el paquete conjunto. +</p> + +<p> +Planificar un sistema vial como un verdadero servicio de utilidad pública discriminaría a aquellos para quienes la velocidad y el confort individualizado son los valores primarios de transporte, y favorecería a aquellos que valoran la fluidez y el lugar de destino. Es la diferencia entre una red extendidísima con acceso máximo para los viajeros y otra que ofrezca sólo un acceso privilegiado a una zona restringida. +</p> + +<p> +La transferencia de una institución moderna a las naciones en desarrollo permite probar esto con mejor claridad. En los países muy pobres, los caminos suelen ser apenas lo bastante buenos como para permitir el tránsito mediante camiones especiales de eje elevado, cargados de víveres, reses o personas. Este tipo de país debería usar sus limitados recursos para construir una telaraña de pistas que llegaran a todas sus regiones y debería restringir la importancia de vehículos a dos o tres modelos diferentes muy duraderos que puedan transitar por malos caminos a baja velocidad. Esto simplificaría el mantenimiento continuo de estos vehículos y proporcionaría una máxima fluidez y elección de puntos de destino a todos los ciudadanos. Esto exigiría proyectar vehículos para todo servicio con la simplicidad del Ford T, utilizando las aleaciones más modernas para garantizar su durabilidad, con un límite de velocidad incorporado de unos 25 kilómetros por hora a lo más, y lo bastante firme como para rodar por el terreno más áspero. No se ofrecen estos vehículos en el mercado porque no hay demanda de ellos. De hecho sería preciso cultivar esa demanda, muy posiblemente al amparo de una legislación estricta. Actualmente, cada vez que una demanda de esta especie se hace sentir un poco, se le descarta rápida y desdeñosamente mediante una publicidad contraria, encaminada a la venta universal de las máquinas que extraen hoy de los contribuyentes estadunidenses el dinero necesario para construir supercarreteras. +</p> + +<p> +Para “mejorar” el transporte, todos los países, hasta los más pobres, proyectan ahora sistemas viales concebidos para coches de pasajeros y remolques de alta velocidad que se ajustan a la minoría, pendiente del velocímetro, compuesta por productores y consumidores en las clases selectas. Este planteamiento a menudo se justifica racionalmente pintándolo como un ahorro del recurso más precioso de un país pobre: el tiempo del médico, del inspector escolar o del funcionario público. Estos hombres, naturalmente, sirven casi exclusivamente a la misma gente que posee un coche o espera tenerlo algún día. Los impuestos locales y las escasas divisas se derrochan en <em>falsos servicios de utilidad pública</em>. +</p> + +<p> +La tecnología “moderna” transferida a los países pobres puede dividirse en tres categorías: bienes, fábricas que los hacen e instituciones de servicios —principalmente escuelas— que convierten a los hombres en productores y consumidores modernos. La mayor parte de los países gastan la mayor proporción de su presupuesto, y con mucho, en escuelas. Los graduados fabricados con escuelas crean entonces una demanda de otros servicios conspicuos de utilidad pública, tales como potencia industrial, carreteras pavimentadas, hospitales modernos y aeropuertos, y éstos crean a su vez un mercado para los bienes hechos para países ricos y, al cabo de un tiempo, la tendencia a importar fábricas anticuadas para producirlos. +</p> + +<p> +De todos los “falsos servicios de utilidad pública”, la escuela es el más insidioso. Los sistemas de carreteras producen sólo demanda de coches. Las escuelas crean una demanda para el conjunto completo de instituciones modernas que llenan el extremo derecho del espectro. A un hombre que pusiera en duda la necesidad de carreteras se le tacharía de romántico; al que ponga en tela de juicio la necesidad de escuelas se le ataca de inmediato: un ser sin entrañas o un imperialista. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Falsos servicios de utilidad p\u00fablica","hid":"falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":15,"range":"139069-145568"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit16" id="las_escuelas_como_falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica">Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Al igual que las carreteras, las escuelas dan a primera vista la impresión de estar igualmente abiertas para todos los interesados. De hecho están abiertas sólo para quienes renueven sin cejar sus credenciales. Así como las carreteras crean la impresión de que su nivel actual de costes anuales es necesario para que la gente pueda moverse, así se supone que las escuelas son indispensables para alcanzar la competencia que exige una sociedad que use la tecnología moderna. Hemos expuesto las autopistas como servicios de utilidad pública espurios observando cómo dependen de los automóviles privados. Las escuelas se fundan en la hipótesis igualmente espuria de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza curricular. +</p> + +<p> +Las carreteras son las consecuencias del deseo y la necesidad de movilizarse que se pervierten para convertirlos en demanda de coches privados. Las escuelas pervierten la natural inclinación a desarrollarse y aprender convirtiéndola en demanda de instrucción. La demanda de una madurez manufacturada es mucho más la abnegación de la actividad iniciada por uno mismo que la demanda de bienes manufacturados. Las escuelas no sólo están a la derecha de las carreteras y los coches, tienen su lugar cerca del extremo del espectro institucional ocupado por los asilos totales. Incluso los productores de recuentos de cuerpos matan solamente cuerpos. Al hacer que los hombres abdiquen de la responsabilidad de su propio desarrollo, la escuela conduce a muchos a una especie de suicidio espiritual. +</p> + +<p> +Las carreteras las pagan en parte quienes las utilizan, puesto que los peajes e impuestos al combustible se obtienen sólo de los conductores. La escuela, en cambio, es un sistema perfecto de tributación regresiva, en el que los privilegios cabalgan sobre el lomo de todo público pagador. La escuela fija un gravamen por cabeza sobre la promoción. El subconsumo de distancias recorridas por carretera no es nunca tan costoso como el subconsumo de escolarización. El hombre que no posea un coche en Los Ángeles posiblemente esté casi inmovilizado, pero si se ingenia de algún modo para llegar a su lugar de trabajo, podrá conseguir y conservar un empleo. El desertor escolar carece de vía alternativa. El habitante suburbano en su Lincoln nuevo y su primo campesino que conduce una vieja carcacha se aprovechan más o menos igual de la carretera, aunque el vehículo del uno cueste 30 veces más que el del otro. El valor de la escolarización de un hombre es función del número de años que ha permanecido en escuelas y de la carestía de éstas. La ley no obliga a conducir, en cambio obliga a ir a la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +El análisis de las instituciones según su actual emplazamiento en un espectro continuo izquierda-derecha me permite esclarecer mi convicción de que el cambio social fundamental debe comenzar con un cambio en la conciencia que se tiene de las instituciones y explicar por qué la dimensión de un futuro viable recae en el rejuvenecimiento del estilo institucional. +</p> + +<p> +Durante la década 1960-1970, unas instituciones, nacidas en diversas épocas después de la Revolución francesa, llegaron a su vejez; los sistemas de escuelas públicas fundados en la época de Jefferson o de Atatürk, junto con otros que se iniciaron después de la segunda Guerra Mundial, se hicieron todos burocráticos, autojustificantes y manipulativos. Lo mismo les ocurrió a los sistemas de seguridad social, a los sindicatos, a las principales Iglesias y cuerpos diplomáticos, a la atención de los ancianos y a los servicios funerarios. +</p> + +<p> +Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay un mayor parecido ente los sistemas escolares de Colombia, Inglaterra, la Unión Soviética y Estados Unidos, que entre las escuelas de este último de fines del siglo pasado y las de hoy o las de Rusia en ese tiempo. Las escuelas son hoy obligatorias, sin término definido y competitivo. Esa misma convergencia en el estilo institucional afecta la atención médica, la comercialización, la administración de personal y la vida política. Todos estos procesos institucionales tienden a apilarse en el extremo manipulativo del espectro. +</p> + +<p> +La consecuencia de esta convergencia de instituciones es la fusión de burocracias mundiales. El estilo, el sistema de ordenamiento jerárquico y la parafernalia (desde el libro de texto a la computadora) se normalizan en los consejos de planificación de Costa Rica o de Afganistán, según los modelos de Europa occidental. +</p> + +<p> +Las burocracias parecen centrarse en todas partes en la misma tarea: promover el crecimiento de las instituciones de la derecha. Se ocupan de la fabricación de cosas, la fabricación de normas rituales y la fabricación —y remodelación— de la “verdad ejecutiva”, la ideología o el <em>fiat</em> que establece el valor presente que debiera atribuirse a lo que ellas producen. La tecnología proporciona a estas burocracias un poder creciente a la mano derecha de la sociedad. La mano izquierda parece marchitarse y no porque la tecnología sea menos capaz de aumentar el ámbito de la actividad humana y de proporcionar tiempo para el despliegue de la imaginación individual y para la creatividad personal, sino porque ese uso de la tecnología no aumenta el poder de la élite que la administra. El director de correos no tiene control sobre el uso esencial de ese servicio; la telefonista o el directivo de la compañía telefónica carecen de poder para impedir que se preparen adulterios, asesinatos o subversiones usando sus líneas. +</p> + +<p> +En la elección entre la derecha y la izquierda institucional está en juego la naturaleza misma de la vida humana. El hombre debe elegir entre ser rico en cosas o tener libertad para usarlas. Debe elegir entre estilos alternativos de vida y programas conexos de producción. +</p> + +<p> +Aristóteles ya había descubierto que “hacer y actuar” son diferentes, y de hecho tan diferentes que lo uno jamás incluye lo otro. “Porque ni es el actuar una manera de hacer, ni el hacer una manera del verdadero actuar. La arquitectura <em>techne</em> es una manera de hacer… dar nacimiento a algo cuyo origen está en su hacedor y no en la cosa. El hacer siempre tiene una finalidad que no es él mismo, y no así la acción, puesto que la buena acción es en sí misma un fin. La perfección en el hacer es un arte; la perfección en el actuar, una virtud.”[^n11] La palabra que Aristóteles usó para hacer fue <em>poesis</em> , y la que usó para actuar, <em>praxis</em>. El movimiento hacia la derecha de una institución indica que se la está reestructurando para aumentar su capacidad de “hacer”, mientras que si se desplaza hacia la izquierda indica que se la está reestructurando para permitir un mayor “actuar” o “praxis”. La tecnología moderna ha aumentado la capacidad del hombre para dejar a las máquinas el “hacer” cosas y ha aumentado el tiempo que puede dedicar a “actuar”. El “hacer” las cosas cotidianas imprescindibles ha dejado de ocupar su tiempo. El desempleo es la consecuencia de esta modernización: es la ociosidad del hombre para quien no hay nada que “hacer” y que no sabe cómo “actuar”. El desempleo es la triste ociosidad del hombre que, al revés de Aristóteles, cree que hacer cosas o trabajar es virtuoso y que la ociosidad es mala. El desempleo es la experiencia del hombre que ha sucumbido a la ética protestante. Según Weber, el hombre necesita el ocio para poder trabajar. Según Aristóteles, el trabajo es necesario para poder tener ocio. +</p> + +<p> +La tecnología proporciona al hombre tiempo discrecional que puede llenar ya sea haciendo, ya sea actuando. Toda nuestra cultura tiene abierta ahora la opción entre un triste desempleo o un ocio feliz. Depende del estilo institucional que la cultura elija. Esta elección habría sido inconcebible en una cultura antigua fundada en la agricultura campesina o en la esclavitud. Ha llegado a ser inevitable para el hombre posindustrial. +</p> + +<p> +Una manera de llenar el tiempo disponible es estimular mayores demandas de consumo de bienes y, simultáneamente, de producción de servicios. Lo primero implica una economía que proporciona una falange cada vez mayor de cosas siempre novedosas que pueden hacerse, consumirse y someterse a reciclaje. Lo segundo implica el vano intento de “hacer” acciones virtuosas, haciendo aparecer como tales los productos de las instituciones de “servicios”. Esto conduce a la identificación de la escolaridad con la educación, del servicio médico con la salud, de los programas con la recreación, de la velocidad con la locomoción eficaz. La primera opción lleva ahora el apodo de <em>desarrollo.</em> +</p> + +<p> +La manera radicalmente alternativa de llenar el tiempo disponible consiste en una gama limitada de bienes más durables y en proporcionar acceso a instituciones que puedan aumentar la oportunidad y apetencia de las acciones humanas recíprocas. +</p> + +<p> +Una economía de bienes duraderos es exactamente lo contrario de una economía fundada en la obsolescencia programada. Una economía de bienes duraderos significa una restricción en la lista de mercancías. Los bienes habrían de ser de tal especie que diesen un máximo de oportunidad para “actuar” en algo con ellos: artículos hechos para montarlos uno mismo, para autoayudarse, para su reempleo y reparación. +</p> + +<p> +El complemento de una lista de bienes durables, reparables y reutilizables no es un aumento de servicios producidos institucionalmente, sino más bien una estructura institucional que eduque constantemente en la acción, en la participación, en la autoayuda. El movimiento de nuestra sociedad desde el presente —en el que todas las instituciones gravitan hacia una burocracia posindustrial— a un futuro de convivencialidad posindustrial —en el que la intensidad de la acción sería preponderante sobre la producción— debe comenzar con una renovación del estilo de las instituciones de servicio y, antes que nada, por una renovación de la educación. Un futuro deseable y factible depende de nuestra disposición a invertir nuestro saber tecnológico en el desarrollo de instituciones convivenciales. En el terreno de las investigaciones sobre educación, esto equivale a exigir que se trastroquen las tendencias actuales. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad p\u00fablica","hid":"las_escuelas_como_falsos_servicios_de_utilidad_publica","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":16,"range":"145569-155880"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit17" id="compatibilidades_irracionales">Compatibilidades irracionales</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +[^n12] Creo que la crisis contemporánea de la educación nos obliga más bien a modificar la idea de un aprendizaje públicamente prescrito y no los métodos usados para hacerlo cumplir. La proporción de desertores —especialmente de alumnos de los primeros años de bachillerato y de maestros de primaria— señala que las bases están pidiendo un enfoque totalmente nuevo. Al “practicante del aula” que se estima un profesor liberal se le ataca cada vez más por todos lados. El movimiento pro escuela libre, que confunde disciplina con adoctrinamiento, le ha adjudicado el papel de elemento destructivo y autoritario. El tecnólogo educativo demuestra sostenidamente la inferioridad del profesor para medir y modificar la conducta. Y la administración escolar para la que trabaja lo obliga a inclinarse tanto ante Summerhill como ante Skinner, poniendo en evidencia que el aprendizaje obligatorio no puede ser una empresa liberal. No debe asombrar que el índice de maestros desertores esté superando el de los alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +El compromiso que Estados Unidos ha contraído de educar obligatoriamente a sus menores se demuestra tan vano como el pretendido compromiso norteamericano de democratizar obligatoriamente a los vietnamitas. Las escuelas convencionales obviamente no pueden hacerlo. El movimiento pro escuela libre seduce a los educadores no convencionales, pero en definitiva lo hace en apoyo de la ideología convencional de la escolarización. Y lo que prometen los tecnólogos de la educación, a saber, que sus investigaciones y desarrollo —si se les dota de fondos suficientes— pueden ofrecer alguna especie de solución final a la resistencia de la juventud contra el aprendizaje obligatorio, suena tan confiado y demuestra ser tan fatuo como las promesas hechas por los tecnólogos militares. +</p> + +<p> +Las críticas dirigidas contra el sistema escolar estadunidense por parte de los conductistas, y las que provienen de la nueva raza de educadores raciales, parecen diametralmente opuestas. Los conductistas aplican las investigaciones sobre educación a la “inducción de instrucción autotélica mediante paquetes de aprendizaje individualizados”. El estilo conductista choca con la idea de hacer que los jóvenes ingresen por voluntad propia en unas comunas liberadas que les invitan a ingresar, las cuales estarían supervisadas por adultos. No obstante, bajo una perspectiva histórica, ambas no son sino manifestaciones contemporáneas de las metas, aparentemente contradictorias, pero en verdad complementarias, del sistema escolar público. Desde los comienzos de este siglo, las escuelas han sido protagonistas del control social por una parte y de la cooperación libre por la otra, poniéndose ambos aspectos al servicio de la “buena sociedad” a la que se concibe como una estructura corporativa altamente organizada y de suave funcionamiento. Sometidos al impacto de una urbanización intensa, los niños se convierten en un recurso natural que las escuelas han de moldear para luego alimentar la máquina industrial. Las políticas progresistas y el culto a la eficiencia coincidieron con el crecimiento de la escuela pública estadunidense.[^n13] La orientación vocacional y la <em>junior highschool</em>[^n14] fueron dos importantes resultados de este tipo de conceptos. +</p> + +<p> +Parece, por consiguiente, que el intento de producir cambios específicos en el comportamiento, que puedan medirse y de los que pueda responsabilizarse al encargado del proceso, es sólo el anverso de la medalla, cuyo reverso es la pacificación de la nueva generación dentro de enclaves especialmente proyectados que los inducirán a entrar en el sueño de sus mayores. Estos seres pacificados en sociedad están bien descritos por Dewey, quien quiere que “hagamos de cada una de nuestras escuelas una vida comunitaria en embrión, activa, con tipos de ocupaciones que reflejen la vida de la sociedad en pleno, y la <em>impregnen</em> con el espíritu del arte, de la historia, de la ciencia”. Bajo esta perspectiva histórica, sería un grave error interpretar la actual controversia a tres bandas entre el establecimiento escolar, los tecnólogos de la educación y las escuelas libres como el preludio de una revolución en la educación. Esta controversia refleja más bien una etapa de un intento para convertir a grandes trancos un viejo sueño en hecho y convertir finalmente todo aprendizaje valedero en el resultado de una enseñanza profesional. La mayoría de las alternativas educativas propuestas convergen hacia metas que son inmanentes a la producción del hombre cooperativo cuyas necesidades individuales se satisfacen mediante su especialización en el sistema estadunidense: están orientadas hacia el mejoramiento de lo que yo llamo —a falta de una mejor expresión— la sociedad escolarizada. Incluso los críticos aparentemente radicales del sistema escolar no están dispuestos a abandonar la idea de que tienen una obligación para con los jóvenes, especialmente para con los pobres, la obligación de hacerlos pasar por el proceso, sea mediante amor o mediante odio, para meterlos en una sociedad que necesita especialización disciplinada tanto de sus productores como de sus consumidores y, asimismo, el pleno compromiso de todos ellos con la ideología que antepone a todo el crecimiento económico. +</p> + +<p> +La disensión enmascara la contradicción inherente a la idea misma de escuela. Los sindicatos establecidos de profesores, los brujos de la tecnología y los movimientos de liberación escolar refuerzan el compromiso de la sociedad entera con los axiomas fundamentales de un mundo escolarizado, más o menos del modo en que muchos movimientos pacifistas y de protesta refuerzan el compromiso de sus miembros —sean negros, mujeres, jóvenes o pobres— con la búsqueda de justicia mediante el crecimiento del ingreso nacional bruto. +</p> + +<p> +Es fácil anotar algunos de los postulados que ahora pasan inadvertidos a la crítica. En primer lugar está la creencia compartida de que la conducta que se ha adquirido ante los ojos de un pedagogo es de especial valor para el alumno y de especial provecho para la sociedad. Esto está relacionado con el supuesto de que el hombre social nace sólo en la adolescencia, y que nace adecuadamente sólo si madura en la escuela-matriz, que algunos desean hacer dulce mediante el <em>laissez-faire,</em>[^n15] otros quieren llenar de artilugios mecánicos y unos terceros buscan barnizar con una tradición liberal. Está finalmente una visión común de la juventud, psicológicamente romántica y políticamente conservadora. Según esta visión, los cambios de la sociedad deben llevarse a cabo agobiando a los jóvenes con la responsabilidad de transformarla —pero sólo después de que en su momento se han liberado de la escuela—. Para una sociedad fundada en tales postulados es fácil ir creando un sentido de su responsabilidad respecto de la educación de la nueva generación, y esto inevitablemente significa que algunos hombres pueden fijar, especificar y evaluar las metas personales de otros. En un “párrafo tomado de una enciclopedia china imaginaria” Jorge Luis Borges trata de evocar el mareo que debe producir ese intento. Nos dice que los animales están divididos en las clases siguientes: “ <em>a)</em> pertenecientes al Emperador, <em>b)</em> embalsamados, <em>c)</em> amaestrados, <em>d)</em> lechones, <em>e)</em> sirenas, <em>f)</em> fabulosos, <em>g)</em> perros sueltos, <em>h)</em> incluidos en esta clasificación, <em>i)</em> que se agitan como locos, <em>j)</em> innumerables, <em>k)</em> dibujados con un pincel finísimo de pelo de camello, <em>l)</em> etcétera, <em>m)</em> que acaban de romper el jarrón, <em>n)</em> que de lejos parecen moscas”. Ahora bien, semejante taxonomía no aparece a menos que alguien estime que puede servir para sus fines: en este caso, supongo, ese alguien era un cobrador de impuestos. Para él, al menos, esta taxonomía bestiaria <em>tiene</em> que haber tenido sentido, tal como la taxonomía de objetivos educativos tiene sentido para los autores científicos. +</p> + +<p> +La visión de hombres dotados de una lógica tan inescrutable, y autorizados para evaluar su ganado, debe haber producido en el campesino un helado sentimiento de impotencia. Los estudiantes, por motivos parecidos, tienden a sentirse paranoicos cuando se someten seriamente a un currículum. Inevitablemente se asustan aún más que mi imaginario campesino chino, porque no es su ganado, sino sus objetivos vitales los que están siendo marcados con un signo inescrutable. +</p> + +<p> +Este pasaje de Borges es fascinante, porque evoca la lógica de la <em>compatibilidad irracional</em> que hace a las burocracias de Kafka y de Koestler tan siniestras y no obstante tan evocadoras de la vida cotidiana. El encadenamiento implacable de las reglas parece embrujar a quienes se vuelven cómplices de ellas y los empuja a hacer prueba de una disciplina todavía más ciega. Es la lógica creada por la conducta burocrática. Y se convierte en la lógica de una sociedad que exige que a los administradores de sus instituciones educativas se les considere públicamente responsables de la modificación del comportamiento que producen en sus clientes. Los estudiantes a los que se puede motivar para valorar los paquetes educativos que sus profesores les obligan a consumir son comparables a los campesinos chinos que pueden ajustar sus rebaños al formulario de impuestos que ofrece Borges. +</p> + +<p> +Durante el transcurso de las dos últimas generaciones triunfó en algún momento en la cultura norteamericana un compromiso con la terapia, y vino a considerarse a los profesores como los terapeutas cuyas recetas todos los hombres necesitan, si es que desean gozar de la libertad y la igualdad con las cuales, según la Constitución, han nacido. +</p> + +<p> +Ahora los profesores-terapeutas siguen adelante al proponer como paso siguiente el tratamiento educativo vitalicio. El <em>estudio</em> de este tratamiento está sujeto a discusión: ¿debiera adoptar la forma de una asistencia constante de los adultos al aula? ¿O la de éxtasis electrónico? ¿O de sesiones periódicas de sensibilización? Todos los educadores están prontos a conspirar para extender los muros del aula y agrandarla, con la meta de transformar la cultura completa en una escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Detrás de la retórica y del alboroto, la controversia sobre el futuro de la educación que tiene lugar en Estados Unidos es más conservadora que el debate en otros ámbitos de la política común. Respecto de las relaciones exteriores, por lo menos, una minoría organizada nos recuerda constantemente que el país debe renunciar a su papel de policía del mundo. Los economistas radicales, y ahora incluso sus profesores, menos radicales, ponen en duda la convivencia del crecimiento conjunto como meta. Hay grupos de presión para favorecer la medicina preventiva y no la curativa y otros propugnan por la fluidez en vez de la velocidad en el transporte. Sólo en el ámbito de la educación permanecen dispersas las voces articuladas que piden una desescolarización radical de la sociedad. Existe una carencia de argumentación persuasiva y de un liderazgo maduro encaminados a quitar el apoyo oficial a todas y cada una de las instituciones que tienen por fin el <em>aprendizaje</em> obligatorio. Por el momento, la desescolarización radical de la sociedad es todavía una causa sin partido. Esto sorprende especialmente en un periodo de resistencia creciente, aunque caótica, a todas las formas de instrucción planificada institucionalmente, por parte de los jóvenes de 12 a 17 años. +</p> + +<p> +Los innovadores educativos siguen suponiendo que las instituciones educativas funcionan como embudos para los programas que ellos envasan. Para los fines de mi argumento da lo mismo que estos embudos tengan la forma de un aula, de un transmisor de televisión o de una “zona liberada”. Es igualmente ajeno al asunto si los envases suministrados son ricos o pobres, calientes o fríos, duros y mensurables (como Matemáticas III) o imposibles de evaluar (como la sensibilización). Lo que interesa es que se suponga que la educación es el resultado de un proceso institucional dirigido por el educador. Mientras las relaciones continúen siendo aquellas que existen entre un proveedor y un consumidor, el trabajo de investigación sobre educación continuará siendo un proceso circular. Acumulará pruebas científicas en apoyo de la necesidad de más paquetes educativos y del perfeccionamiento de los métodos de entrega, tal como cierta rama de las ciencias sociales puede probar la necesidad de acrecentar la distribución de los productos de la institución militar. +</p> + +<p> +Una revolución educativa se apoya en una doble inversión: una nueva orientación del trabajo de investigación y una nueva comprensión del estilo educativo de una contracultura emergente. +</p> + +<p> +La investigación operativa trata ahora de optimizar la eficiencia de una estructura heredada —un marco de referencia que jamás se pone en tela de juicio—. Este marco de referencia tiene la estructura sintáctica de un embudo para paquetes de enseñanza. La alternativa sintáctica respecto del mismo es una red o trama educativa para el montaje autónomo de recursos bajo el control personal de cada aprendiz. Esta estructura alternativa de una institución educativa yace ahora en el punto ciego conceptual de nuestra investigación operativa. Si la investigación se enfocara en él, ello constituiría una auténtica revolución científica. +</p> + +<p> +El punto ciego de los trabajos de investigación en educación refleja la parcialidad cultural de una sociedad en la que el crecimiento tecnológico se ha confundido con el control tecnocrático. Para el tecnócrata, el valor de un entorno aumenta conforme pueda programarse un mayor número de contactos entre un hombre y su medio ambiente. Es este mundo, las elecciones abiertas para el observador o el planificador deben estar acordes con los deseos de quienes están sometidos a una observación y a quienes se denomina los “beneficiarios”. La libertad se reduce a la elección entre unas mercancías envasadas. +</p> + +<p> +La contracultura emergente afirma los valores del contenido semántico por encima de la eficiencia de una sintaxis mayor y más rígida. Valora la riqueza de la connotación por encima del poder de la sintaxis para producir riquezas. Valora la consecuencia imprevisible de la instrucción profesional. Esta reorientación hacia la sorpresa personal, y no hacia los valores producidos por la institución, es capaz de perturbar el orden establecido hasta que podamos separar la creciente disponibilidad de las herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan el encuentro del creciente control del tecnócrata sobre lo que ocurre cuando la gente se reúne. +</p> + +<p> +Nuestras actuales instituciones educativas están al servicio de las metas del profesor. Las estructuras de relación que necesitamos son las que permitan a cada hombre definirse él mismo aprendiendo y contribuyendo al aprendizaje de otros. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Compatibilidades irracionales","hid":"compatibilidades_irracionales","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":17,"range":"155881-170865"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit18" id="tramas_del_aprendizaje">Tramas del aprendizaje</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +En un capítulo anterior examiné aquello que se está convirtiendo en una queja común acerca de las escuelas una queja que se hace sentir por ejemplo, en un informe reciente de la Carnegie Commission: en las escuelas los alumnos matriculados se someten ante maestros diplomados a fin de obtener sus propios diplomas; ambos quedan frustrados y ambos culpan a los recursos insuficientes —dinero, tiempo o edificios— de su mutua frustración. +</p> + +<p> +Una crítica semejante conduce a muchos a pensar si no será posible concebir un estilo diferente de aprendizaje. Paradójicamente, si a esas mismas personas se les insta a especificar cómo adquirieron lo que saben y estiman, admitirán prontamente que con mayor frecuencia lo aprendieron fuera y no dentro de la escuela. Su conocimiento de hechos, lo que entienden de la vida y de su trabajo les vino de la amistad o del amor, de leer, del ejemplo de sus iguales o de la incitación de un encuentro callejero. O tal vez aprendieron lo que saben por medio del ritual de iniciación de una pandilla callejera, de un hospital, de la redacción de un periódico, de un taller de fontanería o de una oficina de seguros. La alternativa a la dependencia respecto de las escuelas no es el uso de recursos públicos para algún nuevo dispositivo que “haga” aprender a la gente; es más bien la creación de un nuevo estilo de relación educativa entre el hombre y su medio. Para propiciar este estilo será necesaria una modificación de la idea que nos hacemos del crecimiento, de los útiles necesarios para aprender y de la calidad y estructura de la vida cotidiana. +</p> + +<p> +Las actitudes ya están cambiando. Ha desaparecido la orgullosa dependencia respecto de la escuela. En la industria del conocimiento se acrecienta la resistencia del consumidor. Muchos profesores y alumnos, contribuyentes y patronos, economistas y policías, preferirían no seguir dependiendo de las escuelas. Lo que impide que su frustración dé forma a otras instituciones es una carencia no sólo de imaginación, sino también, con frecuencia, de un lenguaje apropiado y de un interés personal ilustrado. No pueden visualizar ya sea una sociedad desescolarizada, ya sean unas instituciones educativas en una sociedad que haya privado de apoyo oficial a la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +En este capítulo me propongo mostrar que lo contrario de la escuela es posible: que podemos apoyarnos en el aprendizaje automotivado en vez de contratar profesores para sobornar u obligar al estudiante a hallar el tiempo y la voluntad de aprender, que podemos proporcionar al aprendiz nuevos vínculos con el mundo en vez de continuar canalizando todos los programas educativos por medio del profesor. Examinaré algunas de las características que distinguen la escolarización del aprendizaje y esbozaré cuatro categorías principales de instituciones que serían atractivas no sólo para muchas personas, sino también para muchos grupos de intereses comunes. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Tramas del aprendizaje","hid":"tramas_del_aprendizaje","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":18,"range":"170866-173848"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit19" id="una_objecion_a_quien_pueden_servirle_unos_puentes_hacia_la_nada">Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Estamos acostumbrados a considerar las escuelas como una variable que depende de la estructura política y económica. Si podemos cambiar el estilo de la dirección política o promover los intereses de una clase u otra, suponemos que el sistema escolar cambiará también. En cambio, las instituciones educativas que propondré están ideadas para servir a una sociedad que no existe ahora, aunque la actual frustración respecto de las escuelas tiene en sí el potencial de una fuerza importante para poner en movimiento un cambio hacia nuevas configuraciones sociales. Contra este planteamiento se ha suscitado una objeción de peso: ¿por qué canalizar energías para construir puentes hacia ninguna parte, en vez de organizarlas primero para cambiar no las escuelas, sino el sistema político y económico? +</p> + +<p> +No obstante, esta objeción subestima la naturaleza política y económica del sistema escolar en sí, así como el potencial político inherente a cualquier oposición eficaz a ella. +</p> + +<p> +En un sentido fundamental, las escuelas han dejado de ser dependientes de la ideología profesada por cualquier gobierno u organización de mercados. Otras instituciones pueden diferir de un país a otro: la familia, el partido, la Iglesia, la prensa. Pero el sistema escolar tiene por doquier la misma estructura, y en todas partes el currículum oculto tiene el mismo efecto. De modo invariable, modela al consumidor que valora los bienes institucionales sobre los servicios no profesionales de un prójimo. +</p> + +<p> +El currículum oculto de la escolarización inicia en todas partes al ciudadano en el mito de que algunas burocracias guiadas por el conocimiento científico son eficientes y benevolentes. Por doquiera, este mismo currículum inculca en el alumno el mito de que la mayor producción proporcionará una vida mejor. Y por doquiera crea el hábito —que se contradice a sí mismo— de consumo de servicios y de producción enajenante, la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional y el reconocimiento de los escalafones institucionales. El currículum oculto sustenta la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional, el reconocimiento por los profesores y cualquiera que sea la ideología preponderante. +</p> + +<p> +En otras palabras, las escuelas son fundamentalmente semejantes en todos los países, sean éstos fascistas, democráticos o socialistas, grandes o pequeños, ricos o pobres. La identidad del sistema escolar nos obliga a reconocer la profunda identidad en todo el mundo, del mito, del modo de producción y del método de control social, pese a la gran variedad de mitologías en las cuales encuentra expresión el mito. +</p> + +<p> +En vista de esta identidad, es ilusorio pretender que las escuelas son, en algún sentido profundo, unas variables dependientes. Esto significa que esperar un cambio social o económico concebido convencionalmente, es también una ilusión. Más aún, esta ilusión concede a la escuela —el órgano de reproducción de la sociedad de consumo— una inmunidad casi indiscutida. +</p> + +<p> +Al llegar a este punto es cuando adquiere importancia el ejemplo de China. Durante tres milenios, China protegió el aprendizaje superior por medio de un divorcio total entre el proceso del aprendizaje y el privilegio conferido por los exámenes para optar a altos cargos públicos. Para llegar a ser una potencia mundial y una nación-Estado moderno, China tuvo que adoptar el estilo internacional de escolarización. Sólo una mirada retrospectiva nos permitirá descubrir si la Gran Revolución Cultural resultará haber sido el primer intento logrado de desescolarizar las instituciones de la sociedad. +</p> + +<p> +Incluso la creación a retazos de nuevos organismos educativos que fuesen lo inverso de la escuela sería un ataque sobre el eslabón más sensible de un fenómeno ubicuo, el cual es organizado por el Estado en todos los países. Un programa político que no reconozca explícitamente la necesidad de la desescolarización no es revolucionario; es demagogia que pide más de lo mismo. Todo programa político importante de esta década debiera medirse con este rasero: ¿hasta dónde es claro afirmar la necesidad de la desescolarización —y qué directrices ofrece para asignar la calidad educativa de la sociedad hacia la cual se encamina—? +</p> + +<p> +La lucha contra el dominio que ejercen el mercado mundial y la política de las grandes potencias puede estar fuera del alcance de ciertas comunidades o países pobres, pero esta debilidad es una razón más para hacer hincapié en la importancia que tiene liberar a cada sociedad mediante una inversión de su estructura educativa, cambio este que no está más allá de los medios de ninguna sociedad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Una objeci\u00f3n a qui\u00e9n pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada","hid":"una_objecion_a_quien_pueden_servirle_unos_puentes_hacia_la_nada","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":19,"range":"173849-178599"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit20" id="caracteristicas_generales_de_unas_nuevas_instituciones_educativas_formales">Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Un buen sistema educativo debería tener tres objetivos: proporcionar a todos aquellos que lo quieren el acceso a recursos disponibles en cualquier momento de sus vidas; dotar a todos los que quieran compartir lo que saben del poder de encontrar a quienes quieran aprender de ellos, y, finalmente, dar a todo aquel que quiera presentar al público un tema de debate la oportunidad de dar a conocer su argumento. Un sistema como éste exigiría que se aplicaran a la educación unas garantías constitucionales. Los aprendices no podrían ser sometidos a un currículum obligatorio o a una discriminación fundada en la posesión o carencia de un certificado o diploma. Ni se obligaría tampoco al público a mantener, mediante una retribución regresiva, un gigantesco aparato profesional de educadores y edificios que de hecho disminuye las posibilidades que el público tiene de acceder a los servicios que la profesión está dispuesta a ofrecer en el mercado. Debería usar la tecnología moderna para lograr que la libre expresión, la libre reunión y la prensa libre fuesen universales y, por consiguiente, plenamente educativas. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas están proyectadas a partir del supuesto de que cada cosa en la vida tiene un secreto; de que la calidad de la vida depende de conocer ese secreto; de que los secretos pueden conocerse en ordenadas sucesiones, y de que sólo los profesores pueden revelar adecuadamente esos secretos. Una persona de mente escolarizada concibe el mundo como una pirámide de paquetes clasificados accesible sólo a aquellos que llevan los rótulos apropiados. Las nuevas instituciones educativas destrozarían esta pirámide. Su propósito debe ser facilitar el acceso al aprendiz, permitirle mirar al interior de la sala de control o del parlamento, si no puede entrar por la puerta. Además, esas nuevas instituciones deberían ser canales a los que el aprendiz tuviese acceso sin credenciales ni títulos de linaje —espacios públicos en los que iguales y mayores situados fuera de su horizonte inmediato se harían accesibles—. +</p> + +<p> +Pienso que no más de cuatro —y posiblemente hasta tres— “canales” distintos o centros de intercambio podrían contener todos los recursos necesarios para el aprendizaje real. El niño crece en un mundo de cosas, rodeado de personas que sirven de modelos para habilidades y valores. Encuentra seres como él, sus iguales, que le incitan a discutir, a competir, a cooperar, a entender, y si el niño es afortunado, se ve expuesto a la confrontación o a la crítica de un mayor experimentado que realmente se preocupe. Cosas, modelos, iguales y mayores son cuatro recursos, cada uno de los cuales requiere un tipo diferente de ordenamiento para asegurar que todos tengan acceso a él. +</p> + +<p> +Usaré las palabras “trama de oportunidad” en vez de “red” para designar las maneras específicas de proporcionar acceso a cada uno de los cuatro conjuntos de recursos. Desafortunadamente, “red” se emplea con frecuencia para designar los canales reservados a los materiales seleccionados por terceros para el adoctrinamiento, la instrucción y la recreación. Pero también puede usarse para los servicios postal o telefónico, que son primariamente accesibles para personas que quieren enviarse mensajes entre sí. Ojalá tuviésemos otra palabra para designar tales estructuras reticulares a fin de tener un acceso recíproco, una palabra que no evocase tanto una trampa, menos degradada por el uso corriente, y que sugiriese más el hecho de que cualquier ordenamiento de esta especie abarca aspectos legales, organizativos y técnicos. No habiendo hallado dicho término, trataré de redimir el único disponible, usándolo como sinónimo de “trama educativa”. +</p> + +<p> +Lo que se precisa son nuevas redes, de la cuales el público pueda disponer fácilmente y que estén concebidas para difundir una igualdad de oportunidades para aprender y enseñar. +</p> + +<p> +Para dar un ejemplo: en la televisión y en los magnetófonos se usa el mismo nivel de tecnología. Todos los países latinoamericanos han introducido la televisión: en Bolivia, el gobierno financió una estación transmisora de televisión, que se construyó hace siete años, y no hay más de 7 000 televisores para cuatro millones de ciudadanos. El dinero empozado hoy en instalaciones de televisión por toda América Latina podría haber dotado de magnetófonos a un ciudadano de cada cinco. Además, el dinero habría bastado para proporcionar un número casi ilimitado de cintas grabadas, con puestos de entrega incluso en aldeas perdidas, como también para un amplio suministro de cintas no grabadas. +</p> + +<p> +Esta red de magnetófonos sería, por supuesto, radicalmente diferente de la red actual de televisión. Proporcionaría oportunidades a la libre expresión: letrados y analfabetos podrían, por igual, registrar, preservar, difundir y repetir sus opiniones. La inversión actual en televisión, en cambio, proporciona a los burócratas, sean políticos o educadores, el poder de rociar el continente con programas producidos institucionalmente, que ellos —o sus patrocinadores— deciden que son buenos para el pueblo o que éste los pide. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Caracter\u00edsticas generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales","hid":"caracteristicas_generales_de_unas_nuevas_instituciones_educativas_formales","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":20,"range":"178600-183863"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit21" id="cuatro_redes">Cuatro redes</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +El planteamiento de nuevas instituciones educativas no debiera comenzar por las metas administrativas de un rector director, ni por las metas pedagógicas de un educador profesional, ni por las metas de aprendizaje de una clase hipotética de personas. No debe iniciarse con la pregunta: “¿Qué debiera aprender alguien?”, sino con la pregunta: “¿Con qué tipos de cosas y personas podrían querer ponerse en contacto los que buscan aprender a fin de aprender?” +</p> + +<p> +Alguien que quiera aprender sabe que necesita tanto información como reacción crítica respecto del uso de esta información por parte de otra persona. La información puede almacenarse en personas y en cosas. En un buen sistema educativo el acceso a las cosas debiera estar disponible con sólo pedirlo el aprendiz, mientras el acceso a los informantes requeriría además el conocimiento de terceros. La crítica puede asimismo provenir de dos direcciones: de los iguales o de los mayores, esto es, de compañeros de aprendizaje cuyos intereses inmediatos concuerden con los míos, o de aquellos que me concederán una parte de su experiencia superior. Los iguales pueden ser colegas con quienes suscitar un debate, compañeros para una caminata o lectura juguetona y deleitable (o ardua), retadores en cualquier clase de juegos. Los mayores pueden ser asesores acerca de qué destreza aprender, qué método usar, qué compañía buscar en un momento dado. Pueden ser guías respecto a la pregunta correcta que hay que plantear entre iguales y a la deficiencia de las respuestas a que lleguen. La mayoría de estos recursos son abundantes. Pero convencionalmente ni se les percibe como recursos educativos, ni es fácil el acceso a ellos para fines de aprendizaje, especialmente para los pobres. Debemos idear nuevas estructuras de relación que se monten con el deliberado propósito de facilitar el acceso a estos recursos para el uso de cualquiera que esté motivado a buscarlos para su educación. Para montar estas estructuras tramadas se requieren disposiciones administrativas, tecnológicas y especialmente legales. +</p> + +<p> +Los recursos educativos suelen rotularse según las metas curriculares de los educadores. Propongo hacer lo contrario, y rotular cuatro enfoques diferentes que permitan al estudiante conseguir el acceso a cualquier recurso educativo que pueda ayudarle a definir y lograr sus propias metas: +</p> + +<p> +_1_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Objetos Educativos. Que faciliten el acceso a cosas o procesos usados para el aprendizaje formal. Algunas de estas cosas pueden reservarse para ese fin, almacenadas en bibliotecas, agencias de alquiler, laboratorios y salas de exposición, tales como museos y teatros; otras pueden estar en uso cotidiano en fábricas, aeropuertos o puestas en granjas, pero a disposición de estudiantes como aprendices o en horas de descanso. +</p> + +<p> +_2_. Servicios de habilidades. Que permitan a unas personas hacer una lista de sus habilidades, las condiciones según las cuales están dispuestas a servir de modelos a otros que quieran aprender esas habilidades y las direcciones en que se les puede hallar. +</p> + +<p> +_3_. Servicio de búsqueda de Compañero. Una red de comunicaciones que permita a las personas describir la actividad de aprendizaje a la que desean dedicarse, con la esperanza de hallar un compañero para la búsqueda. +</p> + +<p> +_4_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Educadores Independientes, los cuales pueden figurar en un catálogo que indique las direcciones y las descripciones —hechas por ellos mismos— de profesionales, paraprofesionales e independientes, conjuntamente con las condiciones de acceso a sus servicios. Tales educadores, como veremos, podrían elegirse mediante encuestas o consultando a sus clientes anteriores. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Cuatro redes","hid":"cuatro_redes","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":21,"range":"183864-187642"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit22" id="servicios_de_referencia_respecto_de_objetos_educativos">Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Las cosas son recursos básicos para aprender. La calidad del entorno y la relación de una persona con él determinarán cuánto aprenderá incidentalmente. El aprendizaje formal exige el acceso especial a cosas corrientes, por una parte o, por la otra, el acceso fácil y seguro a cosas especiales hechas con fines educativos. Un ejemplo del primer caso es el derecho especial a hacer funcionar o a desarmar una máquina en un garaje. Un ejemplo del segundo caso es el derecho general a usar un ábaco, una computadora, un libro, un jardín botánico o una máquina retirada de la producción y puesta a plena disposición de unos estudiantes. +</p> + +<p> +En la actualidad, la atención se centra en la disparidad entre niños ricos y pobres en cuanto a su acceso a cosas y en la manera en que pueden aprender de ellas. La OEO[^n16] y otros organismos, siguiendo este planteamiento, se concentran en igualar las posibilidades de cada cual, tratando de proveer de un mayor instrumental educativo a los pobres. Un punto de partida más radical sería reconocer que, en la ciudad, a ricos y pobres se les mantiene igualmente alejados de manera artificial de las cosas que los rodean. Los niños nacidos en la era de los plásticos y de los expertos en eficiencia deben traspasar dos barreras que obstaculizan sus entendimientos: una incorporada a las cosas y la otra construida en torno a las instituciones. El diseño industrial crea un mundo de cosas que ofrecen resistencia a la comprensión de su naturaleza interna, y las escuelas tapian al aprendiz respecto del mundo de las cosas en su escenario significativo. +</p> + +<p> +Después de una breve visita a Nueva York, una mujer de una aldea mexicana me dijo que le había impresionado que las tiendas vendiesen “solamente productos muy maquillados con cosméticos”. Entendí que ella quería decir que los productos industriales “hablan” a sus clientes acerca de sus encantos y no acerca de su naturaleza. La industria ha rodeado a la gente de artefactos hechos de manera que sólo a los especialistas les está permitido entender su mecanismo interno. Al no especialista que intenta hacer marchar el reloj o hacer sonar el teléfono o hacer funcionar la máquina de escribir, se le desalienta con la advertencia de que se romperá si lo intenta. Puede que se le diga qué hace funcionar un radio de transistores, pero no puede descubrirlo por sí mismo. Este tipo de diseño tiende a reforzar una sociedad no inventiva, en la que los expertos encuentran cada vez más fácil esconderse detrás de su pericia y más allá de una evaluación. +</p> + +<p> +El entorno creado por el hombre ha llegado a ser tan inescrutable como la naturaleza lo es para el primitivo. Al mismo tiempo, los materiales educativos los ha monopolizado la escuela. Los objetos educativos simples han sido costosamente empacados por la industria del conocimiento. Se han convertido en herramientas especializadas para los educadores profesionales, y se ha inflado su coste al obligarles a estimular ya sea entornos, ya sea profesores. +</p> + +<p> +El profesor es celoso del libro de texto al que define como su instrumento profesional. El estudiante puede llegar a odiar el laboratorio porque lo asocia con tareas escolares. El administrador racionaliza su actitud protectora hacia la biblioteca como una defensa de un instrumental público costoso contra quienes quisieran jugar con ella más bien que aprender. En esta atmósfera, el estudiante usa con excesiva frecuencia el mapa, el laboratorio, la enciclopedia o el microscopio sólo en los escasos momentos en que el currículum le dice que debe hacerlo. Incluso los grandes clásicos se convierten en arte de la “novatada” universitaria, en vez de señalar una nueva dirección en la vida de una persona. La escuela aparta las cosas del uso cotidiano al rotularlas como instrumentos educativos. +</p> + +<p> +Para que podamos desescolarizar será preciso invertir ambas tendencias. El entorno físico general debe hacerse accesible, y aquellos recursos físicos de aprendizaje que han sido reducidos a instrumentos de enseñanza deben llegar a estar disponibles para el aprendizaje autodirigido. Usar cosas sólo como partes de un currículum puede tener un efecto incluso peor que apartarlas del entorno general. Puede corromper las actitudes de los alumnos. +</p> + +<p> +Los juegos son un caso de este tipo. No me refiero a los “juegos” del departamento de educación física (tales como el futbol o el baloncesto), que las escuelas usan para generar ingresos y prestigio y en los que han hecho sustanciosas inversiones de capital. Como lo saben muy bien los mismos atletas, estas empresas, que adoptan la forma de torneos guerreros, han minado el aspecto juguetón de los deportes y se usan para reforzar la naturaleza competitiva de las escuelas. Hablo más bien de los juegos educativos que pueden proporcionar una manera singular de entender los sistemas formales. Un amigo mío fue a un mercado mexicano con un juego llamado <em>Wff’n Proff</em> , que consta de varios dados en los que están impresos 12 símbolos lógicos. Mostró a unos niños qué combinaciones formaban una frase bien hecha —unas dos o tres de las muchas posibles— e, inductivamente, al cabo de la primera hora, algunos mirones también captaron el principio. A las pocas horas, jugando pruebas lógicas formales, algunos niños eran capaces de iniciar a otros en las pruebas formales de la lógica de proposiciones. Los otros simplemente se fueron. +</p> + +<p> +Para algunos niños dichos juegos son en efecto una forma especial de liberar la educación, puesto que les permite descubrir que los sistemas formales se fundan en axiomas mutables y que las operaciones conceptuales tienen un carácter lúdico. Son asimismo simples, baratos y en buena parte pueden organizarlos los jugadores mismos. Cuando se usan fuera del currículum, tales juegos dan una oportunidad para identificar y desarrollar el talento poco común, mientras que el psicólogo escolar identificará a menudo a quienes posean dicho talento como a personas en peligro de llegar a ser antisociales, enfermas o desequilibradas. Dentro de la escuela, cuando se usan en forma de torneos, a los juegos no sólo se les saca de la esfera de la recreación, a menudo se convierten en instrumentos para transformar al alumno juguetón en un espíritu competitivo y la falta de razonamiento abstracto en signo de inferioridad. Un ejercicio que para ciertos tipos de carácter es liberador, se convierte en camisa de fuerza para otros. +</p> + +<p> +El control de la escuela sobre el instrumental educativo tiene además otro efecto. Aumenta enormemente el coste de esos materiales baratos. Una vez que su uso se restringe a unas horas programadas, se paga a profesionales que supervisen su adquisición, almacenamiento y uso. Entonces los estudiantes descargan su rabia contra la escuela sobre el instrumental, que es preciso adquirir nuevamente. +</p> + +<p> +Algo paralelo a la intocabilidad de los útiles educativos es la impenetrabilidad de la moderna chatarra. En la década de 1930 cualquier muchacho que se respetara sabía reparar un automóvil, pero ahora los fabricantes de coches multiplican los alambres y apartan los manuales de todo el que no sea un mecánico especializado. En un periodo anterior un radio viejo contenía suficientes bobinas y condensadores como para construir un transmisor que hiciera chillar por realimentación a todos los radios del vecindario. Los radios de transistores son más portátiles, pero nadie se atreve a desarmarlos. En los países altamente industrializados sería inmensamente difícil cambiar esto, pero al menos en los países del Tercer Mundo debemos insistir en ciertas cualidades educativas incorporadas al objeto. +</p> + +<p> +Para ilustrar mi argumento, permítaseme presentar un modelo: gastando 10 millones de dólares sería posible conectar 40 000 aldeas de un país como Perú mediante una telaraña de pistas de un metro ochenta de ancho y mantenerlas funcionando; además, dotar al país de 200 000 burros mecánicos de tres ruedas —cinco por aldea como promedio—. Pocos países pobres de ese tamaño gastan menos de esa cantidad cada año en coches y caminos, cuyo uso, el de ambos, se limita principalmente a los ricos y a sus empleados, mientras la gente pobre queda atrapada en sus aldeas. Cada uno de estos pequeños vehículos, simples pero duraderos, equipados con un motor de seis caballos de fuerza, costaría 125 dólares. Un “burro” podría andar a 24 kilómetros por hora, y trasladaría cargas de unos 400 kilogramos (es decir, la mayoría de las cosas que suelen moverse, aparte de troncos y vigas de acero). +</p> + +<p> +El atractivo político que dicho sistema de transporte tendría para el campesinado es obvio. Igualmente obvio es el motivo por el cual quienes detentan el poder —y por tanto poseen, automáticamente, un coche— no están interesados en gastar dinero en pistas semejantes y en obstruir los caminos con burros motorizados. El burro universal podría funcionar sólo si los dirigentes de un país impusieran un límite de, digamos, 40 kilómetros por hora y adaptaran sus instituciones públicas a ese límite. El modelo no podría funcionar si estuviese concebido sólo como un parche. +</p> + +<p> +No es éste el lugar apropiado para examinar en detalle la factibilidad política, social, económica, financiera y técnica de este modelo. Deseo solamente indicar que los considerandos educativos pueden ser de primordial importancia cuando se elige una alternativa semejante frente a un transporte que usa relativamente más capital que mano de obra. Aumentando el coste unitario de cada burro 20% se haría posible planificar la producción de todas sus piezas de modo que, hasta donde fuera posible, cada futuro dueño pasase de uno a dos meses haciendo y entendiendo su máquina y fuese capaz de repararla. Con este coste adicional sería asimismo posible descentralizar la producción en fábricas dispersas. Las ventajas adicionales provendrían no sólo de incluir los costes educativos en el proceso de construcción. Más significativo todavía, un motor duradero que prácticamente cualquiera podría aprender a reparar y que podría usar como arado y como bomba aquel que lo entendiera, produciría unos beneficios educativos mucho más elevados que los inescrutables motores de los países avanzados. +</p> + +<p> +No sólo la chatarra, sino los lugares presuntamente públicos de la ciudad moderna se han vuelto impenetrables. En la sociedad estadunidense se excluye a los niños de la mayoría de las cosas y lugares con el argumento de que son privados. Pero incluso en las sociedades que han declarado el fin de la propiedad privada se aparta a los niños de las mismas cosas y lugares porque estos últimos se consideran un ámbito especial y peligroso para el no iniciado. A partir de la pasada generación el patio de los ferrocarriles se hizo tan inaccesible como el cuartel de bomberos. Sin embargo, con un poco de ingenio no sería difícil eliminar los peligros en esos lugares. El desescolarizar los artefactos de la educación haría necesario poner a disposición los artefactos y procesos —y reconocer su valor educativo—. Algunos trabajadores, sin duda, encontrarían molesto hacerlos accesibles a los aprendices, pero esta molestia debe valorarse comparándola con las ventajas educativas. +</p> + +<p> +Los automóviles privados podrían desterrarse de Manhattan. Hace cinco años esto era impensable. Ahora, ciertas calles de Nueva York se cierran a ciertas horas, y esta tendencia probablemente continuará. De hecho, la mayoría de las calles transversales deberían cerrarse al tránsito automotriz y el estacionamiento debería prohibirse en todas partes. En una ciudad abierta al pueblo, los materiales de enseñanza, que ahora se encierran en almacenes y laboratorios, podrían diseminarse en depósitos abiertos a la calle y gestionarse de manera independiente para que los adultos y los niños pudiesen visitarlos sin peligro de que los atropellen. +</p> + +<p> +Si las metas de la educación ya no estuviesen dominadas por las escuelas y los maestros de escuela, el mercado para los aprendices sería mucho más variado y la definición de “artefactos educativos” sería menos restrictiva. Podría haber talleres de herramientas, bibliotecas, laboratorios y salas de juegos. Los laboratorios fotográficos y prensas offset permitirían el florecimiento de diarios vecinales. Algunos centros de aprendizaje abiertos a la calle podrían contener cabinas para mirar programas de televisión en circuito cerrado, otros podrían poseer útiles de oficina para usar y para reparar. Los tocadiscos del tipo tragamonedas y de tipo corriente serían de uso diario, especializándose algunos en música clásica, otros en melodías folclóricas internacionales, otros en jazz. Las filmotecas competirían entre sí y con la televisión comercial. Los locales de museos abiertos al público podrían ser redes para poner en circulación muestras de arte antiguo y moderno, originales y reproducciones, tal vez administradas por los diversos museos metropolitanos. +</p> + +<p> +El personal profesional necesario para esta red se parecería mucho más a unos custodios, guardias de museo o bibliotecarios de servicio público que a unos profesores. Desde la tienda de biología de la esquina podrían dirigir a sus clientes a la colección de caracoles del museo o señalarles cuándo habría una exhibición de videocintas de biología en determinadas cabinas de televisión. Podrían dar indicaciones para el control de plagas, dietas y otras clases de medicina preventiva. Podrían remitir a quienes necesitaran consejos a “mayores” que pudiesen proporcionarlo. +</p> + +<p> +El financiamiento de una red de “objetos de aprendizaje” puede encararse de dos maneras. Una comunidad podría fijar un presupuesto máximo para este fin y disponer que todas las partes de la red estuviesen abiertas a todos los visitantes a ciertas horas razonables. O bien la comunidad podría decidir proporcionar a los ciudadanos unos bonos o derechos limitados, según sus edades, que les darían acceso especial a ciertos materiales costosos y escasos, dejando en cambio otros materiales más simples a disposición de todos. +</p> + +<p> +Encontrar recursos para materiales hechos específicamente para educar es sólo un aspecto —y tal vez el menos costoso— de la construcción de un mundo educativo. El dinero que hoy se gasta en la parafernalia sagrada del ritual escolar podría liberarse para proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos un mejor acceso a la vida real de la ciudad. Podrían otorgarse incentivos tributarios especiales a quienes emplearan niños de ocho a 14 años durante un par de horas diarias si las condiciones de empleo fuesen humanas. Deberíamos volver a la tradición de la <em>bar mitzvah</em> o de la confirmación. Quiero decir con esto que debiéramos primero restringir y luego eliminar la privación de derechos y deberes civiles de los menores, y permitir que un muchacho de 12 años llegue a ser plenamente responsable de su participación en la vida de la comunidad. Muchas personas de “edad escolar” saben más acerca de su vecindario que los trabajadores sociales o los concejales. Naturalmente que hacen también preguntas más incómodas y proponen soluciones que amenazan a la burocracia. Debería permitírseles llegar a la mayoría de edad de modo que pusieran sus conocimientos y capacidad de indagación al servicio de un gobierno popular. +</p> + +<p> +Hasta hace poco era fácil subestimar los peligros de la escuela en comparación con los peligros de un periodo de aprendizaje en la policía, en el cuerpo de bomberos o en la industria del espectáculo. Este argumento deja de ser válido con gran frecuencia. Visité recientemente una iglesia metodista de Harlem ocupada por un grupo de los llamados <em>Young Lords</em> como protesta por la muerte de Julio Rodan, un muchacho puertorriqueño al que se encontró ahorcado en su celda carcelaria. Yo conocía a los líderes del grupo, que habían pasado un semestre en Cuernavaca. Cuando me sorprendí al no hallar a uno de ellos, Juan, en el grupo, me dijeron: “Volvió a la heroína y a la Universidad del Estado”. +</p> + +<p> +Para desencadenar el potencial educativo encerrado en la gigantesca inversión de nuestra sociedad en instalaciones y útiles pueden usarse el planteamiento, los incentivos y la legislación. No existirá el acceso pleno a los objetos educativos mientras se permita a empresas comerciales conjugar las defensas legales que la Carta Fundamental reserva a la vida privada de las personas con el poder económico que les confieren sus millones de clientes y miles de empleados, accionistas y proveedores. Una parte considerable de los conocimientos prácticos y teóricos del mundo y la mayoría de sus procesos y equipos de producción están encerrados entre los muros de firmas comerciales, apartados de sus clientes, empleados y accionistas, como también del público en general, cuyas leyes e instalaciones les permiten funcionar. El dinero que se gasta en publicidad en los países capitalistas podrían canalizarse hacia la educación en y por parte de la General Electric, NBC-TV o cervezas Budweiser. Es decir, las fábricas y oficinas deberían reorganizarse de forma tal que su funcionamiento cotidiano fuese más accesible al público y de maneras que hiciesen posible el aprendizaje, y, en verdad, podrían hallarse modos de pagar a las compañías lo que la gente aprendiese en ellas. +</p> + +<p> +Es posible que un conjunto de objetos e informaciones científicas aún más valioso esté apartado del acceso general —e incluso de los científicos competentes— bajo el pretexto de la seguridad nacional. Hasta hace poco la ciencia era el único foro que funcionaba como el sueño de un anarquista. Cada hombre capaz de realizar investigaciones tenía más o menos las mismas oportunidades que otros en cuanto a acceso a su instrumental y a ser escuchado por la comunidad de iguales. Ahora la burocratización y la organización han puesto a gran parte de la ciencia fuera del alcance del público. En efecto, lo que solía ser una red internacional de información científica ha sido escindida en una lid de grupos competidores. Tanto a los miembros como a los artefactos de la comunidad científica se les ha encerrado en programas nacionales y corporativos para logros prácticos y para el radical empobrecimiento de los hombres que mantienen estas naciones y corporaciones. +</p> + +<p> +En un mundo que controlan y poseen naciones y compañías, nunca será posible sino un acceso limitado a los objetos educativos. Pero un mejor acceso a aquellos objetos que pueden compartirse para fines educativos puede ilustrarnos lo suficiente como para traspasar estas barreras políticas finales. Las escuelas públicas transfieren el control sobre los usos educativos de los objetos de manos privadas a manos profesionales. La inversión institucional de las escuelas podría dar al individuo el poder de volver a exigir el derecho a usarlos para su educación. Si el control privado o corporativo sobre el aspecto educativo de las “cosas” se lograse extinguir gradualmente, podría comenzar a aparecer un tipo de propiedad realmente pública. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos","hid":"servicios_de_referencia_respecto_de_objetos_educativos","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":22,"range":"187643-206897"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit23" id="servicios_de_habilidades">Servicios de habilidades</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Al revés de lo que ocurre con una guitarra, a un profesor de ese instrumento no se le puede clasificar en un museo, ni lo puede poseer el público, ni se le puede tomar en alquiler en un almacén de elementos educativos. Los profesores de habilidades pertenecen a una clase de recursos que es diferente de la de los objetos necesarios para aprender una habilidad. Esto no quiere decir que sean indispensables en todos los casos. Puedo alquilar no sólo una guitarra, sino también lecciones de guitarra grabadas en cintas y gráficos que ilustren los acordes, y con estos elementos puedo enseñarme yo mismo a tocar la guitarra. De hecho, este sistema puede presentar ventajas si las cintas disponibles son mejores que los profesores disponibles, o si las únicas horas en que puedo aprender guitarra son nocturnas o si las melodías que quiero interpretar son desconocidas en mi país o si soy tímido y prefiero meter la pata sin testigos. +</p> + +<p> +El canal que se usa para registrar a los profesores de habilidades y comunicarse con ellos debe ser diferente al descrito para objetos. Una cosa está disponible a petición del usuario —o podría estarlo— mientras una persona llega formalmente a ser una fuente de enseñanza de habilidades sólo cuando considere serlo y pueda asimismo restringir la ocasión, el lugar y el método a su tamaño. +</p> + +<p> +Es también necesario distinguir a los profesores de los iguales de los que uno desearía aprender. Los iguales que desean seguir una búsqueda común deben partir de capacidades o intereses comunes; se juntan para ejercitar o mejorar una habilidad que comparten: baloncesto, baile, construcción de un campamento, debate sobre las próximas elecciones. Por otra parte, la primera transmisión de una habilidad supone el reunir a alguien que posea una destreza con alguien que no la posea y quiera adquirirla. +</p> + +<p> +Un “modelo de habilidad” es una persona que posee una habilidad y está dispuesta a demostrar su práctica. Frecuentemente el aprendiz en potencia precisa el recurso de una demostración de esta clase. Los inventos modernos nos permiten registrar demostraciones en cinta, en película o en gráficos; no obstante, sería de esperar que la demostración personal continuase gozando de gran demanda, especialmente en las habilidades de comunicación. En nuestro Centro, en Cuernavaca, han aprendido español unos 10 000 adultos —en su mayoría personas muy motivadas que deseaban obtener una cuasi-fluidez en un segundo idioma—. Cuando se les plantea la elección entre una instrucción cuidadosamente programada en un laboratorio de idiomas o sesiones rutinarias con otros dos estudiantes y una persona cuyo idioma nativo es el español y que se ciñe a una rutina rígida, la mayoría prefiere la segunda alternativa. +</p> + +<p> +Respecto de la mayor parte de las habilidades ampliamente compartidas, que una persona demuestre su habilidad es el único recurso humano que llegamos a necesitar u obtener. Ya sea para hablar o para conducir, para cocinar o para usar equipos de comunicaciones, a menudo apenas nos damos cuenta de la instrucción y el aprendizaje formales, especialmente después de nuestra primera experiencia con los materiales en cuestión. No veo razón por la cual no pudiesen aprenderse de igual manera otras habilidades complejas, tales como los aspectos mecánicos de la cirugía, tocar el violín, leer o usar listas y catálogos. +</p> + +<p> +Un estudiante bien motivado que no lucha contra una desventaja determinada a menudo no necesita más ayuda humana que la que puede proporcionar alguien que puede demostrar a quien lo solicite cómo hacer lo que el aprendiz quiere hacer. Aquello de insistir a personas diestras en que antes de demostrar su habilidad certifiquen que son pedagogos es el resultado de la insistencia de una de dos alternativas: o que la gente aprenda lo que no quiere saber, o bien que todos —incluso quienes sufren de alguna desventaja especial— aprendan ciertas cosas, en un momento dado de sus vidas, y preferentemente en circunstancias específicas. +</p> + +<p> +Lo que crea una escasez de habilidades en el mercado educativo de hoy es el requisito institucional de que quienes pueden demostrarlas no pueden hacerlo a menos de otorgárseles pública confianza por medio de un certificado. Insistimos en que aquellos que ayudan a terceros a adquirir una habilidad habrían de saber también diagnosticar las dificultades de aprendizaje y ser capaces de motivar a la gente a aprender habilidades. En resumen, les exigimos ser pedagogos. Habría abundancia de personas que pueden demostrar habilidades tan pronto aprendiéramos a reconocerlas fuera de la profesión de la enseñanza. +</p> + +<p> +Cuando se está enseñando a unos principitos, es comprensible, aunque ha dejado de ser justificable, la insistencia de sus padres en que el profesor y la persona dotada de habilidades se conjuguen en una misma persona. Pero el que todos los padres aspiren a tener un Aristóteles para su Alejandro es obviamente insostenible. Las personas que pueden inspirar a los estudiantes y demostrar una técnica son tan escasas, y tan difíciles de reconocer, que hasta los principitos consiguen con mayor frecuencia un sofista y no un verdadero filósofo. +</p> + +<p> +Una demanda de habilidades escasas puede satisfacerse rápidamente aun cuando hay un número pequeño de personas que las demuestren, pero debe facilitarse el acceso a dichas personas. Durante la década de 1940-1950, los reparadores de radios, la mayoría de los cuales no estudiaron su trabajo en escuelas, penetraron en el interior de América con no más de dos años de retraso respecto a la llegada de los radios a la región. Permanecieron allí hasta que los radios de transistores, baratos e imposibles de reparar, los dejaron cesantes. Las escuelas técnicas no logran realizar lo que algunos reparadores de radios podrían hacer sin problemas: restauraciones útiles y duraderas. +</p> + +<p> +Ciertos intereses privados y convergentes conspiran hoy para impedir que una persona comparta su habilidad. A quien posee la habilidad le beneficia su escasez y no su reproducción. Al maestro que se especializa en transmitir la habilidad le beneficia la renuencia del artesano a ofrecer su propio taller para aprendices. Al público se le adoctrina con la creencia de que las habilidades son valiosas y de fiarse sólo si son el resultado de una escolarización formal. El mercado de trabajo depende de hacer escasas las habilidades y de mantenerlas escasas, ya sea proscribiendo su uso a transmisión no autorizada, o bien haciendo cosas que puedan operar y reparar sólo quienes tengan acceso a herramientas o informaciones que se mantienen en déficit. +</p> + +<p> +De este modo, las escuelas producen escasez de personas especializadas. Un buen ejemplo de esto es el número decreciente de enfermeras en Estados Unidos, debido al rápido aumento de programas universitarios de cuatro años en ese ramo. Las mujeres de familias más pobres que anteriormente se habrían alistado en un programa de dos o tres años, se han alejado por completo de dicha profesión. +</p> + +<p> +Otra manera de mantener la escasez de habilidades es insistir en maestros diplomados. Si se alentara a las enfermeras a adiestrar a otras enfermeras, y si a las enfermeras se les empleara de acuerdo con su habilidad demostrada para poner inyecciones, trazar gráficos y dar medicinas, pronto se terminaría la escasez de enfermeras capacitadas. Los certificados tienden hoy a coartar la libertad de la educación al convertir el derecho civil de compartir conocimientos en el privilegio de la libertad académica que ahora se confiere sólo a los empleados de alguna escuela. Para garantizar el acceso a un intercambio eficaz de habilidades necesitamos leyes que generalicen la libertad académica. El derecho a enseñar cualquier habilidad debería estar amparado por la libertad de expresión. Una vez que se eliminen las restricciones sobre la enseñanza, pronto desaparecerán también las relativas al aprendizaje. +</p> + +<p> +El profesor de habilidades necesita algún incentivo para otorgar sus servicios a un alumno. Hay por lo menos dos maneras sencillas de comenzar a canalizar fondos públicos hacia profesores no diplomados. Una sería institucionalizar los servicios de habilidades mediante la creación de centros de habilidades, libres y abiertos al público. Dichos centros podrían y deberían establecerse en zonas industriales, al menos para habilidades que son un requisito indispensable para ingresar en ciertos noviciados o aprendizajes —habilidades tales como la lectura, la mecanografía, la contabilidad, los idiomas extranjeros, la programación de computadoras y la manipulación de números, la lectura de lenguajes especiales (como el de los circuitos eléctricos), la manipulación de ciertas máquinas, etc.—. Otro planteamiento sería proporcionar a ciertos grupos de la población una moneda educativa válida para asistir a centros de habilidades en los que otros clientes habrían de pagar tarifas comerciales. +</p> + +<p> +Un planteamiento mucho más radical consistiría en crear un “banco” para el intercambio de habilidades. A cada ciudadano se le abriría un crédito básico con el que pudiese adquirir habilidades fundamentales. Luego, se beneficiaría con créditos adicionales enseñando, ya fuera en centros de habilidades organizados, en casa o sobre la marcha. Sólo aquellos que hubiesen enseñado a otros durante un lapso equivalente podrían solicitar el tiempo de profesores más avanzados. Se promovería una élite enteramente nueva, una élite formada por quienes hubiesen ganado su educación compartiéndola. +</p> + +<p> +¿Deberían los padres tener el derecho a ganar crédito educativo para sus hijos? Como una disposición de este tipo daría nuevas ventajas a las clases privilegiadas, podría compensarse otorgando un crédito mayor a los desfavorecidos. El funcionamiento de un servicio de habilidades dependería de la existencia de organismos que facilitarían el desarrollo de información —listas de personas— y asegurarían su uso libre y barato. Dicho organismo podría proporcionar servicios auxiliares de prueba y certificación y ayudaría a poner en vigor la legislación necesaria para quebrar e impedir las prácticas monopólicas. +</p> + +<p> +La libertad de un servicio universal de habilidades podría estar garantizada fundamentalmente por leyes que permitiesen la discriminación sólo de acuerdo con habilidades verificadas y no según el historial educativo. Una garantía semejante requiere inevitablemente un control público sobre las pruebas que puedan usarse para determinar quiénes están capacitados para el mercado laboral. De otra manera sería posible reintroducir subrepticiamente complejas baterías de <em>test</em> en el lugar mismo de trabajo que servirían para selección social. Mucho podría hacerse a fin de lograr objetividad en las pruebas de competencia en habilidades, como por ejemplo permitir que se comprobara sólo el manejo de máquinas o sistemas específicos. Las pruebas de mecanografía (en las que se mediría la velocidad, el número de errores y se valoraría el saber tomar dictados), el dominio de un sistema contable o de una grúa hidráulica, la codificación en Cobol,[^n17] etc., pueden fácilmente hacerse objetivas. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, muchas de las verdaderas habilidades de importancia práctica pueden verificarse de ese modo. Y para los fines de administración de personal es mucho más útil una prueba sobre el nivel presente de competencia en determinada habilidad que la información sobre el hecho de que 20 años atrás una persona dejó satisfecho a su profesor respecto de un currículum en el que se enseñaba mecanografía, taquigrafía y contabilidad. Naturalmente puede ponerse en duda la necesidad misma de una comprobación oficial de habilidades: yo tengo la convicción de que el hecho de imponer ciertas restricciones constituye una mejor garantía para el derecho que un hombre tiene a que su reputación no sufra daños indebidos provenientes de una rotulación, que la garantía lograda al prohibir pruebas de competencia. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Servicios de habilidades","hid":"servicios_de_habilidades","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":23,"range":"206898-219019"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit24" id="servicio_de_busqueda_de_companero">Servicio de búsqueda de compañero</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +En el peor de los casos, las escuelas reúnen condiscípulos en la misma habitación y los someten a la misma secuencia de tratamiento en matemáticas, educación cívica y lenguaje. En el mejor, permiten a cada estudiante elegir un curso de entre un número limitado de ellos. En cualquier caso, se forman grupos de iguales en torno a las metas de los profesores. Un sistema conveniente de educación permitiría a cada persona especificar la actividad para la cual busca un compañero. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela ofrece efectivamente a los niños una oportunidad para escapar de sus casas y encontrar nuevos amigos. Pero al mismo tiempo, este proceso inculca en ellos la idea de que deberían elegir sus amigos entre aquellos con quienes han sido congregados. El invitar a los menores desde su más tierna infancia a conocer, evaluar y buscar a otros los prepararía para mantener durante toda su vida el interés por buscar nuevos asociados para nuevos empeños. +</p> + +<p> +A un buen jugador de ajedrez siempre le gusta hallar un buen adversario, y a un novato le alegra hallar otro. Los clubes les sirven para este fin. Las personas que quieren conversar sobre determinados libros o artículos probablemente pagarían por hallar compañeros de debate. Los que quieren practicar juegos, ir de excursión, construir estanques para peces o motorizar bicicletas se tomarán molestias considerables para hallar compañeros para ello. El premio de sus esfuerzos es encontrar esos compañeros. Las buenas escuelas tratan de poner al descubierto los intereses comunes de los estudiantes matriculados en los mismos programas. Lo inverso de la escuela sería una institución que aumentase las posibilidades de que las personas que en un determinado momento compartiesen el mismo interés específico, pudiesen encontrarse independientemente de que tuviesen otra cosa en común. +</p> + +<p> +La enseñanza de habilidades no proporciona beneficios iguales a ambas partes, como lo hace la reunión de iguales. Tal como he señalado, al profesor de habilidades debe ofrecérsele algún otro incentivo aparte de las satisfacciones de enseñar. La enseñanza de habilidades es un asunto de repetir una y otra vez ciertas rutinas y de hecho es más tediosa para los alumnos que más la necesitan. Un servicio de habilidades necesita dinero o créditos u otros incentivos tangibles para funcionar, aun cuando el servicio mismo produjese su propia moneda. Un sistema de búsqueda de compañero no precisaría tales incentivos, sino sólo una red de comunicaciones. +</p> + +<p> +Las cintas, los sistemas de informática, la instrucción programada y la reproducción de formas y de sonidos tienden a disminuir la necesidad de recurrir a profesores humanos para muchas habilidades; aumentan la eficiencia de los profesores y el número de habilidades que uno puede conseguir a lo largo de su vida. Paralelamente a este aspecto se ha creado la necesidad creciente de encontrarse con gente interesada en disfrutar de la habilidad recientemente adquirida. Una estudiante que haya aprendido griego antes de sus vacaciones querrá conversar en griego sobre política cretense cuando regrese. Un mexicano de Nueva York quiere hallar a otros lectores de la revista <em>Siempre!</em> o de <em>Los Agachados</em> , la más popular de las historietas. Algún otro quiere encontrar compañeros que, como él, desearían aumentar su interés en la obra de James Baldwin o de Bolívar. +</p> + +<p> +El funcionamiento de una red para búsqueda de compañeros sería simple. El usuario se identificaría por su nombre y dirección y describiría la actividad para la cual estuviese buscando compañero. Una computadora le remitiría los nombres y direcciones de todos aquellos que hubiesen introducido la misma descripción. Es asombroso que un servicio público tan sencillo no se haya usado nunca en gran escala para actividades de valor público. +</p> + +<p> +En su forma más rudimentaria, la comunicación entre cliente y computadora podría establecerse por correo. En las grandes ciudades, unas máquinas de escribir conectadas a una computadora podrían proporcionar respuestas instantáneas. La única manera de conseguir que la computadora entregase un nombre y dirección sería anotar una actividad para la cual se buscase un compañero. Las personas que utilizasen el sistema llegarían a ser conocidas únicamente por sus posibles compañeros de actividad. +</p> + +<p> +Un complemento de la computadora podría ser una red de pizarras o cuadros de anuncios y de avisos clasificados de periódico, consistentes en listas de actividades para las cuales no se hubiese hallado compañero mediante la computadora. No sería necesario dar nombres. Los lectores interesados introducirían entonces sus nombres en el sistema. Es posible que un sistema de búsqueda de compañero, con patrocinio público, sea la única manera de garantizar la libertad de reunión y de adiestrar a la gente en el ejercicio de esta actividad cívica tan fundamental. +</p> + +<p> +El derecho a la libre reunión ha sido reconocido políticamente y aceptado socialmente. Deberíamos entender ahora que este derecho está restringido por leyes que hacen obligatorias ciertas formas de reunión. Éste es en particular el caso de las instituciones que reclutan según edad, clase o sexo, y que consumen muchísimo tiempo. El ejército es un ejemplo. La escuela es otro aún más ofensivo. +</p> + +<p> +Desescolarizar significa abolir el poder de una persona para obligar a otra a asistir a una reunión. Significa también reconocer el derecho de cualquier persona, de cualquier edad o sexo, a convocar una reunión. Este derecho se ha visto drásticamente disminuido por la institucionalización de las reuniones. “Reunión” se refería originalmente al resultado del acto individual de juntarse. Ahora se refiere al producto institucional de algún organismo. +</p> + +<p> +La capacidad de las instituciones de servicio para adquirir clientes ha sobrepasado con mucho la capacidad de las personas para ser oídas con independencia de los medios de información institucional, que reaccionan ante personas individuales sólo si son noticias vendibles. Deberían existir servicios de búsqueda de compañero para personas que quisiesen reunir a otras, de modo que fuese tan fácil como la campana de la aldea que convocaba a los aldeanos a un cabildo. Los edificios escolares —dudosamente adaptables para otros fines— podrían cumplir en muchos casos este objetivo. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho, el sistema escolar puede encontrarse pronto con un problema que las Iglesias han enfrentado anteriormente: qué hacer con el espacio sobrante que ha quedado con la defección de los fieles. Las escuelas son difíciles de vender como templos. Una manera de continuar manteniéndolas en uso sería entregar esos edificios al vecindario. Cada cual podría manifestar lo que haría en el aula y cuándo, y algunos anuncios pondrían los programas disponibles en conocimiento de quien indagara. El acceso a “clase” sería gratis —o se compraría con bonos educativos—. El “profesor” podría incluso pagarse según el número de alumnos que atrajese por cualquier periodo completo de dos horas. Me imagino que los líderes muy jóvenes y los grandes educadores serían los dos tipos de persona más destacados en semejante sistema. Podría seguirse igual planteamiento respecto de la educación superior. Podría dotarse a los estudiantes de bonos educativos que los hicieran acreedores a 10 horas anuales de consulta con el profesor de su elección y, para el resto de su aprendizaje, se apoyaría en la biblioteca, la red para búsqueda de compañeros y los periodos de aprendiz. +</p> + +<p> +Naturalmente, debemos reconocer la probabilidad de que se abuse de esos dispositivos públicos de búsqueda para fines inmorales y de explotación, tal como se ha abusado de los teléfonos y del correo. Se requeriría cierta protección semejante a la que se usa para esas redes. En otras páginas he propuesto un sistema de búsqueda de compañero que permitiría usar sólo una información impresa pertinente, más el nombre y la dirección del averiguador. Un sistema de esta especie sería prácticamente a prueba de abusos. Otra medida sería permitir que se agregase cualquier libro, película, programa de televisión u otro artículo que figurase en un catálogo especial. La preocupación acerca de los peligros del sistema no debe hacernos perder de vista sus beneficios, tanto mayores. +</p> + +<p> +Algunos que comparten mi preocupación por la libertad de expresión y la reunión alegarán que el sistema de búsqueda de compañero es un medio artificial de juntar personas y que no lo utilizarían los pobres —que son quienes más lo necesitan—. Hay personas que auténticamente se alborotan cuando uno sugiere montar encuentros <em>ad hoc</em> que no tengan su raíz en la vida de una comunidad local. Otros reaccionan cuando uno sugiere usar una computadora para entresacar y conjuntar intereses que algunos clientes del sistema hayan definido. No es posible reunir a las personas de una manera tan impersonal, dicen. La búsqueda en común debe estar arraigada en una historia de experiencias compartidas a muchos niveles, y debe nacer de esta experiencia —el desarrollo de instituciones vecinales, por ejemplo—. +</p> + +<p> +Simpatizo con estas objeciones, pero creo que no comprenden el verdadero sentido de lo que persigo y no dan tampoco con lo que ellos mismos persiguen. En primer lugar, el retorno a la vida vecinal como centro primario de expresión creativa podría de hecho ser contraproducente para volver a establecer los vecindarios como unidades políticas. Centrar las demandas sobre el barrio o vecindario podría, en efecto, descuidar un importante aspecto liberador de la vida urbana —el que una persona pueda participar simultáneamente en varios grupos de sus iguales—. Además, existe un sentido importante: personas que jamás han vivido juntas en una comunidad física pueden tener ocasionalmente muchas más experiencias por compartir que quienes se han conocido desde la infancia. Las grandes religiones han reconocido siempre la importancia de estos encuentros lejanos, y los fieles han hallado siempre libertad mediante ellos: los peregrinajes, el monacato y el mutuo apoyo de templos y santuarios son reflejos de este reconocimiento. La conjunción de iguales podría ayudar significativamente a hacer explícitas las numerosas comunidades en potencia, aunque reprimidas, que existen en la ciudad. +</p> + +<p> +Las comunidades locales son valiosas. Son también una realidad que se desvanece conforme los hombres dejan que las instituciones definan cada vez más sus círculos de relación social. En un libro reciente, Milton Kotler mostró que el imperialismo del “centro” de la ciudad priva al barrio de su significación política. El intento proteccionista de resucitar la barriada como unidad cultural sólo sirve de apoyo a este imperialismo burocrático. Lejos de apartar artificialmente a la gente de su contexto local para unirla con grupos abstractos, el servicio de búsqueda de compañero alentaría un renacer de la vida local en las ciudades de las cuales está desapareciendo hoy en día. Un hombre que recupere su iniciativa para llamar a sus prójimos a sostener una conversación significativa, puede dejar de conformarse con estar separado de ellos por el protocolo oficinesco o por la etiqueta suburbana. Habiendo visto por una vez que el hacer cosas en conjunto depende del decidir hacerlo, la gente posiblemente insista incluso en que su comunidad local se haga más abierta al intercambio político creativo. +</p> + +<p> +Debemos reconocer que la vida urbana tiende a hacerse inmensamente costosa conforme a los habitantes de la ciudad se les enseña a confiar en complejos servicios institucionales para satisfacer cada una de sus necesidades. Es extraordinariamente costoso incluso mantenerla en un nivel mínimo de habitabilidad. El servicio de búsqueda de compañero de aprendizaje en la ciudad podría ser un primer paso para romper la dependencia de los ciudadanos respecto de servicios burocráticos. +</p> + +<p> +Sería también una medida esencial para proporcionar nuevos medios de establecer la confianza pública. En una sociedad escolarizada hemos llegado a confiar cada día más en el juicio profesional de educadores sobre el efecto de su propia labor para decidir en quién podemos o no confiar: vamos al médico, al abogado o al psicólogo porque confiamos en que cualquiera que ha tenido la cantidad requerida de tratamiento educativo especializado a manos de otros colegas merece nuestra confianza. +</p> + +<p> +En una sociedad desescolarizada, los profesionales ya no pueden reclamar la confianza de sus clientes a partir de su historial curricular o asegurar su prestigio con sólo remitir a sus clientes a otros profesionales que dieron aprobación a su escolarización. En vez de depositar su confianza en profesionales, debería ser posible, en cualquier momento, que cualquier presunto cliente consultase con otros clientes experimentados sobre la calidad del servicio prestado por un profesional mediante otra red de comunicación de intereses comunes fácilmente montada en una computadora o mediante muchos otros medios. Podría considerarse a tales redes como servicios de utilidad pública que permitiesen a los estudiantes elegir a sus profesores o a los pacientes, sus médicos. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Servicio de b\u00fasqueda de compa\u00f1ero","hid":"servicio_de_busqueda_de_companero","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":24,"range":"219020-232373"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit25" id="educadores_profesionales">Educadores profesionales</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Conforme los ciudadanos tengan nuevas posibilidades de elección, nuevas posibilidades de aprendizaje, su disposición a buscar directivos debiera aumentar. Podemos contar con que experimentarán más hondamente tanto su propia independencia como su necesidad de guía. Conforme estén liberados de la manipulación por parte de terceros, debieran aprender a beneficiarse de la disciplina que otros han adquirido durante toda su vida. El desescolarizar la educación debiera más bien aumentar, y no ahogar, la búsqueda de hombres de sabiduría práctica que estuviesen dispuestos a apoyar al recién llegado en su aventura educativa. Conforme los maestros en su arte abandonan la pretensión de ser informantes superiores o modelos de habilidades, comenzará a parecer verdadera la sabiduría superior que parecen poseer. +</p> + +<p> +Al aumentar la demanda de maestros debiera aumentar también la oferta. Conforme se desvanezca el maestro de escuela, se suscitarán condiciones que harán aparecer la vocación del educador independiente. Esto puede parecer casi contradictorio; a tal punto han llegado a ser complementarios escuelas y profesores. Sin embargo éste es exactamente el resultado a que tendería el desarrollo de los primeros servicios educativos —y lo que se precisaría para hacer posible el aprovecharlos plenamente—, pues los padres y otros “educadores naturales” necesitan un guía, las personas que aprenden necesitan ayuda, y las redes necesitan personas que las hagan funcionar. +</p> + +<p> +Los padres necesitan orientación para dirigir a sus hijos por el camino que conduce a la independencia educativa responsable. Los aprendices necesitan líderes experimentados cuando se topan con un terreno arduo. Estas dos necesidades son muy distintas: la primera es una necesidad de pedagogía, la segunda una necesidad de dirección intelectual en todas las demás ramas del conocimiento. La primera exige conocimiento del aprendizaje humano y de los recursos educativos, la segunda exige sabiduría fundada en la experiencia en cualquier clase de exploración. Ambos tipos de experiencia son indispensables para una empresa educativa eficaz. Las escuelas envasan estas funciones en un solo papel —y hacen que el ejercicio independiente de cualquiera de ellas se vuelva, si no algo lleno de desdoro, al menos sospechoso—. +</p> + +<p> +De hecho deberían distinguirse tres tipos de competencia educativa especial: una, crear y manejar los tipos de servicios o redes educativas esbozadas aquí; otra, guiar a estudiantes y padres en el uso de estas redes, y una tercera, actuar como <em>primus inter pares</em> al emprender difíciles viajes de exploración intelectual. Sólo las dos primeras pueden concebirse como ramas de una profesión independiente: administradores educativos y consejeros pedagógicos. No se precisaría mucha gente para proyectar y gestionar las redes que he estado describiendo, pero sí gente con un profundo entendimiento de la educación y la administración, con una perspectiva muy diferente y hasta opuesta a la de las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +Si bien una profesión educativa independiente de esta especie daría la bienvenida a muchas personas que las escuelas excluyen, excluiría asimismo a muchas que las escuelas declaran aptas. El establecimiento y gestión de redes educativas precisaría de algunos proyectistas y administradores, pero no en la cantidad ni del tipo que exige la administración de escuelas. La disciplina estudiantil, las relaciones públicas, la contratación, supervisión y despido de profesores no tendrían lugar ni equivalente en las redes que he estado describiendo. Tampoco la creación de currícula, la compra de libros de texto, el entretenimiento de lugares e instalaciones, ni la supervisión de competencias atléticas interescolares. La custodia de niños, el planteamiento de lecciones y la anotación de datos archivables, que ocupan ahora tanto tiempo de los profesores, tampoco figurarían en la gestión de las redes educativas. En cambio, para el funcionamiento de las tramas de aprendizaje se necesitarían algunas de las habilidades y actitudes que se esperan actualmente del personal de un museo, de una biblioteca, de una agencia para contratación de directivos o de un <em>maître d’hôtel</em>.[^n18] +</p> + +<p> +Los administradores educativos de hoy en día se preocupan de controlar a profesores y estudiantes de modo que queden satisfechos unos terceros —fideicomisarios, legislaturas y jefes de empresas—. Los constructores y administradores de las redes antedichas tendrían que demostrar tener genio para ponerse a sí mismos y a terceras personas donde no estorbasen a la gente, para facilitar encuentros entre estudiantes, modelos de habilidades, líderes educativos y objetos educativos. Muchas de las personas a las que hoy atrae la enseñanza son profundamente autoritarias y no serían capaces de hacerse cargo de esta tarea: construir servicios o bolsas de intercambio educativo significaría facilitar a la gente —en especial a los jóvenes— el ir en pos de metas que pudieren contradecir los ideales del gerente que hiciese posible tal empeño. +</p> + +<p> +Si pudiesen hacer su aparición las redes que he descrito, el recorrido educativo que siguiese cada estudiante sería cosa suya o propia, y sólo mirado retrospectivamente podría adquirir las características de un programa reconocible. El estudiante sensato buscaría periódicamente el consejo profesional: ayuda para fijarse una nueva meta, comprensión penetrante de las dificultades habidas, elección entre algunos métodos posibles. Incluso ahora, la mayoría de las personas admitirán que los servicios importantes que les prestaron sus profesores fueron consejos o asesoramiento de esta especie, dados en una reunión casual o durante una conversación personal. En un mundo desescolarizado, los pedagogos también harían valer sus métodos y serían capaces de realizar aquello que los profesores frustrados pretenden emprender hoy en día. +</p> + +<p> +Mientras los administradores de redes se concentrarían principalmente en la construcción y el mantenimiento de cambios que dieran acceso a recursos, el pedagogo ayudaría al estudiante a hallar el sendero que le pudiese conducir a mayor velocidad hacia su meta. Si un estudiante quisiese aprender cantonés hablado de un vecino chino, el pedagogo estaría a mano para juzgar el aprovechamiento y pericia de ambos y para ayudarles a elegir el libro de texto y los métodos más adecuados para sus talentos, caracteres y tiempo disponible para estudiar. Podría aconsejar al mecánico de aviación en ciernes sobre los mejores lugares para practicar como aprendiz. Podría recomendar libros o alguno que quisiese hallar compañeros con garra para debatir sobre historia de África. Al igual que el administrador de redes, el consejero pedagógico se vería a sí mismo como un educador profesional. El acceso a cualquiera de ambos podrían lograrlo las personas usando sus bonos educativos. +</p> + +<p> +El papel del iniciador o líder educativo, del maestro o “verdadero” líder es algo más elusivo que el de administrador profesional o de pedagogo. Esto se debe a que el liderazgo es en sí algo difícil de definir. En la práctica, una persona es un líder si la gente sigue su iniciativa y se convierten en aprendices de sus descubrimientos progresivos. Esto frecuentemente presupone una visión profética de normas enteramente nuevas —muy comprensibles en el presente— en las cuales el “error” actual se convertirá en “acierto”. En una sociedad que respetaría el derecho a convocar asambleas a través del sistema de búsqueda de compañero, la capacidad de tomar la iniciativa educativa sobre un tema específico sería tan amplia como el acceso mismo al aprendizaje. Pero, naturalmente, hay una enorme diferencia entre la iniciativa que toma alguien para convocar una provechosa reunión para debatir este ensayo y la capacidad de alguien para servir de líder en la exploración sistemática de sus implicaciones. +</p> + +<p> +El liderazgo tampoco depende del hecho de estar en lo cierto. Tal como señala Thomas Kuhn, en un periodo de paradigmas en constante variación, la mayoría de los más distinguidos líderes tiene la probabilidad de haber incurrido en error cuando se someten a una prueba retrospectiva. La condición de líder intelectual se funda en una disciplina intelectual y una imaginación superiores, y en la disposición a asociarse con otros en el ejercicio de aquéllas. Por ejemplo, el aprendiz puede pensar que existe una analogía entre el Movimiento Antiesclavista de Estados Unidos o la Revolución cubana y lo que está ocurriendo en Harlem. El educador que sea al mismo tiempo historiador podría mostrarle cómo advertir las fallas de dicha analogía. Puede recorrer de nuevo su camino como historiador. Puede invitar al aprendiz a participar en las investigaciones que realice. En ambos casos iniciará a su alumno en el aprendizaje de un arte crítico —que es escaso en la escuela— y que no puede comprarse ni con dinero ni con favores. +</p> + +<p> +La relación entre maestro y discípulo no se limita a la disciplina intelectual. Tiene su equivalente en las artes, en física, en religión, en psicoanálisis y en pedagogía. Encaja en el montañismo, en la platería y en política, en ebanistería y en administración de personal. Lo que es común en todas las verdaderas relaciones maestro-discípulo es el hecho de que ambos tienen conciencia de que su mutua relación es literalmente inapreciable y de maneras muy diferentes constituye un privilegio para ambos. +</p> + +<p> +Los charlatanes, los demagogos, los proselitistas, los maestros corrompidos, los sacerdotes simoniacos, los pillos, los taumaturgos y los mesías han demostrado ser capaces de asumir el papel de líderes y han demostrado así los peligros que para un discípulo tiene la dependencia respecto del maestro. Las diversas sociedades han adoptado diversas medidas para protegerse de estos maestros falsificados. Los hindúes se apoyaron en el sistema de castas. Los judíos orientales, en la condición de discípulo espiritual de los rabinos, los grandes periodos de la cristiandad en una vida ejemplar de virtud monástica, y otros periodos en el orden jerárquico. Nuestra sociedad confía en los certificados dados por escuelas. Es dudoso que ese procedimiento constituya una criba más eficaz, pero si se pretendiese que lo es, podría alegarse en contra que lo hace al costo de casi hacer desaparecer la condición de discípulo personal. +</p> + +<p> +En la práctica el límite entre el profesor de habilidades y los líderes educadores antes señalados será siempre confuso, y no hay razones prácticas para que no pueda lograrse el acceso a ciertos líderes descubriendo al “maestro” en el profesor rutinario que inicia a unos estudiantes en su disciplina. +</p> + +<p> +Por otra parte, lo que caracteriza la verdadera relación maestro-discípulo es su carácter de inapreciable. Aristóteles dice de ella: “Es un tipo de amistad moral, no fundada en términos fijos: hace un regalo, o hace lo que hace, como a un amigo”. Tomás de Aquino dice de este tipo de enseñanza que inevitablemente es un acto de amor y de compasión. Este tipo de enseñanza es siempre un lujo para el profesor y una forma de recreación (en griego, <em>schole</em>) para él y para su discípulo: una actividad significativa para ambos, sin propósito ulterior. +</p> + +<p> +Contar con que haya personas dotadas dispuestas a proveer una auténtica dirección intelectual es obviamente necesario incluso en nuestra sociedad, pero podría dictarse como norma ahora. Debemos construir primero una sociedad en la cual los actos profesionales mismos recuperen un valor más elevado que el de hacer cosas y manipular gente. En una sociedad así, la enseñanza exploratoria, inventiva, creativa, se contaría lógicamente entre las formas más elevadas del “ocio”. Pero no es necesario esperar hasta el advenimiento de la utopía. Incluso ahora, una de las consecuencias más importantes de la desescolarización y del establecimiento de sistemas para búsqueda de compañero sería la iniciativa que algunos “maestros” pudiesen tomar para congregar discípulos que congeniasen. Daría también, como hemos visto, oportunidades amplias para que los discípulos en potencia compartiesen informaciones o seleccionasen un maestro. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones que pervierten una profesión al meter en un solo paquete varios papeles por desempeñar. Los hospitales hacen cada vez más imposible la atención en el hogar —y luego justifican la hospitalización como un beneficio para el enfermo—. Simultáneamente, la legitimidad y las posibilidades de ejercer de un médico vienen a depender de modo creciente de su asociación con un hospital, si bien su dependencia es mucho menor que la de los profesores respecto de las escuelas. Igual cosa podría decirse de los tribunales, que atiborran sus calendarios conforme nuevas transacciones adquieren solemnidad legal, demorando así la justicia. En cada uno de estos casos el resultado es un servicio escaso a un coste mayor, y un mayor ingreso para los miembros menos competentes de la profesión. +</p> + +<p> +Mientras las profesiones más antiguas monopolicen los mayores ingresos y prestigio, será difícil reformarlas. La profesión de maestro de escuela debiera ser fácil de reformar, no sólo debido a su origen más reciente. La profesión educativa pretende ahora un monopolio global; reclama ser la única competente para impartir el aprendizaje no sólo a sus propios novicios sino también a los de otras profesiones. Esta expansión excesiva la hace vulnerable ante cualquier otra profesión que reclame el derecho a enseñar a sus propios aprendices. Los maestros de escuela están abrumadoramente mal pagados y frustrados por la estrecha fiscalización del sistema escolar. Los más emprendedores y dotados de entre ellos hallarían probablemente un trabajo más simpático, una mayor independencia y hasta mejores ingresos al especializarse como modelos de habilidades, administradores de redes o especialistas en orientación. +</p> + +<p> +Finalmente, es más fácil romper la dependencia del alumno matriculado respecto del profesor diplomado que su dependencia de otros profesionales —por ejemplo, que la de un paciente hospitalizado respecto de su médico—. Si las escuelas dejaran de ser obligatorias, aquellos profesores cuya satisfacción reside en el ejercicio de la autoridad pedagógica en el aula se quedarían sólo con los alumnos para quienes fuese atractivo ese estilo. La desaparición de nuestra actual estructura profesional podría comenzar con la deserción del maestro de escuela. +</p> + +<p> +La desaparición de las escuelas ocurriría inevitablemente —y ocurriría a velocidad sorprendente—. No puede postergarse por más tiempo, y no hace ninguna falta promoverlo vigorosamente, porque ya está ocurriendo. Lo que vale la pena es tratar de orientarla en una dirección prometedora, pues puede dirigirse en dos direcciones diametralmente opuestas. +</p> + +<p> +La primera sería la ampliación del mandato del pedagogo y su control creciente sobre la sociedad, incluso fuera de la escuela. Con la mejor intención y tan sólo ampliando la retórica usada hoy como en las aulas, la crisis actual de las escuelas podría proporcionar a los educadores la excusa para usar todas las redes de la sociedad contemporánea para enviarnos sus mensajes —para nuestro bien—. La desescolarización que no podemos detener, podría significar el advenimiento de un “mundo feliz” dominado por algunos bien intencionados administradores de instrucción programada. +</p> + +<p> +Por otra parte, el hecho de que tanto los gobiernos como los empleados, los contribuyentes, los pedagogos despiertos y los administradores escolares advierten con creciente claridad que la enseñanza graduada de currícula en pro de unos certificados se ha hecho perjudicial, podría ofrecer a grandes masas humanas una oportunidad única: la de preservar el derecho de tener un acceso parejo a los instrumentos tanto para aprender, como para competir con otros lo que saben o creen. Pero esto exigiría que la revolución educativa estuviese guiada por ciertas metas: +</p> + +<p> +<em>1.</em> Liberar el acceso a las cosas, mediante la abolición del control que hoy ejercen unas personas e instituciones sobre sus valores educativos. +</p> + +<p> +<em>2.</em> Liberar la coparticipación de habilidades al garantizar la libertad de enseñarlas o de ejercitarlas a pedido. +</p> + +<p> +<em>3.</em> Liberar los recursos críticos y creativos de la gente por medio de un regreso a la capacidad de las personas para convocar y organizar reuniones —capacidad crecientemente monopolizada por instituciones que afirman estar al servicio del público—. +</p> + +<p> +<em>4.</em> Liberar al individuo de la obligación de moldear sus expectativas según los servicios ofrecidos por cualquier profesión establecida —proporcionándole la oportunidad de aprovechar la experiencia de sus iguales y de confiarse al profesor, guía, consejero o curandero de su elección—. La desescolarización de la sociedad difuminará inevitablemente las distinciones entre economía, educación y política, sobre las que se funda ahora la estabilidad del orden mundial y de las naciones. +</p> + +<p> +Nuestra reseña de las instituciones educativas nos lleva a modificar nuestra imagen del hombre. La criatura que las escuelas necesitan como cliente no tiene ni la autonomía ni la motivación para crecer por su cuenta. Podemos reconocer la escolarización como la culminación de una empresa prometeica, y hablar acerca de su alternativa refiriéndonos a un mundo adecuado para que en él viva un hombre epimeteico. Ya que nos es posible imaginar el reemplazo del embudo escolástico por una trama de intercambios y hacer que el mundo vuelva a ser visible mediante múltiples posibilidades de comunicación, sólo nos queda, al final de este esfuerzo, esperar que la naturaleza epimeteica del hombre aparezca, porque este renacimiento no depende de nuestros proyectos ni de nuestra voluntad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Educadores profesionales","hid":"educadores_profesionales","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":25,"range":"232374-250439"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit26" id="renacimiento_del_hombre_epimeteico">Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +Nuestra sociedad se parece a la máquina implacable que una vez vi en una juguetería neoyorquina consistía en un cofrecillo metálico con un interruptor que, al tocarlo se abría de golpe descubriendo una mano mecánica. Unos dedos cromados se estiraban hacia la tapa y la cerraban desde el interior. Era una caja; uno esperaba poder sacar algo de ella, pero no contenía sino un mecanismo para cerrarla. Este artilugio es lo opuesto a la “caja” de Pandora. +</p> + +<p> +La Pandora original, “la dadora de todo”, era una diosa de la Tierra en la Grecia prehistórica y matriarcal que dejó escapar todos los males de su ánfora (<em>pythos</em>). Pero cerró la tapa antes de que pudiera escapar la esperanza. La historia del hombre moderno comienza con la degradación del mito de Pandora y llega a su término con el cofrecillo que se cierra solo. Es la historia del empeño prometeico por forjar instituciones a fin de encerrar los males desencadenados. Es la historia de una esperanza que declina y de unas expectativas crecientes. +</p> + +<p> +Para comprender lo que esto significa debemos redescubrir la diferencia entre expectativa y esperanza. Esperanza, en su sentido vigoroso, significa fe confiada en la bondad de la naturaleza; mientras expectativa, tal como la emplearé aquí, significa fiarse en resultados planificados y controlados por el hombre. La esperanza centra el deseo en una persona de la que aguardamos un regalo. La expectativa promete una satisfacción que proviene de un proceso predecible que producirá aquello que tenemos el derecho de exigir. El <em>ethos</em> prometeico ha eclipsado actualmente la esperanza. La supervivencia de la raza humana depende de que se la descubra como fuerza social. +</p> + +<p> +La Pandora original fue enviada a la Tierra con un frasco que contenía todos los males; de las cosas buenas, contenía sólo la esperanza. El hombre primitivo vivía en este mundo de la esperanza. Para subsistir confiaba en la munificencia de la naturaleza, en los regalos de los dioses y en los instintos de su tribu. Los griegos del periodo clásico comenzaron a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. En la versión que dieron de Pandora, ésta soltó tanto males como bienes. La recordaban principalmente por los males que había desencadenado. Y, lo que es más significativo, olvidaron que “la dadora de todo” era también la custodia de la esperanza. +</p> + +<p> +Los griegos contaban la historia de dos hermanos, Prometeo y Epimeteo. El primero advirtió al segundo que no se metiera con Pandora. Éste, en cambio, casó con ella. En la Grecia clásica, al nombre Epimeteo, que significa “percepción tardía” o “visión ulterior”, se le daba el significado de “lerdo” o “tonto”. Para la época en que Hesíodo relataba el cuento en su forma clásica, los griegos se habían convertido en patriarcas moralistas y misóginos que se espantaban ante el pensamiento de la primera mujer. Construyeron una sociedad racional y autoritaria. Los hombres proyectaron instituciones mediante las cuales programaron enfrentarse a todos los males desencadenados. Llegaron a percatarse de su poder para conformar el mundo y hacerlo producir servicios que aprendieron también a esperar. Querían que sus artefactos moldearan sus propias necesidades y las exigencias futuras de sus hijos. Se convirtieron en legisladores, arquitectos y autores, hacedores de constituciones, ciudades y obras de arte que sirviesen de ejemplo para su progenie. El hombre primitivo contaba con la participación mística en ritos sagrados para iniciar a los individuos en las tradiciones de la sociedad, pero los griegos clásicos reconocieron como verdaderos hombres sólo a aquellos ciudadanos que permitían que la <em>paideia</em> (educación) los hiciera aptos para ingresar en las instituciones que sus mayores habían proyectado. +</p> + +<p> +El mito en desarrollo refleja la transición desde un mundo en que se <em>interpretaban</em> los sueños a un mundo en que <em>se hacían</em> oráculos. Desde tiempos inmemoriales, se había adorado a la diosa de la Tierra en las laderas del monte Parnaso, que era el centro y el ombligo de la tierra. Allí, en Delphos (de <em>delphys</em> , la matriz), dormía Gaia, hermana de Caos y de Eros. Su hijo, Pitón, el dragón, cuidaba sus sueños lunares y húmedos de rocío, hasta que Apolo, el dios del Sol, el arquitecto de Troya, se alzó al Oriente, mató al dragón y se apoderó de la cueva de Gaia. Los sacerdotes de Apolo se hicieron cargo del templo de la diosa. Emplearon a una doncella de la localidad, la sentaron en un trípode, sobre el ombligo humeante de la tierra, y la adormecieron con emanaciones. Luego pusieron sus declaraciones extáticas en hexámetros rimados de profecías que se cumplían por la misma influencia que ejercían. De todo el Peloponeso venían hombres a traer sus problemas ante Apolo. Se consultaba el oráculo sobre posibles alternativas sociales, tales como las medidas que se debían adoptar frente a una peste o una hambruna, sobre cuál era la constitución conveniente para Esparta o cuáles los emplazamientos propicios para ciudades que más tarde se llamaron Bizancio y Caledonia. La flecha que nunca yerra se convirtió en un símbolo de Apolo. Todo lo referente a él adquirió un fin determinado y útil. +</p> + +<p> +En la <em>República</em> , al describir el Estado ideal, Platón ya excluye la música popular. En las ciudades se permitiría sólo el arpa y la lira de Apolo, porque únicamente la armonía de éstas crea “la tensión de la necesidad y la tensión de la libertad, la tensión de lo infortunado y la tensión de lo afortunado, la tensión del valor y la tensión de la templanza, dignas del ciudadano”. Los habitantes de la ciudad se espantaron ante la flauta de Pan y su poder para despertar los instintos. Sólo “los pastores pueden tocar las flautas (de Pan) y esto sólo en el campo”. +</p> + +<p> +El hombre se hizo responsable de las leyes bajo las cuales quería vivir y de moldear el medio ambiente a su propia semejanza. La iniciación primitiva que daba la Madre Tierra a una vida mítica se transformó en la educación (<em>paideia</em>) del ciudadano que se sentiría a gusto en el foro. +</p> + +<p> +Para el primitivo, el mundo estaba regido por el destino, los hechos y la necesidad. Al robar el fuego de los dioses, Prometeo convirtió los hechos en problemas, puso en tela de juicio la necesidad y desafió al destino. El hombre clásico tramó un contexto civilizado para la perspectiva humana. Se percataba de que podía desafiar al trío destino-naturaleza-entorno, pero sólo bajo su propio riesgo. El hombre contemporáneo va aún más lejos; intenta crear el mundo a su semejanza, contribuir y planificar su entorno, y descubre entonces que sólo puede hacerlo a condición de rehacerse continuamente para ajustarse a él. Debemos enfrentarnos ahora al hecho de que es el hombre mismo el que está en juego. +</p> + +<p> +La vida en Nueva York produce una visión peculiar de lo que es y de lo que podría ser, y sin esta visión, la vida en Nueva York se hace imposible. En las calles de Nueva York, un niño jamás toca nada que no haya sido ideado, proyectado, planificado y vendido científicamente a alguien. Hasta los árboles están allí porque el Departamento de Parques así lo decidió. Los chistes que el niño escucha por televisión han sido programados a gran coste. La basura con que juega en las calles de Harlem está hecha de paquetes deshechos ideados para un tercero. Hasta los deseos y los temores están moldeados institucionalmente. El poder y la violencia están organizados y administrados: las pandillas, frente a la policía. El aprendizaje mismo se define como el consumo de una materia, que es el resultado de programas investigados, planificados y promocionados. Lo que allí haya de bueno, es el producto de alguna institución especializada. Sería tonto pedir algo que no pudiese producir alguna institución. El niño de la ciudad no puede esperar nada que esté más allá del posible desarrollo del proceso institucional. Hasta a su fantasía se le urge a producir ciencia ficción. Puede experimentar la sorpresa poética de lo no planificado sólo a través de sus encuentros con la “mugre”, el desatino o el fracaso: la cáscara de naranja en la cuneta, el charco en la calle, el quebrantamiento del orden, del programa o de la máquina son los únicos despegues para el vuelo de la fantasía creadora. El “viaje” se convierte en la única poesía al alcance de la mano. +</p> + +<p> +Como nada deseable hay que no haya sido planificado, el niño ciudadano pronto llega a la conclusión de que siempre podremos idear una institución para cada una de nuestras apetencias. Toma por descontado el poder del proceso para crear valor. Ya sea que la meta fuere juntarse con un compañero, integrar un barrio o adquirir habilidades de lectura, se la definirá de tal modo que su logro pueda proyectarse técnicamente. El hombre que sabe que nada que está en demanda deja de producirse llega pronto a esperar que nada de lo que se produce pueda carecer de demanda. Si puede proyectarse un vehículo lunar, también puede proyectarse la demanda de viajes a la Luna. No ir donde uno puede sería subversivo. Desenmascararía, mostrándola como una locura, la suposición de que cada demanda satisfecha trae consigo el descubrimiento de otra, mayor aún, e insatisfecha. Esa percepción detendría el progreso. No producir lo que es posible dejaría a la ley de las “expectativas crecientes” al descubierto, en calidad de eufemismo para expresar una brecha creciente de frustración, que es el motor de la sociedad, fundado en la coproducción de servicios y en la demanda creciente. +</p> + +<p> +El estado mental del habitante de la ciudad moderna aparece en la tradición mitológica sólo bajo la imagen del Infierno: Sísifo, que por un tiempo había encadenado a Tánatos (la muerte), debe empujar una pesada roca cerro arriba hasta el pináculo del Infierno, y la piedra siempre se escapa de sus manos cuando está a punto de llegar a la cima. Tántalo, a quien los dioses invitaron a compartir la comida olímpica, y que aprovechó la ocasión para robarles el secreto de la preparación de la ambrosía que todo lo cura, sufre hambre y sed eternas, de pie en un río cuyas aguas se le escapan y a la sombra de árboles cuyos frutos no alcanza. Un mundo de demandas siempre crecientes no sólo es malo; el único término adecuado para nombrarlo es “Infierno”. +</p> + +<p> +El hombre ha desarrollado la frustradora capacidad de pedir cualquier cosa porque no puede visualizar nada que una institución no pueda hacer por él. Rodeado por herramientas todopoderosas, el hombre queda reducido a ser instrumento de sus instrumentos. Cada una de las instituciones ideadas para exorcizar alguno de los males primordiales se ha convertido en un ataúd a prueba de errores y de cierre automático y hermético para el hombre. El hombre está atrapado en las cajas que fabrica para encerrar los males que Pandora dejó escapar. El oscurecimiento de la realidad por el <em>smog</em> producido por nuestras propias herramientas nos rodea. Súbitamente nos hallamos en la oscuridad de nuestra propia trampa. +</p> + +<p> +Hasta la realidad ha llegado a depender de la decisión humana. El mismo presidente que ordenó la ineficaz invasión de Camboya podría ordenar de igual manera el uso eficaz del átomo. El “interruptor Hiroshima” puede cortar hoy el ombligo de la tierra. El hombre ha adquirido el poder de hacer que Caos anonade a Eros y a Gaia. Esta nueva capacidad del hombre, el poder cortar el ombligo de la tierra, es un recuerdo constante de que nuestras instituciones no sólo crean sus propios fines, sino que tienen también el poder de señalar su propio fin y el nuestro. El absurdo de las instituciones modernas se evidencia en el caso de la institución militar. Las armas modernas pueden defender la libertad, la civilización y la vida únicamente aniquilándolas. En lenguaje militar, seguridad significa la capacidad de eliminar la Tierra. +</p> + +<p> +El absurdo subyacente en las instituciones no militares no es menos manifiesto. No hay en ellas un interruptor que active sus poderes destructores, pero tampoco lo necesitan. Sus dedos ya atenazan la tapa del mundo. Crean a mayor velocidad necesidades que satisfacciones, y en el proceso de tratar de satisfacer las necesidades que engendran, consumen la tierra. Esto vale para la agricultura y la manufactura, y no menos para la medicina y la educación. La agricultura moderna envenena y agota el suelo. La “revolución verde” puede, mediante nuevas semillas, triplicar la producción de una hectárea —pero sólo con un aumento proporcionalmente mayor de fertilizantes, insecticidas, agua y energía—. Fabricar estas cosas, como los demás bienes, contamina los océanos y la atmósfera y degrada recursos irreemplazables. Si la combustión continúa aumentando según los índices actuales, pronto consumiremos el oxígeno de la atmósfera sin poder reemplazarlo con igual presteza. No tenemos razones para creer que la fisión o la fusión puedan reemplazar la combustión sin peligros iguales o mayores. Los expertos en medicina reemplazan a las parteras y prometen convertir al hombre en otra cosa: genéticamente planificado, farmacológicamente endulzado y capaz de enfermedades más prolongadas. El ideal contemporáneo es un mundo panhigiénico: un mundo en el que todos los contactos entre los hombres, y entre los hombres y su mundo, sean el resultado de la previsión y la manipulación. La escuela se ha convertido en el proceso planificado que labra al hombre para un mundo planificado, en la trampa principal para entrampar al hombre en la trampa humana. Se supone que moldea a cada hombre a un nivel adecuado para desempeñar un papel en este juego mundial. De manera inexorable, cultivamos, elaboramos, producimos y escolarizamos el mundo hasta acabar con él. +</p> + +<p> +La institución militar es evidentemente absurda. Más difícil se hace enfrentar el absurdo de las instituciones no militares. Es aún más aterrorizante, precisamente porque funciona inexorablemente. Sabemos qué interruptor debe quedar abierto para evitar un holocausto atómico. No hay interruptor para detener un apocalipsis ecológico. +</p> + +<p> +En la antigüedad clásica, el hombre descubrió que el mundo podía forjarse según los planes del hombre, y, junto con este descubrimiento, advirtió que ello era inherentemente precario, dramático y cómico. Fueron creándose las instituciones democráticas y dentro de su estructura se supuso que el hombre era digno de confianza. Lo que se esperaba del debido proceso legal y la confianza en la naturaleza humana se mantenía en equilibrio recíproco. Se desarrollaron las profesiones tradicionales y con ellas las instituciones necesarias para el ejercicio de aquéllas. +</p> + +<p> +Subrepticiamente, la confianza en el proceso institucional ha reemplazado la dependencia respecto de la buena voluntad humana personal. El mundo ha perdido su dimensión humana y ha readquirido la necesidad de los tiempos primitivos. Pero mientras el caos de los bárbaros estaba constantemente ordenado en nombre de dioses misteriosos y antropomórficos, hoy en día la única razón que puede ofrecerse para que el mundo esté como está es la planificación del hombre. El hombre se ha convertido en el juguete de científicos, ingenieros y planificadores. +</p> + +<p> +Vemos esta lógica en otros y en nosotros mismos. Conozco una aldea mexicana en la que no pasa más de media docena de autos cada día. Un mexicano estaba jugando al dominó sobre la nueva carretera asfaltada frente a su casa —en donde probablemente se había sentado y había jugado desde muchacho—. Un coche pasó velozmente y lo mató. El turista que me informó del hecho estaba profundamente conmovido y, sin embargo, dijo: “Tenía que sucederle”. +</p> + +<p> +A primera vista, la observación del turista no difiere de la de un bosquimano que relata la muerte de algún fulano que se hubiera topado con un tabú y por consiguiente hubiera muerto. Pero las dos afirmaciones poseen significados diferentes. El primitivo puede culpar a alguna entidad trascendente, tremenda y ciega, mientras el turista está pasmado ante la inexorable lógica de la máquina. El primitivo no siente responsabilidad; el turista la siente, pero la niega. Tanto en el primitivo como en el turista están ausentes la modalidad clásica del drama, el estilo de la tragedia, la lógica del empeño individual y de la rebelión. El hombre primitivo no ha llegado a tener conciencia de ello, y el turista la ha perdido. El mito del bosquimano y el mito del norteamericano están compuestos ambos de fuerzas inertes, inhumanas. Ninguno de los dos experimenta una rebeldía trágica. Para el bosquimano, el suceso se ciñe a las leyes de la magia, para el norteamericano se ciñe a las leyes de la ciencia. El suceso le pone bajo el hechizo de las leyes de la mecánica, que para él gobiernan los sucesos físicos, sociales y psicológicos. +</p> + +<p> +El estado de ánimo de 1971 es propicio para un cambio importante de dirección en busca de un futuro esperanzador. A las metas institucionales las contradicen continuamente los resultados institucionales. El programa para la pobreza produce más pobres, la guerra en Asia acrecienta los Vietcong, la ayuda técnica engendra más subdesarrollo. Las clínicas para control de nacimientos incrementan los índices de supervivencia y provocan aumentos de población; las escuelas producen más desertores, y el atajar un tipo de contaminación suele aumentar otro tipo. +</p> + +<p> +Los consumidores se enfrentan al claro hecho de que cuanto más pueden comprar, tanto más engaño han de tragar. Hasta hace poco parecía lógico que pudiera echarse la culpa de esta inflación pandémica de disfunciones ya fuese al retraso de los descubrimientos científicos respecto de las exigencias tecnológicas, ya fuese a la perversidad de los enemigos étnicos, ideológicos o de clase. Han declinado las expectativas tanto respecto de un milenario científico como de una guerra que acabe con las guerras. +</p> + +<p> +Para el consumidor avezado no hay manera de regresar a una ingenua confianza en las tecnologías mágicas. Demasiadas personas han tenido la experiencia de computadoras que se descomponen, infecciones hospitalarias y saturación dondequiera que haya tráfico en la carretera, en el aire o en el teléfono. Hace apenas 10 años, la sabiduría convencional preveía una mejor vida fundada en los descubrimientos científicos. Ahora, los científicos asustan a los niños. Los viajes a la Luna proporcionan una fascinante demostración de que el fallo humano puede casi eliminarse entre los operarios de sistemas complejos —sin embargo, esto no mitiga los temores ante la posibilidad de que un fallo humano que consista en no consumir conforme a las instrucciones pueda escapar a todo control—. +</p> + +<p> +Para el reformador social tampoco hay modo de regresar a las premisas de la década de los años cuarenta. Se ha desvanecido la esperanza de que el problema de distribuir con justicia los bienes pueda evadirse creándolos en abundancia. El coste de la cesta mínima que satisfaga los gustos contemporáneos se ha ido a las nubes, y lo que hace que un gusto sea moderno es el hecho de que aparezca como anticuado antes de haber sido satisfecho. +</p> + +<p> +Los límites de los recursos de la tierra ya se han evidenciado. Ninguna nueva avenida de la ciencia o la tecnología podría proveer a cada hombre del mundo de los bienes y servicios de que disponen ahora los pobres de los países ricos. Por ejemplo, se precisaría extraer 100 veces las cantidades actuales de hierro, estaño, cobre y plomo para lograr esa meta, incluso con la alternativa tecnológica más “liviana”. +</p> + +<p> +Por fin, los profesores, médicos y trabajadores sociales caen en la cuenta de que sus diversos tratamientos profesionales tienen un aspecto —por lo menos— en común: crean nuevas demandas para los tratamientos profesionales que proporcionan, a una mayor rapidez con la que pueden proporcionar instituciones de servicio. +</p> + +<p> +Se está haciendo sospechosa no sólo una parte, sino la lógica misma de la sabiduría convencional. Incluso las leyes de la economía parecen poco convincentes fuera de los estrechos parámetros aplicables a la región social y geográfica en la que se encuentra la mayor parte del dinero. En efecto, el dinero es el circulante más barato, pero sólo en una economía encaminada hacia una eficiencia medida en términos monetarios. Tanto los países capitalistas como los comunistas en sus diversas formas están dedicados a medir la eficiencia en relación con el coste/beneficio expresado en dólares. El capitalismo se jacta de un nivel más elevado de vida para afirmar su superioridad. El comunismo hace alarde de una mayor tasa de crecimiento como índice de su triunfo final. Pero bajo cualquiera de ambas ideologías el coste total de aumentar la eficiencia se incrementa geométricamente. Las instituciones de mayor tamaño compiten con fiereza por los recursos que no están anotados en ningún inventario: el aire, el océano, el silencio, la luz del sol y la salud. Ponen en evidencia la escasez de estos recursos ante la opinión pública sólo cuando están casi irremediablemente degradados. Por doquiera, la naturaleza se vuelve ponzoñosa, la sociedad inhumana, la vida interior se ve invadida y la vocación personal ahogada. +</p> + +<p> +Una sociedad dedicada a la institucionalización de los valores identifica la producción de bienes y servicios con la demanda de los mismos. La educación que le hace a uno necesitar el producto está incluida en el precio del producto. La escuela es la agencia de publicidad que le hace a uno creer que necesita la sociedad tal y como está. En dicha sociedad el valor marginal ha llegado a ser constantemente autotrascendente. Obliga a los consumidores más grandes —son pocos— a competir por tener el poder de agotar la tierra, por llenarse sus propias panzas hinchadas, por disciplinar a los consumidores de menor tamaño, y por poner fuera de acción a quienes aún encuentran satisfacción en arreglárselas con lo que tienen. El <em>ethos</em> de la insaciabilidad es por tanto la fuente misma de la depredación física, de la polarización social y de la pasividad psicológica. +</p> + +<p> +Cuando los valores se han institucionalizado en procesos planificados y técnicamente construidos, los miembros de la sociedad moderna creen que la buena vida consiste en tener instituciones que definan los valores que tanto ellos como su sociedad creen que necesitan. El valor institucional puede definirse como el nivel de producción de una institución. El valor correspondiente del hombre se mide por su capacidad para consumir y degradar estas producciones institucionales y crear así una demanda nueva —y aún mayor—. El valor del hombre institucionalizado depende de su capacidad como incinerador. Para emplear una imagen, ha llegado a ser el ídolo de sus artesanías. El hombre se autodefiende ahora como el horno en que se queman los valores producidos por sus herramientas. Y no hay límites para su voracidad. Su acto es el acto de Prometeo llevado al extremo. +</p> + +<p> +El agotamiento y la contaminación de los recursos de la tierra es, por encima de todo, el resultado de una corrupción de la imagen que el hombre tiene de sí mismo, de una regresión en su conciencia. Algunos tienden a hablar acerca de una mutación de la conciencia colectiva que conduce a concebir al hombre como un organismo que no depende de la naturaleza y de las personas, sino más bien de instituciones. Esta institucionalización de valores esenciales, esta creencia en que un proceso planificado de tratamiento da finalmente unos resultados deseados por quien recibe el tratamiento, este <em>ethos</em> de consumidor, se halla en el núcleo mismo de la falacia prometeica. +</p> + +<p> +Los empeños por encontrar un nuevo equilibrio en el medio ambiente global dependen de la desinstitucionalización de los valores. La sospecha de que algo estructural anda mal en la visión del <em>homo faber</em> es común en una creciente minoría de países tanto capitalistas como comunistas y “subdesarrollados”. Esta sospecha es la característica compartida por una nueva élite. A ella pertenece gente de todas las clases, ingresos, creencias y civilizaciones. Se han vuelto suspicaces respecto de los mitos de la mayoría: de las utopías científicas, del diabolismo ideológico y de la expectativa de que la distribución de bienes y servicios se hará con igualdad. Comparten con la mayoría la sensación de estar atrapados, de percatarse de que la mayor parte de las nuevas pautas adoptadas por amplio consenso conducen a resultados que se oponen descaradamente a sus metas propuestas. No obstante, mientras la mayoría de los prometeicos astronautas en ciernes sigue evadiendo el problema fundamental, la minoría emergente se muestra crítica respecto del <em>deus ex machina</em> científico, de la panacea ideológica y de la cacería de diablos y brujas. Esta minoría comienza a dar forma a su sospecha de que nuestros constantes engaños nos atan a las instituciones contemporáneas como las cadenas ataban a Prometeo a su roca. La esperanza, la confianza y la ironía (<em>eironeia</em>) clásica deben conspirar para dejar al descubierto la falacia prometeica. +</p> + +<p> +Solía pensarse que Prometeo significaba “previsión” y aun llegó a traducirse por “aquel que hace avanzar la Estrella Polar”. Privó astutamente a los dioses del monopolio del fuego, enseñó a los hombres a usarlo para forjar el hierro, se convirtió en el dios de los tecnólogos y terminó con cadenas de hierro. +</p> + +<p> +La Pitonisa de Delfos fue reemplazada por una computadora que se cierne sobre cuadros de instrumentos y tarjetas perforadas. Los exámenes del oráculo cedieron el paso a los códigos de programación. El timonel humano entregó el rumbo a la máquina cibernética. Emerge la máquina definitiva para dirigir nuestros destinos. Los niños se imaginan volando en sus máquinas espaciales, lejos de una Tierra crepuscular. +</p> + +<p> +Mirando desde las perspectivas del Hombre de la Luna, Prometeo pudo reconocer a Gaia como el planeta de la Esperanza y como el Arco de la Humanidad. Un sentido nuevo de la finitud de la Tierra y una nueva nostalgia pueden ahora abrir los ojos del hombre y hacerle ver por qué su hermano Epimeteo, al desposar a Pandora, eligió desposar a la Tierra. +</p> + +<p> +Al llegar aquí el mito griego se convierte en esperanzada profecía, pues nos dice que el hijo de Prometeo fue Deucalión, el Timonel del Arca, quien, como Noé, navegó sobre el Diluvio para convertirse en el padre de la humanidad nueva que, con ayuda de Pirra, hija de Epimeteo y de Pandora, sacó de la tierra. Por ello nos es necesario comprender el sentido de ese Pithos que Pandora obtuvo de los dioses y que es el inverso de la Caja: nuestro Vaso y nuestra Arca. +</p> + +<p> +Necesitamos ahora un nombre para quienes valoran más la esperanza que las expectativas. Necesitamos un nombre para quienes aman más a la gente que a los productos, para aquellos que creen que +</p> +<pre class="code"> +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros.</pre> + +<p> +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que aman la tierra en la que podemos encontrarnos unos con otros, +</p> +<pre class="code"> +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés.</pre> + +<p> +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que colaboran con su hermano Prometeo en alumbrar el fuego y en dar forma al hierro, pero que lo hacen para acrecentar así su capacidad de entender y cuidar y ser guardián del prójimo, sabiendo que +</p> +<pre class="code"> +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes.</pre> + +<p> +[^n19] A esto hermanos y hermanas esperanzados sugiero llamarlos hombres epimeteicos. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico","hid":"renacimiento_del_hombre_epimeteico","codeblockOffset":0,"secid":26,"range":"250440-278450"} --> +<h2 class="sectionedit27" id="apendiceuna_eleccion_que_hacer">Apéndice: una elección que hacer</h2> +<div class="level2"> + +<p> +De generación en generación nos hemos esforzado por llegar a la educación de un mundo mejor y para hacerlo hemos desarrollado sin cesar la escolaridad. Hasta ahora, la empresa se ha pagado con un fracaso. ¿Y qué hemos aprendido si no es a constreñir a los niños para que suban la escalera sin fin de la educación que, lejos de conducir a la igualdad buscada, sólo favorece al que se adelantó a los otros o al que tiene mejor salud o al que se beneficia de una mejor preparación? Peor aún, la enseñanza obligatoria parece minar la voluntad personal de aprender. Por último, al saber considerado como una mercancía, que hay que almacenar y distribuir, pronto se le considera como un bien sometido a las garantías de la propiedad individual y, por lo mismo, tiende a volverse escaso. +</p> + +<p> +Comenzamos a percibir que este esfuerzo por desarrollar la educación pública mediante una escolaridad obligatoria está a punto de perder su legitimidad desde el punto de vista social, pedagógico y económico. Frente a esta crisis, los espíritus críticos no se contentan ya con remedios clásicos, ¡sino que proponen unos mucho más violentos! Imaginan, por ejemplo, sistemas de crédito educativo que permitirían a cada uno comprar la educación de su elección en un mercado no controlado, o bien, proponen retirarle a las escuelas la responsabilidad en materia de educación para dársela a los medios modernos de información y al aprendizaje en los sitios de trabajo. Algunos, aislados, entrevén la necesidad de destruir los fundamentos institucionales de la escuela, como le sucedió a la Iglesia en el transcurso de los dos últimos siglos. Ciertos reformadores proponen reemplazar la escuela universal por nuevos y diferentes sistemas que pretenden preparar mejor para la vida en una sociedad moderna… En síntesis, estamos frente a una elección: podemos contentarnos con desmantelar las escuelas o podemos ir más lejos y desescolarizar por completo la sociedad. +</p> + +<p> +Todas esas proposiciones en favor de instituciones educativas nuevas se reparten, de hecho, en tres categorías: las reformas que llevan al “salón de clases” sin tocar el sistema escolar; luego, la dispersión de clases “liberadas” en toda la sociedad; por último, la transformación de la misma sociedad en un inmenso salón de clases. Pero estos tres enfoques del problema —clase reformada, liberada o que englobe al mundo entero— los consideramos como tres etapas de la escalada del proceso educativo a través de las cuales se afirmará la empresa de un control todavía más sutil y más invasor del que habrá reemplazado. +</p> + +<p> +Si por mi parte estoy convencido de que conviene poner un término al reino de la escuela (desenlace que, por otra parte, creo ineluctable), es porque me parece que esta desaparición de una convicción ilusoria nos debería llenar de esperanza. Sin embargo, no estoy por ello menos consciente de que, llegados a este término de la “era escolar”, podríamos muy bien entrar en la de una escuela totalitaria que sólo el nombre distinguiría del asilo de alienados o de un campo de concentración donde educación, corrección y reajuste serían por fin sinónimos. Creo, en consecuencia, que el desmantelamiento de la escuela nos fuerza a ver más allá de su inminente desaparición y nos constriñe a enfrentar las posibilidades fundamentales de elección en materia de educación: ya sea que elijamos trabajar en la constitución de un arsenal educativo aterrador, con el objeto de acrecentar de golpe la fuerza de una enseñanza que trata de un mundo sin cesar más ensombrecido, más amenazador para el hombre; ya sea que intentemos poner en orden las condiciones necesarias para el surgimiento de una nueva era donde la tecnología se pondrá al servicio de una sociedad más simple, más transparente, de suerte que todos los hombres puedan descubrir lo que los rodea y servirse de las herramientas que hoy en día dan forma a sus propias vidas. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Ap\u00e9ndice: una elecci\u00f3n que hacer","hid":"apendiceuna_eleccion_que_hacer","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":27,"range":"278451-282475"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit28" id="la_ensenanza_oculta_de_las_escuelas">La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Debemos distinguir entre “educación” y “escolaridad” si queremos ver surgir más claramente esa elección que se nos ofrece. Comprendo que conviene distinguir entre los objetivos humanistas del profesor y los efectos inherentes a la estructura inalterable de la escuela. Con toda seguridad esta estructura no es evidente a primera vista, pero sólo su existencia explica cierta forma de instrucción transmitida a todos y que escapa al control del docente o del consejo de profesores. En efecto, un mensaje se inscribe indeleble: sólo la escolaridad es capaz de preparar la entrada en la sociedad. Por ello, lo que no se enseña en la escuela se le retira su valor y, por lo mismo ¡lo que se aprende fuera de ella no vale la pena conocerse! Eso es lo que llamo la enseñanza oculta de las escuelas que define los límites en los cuales se efectúan los pretendidos cambios de programas. +</p> + +<p> +Sin defendernos de ella, esta enseñanza no varía de una escuela a otra ni de un lugar a otro. En todas partes los niños deben congregarse en grupos, según la edad; luego, alrededor de 30 toman su lugar frente a un profesor diplomado en razón de 150, incluso 1 000 horas, al año o más, No importa si el programa oficial intenta enseñar los principios del fascismo o del liberalismo, del catolicismo o del socialismo, o si pretende ponerse al servicio de una “liberación”, ya que en todos los casos la institución se arroga el derecho de definir las actividades propias que conducen a una “educación” legitima. Poco importa, igualmente, si el objetivo confesado de la escuela es producir ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o médicos, en la medida en que sin el diploma no se es un ciudadano verdadero o un doctor reconocido… Aunque todas las reuniones no se hagan en el mismo recinto, aunque incluso se consideren, de una manera o de otra, necesarias (cortar caña es trabajo del cañero; reformarse, el del prisionero, y seguir una parte del programa, el de los estudiantes), no hay en lo anterior ninguna diferencia. +</p> + +<p> +Nos enfrentamos a una especie de directiva secreta que quiere que los estudiantes aprendan antes que nada que la educación sólo tiene valor una vez que se adquirió en el seno de la universidad mediante un método graduado de consumo, y se le promete que el éxito social dependerá de la cantidad de saber consumido, Están convencidos de que vale mucho más instruirse a distancia de lo que es el mundo. El hecho de que la escolaridad imponga esta regla secreta en un programa educativo la distingue inmediatamente de otras formas de educación planificada. Todos los sistemas escolares del planeta tienen características comunes en relación con su rendimiento institucional y la razón de ello es ese “programa oculto” común a todas las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +Hay que entender bien que ese programa oculto modifica la concepción que tenemos de la adquisición del saber y hace de la actividad personal una mercancía de la que la escuela cree detentar el monopolio. A un bien de consumo le damos hoy en día el nombre de “educación”: un producto cuya fabricación la asegura una institución oficial llamada “escuela”. En consecuencia, henos ahí con el fin de medir la duración y el costo del tratamiento aplicado al estudiante (en Estados Unidos, el diplomado de una pequeña universidad regional y el de uno de los colegios de la “liga de la hieda”[^n20] tienen cubiertos los mismos 135 “créditos”,[^n21] ¡pero están plenamente conscientes de la diferente cotización de sus “títulos” en la bolsa de valores educativos!). +</p> + +<p> +En todos los países convertidos al ideal escolar, el saber se considera como un bien de primera necesidad, como un asunto de sobrevivencia y, de la misma forma, como una moneda de cambio más fácilmente convertible que los rublos y los dólares. Cuando hablamos de alienación estamos de tal manera habituados al vocabulario marxista que sólo pensamos frecuentemente en la del trabajador en relación con su trabajo desde la perspectiva de una sociedad de clases; hoy en día nos sería necesario reconocer otra forma de la alienación, la del hombre frente al saber cuando este último, transformado en producto de un servicio, hace de quien lo adquiere un consumidor. +</p> + +<p> +Entre más educación “consume” un ser humano, más hace fructificar su posesión y se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del conocimiento. La educación definió una nueva pirámide de clases, en la medida en que los grandes consumidores de saber —esos portadores de bonos del tesoro del conocimiento— pueden inmediatamente pretender dar servicios de un valor más eminente a su sociedad. Ellos representan las inversiones seguras en el portafolio del capital humano de una sociedad y sólo ellos tienen un pronto acceso a las herramientas más poderosas o menos extendidas de la producción. +</p> + +<p> +De esa manera, ese programa secreto definió implícitamente la naturaleza de la educación: permite medirla y establecer qué nivel de productividad da derecho a su consumo. Disponemos entonces de la posibilidad de justificar la creciente correlación entre los empleos y los privilegios que manan de ellos. En ciertas sociedades esos privilegios se conocerán bajo la forma de ingresos personales más considerables; en otras, será un acceso fácil a servicios todavía poco desarrollados o a una formación más favorecida, sin olvidar un creciente prestigio (por otra parte, en el momento mismo en que, en nombre de la educación, se reclaman crecientes privilegios, la fosa entre la formación y la competencia profesional se acrecienta, como lo muestran ciertos estudios, en particular el de Ivar Berg, <em>La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación</em>). +</p> + +<p> +Querer hacer pasar a todos los seres humanos por las etapas sucesivas de la adquisición del saber nos lleva a recordar la búsqueda de los alquimistas y a mirar bien ahí: en el “gran arte” del final de la Edad Media encontraremos con toda seguridad los orígenes profundos de la idea de escolaridad. Consideramos a justo título que Jan Amos Komensky fue uno de los grandes precursores de las teorías de la escuela moderna. Más conocido con el nombre de Comenius, Jan Amos era obispo de Moravia y se decía “pansofista” y pedagogo. En su <em>Didactica Magna</em> describe las escuelas como medios para “enseñar todo a todo el mundo” y podemos ver en él como un anteproyecto de la producción en la cadena del saber, ya que quería hacer la educación a la vez mejor y menos costosa, con el fin de permitir a todos el acceso a la condición de hombre. Pero sería insuficiente ver en Comenius una suerte de predecesor de nuestros expertos en métodos pedagógicos. Experto en alquimia, utilizaba su jerga para describir el arte de educar a los niños. Como se sabe, los alquimistas buscaban trasmutar el plomo vil, los elementos vulgares, en oro, haciendo pasar sus espíritus destilados por las 12 etapas del enriquecimiento. Es evidente que si veían en eso una manera de enriquecerse a sí mismos, pretendían trabajar en nombre del interés general, y sus sucesivos fracasos no los desalentaban, ya que su “ciencia” les permitía encontrar en ella las razones y justificar la continuación de sus esfuerzos. +</p> + +<p> +En esta perspectiva, la pedagogía abría un nuevo capítulo en la historia de la <em>Ars Magna</em> : la educación se volvía, en efecto, la búsqueda de una especie de método alquímico destinado a hacer surgir un nuevo tipo de hombre capaz de adaptarse a un medio creado por la magia científica. Y, al igual que en la alquimia, cualquiera que fuera la suma consagrada a cada generación para edificar escuelas, el resultado es que la mayoría de aquellos a los que se les enseña no responden a esa “afinación” y pronto hay que rechazarlos como no aptos para existir en un mundo concebido por el hombre. +</p> + +<p> +Los reformadores en materia de educación que admiten el fracaso de las escuelas se reparten en tres categorías. Los más respetables son seguramente los grandes maestros en alquimia que prometen mejores escuelas; los más seductores, esos magos populares que anuncian la transformación de cada cocina en un laboratorio alquímico; los más aterradores, esos nuevos “masones” del universo que buscan transformar el mundo en un vasto templo de la enseñanza. +</p> + +<p> +Veamos, en particular, entre esos maestros alquimistas del momento, a los directores de investigación que emplean o patrocinan las grandes fundaciones. Están persuadidos de que las escuelas, si pudieran de alguna manera mejorarse, se volverían empresas más económicamente viables que venderían un más vasto conjunto de servicios. En cuanto a aquellos cuyo interés se dirige hacia los programas, pretenden que éstos no están adaptados o están sobrepasados. De esa manera se conciben nuevos programas en los que se introducen mercancías al gusto del momento: cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación femenina, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. Se denuncia la pasividad (con toda seguridad es un mal) y, para remediarla, se concede a los estudiantes que ellos mismos decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y de qué manera. Algunos dicen que las escuelas son prisiones y, en consecuencia, se aconseja a los jefes de establecimientos dar su asentimiento a salidas educativas: un horizonte de pupitres y de muros se sustituye, por ejemplo, por una calle de Harlem cuidadosamente delimitada. Por último, la psicología está de moda y se instaura la terapia de grupos en el salón de clases. La escuela, que se consideraba el todo aprender de todos, se vuelve hoy en día el universo de todos los niños. +</p> + +<p> +Otros críticos se levantan para subrayar que las escuelas no utilizan suficientemente los recursos de la ciencia moderna. Surge el deseo de que los hombres de ciencia inventen algún medicamento que consuman los niños para que el instructor pueda modificar más fácilmente sus comportamientos. Se habla de transformar las escuelas en casinos educativos. Hay quienes quisieran “electrificar” el salón de clases y, por poco que crean ser buenos discípulos de McLuhan, helos ahí reemplazando el pizarrón y los manuales por <em>happenings</em> en los que se ofrece toda la batería de aparatos de comunicación. Si admiran a Skinner, afirman que la aplicación de sus teorías permitirá una acción más eficaz sobre el comportamiento de los estudiantes que la de los antiguos maestros, hoy pasados de moda. +</p> + +<p> +Que algunas de estas reformas tengan efectos felices, es innegable. La práctica de la escuela tradicional está en un fuerte proceso de disminución en las escuelas experimentales. A veces los padres tienen un sentimiento mayor de participación. Los alumnos designados por sus profesores para seguir cursillos de aprendizaje adquieren frecuentemente un mayor <em>savoir faire</em>[^n22] que el de sus camaradas que permanecen en clase (conocí niños que mejoraban sus conocimientos de español en el laboratorio de lengua, porque preferían jugar con los botones de las grabadoras que conversar con sus iguales puertorriqueños). Sin embargo, todas esas mejoras intervienen en límites estrechos y previsibles, ya que no llegan al programa oculto de las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +A algunos reformadores les gustaría liberarse de esa regla secreta de las escuelas públicas, pero sólo lo logran raras veces. Las escuelas “activas”, que conducen al desarrollo de otras escuelas del mismo tipo, sólo crean una engañosa ilusión: la liberación permanece como un espejismo, incluso si la constricción a los cursos obligatorios se interrumpe con frecuencia por periodos de ociosidad. Que se busque agradar a alguien para convencerlo de asistir a los cursos es, bien mirado, ¡más insidioso todavía que la obligación legal y el apoyo de la brigada de los menores! Mejor que una presencia consentida a disgusto, la que embauca lleva más fácilmente a creer en la necesidad del tratamiento educativo. El docente tolerante hace al alumno correr un creciente riesgo de sentirse incapaz de vivir fuera del refugio acolchado. +</p> + +<p> +¿En qué difiere la enseñanza suministrada en las nuevas escuelas? Aunque se facilite por el consenso de un grupo, más que por los decretos del cuerpo docente, se trata siempre de adquirir competencias que la sociedad reconoce, lo que no cambia en nada el problema. La apariencia cambia; la realidad profunda permanece. +</p> + +<p> +Para ser verdaderas escuelas de libertad, les sería necesario llenar dos condiciones. En primer lugar, deben administrarse de tal suerte que no permitan a la regla secreta de la enseñanza aplicarse, es decir, que los escolares, definidos como tales, ubicados frente a profesores reconocidos, no asistan a una sucesión de cursos graduados. En segundo lugar, esas escuelas deberían proporcionar un marco en el que todos los participantes, docentes y alumnos, puedan liberarse de los postulados sobre los que reposa, sin que lo sepamos, una sociedad escolarizada. A veces escuchamos enunciar la primera condición en los objetivos que se propone una escuela “activa”. En cuanto a la segunda, por lo general no se le pone atención, y ciertamente no es el objetivo de esas escuelas. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La ense\u00f1anza oculta de las escuelas","hid":"la_ensenanza_oculta_de_las_escuelas","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":28,"range":"282476-295759"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit29" id="los_postulados_secretos_de_la_educacion">Los postulados secretos de la educación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +No es necesario, en esta fase, distinguir entre la regla secreta y aquélla sobre la que, sin darnos cuenta, se funda la idea de la escolaridad. El programa oculto constituye una especie de ritual iniciático que podemos concebir como un preparativo para el ingreso en la sociedad moderna. Por intermedio de la escuela el programa adquiere su dimensión institucional. Detrás del velo de la ceremonia ritual, las contradicciones se encuentran disimuladas para los participantes. ¿Cómo, en efecto, conciliar el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad social fundada en el reconocimiento de un orden jerárquico que finalmente el rito impone? Pero una vez reconocidos en lo que son, los ritos ya no llegan a mantener la ilusión; ese fenómeno es aparente en el caso de la escolaridad. No obstante, la ceremonia reposa sobre postulados aceptados inconscientemente a los que las escuelas “privadas” podrían dar nuevo vigor. +</p> + +<p> +A primera vista, se nos reprochará que hagamos un juicio de orden general sobre las escuelas “activas” y más precisamente, en 1971, sobre las de Estados Unidos, las de Canadá y las de Alemania del Oeste en donde ellas parecen querer ser el más hermoso adorno de un renacimiento. A decir verdad, nuestra generalización sólo se dirige a las empresas experimentales que pretenden ser instituciones educativas. Para evitar cualquier menosprecio debemos examinar con más atención la relación que hay entre “educación” y “escolaridad”. +</p> + +<p> +Con mucha frecuencia olvidamos que la educación no es una invención antigua. Ese sustantivo se desconocía antes de la Reforma. En Francia se habla por vez primera de la educación de los niños en un manuscrito de 1498. Era el año en que Erasmo llegó a residir en Oxford, en que a Savonarola lo quemaron en Florencia, en que Durero trazaba los primeros apuntes de su <em>Apocalipsis</em> , que todavía hoy evoca con fuerza la atmósfera sombría, la impresión de un inminente desastre que pesaba sobre ese periodo. En inglés, la palabra <em>educación</em> apareció por primera vez en 1530. Ese año, Enrique VIII repudiaba a Catalina de Aragón y la Iglesia luterana se separaba de Roma con la dieta de Augsburgo. Hay que esperar todavía un siglo para que la idea de “educación” se manifieste en el imperio español. En 1611, Lope de Vega habla de la educación como de una novedad. Ese año, la universidad de San Marcos en Lima celebraba su 60 aniversario. Centros de saber existían antes de que la palabra “educación” formara parte del lenguaje familiar. Se “leía” a los autores clásicos; se estudiaba el derecho; no se enseñaba a vivir… +</p> + +<p> +En el siglo XVI, en el corazón de todas las disputas teológicas se encontraba la necesidad de encontrar justificaciones, de las que la política supo servirse bien para explicar las grandes masacres de la época. En la Iglesia, cismas intervinieron y se hizo posible sostener convicciones diferentes sobre el punto de saber en qué medida el hombre nace pecador, corrompido o sometido a la predestinación. Desde el siglo XVII, el acuerdo se rehizo sobre un punto: el hombre nace no apto para la vida social, en consecuencia es necesario prepararlo proponiéndole una educación. Así, la educación se volvió lo opuesto de la competencia adquirida en la vida cotidiana y terminó por significar un método de tratamiento más que el simple saber de hechos de la existencia y la capacidad de servirse de herramientas que dan forma a la vida concreta del hombre. Progresivamente la educación se transformó en un servicio que había que producir, para el bien de todos, mercancía intangible que se recibía de la misma manera en que la Iglesia visible había conferido anteriormente la gracia invisible. El hombre, nacido en la estupidez original, debía ahora presentar cartas de creencia a la sociedad. +</p> + +<p> +La escuela y la educación mantuvieron relaciones comparables a las de la Iglesia y la religión o, en una perspectiva más general, a las que se establecen entre el rito y el mito; el rito crea y sostiene al mito; detenta una función mitopoiética. El mito inspira el “programa” por el que se perpetúa. La educación representa a la vez todo un conjunto de justificaciones sobre el plano social y un concepto para el que no podemos encontrar análogos específicos en otras culturas (fuera de la teología cristiana). La educación por el método de la escolaridad distingue fundamentalmente a las escuelas de otras instituciones de enseñanza que existieron en otras épocas. Ése es un aspecto que no hay que despreciar si queremos hacer aparecer las insuficiencias de las “escuelas” llamadas privadas, no estructuradas o independientes. +</p> + +<p> +Con el fin de sobrepasar una simple reforma de la clase, una escuela activa debe todavía rechazar el programa secreto de la escolaridad descrito anteriormente. Una escuela activa ideal intentaría proporcionar una educación esforzándose en evitar que esa educación se utilice para establecer o justificar una estructura de clase y se vuelva un patrón maestro para medir al alumno con cierto rasero. Debería, en consecuencia, no someter a este último a una represión, a un control o intentar definirlo de cualquier manera. Pero mientras las escuelas activas intenten proporcionar una “educación general”, no están en condiciones de sobrepasar una concepción fundada en los postulados secretos de la escuela. +</p> + +<p> +Entre sus principios, hay uno que Peter Schrag, en una perspectiva particular, definió como el “síndrome de inmigración”, que nos incita a tratar a todos los seres humanos como si fueran recién llegados que deben someterse a un proceso de naturalización. Sólo los consumidores garantizados del saber se admiten en la ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen iguales, sólo por el periodo de gestación en el seno del <em>Alma mater</em> podrán acceder a esta igualdad. +</p> + +<p> +Otro postulado conduce a creer que el hombre, nacido inmaduro, debe adquirir su “madurez” en el transcurso del primer periodo de su existencia para después formar parte de una sociedad civilizada. Esta idea de una “maduración” es, con toda seguridad, contraria a otra convicción que define al hombre como el mamífero que, por el mecanismo de la evolución y con el concurso de la selección natural entre sus maestros primates, adquirió el carácter específico de permanecer durante toda su vida “inmaduro” —lo que constituye su “gracia” particular—. Pero, en conformidad con la fijación ideológica sobre la madurez, nos persuadimos de que es necesario, después de su nacimiento, mantener al ser humano apartado de su medio natural y hacerlo pasar por una matriz social para que adquiera las cualidades necesarias para la vida cotidiana. Las escuelas activas son capaces de llenar esta función frecuentemente mucho mejor que escuelas de un modelo menos atractivo. +</p> + +<p> +Los establecimientos educativos liberados comparten con quienes lo son menos otra característica: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la educación. Ponen una institución <em>in loco parentis</em>. Perpetúan la idea de que la enseñanza, si se realiza fuera del círculo familiar, debe estar asegurada por una “agencia” cuyo docente es sólo un representante. En una sociedad escolarizada, la misma familia se reduce a ser sólo una “agencia de aculturación”. En cuanto a los organismos educativos que emplean profesores para promover la política de su consejo administrativo, se vuelven instrumentos al servicio de una despersonalización de las relaciones entre personas privadas. +</p> + +<p> +Naturalmente, numerosas escuelas activas funcionan sin profesores acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una amenaza seria para los sindicatos de maestros, pero, no por ello, ponen en peligro la estructura social fundada en un reconocimiento de las profesiones. Una escuela en la que los miembros del consejo administrativo eligen y nombran a los profesores, sin preocuparse de saber si detentan certificados, una licencia o una credencial sindical, no atenta contra la legitimidad de la profesión de enseñante; no más que una encargada de un prostíbulo clandestino, en un país donde un trabajo así, para ser legal, debe hacerse bajo el control de la policía, ¡no cuestiona la legitimidad de la profesión más antigua del mundo! +</p> + +<p> +La mayoría de los que enseñan en escuelas activas no tienen la oportunidad de trabajar en su nombre. Aseguran la tarea de la enseñanza en nombre de un consejo; en nombre de sus alumnos asumen la función menos evidente de la enseñanza y sirven a la educación bajo su aspecto casi místico en nombre de toda “la sociedad”. La mejor prueba de ello es que pasan todavía más tiempo que sus colegas de la enseñanza pública reuniéndose en comisiones con el objeto de planificar el método por el cual la escuela debería educar. La duración de esas reuniones ha incitado a muchos docentes de alma generosa, una vez que sus ilusiones se han disipado, a pasar de la escuela pública a la enseñanza privada, para luego ir todavía más allá… +</p> + +<p> +Todos los establecimientos de enseñaza pretenden “formar hombres” en una tarea de mejoramiento del futuro, pero no les permiten cumplirla antes de que hayan adquirido una sólida tolerancia frente a las maneras de vivir de sus mayores. Es siempre una educación que prepara para la vida, más que adquirida en la vida cotidiana. Muy pocas escuelas activas pueden evitar esa trampa. Sin embargo, hay que reconocer que contribuyen a la aparición de un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán sus diplomas sobre la sociedad, sino más bien porque los padres que eligen educar a sus hijos sin beneficiarse de los servicios de enseñanza “ordenados según la regla” pertenecen frecuentemente a una minoría radical, y porque el interés que aportan a ese problema, el gusto que tienen de educar a sus hijos, los mantiene en su modo de vida. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Los postulados secretos de la educaci\u00f3n","hid":"los_postulados_secretos_de_la_educacion","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":29,"range":"295760-305742"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit30" id="las_influencias_ocultas_en_el_mercado_de_la_educacion">Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +La especie más peligrosa entre los reformadores en materia de educación es la que pretende demostrar que el saber puede producirse y venderse de manera mucho más eficaz en un mercado libre que en el que controla la escuela. Pretenden que una capacidad puede fácilmente adquirirse por medio de un modelo, aunque el aprendiz considere poco esta adquisición como de interés evidente. Afirman también que un sistema de asignación individualizado proporciona un poder de compra más igualitario en materia de educación. Piden, por último, que se distinga entre el método de adquisición y el que mide los resultados (lo que me parece una necesidad muy evidente). Pero sería erróneo creer que la instauración de un mercado abierto del saber representaría una solución opuesta a la de hoy en día. +</p> + +<p> +Esta sustitución aboliría, ciertamente, lo que llamamos el programa secreto de la escolaridad (el hecho de que hay que seguir a determinadas edades programas graduados). Un mercado abierto daría, en primer lugar, la impresión de que vamos al encuentro de esos principios en los que reposa una sociedad escolarizada: el “síndrome de la inmigración”, el monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el rito de la integración progresiva. Pero, por lo mismo, un mercado libre de educación proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables ocasiones para influir en secreto, con el fin de encerrar a cada hombre en los múltiples y pequeños compartimentos que una tecnocracia todavía más desarrollada podría crear. +</p> + +<p> +La confianza puesta desde hace decenios en la escolarización del ser humano ha hecho del saber una mercancía de una especie particular. Como lo hemos visto, todos consideran ahora el saber como un artículo de primera necesidad y, al mismo tiempo, como la moneda de cambio más preciosa de la sociedad. Esta transformación del saber en bien de consumo se refleja, igualmente, en nuestro comportamiento de todos los días, incluso en el lenguaje familiar. Así, verbos que describen una actividad personal, como “aprender”, “alojarse”, “sanarse”, nos hacen irresistiblemente pensar en servicios cuya distribución está más o menos asegurada. Pensamos que es necesario resolver los problemas de la habitación, de los cuidados médicos, etc., sin recordar un solo instante que los hombres podrían curarse o edificar sus casas por ellos mismos. Todo es cuestión de servicios y el adolescente, en lugar de aprender, por ejemplo, a ocuparse de su abuela, aprende a manifestarse frente al asilo de ancianos donde no hay camas disponibles. ¿El desmantelamiento de la escuela sería, pues, suficiente para conducir a la desaparición de esas actitudes? (Mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución norteamericana se continuaba exigiendo la filiación a una Iglesia como condición para cualquier candidatura a un puesto oficial). Con mayor razón, ¿el cierre de las escuelas permitiría evitar que tuviéramos acceso a baterías de pruebas para medir el nivel de educación? Si ése no es el caso, esta nueva situación conduciría a la obligación, para cada uno, de adquirir un mínimo de mercancías en el depósito del saber. La ambición de medir científicamente el valor de cada hombre se vincula sin dificultad con el sueño del alquimista de hacer a todo hombre “educable” con el fin de guiarlo hacia una humanidad “verdadera”. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado libre, llegaremos a un entorno sometido al control de los terapeutas-pedagogos, a una matriz universal donde cada hombre se alimentaría con fluidos elegidos. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas limitan por ahora la competencia del profesor al salón de clases. No le permiten reivindicar la existencia del hombre para una región. Desde esta perspectiva, renunciar a la escuela haría desaparecer esta frágil barrera y conferiría una legitimidad semejante a la invasión pedagógica de la vida privada de cada uno. Podría conducir a una lucha encarnizada por la adquisición del saber en un mercado libre del conocimiento y a la edificación, bajo apariencias igualitarias, de una meritocracia. +</p> + +<p> +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones (ni incluso las más eficaces) que pretenden hacer de la información, de la comprensión y de la sabiduría rasgos d comportamiento susceptibles de contrastarse (y medirlos conduce a detentar la llave que abre las puertas del éxito y del poder). El sistema chino, por ejemplo, ofrecía, en el plano de la educación, una estimulante eficacia definiendo una clase relativamente abierta, cuyos privilegios dependían de la adquisición de un saber mesurable. Alrededor de 2 000 años antes de Cristo, parece que el emperador de China interrogaba cada tres años a sus administradores. Después de tres veces, les daba responsabilidades mayores o los echaba para siempre. Algunos 1 000 años más tarde, el primer emperador Chang estableció un verdadero examen para sus funcionarios. Música, tiro con arco y aritmética constituían los temas impuestos. Cada tres años, los concursos se abrían a los candidatos. Uno sobre 100 lograba franquear las tres series de pruebas que le conferían sucesivamente los títulos de “genio en hierbas”, de “perfecto letrado” y de “dispuesto para el servicio del emperador”. La selección era, pues, muy severa, y se le dedicaba la mayor importancia a los examinadores; así, por ejemplo, en el segundo nivel, en el que era necesario redactar una composición, el texto del candidato lo volvía a copiar un secretario antes de dárselo al jurado, a fin de que sus miembros no pudieran reconocer la caligrafía del autor. +</p> + +<p> +Más tarde, la promoción a rango de mandarín no daba necesariamente derecho a uno de los puestos deseados. Permitía solamente participar en el sorteo de esos empleos. Ninguna escuela apareció en China antes de la época de las luchas con los poderes europeos. El caso del imperio chino es único entre las grandes naciones, ya que no poseía ni Iglesia oficial ni sistema escolar, pero pudo durante cerca de 3 000 años reclutar su élite gubernamental sin fundar una vasta aristocracia hereditaria. El acceso a esa élite estaba reservado a la familia del emperador y a los que pasaban los exámenes. +</p> + +<p> +Voltaire y sus contemporáneos elogiaron el sistema chino, donde la promoción se fundaba en las pruebas dadas de un saber. Los exámenes de ingreso en la administración aparecieron en Francia en 1791; después, Napoleón los abolió. ¿Qué habría sucedido si, para propagar las ideas de la Revolución, se hubiera elegido el mandarinato en lugar del sistema escolar que inevitablemente sostiene al nacionalismo y a la disciplina militar? De hecho, Napoleón se erigió en el defensor de la escuela politécnica y del colegio de pensionados… Más que inspirarse en el mandarinato, las instituciones educativas se calcaron del modelo jesuita de la promoción ritual en el interior de una estructura jerárquica cerrada; de esa forma, las sociedades occidentales eligieron legitimar a sus élites. +</p> + +<p> +Los jefes de establecimientos escolares se volvieron, de alguna forma, los abades de una cadena mundial de monasterios en donde todos se dedicaron a acumular conocimientos que les permitieran acceder a la tierra prometida, paraíso terrestre sometido a las leyes del envejecimiento planificado que se desborda sin cesar. Eso nos recuerda el esfuerzo de los calvinistas que arrasaron todos los monasterios para, finalmente, transformar Ginebra en un vasto claustro. Tenemos, por lo tanto, razones para temer que el desmantelamiento de la escuela permita la aparición de una fábrica del saber a escala mundial. A menos que transformemos la idea que nos hemos hecho de la enseñanza o del saber, la desaparición de la escuela corre el riesgo de conducir a una situación donde, de un lado, se utilizará el sistema del mandarinato para separar el aprendizaje del saber de la prueba de control y, del otro, la sociedad se comprometerá a proporcionar la terapéutica necesaria a cualquier hombre para que pueda entrar en la “edad de oro”. +</p> + +<p> +Ni los alquimistas, ni los magos, ni los masones pueden resolver el problema que nos plantea la crisis de la enseñanza, La desescolarización de nuestra concepción del mundo exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza, a la vez, ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa porque busca hacer del hombre un ser social sometiéndolo a un tratamiento con métodos técnicos apropiados. +</p> + +<p> +Adherirse al <em>ethos</em> tecnocrático nos conduce a querer poner en marcha todo lo que es técnicamente realizable, poco importa si sus beneficiarios son forzosamente poco numerosos o si no experimentan su deseo. Sobre todo la privatización o la frustración de la mayoría de los seres humanos nunca entran en la línea de cuenta. Si, por ejemplo, es posible concebir el tratamiento mediante la bomba de cobalto, es necesario que la ciudad de Tegucigalpa disponga de aparatos adaptados en cada uno de sus dos grandes hospitales. Con todos esos créditos puestos ahí se habría podido luchar en toda Honduras contra la proliferación de parásitos… Las velocidades supersónicas sugieren que conviene inmediatamente acelerar los viajes de algunos. ¿Los vuelos a Marte? ¡Se encontrará siempre una razón para que parezcan indispensables! En el <em>ethos</em> tecnocrático la pobreza está modernizada: ¿existían soluciones antiguas? Nuevos monopolios vienen a prohibirlas. A la penuria de los bienes de primera necesidad se agrega la conciencia de la diferencia sin cesar cada vez más grande entre los servicios técnicamente realizables y los que en la práctica son accesibles a las mayorías. +</p> + +<p> +Un profesor se vuelve “educador” desde el momento en que se incorpora a ese <em>ethos</em> tecnocrático. Actúa inmediatamente como si la educación fuera una empresa tecnológica concebida para insertar al hombre en el entorno que crea el “progreso” de la ciencia. Se niega a ver la evidencia: el envejecimiento de todos los bienes programados se paga muy caro (el costo de la formación del personal capaz de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas es sin cesar más alto). Parece olvidar que el precio creciente de las herramientas tiene consecuencias igualmente graves en el plano de la educación: en el momento mismo en que los horarios de trabajo disminuyen, se vuelve imposible el aprendizaje en los lugares de empleo donde se ha hecho de él el privilegio de un pequeño número. En todo el mundo el precio del coste de la educación de los hombres para la sociedad crece más rápidamente que la productividad de la economía en su conjunto, mientras menos y menos hombres experimentan el sentimiento de hacerse razonablemente útiles a la comunidad. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educaci\u00f3n","hid":"las_influencias_ocultas_en_el_mercado_de_la_educacion","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":30,"range":"305743-316534"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit31" id="la_escuela_instrumento_del_progreso_technocratico">La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Educar para una sociedad de consumo resulta en formar consumidores. La reforma de la clase, su desaparición o su crecimiento no son ni más ni menos que métodos que, a pesar de sus diferencias aparentes, se dirigen a la formación de consumidores de bienes inmediatamente pasados de moda. La sobrevivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden definir constantemente la dicha del hombre asimilado al consumo de los productos más recientes depende de las instituciones educativas (desde las escuelas hasta las agencias publicitarias) que transforman la educación en un medio de control social. +</p> + +<p> +En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, las considerables inversiones en materia de enseñanza hacen más evidentes las contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En esos países, el aumento ideológico del progreso ilimitado reposa en la idea de que el efecto igualitario de una formación permanente contrabalancea la influencia inversa de la regla del envejecimiento perpetuo. La legitimidad de la sociedad industrial depende de la credibilidad de la escuela, cualquiera que sea el partido en el poder. En tales condiciones, el público manifiesta un interés súbito por libros como el reporte de Charles Silberman a la comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el título <em>Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)</em> ; esta investigación inspira confianza en la medida en que la acusación que el autor lanza contra la escuela está apoyada sólidamente. Pero tales estudios se dirigen a salvar el sistema tratando de corregir sus fallas más evidentes. Por lo mismo, pueden suscitar un nuevo ascenso de esperanzas engañosas. +</p> + +<p> +Por todas partes crecientes inversiones consagradas a las escuelas vuelven la absurdidad de la empresa escolar más evidente. Puede parecer paradójico que los pobres sean sus primeras víctimas. En el fondo, eso es lo que muestra el reporte de la comisión de encuestas Wright en Ontario: a propósito de la enseñanza superior, los miembros de la comisión señalan que las capas pobres de la población las subvencionaban desde el punto de vista de la imposición de manera desproporcionada, ya que los ricos eran casi los únicos beneficiarios. +</p> + +<p> +Esta observación podría inmediatamente hacerse en otra parte. En la URSS, un sistema de cuota aplicado durante muchos decenios parece favorecer la admisión a la universidad de los hijos de los trabajadores a expensas de las hijas e hijos de universitarios. Actualmente estos últimos son sobrerrepresentados en las clases superiores y terminales de la enseñanza rusa y en una proporción todavía más grande que en Estados Unidos. +</p> + +<p> +El 8 de marzo de 1971, el juez Warren E. Burger hacía público el veredicto unánime de la corte en el caso Griggs contra la sociedad Duke Power. Fundándose en la voluntad expresada por el Congreso en el artículo que concierne a la igualdad de oportunidades en la ley de 1964, la corte resolvió por unanimidad que cualquier “diploma” exigido a un candidato por un empleo (o cualquier prueba seguida) debía “medir al hombre en relación con un trabajo dado” y no “al hombre mismo en un plano abstracto”. Además, correspondía al empresario probar que sus exigencias en materia de diplomas constituía una “medida razonable de la calificación requerida”. Mediante estas consideraciones, los jueces querían evitar que las pruebas y diplomas exigidos no se utilizaran en provecho de una discriminación racial, pero la lógica del razonamiento podría también aplicarse a cualquier exigencia de un “ <em>pedigree</em> educativo” en materia de empleo. Es tiempo de formar causa contra la “gran estafa de la formación profesional” denunciada tan justamente por Ivar Berg. +</p> + +<p> +En los países pobres, las escuelas sirven para justificar el atraso económico de una nación: a la mayoría de los ciudadanos se le mantiene apartada de los magros medios modernos de producción y de consumo, pero todos sueñan con beneficiarse de los favores de la economía franqueando el umbral de una escuela. La repartición jerárquica de los privilegios y del poder ya no depende, en nuestros días y en el plano de la legitimidad, de una descendencia de ancestros, de la herencia, del favor del príncipe, incluso de una lucha sin cuartel en el mercado económico o en el campo de batalla. Su verdadera legitimidad la encuentra en una forma más sutil del capitalismo donde la institución encargada de conferirla se encuentra en la escolaridad obligatoria. Quien aprovechó los servicios de la escuela vuelve entonces al subprivilegiado responsable de su desgracia: es un mal consumidor del saber. Esta justificación de la desigualdad social no resiste siempre el examen de los hechos y los regímenes populares tienen cada vez más dificultades para disimular las contradicciones entre la propaganda y la realidad. +</p> + +<p> +Desde hace 10 años, Cuba se esfuerza por promover el crecimiento rápido de la educación popular dando confianza a la mano de obra disponible sin tomar en cuenta la calificación profesional. Al principio, el éxito de esta campaña (en particular la disminución espectacular del número de analfabetos) se ha citado como prueba de que las tasas de crecimiento limitadas de los otros sistemas escolares latinoamericanos eran imputables a la corrupción, al militarismo y a la economía de mercado capitalista. +</p> + +<p> +Sin embargo, la lógica de la escolarización se hace sentir manifiestamente a consecuencia de los esfuerzos de Castro por “reproducir” al hombre nuevo mediante la escuela. Incluso si los estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en la zafra y sostienen activamente los ideales igualitarios del <em>compañero</em> Fidel, la universidad cultiva cada año una nueva cosecha de consumidores conscientes de su saber, prontos a acceder a nuevos niveles de consumo. Al mismo tiempo, el doctor Castro debe enfrentarse a la evidencia de que el sistema escolar nunca producirá suficiente mano de obra técnica diplomada. Esos diplomados que obtienen los nuevos empleos destruyen por su conservadurismo los resultados conseguidos por los cuadros no diplomados que llegaron a su posición mediante una formación en el taller. No basta con acusar a los docentes para explicar los fracasos de un gobierno revolucionario que quiere con todas sus fuerzas una institucionalización de la mano de obra siguiendo un programa secreto que garantice la producción de una burguesía universal. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"La escuela instrumento del progreso technocr\u00e1tico","hid":"la_escuela_instrumento_del_progreso_technocratico","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":31,"range":"316535-323067"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit32" id="ensenar_instruirse_responsabilidades_personales">Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Contra esta voluntad de adquirir privilegios y poder que poseen quienes detentan la competencia profesional en nombre de sus pretendidos derechos, no sabríamos imaginar una revolución sin acusar a la concepción misma de la adquisición del saber. Lo que nos conduce, en primer lugar, a considerar la cuestión de la responsabilidad en ese ámbito, ya se trate de enseñar o de instruir. Dar a conocer una mercancía sólo se consigue si imaginamos que resulta de la acción institucional o que satisface objetivos institucionales +</p> + +<p> +Para disipar este mal encantamiento, el hombre debe volver a encontrar el sentido de su responsabilidad personal cuando aprende o enseña. De esa forma se pondrá un término a esta nueva alienación donde vivir e instruirse no se toparán. +</p> + +<p> +Recobrar el poder de aprender o de enseñar tiene como consecuencia que el profesor, al tomar el riesgo de inmiscuirse en la vida privada de otros, debe asumir la responsabilidad de sus resultados; de la misma manera, el estudiante que se pone bajo la influencia de un profesor debe sentirse responsable de su propia educación. En esa perspectiva, las instituciones educativas —si realmente son necesarias— irán teniendo el aspecto de centros abiertos a todos, donde cada uno pueda encontrar lo que busca, donde uno, por ejemplo, tenga acceso a un piano, el otro, a un horno de cerámica o a registros, libros, diapositivas, etc. Hoy en día, las escuelas, los estudios de televisión y otros sitios similares están concebidos para que los profesionales los utilicen. Desescolarizar la sociedad quiere decir, ante todo, rechazar el estatus profesional del oficio que, por orden de antigüedad, viene, justo después, del más viejo del mundo, por el que entiendo la enseñanza. La calificación de los profesores constituye ahora una traba al derecho a la palabra, de igual forma que la estructura corporativa y la credencial profesional de los periodistas representan una traba al derecho de la libertad de información. La regla de la presencia obligatoria es contraria a la libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad sólo sabría concebirse como una mutación cultural por la que un pueblo vuelve a encontrar el poder de gozar de sus libertades constitucionales. +</p> + +<p> +Instruirse, enseñar, concierne a hombres que saben que nacieron libres y que no tienen, para adquirir esa libertad, que recurrir a un tratamiento apropiado. ¿Cuándo, por lo general, aprendemos? Cuando hacemos lo que nos interesa. ¿No somos, la mayor parte de nosotros, curiosos? Queremos comprender, darle un sentido a lo que se encuentra frente a nosotros, a lo que nos concierne. ¿No somos capaces de una relación personal con otros a menos de que seamos embrutecidos por un trabajo inhumano o fascinados por el ideal escolar? +</p> + +<p> +El hecho de que los habitantes de países ricos apenas se instruyan por sí mismos no constituye una prueba de lo contrario. Es más bien la consecuencia de una vida en un entorno donde paradójicamente no encuentran nada que aprender en la medida en que su medio está en gran parte “programado”. Están sin cesar frustrados por la estructura de una sociedad contemporánea en la que lo real, sobre lo que las decisiones podrían apoyarse, se ha vuelto de una naturaleza inasible. Viven, efectivamente, en un medio donde las herramientas que sería posible utilizar con fines creadores se vuelven productos de lujo, donde los canales de comunicación pertenecen a algunos que únicamente pueden hablar a la multitud. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Ense\u00f1ar instruirse responsabilidades personales","hid":"ensenar_instruirse_responsabilidades_personales","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":32,"range":"323068-326648"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit33" id="una_tecnologia_nueva_mas_que_una_nueva_educacion">Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Un mito moderno quisiera hacemos creer que el sentimiento de impotencia que hoy en día experimenta la mayoría de los hombres sería consecuencia de la tecnología capaz de crear solamente vastos sistemas. Pero no es sólo la tecnología la que inventa esos sistemas, la que crea herramientas inmensamente poderosas, la que teje canales de comunicación en sentido único; por el contrario, mejor utilizada, la tecnología podría proporcionar a cada hombre la posibilidad de entender mejor su medio, de trabajarlo con sus propias manos, de comunicar mejor que en el pasado. Esta utilización de la tecnología, contrariamente a las tendencias actuales, constituye la verdadera alternativa al problema de la educación. +</p> + +<p> +Para que un hombre pueda crecer, lo que necesita es el libre acceso a las cosas, a los sitios, a los métodos, a los acontecimientos, a los documentos. Tiene necesidad de ver, de tocar, de manipular, gustoso de asir todo lo que le rodea en un medio que no esté desprovisto de sentido. Ese acceso se le rehúsa hoy en día. Cuando el saber se ha vuelto un producto, adquiere la protección que se dispensa a la propiedad privada, De esa forma, un principio que se concibió para preservar la vida personal de cada uno se utiliza para justificar las prohibiciones que se lanzan contra aquellos que no portan los documentos necesarios. En las escuelas los profesores conservan sus propios conocimientos, a menos que esos conocimientos se inserten en el programa del momento. Los media informan, pero omiten todo lo que se considera impropio para la difusión. Los especialistas se encierran en su jerga y se necesitan vulgarizadores para asegurar su traducción. Los cuerpos profesionales protegen los diplomas y la burocracia los secretos. Todas las profesiones detentan el poder de echar de su ámbito a las personas no autorizadas; sucede lo mismo con las instituciones y las naciones. +</p> + +<p> +Ni la estructura política ni la estructura profesional de nuestras sociedades, tanto en el Oeste como en el Este, podrían resistir la desaparición de estas prohibiciones, el trastrocamiento de esta posibilidad de tener a capas enteras de la población apartadas de lo que podría servirles. El acceso a los hechos que preconizamos no se satisface con una simple operación “etiquetas-verdad”. Es necesario construir este acceso a la realidad (y todo lo que pedimos de la publicidad es una garantía que no sea mentirosa). El acceso a la realidad constituye la alternativa fundamental en materia de educación frente a un sistema de enseñanza que sólo se propone hablar de él. +</p> + +<p> +Abolir el derecho al secreto profesional (incluso cuando la opinión del hombre profesional es que ese secreto sirve al bien común) representa, como hemos querido demostrarlo, un objetivo político mucho más radical que la reivindicación tradicional de nacionalizar o de controlar democráticamente las herramientas de producción. La socialización de las herramientas, sin la socialización efectiva de los conocimientos técnicos, tiende a poner el “capital del saber” en la posición que anteriormente ocupaba el financiero. Si el tecnócrata pretende apoderarse del poder es que él detenta una parte capital en la sociedad del saber secreto y reservado al pequeño número. Para proteger el valor de sus acciones y para aumentarlo, imagina una vasta organización que hace difícil, incluso imposible, el acceso al saber técnico. +</p> + +<p> +El hombre motivado necesita un tiempo relativamente corto para adquirir una capacidad que quiere utilizar —lo que tendemos a olvidar en una sociedad donde los profesores monopolizan la posibilidad de acceder a cualquier actividad y detentan el poder de acusar de charlatanería a todos aquellos que no se someten—. ¿En las industrias y en la investigación se requieren muchas capacidades que sean tan terribles, complejas y peligrosas como manejar un coche? Ese saber se adquiere muy pronto con la ayuda de un igual. No todos los seres están dotados para el ejercicio de la lógica matemática, pero quienes lo están hacen progresos rápidos desafiándose mutuamente en partidos de juegos educativos. En Cuernavaca uno de 20 niños es capaz de vencerme en esos juegos después de 15 días de entrenamiento. En cuatro meses, la gran mayoría de los adultos que vinieron a nuestro centro a aprender español llegaron a un nivel de conocimiento suficiente para atacar problemas abstractos. +</p> + +<p> +Una primera etapa de acceso a conocimientos consistiría en encontrar ventajas diversas para aquellos que, poseedores de una capacidad, quisieran compartirla. Eso, inevitablemente, chocaría con intereses de grupos profesionales y sindicatos. Esta multiplicidad de posibles aprendizajes tiene, sin embargo, con qué seducirnos. ¿Está prohibido imaginar a alguien que sabe a la vez conducir, reparar el teléfono, instalar plomería, actuar como partera y dibujar planos arquitectónicos? A esos, como decimos, se opondrían los grupos de interés y los consumidores disciplinados, diciendo muy alto que el público no podría prescindir de una garantía profesional (argumento cuya validez es cada vez menos evidente a los ojos de las asociaciones de defensa del consumidor). Debemos tomar mucho más en serio la objeción que los economistas harían de esta socialización de las capacidades: el “progreso”, dirían, se frenaría si el saber (títulos, capacidades y todo lo demás…) se democratiza. La mejor respuesta ¿no sería mostrar las tasas de crecimiento de los absurdos en materia económica que engendra el sistema escolar? +</p> + +<p> +Poder aproximar a quienes están deseosos de compartir sus conocimientos no es garantía de que haya adquisición de un saber. Dicho acceso está limitado no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos y el de los sindicatos, sino también por una tecnología de penuria. Las capacidades que hoy en día valen son las que se aplican al funcionamiento de “herramientas” concebidas de tal manera que no puedan generalizarse. Efectivamente, esas “herramientas” sirven para producir bienes o servicios de los que todos quieren gozar, pero esto último sólo se concede a un pequeño número y sólo pocos saben utilizarlas. Únicamente algunos privilegiados, por ejemplo, sobre el conjunto de los que sufren una determinada enfermedad, pueden beneficiarse de los descubrimientos de una investigación médica compleja, y todavía son menos los médicos que obtienen los conocimientos necesarios para utilizar dichas tecnologías. +</p> + +<p> +Sin embargo, la investigación médica ha permitido crear un maletín de auxilios que permite a los enfermeros de la armada, después de sólo algunos meses de formación, obtener en el campo de batalla resultados muy superiores a los de los verdaderos médicos de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A un nivel todavía más inmediato, ¿no podría cualquier campesina aprender a reconocer y a curar las enfermedades infecciosas más comunes si investigadores médicos prepararan los remedios y las instrucciones necesarias para un determinado sector geográfico? +</p> + +<p> +Todos estos ejemplos buscan ilustrar el hecho de que simples consideraciones educativas bastan para exigir una importante reducción de la importancia dada a las profesiones que se oponen a las relaciones entre los hombres de ciencia y la mayoría de quienes quieren tener acceso a esta ciencia. Si se prestara atención a esta demanda, todos los hombres podrían aprender a utilizar las herramientas de ayer, vueltas más eficaces y más durables gracias a la ciencia de hoy, para crear el mundo de mañana. +</p> + +<p> +Por desgracia, es la tendencia contraria la que impera. Conozco una zona costera de América del Sur donde la mayoría de los habitantes viven de la pesca. Disponen de pequeñas embarcaciones y la introducción del motor auxiliar ha representado para ellos una verdadera revolución, de consecuencias a veces dramáticas. En el sector que estudié, la mitad de los motores comprados entre 1945 y 1950 funcionan todavía gracias a constante mantenimiento; por el contrario, los que se compraron en 1965 ya no funcionan porque no se concibieron para repararse. El progreso técnico proporciona a la mayoría de los seres humanos instrumentos inútiles, demasiado costosos, privándolos de las herramientas más simples que necesitan. +</p> + +<p> +Desde 1940, considerables progresos se han realizado en el ámbito de los materiales metálicos, plásticos y de fibrocemento que se utilizan en la construcción, lo que debería darle a muchos seres humanos la posibilidad de construir sus propias casas. Pero en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, mientras que en 1948 más de 30% de las habitaciones individuales las habían construido sus propietarios, a fines de 1960 ese porcentaje había caído a menos de 20 puntos. +</p> + +<p> +El descenso del nivel de las capacidades por efecto de lo que se llama el “desarrollo económico” es aún más visible en América Latina. Ahí, la mayoría de los habitantes construyen todavía ellos mismos sus casas. Utilizan frecuentemente adobe y cal, materiales cuya utilidad es muy alta en clima cálido y húmedo. En otros sitios edifican casas con placas de chapa, cartón y otros desperdicios de la civilización industrial… En lugar de proporcionar a los habitantes herramientas simples y elementos estandarizados, sólidos, fácilmente reemplazables o reparables, los gobernantes de esos países se lanzaron a una política de producción masiva de habitaciones de interés social. Es, sin embargo, evidente que ninguno de ellos puede darse el lujo de proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas a la mayoría de los habitantes. Por todas partes esta política prohibí a las masas adquirir los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para la construcción de casas más decentes. +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Una tecnolog\u00eda nueva m\u00e1s que una nueva educaci\u00f3n","hid":"una_tecnologia_nueva_mas_que_una_nueva_educacion","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":33,"range":"326649-336502"} --> +<h3 class="sectionedit34" id="una_pobreza_libremente_consentida">Una pobreza libremente consentida</h3> +<div class="level3"> + +<p> +Darse cuenta de las posibilidades de educación nos permite ver que cualquier sociedad posindustrial debe disponer de un herramental de base cuya misma naturaleza no permita el desarrollo del control tecnocrático. Debemos, en efecto, esforzarnos por hacer surgir una sociedad donde el saber científico pueda estar, de alguna forma, abierto a las herramientas útiles, a las piezas de ensamble en unidades de dimensiones limitadas, para que sean comprensibles a los hombres. Dicho herramental permite asociarse para cumplir una tarea o, como todo mil usos lo sabe instintivamente, descubrirlas sirviéndose de ellas para nuevas posibilidades de uso. Por la combinación de posibilidades de acceso siempre abiertas a lo que sucede a nuestro alrededor y por los límites impuestos al poder de las herramientas será posible visualizar una “economía de subsistencia” capaz de utilizar las ventajas de la ciencia moderna. +</p> + +<p> +Desarrollar dicha economía servirá a los intereses de la aplastante mayoría de los habitantes de países pobres, pero también es la única alternativa posible en los países ricos frente a la creciente contaminación, la explotación, la construcción de un mundo cada vez más ensombrecido. Como lo hemos señalado, derribar el mito del “producto nacional bruto” no se concibe sin atacar al mismo tiempo el de la “educación nacional bruta” (que conduce a la capitalización de la mano de obra). Una economía igualitaria no podría existir en una sociedad en la que el derecho de producir lo confieren las escuelas. +</p> + +<p> +Construir una economía de subsistencia moderna no depende de invenciones científicas nuevas. Su edificación pasa por una elección deliberada del conjunto de la sociedad que debe definir límites fundamentales al desarrollo de las burocracias y de las tecnocracias. +</p> + +<p> +Estos límites pueden definirse de diferente manera, pero su utilidad dependerá de que se tomen en cuenta las verdaderas dimensiones de la existencia. (La posición del Congreso contra el desarrollo del transporte supersónico va en buena dirección.) Estas restricciones que se impondría voluntariamente la sociedad deben dirigirse a problemas simples, accesibles a todos; podríamos aquí retomar el ejemplo de los aviones supersónicos. Lo que guiaría la elección sería la conciencia de la necesidad de un disfrute igual de los frutos del saber científico. Los franceses dicen que se necesitarían mil años para enseñarle a un país a ocuparse de una vaca; no se necesitarían dos generaciones para ayudar a todos los habitantes de América Latina o de África a utilizar (o a reparar) motores auxiliares de vehículos simplificados, de bombas, de maletines médicos, de construcciones de hormigón, si la concepción de esos equipamientos no cambiara casi cada año. Obtener igual provecho de las adquisiciones de la técnica conduciría, sin duda, a una vida donde el gozo estaría presente, gozo, con sentido, de las relaciones establecidas entre los hombres, y como al mismo tiempo los hombres vivirían en un medio en donde el absurdo ya no tendría sitio, el derecho igual a los bienes de la sociedad se confundiría finalmente con la igualdad en materia de educación. +</p> + +<p> +Hoy en día es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre la austeridad. La razón que por costumbre se da para explicar la impotencia actual de la mayoría se sitúa en una perspectiva (económica o política) de clases, y por lo general no nos damos cuenta de que las nuevas estructuras de clase impuestas por una sociedad escolarizada son más fácilmente controladas por los intereses establecidos. Sin duda alguna, una organización imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad definió un conjunto social en el interior del cual una minoría posee una influencia desproporcionada sobre la opinión de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática, el poder de un pequeño número de “capitalistas del saber” es capaz de impedir la formación de una verdadera opinión pública por el control de las técnicas científicas y de los medios de comunicación entre los hombres. +</p> + +<p> +Las garantías constitucionales dadas a la libertad de expresión, de prensa, de reunión, se dirigían a asegurar el acceso del gobierno por el pueblo. La electrónica moderna, las prensas offset, las computadoras, los teléfonos podrían representar un equipamiento capaz de dar un sentido completamente nuevo a esas libertades. Por desgracia, todas esas conquistas técnicas se utilizan para acrecentar el poder de los banqueros del conocimiento, en lugar de servir para tejer las verdaderas redes que proporcionarían oportunidades iguales de encuentro a la mayoría de los seres humanos. +</p> + +<p> +Desescolarizar la estructura social y cultural exige utilizar la tecnología para hacer posible una política de participación. Sobre la base de una coalición de la mayoría se podrían determinar los límites del secreto y del poder creciente sin que exista dictadura. +</p> + +<p> +Necesitamos un entorno nuevo en el cual crecer para conocer una sociedad sin clases o entraremos en el “mundo feliz” donde el <em>big brother</em>[^n23] estará ahí para educarnos a todos. +</p> + +<p> +[^n01:] Penrose B. Jackson, <em>Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968</em> , U. S. Office of Education, Office of Program and Planning Evaluation, junio de 1969.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n02:] En español en el original.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n03:] <em>Agua</em> , <em>tierra</em> , <em>casa</em> son algunas de las palabras generadoras que Paulo Freire incluye en la relación educador-educando.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n04:] <em>Atomic Ballistic Missile</em>. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n05:] Respecto a las historias paralelas del capitalismo moderno y la niñez moderna véase Philippe Ariès, <em>L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime,</em> Seuil, 1973.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n06:] Agency for International Development: organismo del Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n07:] El autor se refiere a las Enmiendas a la Constitución de Estados Unidos (1971), que establecen, respectivamente: <em>a)</em> las libertades de religión, expresión, reunión y de ser oídos para pedir justicia, y <em>b)</em> de no ser llamado a responder por delitos graves sin ser declarado reo, de no ser condenado dos veces a muerte por una misma causa, ni a testimoniar contra sí mismo, de no ser privado de la libertad o de las propiedades sin un debido proceso legal, ni a ser expropiado sin justa compensación. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n08:] Buen riesgo: en el lenguaje de los aseguradores, el que tiene muy pocas oportunidades de concretarse en una pérdida. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n09:] Culto creado por indígenas de Nueva Guinea, que atribuye un origen mágico a los artículos occidentales (aviones, radios, relojes, plásticos, etc.). (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n10:] <em>Truant officer</em>. El que lleva a la escuela a quienes deben cumplir con la instrucción legal obligatoria. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n11:] <em>Ética a Nicómaco</em> , 1140.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n12:] Este capítulo fue presentado originalmente en una sesión de la American Educational Research Association, en la ciudad de Nueva York, el 6 de febrero de 1971.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n13:] Véase Joel Spring, <em>Education and the Rise of the Corporate State</em> , Cuaderno núm. 50, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, México, 1971.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n14:] Equivalente a los grados primero, segundo y tercero de secundaria, o los antiguos tres primeros años de bachillerato —cuando había seis—. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n15:] En francés, en el original.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n16:] Office of Economic Opportunity, organismo oficial en Estados Unidos. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n17:] Lenguaje usado en informática para fines comerciales. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n18:] En el francés, en el original.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n19:] Las tres citas provienen de “People” (“Gente”), del libro <em>Poemas escogidos</em> de Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Traducidos por Robin Milner-Gulland y Peter Levi, y con una introducción de los traductores. Publicado por E. P. Dutton & Co., 1962, y reimpreso con su autorización.] +</p> + +<p> +[^n20:] Las 14 más célebres universidades de Estados Unidos constituyen esta “liga de la hiedra” <em>(ivy league)</em>. (Son miembros de ella, por ejemplo, Yale, Harvard, Princeton…) Es una asociación sin objetivo definido, pero que conserva la tradición de grandeza. Saca su nombre de la hiedra que recubre los edificios más antiguos. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n21:] El hecho de asistir a los cursos representa cierto número de créditos por semestre. Para tener acceso al diploma es necesario haber cubierto un número de 135 en cuatro años. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n22:] En francés, en el original. (T.)] +</p> + +<p> +[^n23:] Alusiones al libro de Aldous Huxley, <em>Un mundo feliz</em> , y al de George Orwell, <em>1984.</em>] +</p> + +</div> +<!-- EDIT{"target":"section","name":"Una pobreza libremente consentida","hid":"una_pobreza_libremente_consentida","codeblockOffset":3,"secid":34,"range":"336503-"} -->
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January 1978 + * Included in the book ";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:106:" + * Inaugural Speech Sevagram Ashram Pratishthan Sevagram, Wardha. January 1978 + * Included in the book ";}i:2;i:308;}i:48;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteopening";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:414;}i:49;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:22:"markdowku_boldasterisk";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:25:"In the Mirror of the Past";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:25:"In the Mirror of the Past";}i:2;i:415;}i:50;a:3:{i:0;s:18:"doublequoteclosing";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:440;}i:51;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:22:"markdowku_boldasterisk";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:9:" (1992) + +";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:9:" (1992) + +";}i:2;i:441;}i:52;a:3:{i:0;s:5:"notoc";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:450;}i:53;a:3:{i:0;s:6:"plugin";i:1;a:4:{i:0;s:22:"markdowku_boldasterisk";i:1;a:2:{i:0;i:3;i:1;s:2:" + +";}i:2;i:3;i:3;s:2:" + +";}i:2;i:459;}i:54;a:3:{i:0;s:17:"listcontent_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:459;}i:55;a:3:{i:0;s:14:"listitem_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:459;}i:56;a:3:{i:0;s:11:"listu_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:459;}i:57;a:3:{i:0;s:13:"section_close";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:459;}i:58;a:3:{i:0;s:12:"document_end";i:1;a:0:{}i:2;i:459;}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/e/e689da8c946d4fe8de5c08e11ded9fc0.xhtml b/data/cache/e/e689da8c946d4fe8de5c08e11ded9fc0.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..00d10e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/e/e689da8c946d4fe8de5c08e11ded9fc0.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="the_message_of_bapu_s_hut">The Message of Bapu’s Hut</h1> +<div class="level1"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>#@LANG<em>textfull@#:<strong> <a href="/en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text" data-wiki-id="en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text">Online</a> +* <strong>#@LANG<em>titleorig@#:<strong> <em>The Message of Bapu’s Hut</em> +* <strong>#@LANG<em>publicationdate@#:<strong> 1978 +* <strong>#@LANG<em>versions@#:<strong> + * <a href="/es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text" class="wikilink1" title="es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text" data-wiki-id="es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text">Spanish</a> <em><a href="/en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:compare" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:compare" data-wiki-id="en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:compare">(compare)</a></em> +* <strong>#@LANG_comments@#:</strong> + * Inaugural Speech Sevagram Ashram Pratishthan Sevagram, Wardha. January 1978 + * Included in the book “In the Mirror of the Past” (1992) + + + +</div> +</li> +</ul> + +</div> diff --git a/data/cache/f/f383c1f903252ae90a9c850cb2f44ad2.css b/data/cache/f/f383c1f903252ae90a9c850cb2f44ad2.css new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8cd5a02 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/f/f383c1f903252ae90a9c850cb2f44ad2.css @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +@media screen{a.interwiki{background:transparent 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/f/fabe3ebb071ccd1dd788d256030bd3a5.metadata b/data/cache/f/fabe3ebb071ccd1dd788d256030bd3a5.metadata new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c56a1bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/f/fabe3ebb071ccd1dd788d256030bd3a5.metadata @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +1646609419
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/cache/f/fabe3ebb071ccd1dd788d256030bd3a5.xhtml b/data/cache/f/fabe3ebb071ccd1dd788d256030bd3a5.xhtml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..31575da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/f/fabe3ebb071ccd1dd788d256030bd3a5.xhtml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ + +<h1 class="sectionedit1" id="the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks_between_schools_and_other_organs_of_society">The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society</h1> +<div class="level1"> +<ul> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Full text:</strong> <a href="/en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:text" class="wikilink1" title="en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:text" data-wiki-id="en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:text">Online</a></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Original title:</strong> <em>The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society</em></div> +</li> +<li class="level1"><div class="li"><strong>Original publication:</strong> 1968</div> +</li> +<li class="level1 node"><div class="li"><strong>Comments:</strong></div> +<ul> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">Included in: CIDOC Cuaderno 10 - CIDOC Informa, “Junio-Diciembre”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 10, Volumen 5, Cuernavaca, 1968.</div> +</li> +<li class="level2"><div class="li">This paper was delivered at the Conference on educational planging co-sponsored by the University of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rico Planning Board in San Juan, July 1967.</div> +</li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + + + +</div> diff --git a/data/cache/purgefile b/data/cache/purgefile new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ac8ea5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/cache/purgefile @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +1646617649
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/cidoc/index.meta b/data/meta/cidoc/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5aa8e4e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/cidoc/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609430089;s:8:"modified";i:1646196651;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:46:"CIDOC - Centro Intercultural de documentación";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:4:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:45:"cidoc_-_centro_intercultural_de_documentacion";s:5:"title";s:46:"CIDOC - Centro Intercultural de documentación";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:15:"cidoc_cuadernos";s:5:"title";s:15:"CIDOC Cuadernos";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:2;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:8:"dossiers";s:5:"title";s:8:"Dossiers";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:2;}i:3;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:7:"sondeos";s:5:"title";s:7:"Sondeos";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:2;}}s:8:"abstract";s:280:"CIDOC - Centro Intercultural de documentación + +CIDOC Cuadernos + + * Cuaderno 01 - GODOT, Esperanza, “Center of intercultural formation: first five years”, Cuernavaca, México, Petropolis, Brazil, Centro Intercultural de documentación, Cuaderno No. 1, Cuernavaca, 1966, 59 pp.";}s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:95:{s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:01:index";b:1;s:24:"cidoc:cuaderno:01b:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:02:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:03:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:04:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:05:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:06:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:07:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:08:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:09:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:10:index";b:1;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:11:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:12:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:13:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:14:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:15:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:16:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:17:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:18:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:19:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:20:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:21:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:22:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:23:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:24:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:25:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:26:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:27:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:28:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:29:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:30:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:31:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:32:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:33:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:34:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:35:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:36:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:37:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:38:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:39:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:40:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:41:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:42:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:43:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:44:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:45:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:46:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:47:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:48:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:49:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:50:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:51:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:52:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:53:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:54:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:55:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:56:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:57:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:58:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:59:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:60:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:61:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:62:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:63:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:64:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:65:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:66:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:67:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:68:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:69:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:70:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:71:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:72:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:73:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:74:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:75:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:76:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:77:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:78:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:79:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:80:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:81:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:82:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:83:index";b:0;s:23:"cidoc:cuaderno:85:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1007:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1010:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1013:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1018:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1022:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1024:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1025:index";b:0;s:25:"cidoc:cuaderno:1028:index";b:0;s:34:"cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1966:index";b:0;s:34:"cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1973:index";b:0;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609430089;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/index.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3899361 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1632975174;s:8:"modified";i:1646196651;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:19:"The American Parish";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:1:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:19:"the_american_parish";s:5:"title";s:19:"The American Parish";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:211:"The American Parish + + * : Online + * : The American Parish + * : 1955 + * : + * Peter Canon, “The American Parish,” Integrity, June 1955, 5–16. + + * : + * Included in the book “The Powerless Church” (2018)";}s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:1:{s:40:"en:article:1955-the_american_parish:text";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:0;}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1632975174;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/text.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/text.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9124618 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/text.meta @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1632984554;s:8:"modified";i:1632984554;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:19:"The American Parish";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:9:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:13:"another_world";s:5:"title";s:13:"Another World";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:21:"dissatisfied_children";s:5:"title";s:21:"Dissatisfied Children";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:22:"criteria_for_criticism";s:5:"title";s:22:"Criteria for Criticism";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:3;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:48:"follow_the_man_to_his_house____to_the_upper_room";s:5:"title";s:51:"Follow the Man to His House . . . to the Upper Room";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:4;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:30:"the_cenacle_among_nonhristians";s:5:"title";s:30:"The Cenacle Among Nonhristians";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:5;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:35:"the_parish_as_the_heart_of_the_city";s:5:"title";s:35:"The Parish as the Heart of the City";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:6;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:21:"the_protective_parish";s:5:"title";s:21:"The Protective Parish";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:7;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:18:"the_budding_parish";s:5:"title";s:18:"The Budding Parish";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:8;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:28:"understanding_and_the_future";s:5:"title";s:28:"Understanding and the Future";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:492:"The American Parish + +In a modern city parish many people do not find what they are looking +for. Many of those who are dissatisfied never voice their disappointment; +many do not even realize they are disappointed. Some put the blame +for their dissatisfaction on the pastor, the bishop or the trustee of the +Church. The pastor again and his assistants, if ever they become conscious of their people’s criticism, put the blame on their parishioners’ +unreasonable requests or ungenerous help.";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1632984554;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.indexed b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.indexed new file mode 100644 index 0000000..301160a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.indexed @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +8
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a89f011 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1632985506;s:8:"modified";i:1646196651;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:83:"The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:1:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:83:"the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks_between_schools_and_other_organs_of_society";s:5:"title";s:83:"The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:361:"The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society + + * : Online + * : The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society + * : 1968 + * : + * Included in: CIDOC Cuaderno 10 - CIDOC Informa, “Junio-Diciembre”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 10, Volumen 5, Cuernavaca, 1968.";}s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:1:{s:60:"en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:text";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:0;}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1632985506;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.indexed b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.indexed new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7070c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.indexed @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +8+plugin_include=0.1.safeindex=1+plugin_tag=0.2.deaccent=1
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..063a089 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1632985492;s:8:"modified";i:1632985492;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:83:"The redistribution of educational tasks between schools and other organs of society";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:5:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:33:"catholic_schools_in_latin_america";s:5:"title";s:33:"Catholic schools in Latin America";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:31:"the_planning_of_private_schools";s:5:"title";s:31:"The planning of private Schools";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:39:"the_disestablishment_of_a_school_system";s:5:"title";s:39:"The disestablishment of a school System";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:3;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:12:"major_points";s:5:"title";s:12:"Major points";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:4;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:7:"summary";s:5:"title";s:7:"Summary";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:398:"The redistribution of educational tasks between schools and other organs of society + +The purpose of this paper is not to stimulate discussion on internal change within school systems. I would l1ke to raise a different question: can the purpose of a school system established by any given society be continually and effectively renewed? If so, what are the necessary cond1t1ons for constant renewal?";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1632985492;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f88105e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:9:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619311467;s:8:"modified";i:1633608305;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}s:5:"title";s:27:"The Message of Bapu’s Hut";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:1:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:25:"the_message_of_bapu_s_hut";s:5:"title";s:27:"The Message of Bapu’s Hut";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:305:"The Message of Bapu’s Hut + + * #@LANGtextfull@#: Online +* #@LANGtitleorig@#: The Message of Bapu’s Hut +* #@LANGpublicationdate@#: 1978 +* #@LANGversions@#: + * Spanish (compare) +* #@LANG_comments@#: + * Inaugural Speech Sevagram Ashram Pratishthan Sevagram, Wardha. January 1978 + * Included in the book";}s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:3:{s:45:"en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text";b:1;s:45:"es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text";b:1;s:48:"en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:compare";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:0;}}s:10:"persistent";a:5:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619311467;s:8:"modified";i:1633608305;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1986-disvalue.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1986-disvalue.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f23c8a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1986-disvalue.meta @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619308899;s:8:"modified";i:1619308899;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:8:"Disvalue";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:8:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:25:"professor_tamanoy_s_forum";s:5:"title";s:27:"Professor Tamanoy’s Forum";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:19:"how_to_name_an_evil";s:5:"title";s:19:"How to name an evil";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:58:"entropy_as_a_metaphor_versus_entropy_as_a_reductive_analog";s:5:"title";s:58:"Entropy as a metaphor versus entropy as a reductive analog";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:3;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:23:"disvalue_versus_entropy";s:5:"title";s:23:"Disvalue versus entropy";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:4;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:29:"the_parable_of_mexico_s_waste";s:5:"title";s:37:"The parable of Mexico’s ‘waste’";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:5;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:22:"the_mexican_earthquake";s:5:"title";s:22:"The Mexican earthquake";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:6;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:20:"the_history_of_waste";s:5:"title";s:20:"The history of waste";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:7;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:21:"disvalue_versus_waste";s:5:"title";s:21:"Disvalue versus waste";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:320:"Disvalue + +Professor Tamanoy’s Forum + +This first public meeting of the Japanese Entropy Society provides us with an occasion to commemorate Professor Joshiro Tamanoy. Most of us knew him as friends and as pupils. The questions he asked bring together today 600 physicists and biologists, economists and green activists.";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1619308899;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..edd6003 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609508709;s:8:"modified";i:1609508709;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:35:"Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives"";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:507:"Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives" + +Leafing through the pages of Deschooling Our Lives transports me back to the year 1970 when, together with Everett Reimer at the Center for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) in Cuernavaca, I gathered together some of the more thoughtful critics of education (Paulo Freire, John Holt, Paul Goodman, Jonathan Kozol, Joel Spring, George Dennison, and others) to address the futility of schooling — not only in Latin America, which was already obvious — but also in…";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609508709;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/text.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/text.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0d9407 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/text.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1632983641;s:8:"modified";i:1632983641;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:35:"Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives"";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:507:"Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives" + +Leafing through the pages of Deschooling Our Lives transports me back to the year 1970 when, together with Everett Reimer at the Center for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) in Cuernavaca, I gathered together some of the more thoughtful critics of education (Paulo Freire, John Holt, Paul Goodman, Jonathan Kozol, Joel Spring, George Dennison, and others) to address the futility of schooling — not only in Latin America, which was already obvious — but also in…";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1632983641;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1998-conspiracy.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1998-conspiracy.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..384280b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1998-conspiracy.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619308899;s:8:"modified";i:1619308899;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:29:"The Cultivation of Conspiracy";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:426:"The Cultivation of Conspiracy + +On November 16, 1996, I arrived at the library auditorium of Bremen University just in time for my afternoon lecture. For five years now I had commented old texts to trace the long history of western philia, of friendship. This semester's theme was the loss of the common sense for proportionality during the lifetimes of Locke, Leibniz and Johann Sebastian Bach. On that day I wanted to address";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1619308899;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/article/1998-conspiracy/text.meta b/data/meta/en/article/1998-conspiracy/text.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..304c13c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/article/1998-conspiracy/text.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1632984148;s:8:"modified";i:1632984148;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:29:"The Cultivation of Conspiracy";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:426:"The Cultivation of Conspiracy + +On November 16, 1996, I arrived at the library auditorium of Bremen University just in time for my afternoon lecture. For five years now I had commented old texts to trace the long history of western philia, of friendship. This semester's theme was the loss of the common sense for proportionality during the lifetimes of Locke, Leibniz and Johann Sebastian Bach. On that day I wanted to address";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1632984148;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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Sin embargo, si el doctor Illich me ha honrado al invitarme a escribirla y si yo acepté gustoso, la razón en nuestras dos mentes parece ser que esta introducción ofrece una oportunidad que permite clarificar la naturaleza de una actitud y una fe comunes, a pesar del hecho de que algunos de nuestros puntos de vista difieren considerablemente. Incluso algunos de los puntos de vista…";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609549947;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela....";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:5:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609525229;s:8:"modified";i:1609551851;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/book/energy/en.meta b/data/meta/en/book/energy/en.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b87943b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/book/energy/en.meta @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609510601;s:8:"modified";i:1609510278;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:17:"Energy and equity";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:10:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:8:"foreword";s:5:"title";s:8:"Foreword";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:17:"the_energy_crisis";s:5:"title";s:17:"The energy crisis";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:32:"the_industrialization_of_traffic";s:5:"title";s:32:"The industrialization of traffic";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:3;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:25:"speed_stunned_imagination";s:5:"title";s:25:"Speed stunned imagination";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:4;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:24:"net_transfer_of_lifetime";s:5:"title";s:24:"Net transfer of lifetime";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:5;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:21:"the_elusive_threshold";s:5:"title";s:21:"The elusive threshold";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:6;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:32:"degrees_of_self_powered_mobility";s:5:"title";s:32:"Degrees of self powered mobility";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:7;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:28:"dominant_v_subsidiary_motors";s:5:"title";s:28:"Dominant v subsidiary motors";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:8;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:52:"underequipment_overdevelopment_and_mature_technology";s:5:"title";s:52:"Underequipment overdevelopment and mature technology";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:9;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:12:"bibliography";s:5:"title";s:12:"Bibliography";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:503:"Energy and equity + +Foreword + +This essay is my summary of the discussions which took place in the course of two sessions--one in English, the other in Spanish--of a seminar that met at the Center for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) in Cuernavaca, Mexico. I am grateful to my colleagues who contributed ideas, facts and criticism. Copies of the working papers of our ongoing seminar on the history of thermodynamics as applied to transportation can be obtained from Isaac Rogel, CIDOC Librarian, Ap…";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609510601;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/en/videos/index.meta b/data/meta/en/videos/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22306b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/en/videos/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:9:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609430089;s:8:"modified";i:1643223018;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";a:8:{s:4:"date";i:1643223018;s:2:"ip";s:12:"192.168.56.1";s:4:"type";s:1:"E";s:2:"id";s:15:"en:videos:index";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:3:"sum";s:0:"";s:5:"extra";s:0:"";s:10:"sizechange";i:527;}s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}s:5:"title";s:6:"Videos";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:2:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:9:"available";s:5:"title";s:9:"Available";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:17:"not_available_yet";s:5:"title";s:17:"Not available yet";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:391:"Videos + +Available + + * 1972 - Un Certain Regard + * 1976 - In the name of Progress: no respect for holy cows + +Not available yet + + * 1970 - The Institutionalization of Truth + * This is a videotape of a lecture (about 55 minutes) delivered in the spring of 1970 at York University in Toronto, O.Inada. Tt is on 1/2 inch Shibaden tape. (For information on availability write to rr. Beg Herman, L";}s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:2:{s:20:"en:videos:1972:index";b:1;s:20:"en:videos:1976:index";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}}s:10:"persistent";a:5:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609430089;s:8:"modified";i:1643223018;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";a:8:{s:4:"date";i:1643223018;s:2:"ip";s:12:"192.168.56.1";s:4:"type";s:1:"E";s:2:"id";s:15:"en:videos:index";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:3:"sum";s:0:"";s:5:"extra";s:0:"";s:10:"sizechange";i:527;}s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/article/1978-ghandi.meta b/data/meta/es/article/1978-ghandi.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..88ae6ba --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/article/1978-ghandi.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609506571;s:8:"modified";i:1609506571;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:32:"El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:315:"El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi + +Esta mañana, al estar en la choza donde vivió Mahatma Gandhi, traté de absorber el espíritu que presidió su concepción y empaparme de su mensaje. Hay dos cosas de este lugar que me impresionaron profundamente. Una es de orden espiritual y otra la que se refiere a sus enseres";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609506571;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.meta b/data/meta/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22a5c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619312759;s:8:"modified";i:1632983059;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:32:"El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi";s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:1:{s:45:"es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:0;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:259:"El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi + + * : Online + * : The Message of Bapu’s Hut + * : 1978 + * : + * ... + + * : + * Discurso inaugural para el Pratishthan del ashram de Sevagram Ouarda, Enero de 1978. + * Incluído en el libro “En el espejo del pasado” (1992)";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1619312759;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.meta b/data/meta/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22b9107 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1632982859;s:8:"modified";i:1632982859;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:32:"El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:315:"El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi + +Esta mañana, al estar en la choza donde vivió Mahatma Gandhi, traté de absorber el espíritu que presidió su concepción y empaparme de su mensaje. Hay dos cosas de este lugar que me impresionaron profundamente. Una es de orden espiritual y otra la que se refiere a sus enseres";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1632982859;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.meta b/data/meta/es/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c8de662 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:8:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619314413;s:8:"modified";i:1619340180;}s:7:"creator";s:6:"franco";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:5:"title";s:45:"Prólogo de "Desescolarizando nuestras vidas"";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:515:"Prólogo de "Desescolarizando nuestras vidas" + +Hojear las páginas de Desescolarizar nuestras vidas me transporta al año 1970, cuando, junto con Everett Reimer en el Centro de Documentación Intercultural (CIDOC) de Cuernavaca, reuní a algunos de los más sesudos críticos de la educación (Paulo Freire, John Holt, Paul Goodman, Jonathan Kozol, Joel Spring, George Dennison y otros) para abordar la inutilidad de la escolarización -no sólo en América Latina, que ya era evidente- sino también en el llama…";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:4:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1619314413;}s:7:"creator";s:6:"franco";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:11:"last_change";b:0;}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/article/1998-conspiracy.meta b/data/meta/es/article/1998-conspiracy.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8fcfa1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/article/1998-conspiracy.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619308899;s:8:"modified";i:1619308899;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:30:"El cultivo de la conspiración";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:276:"El cultivo de la conspiración + +El 16 de noviembre de 1996, llegué al auditorio de la biblioteca de la Universidad de Bremen justo a tiempo para mi conferencia de la tarde. Durante cinco años, me había ocupado de comentar textos antiguos para trazar la larga historia de la";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1619308899;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/article/1998-conspiracy/index.meta b/data/meta/es/article/1998-conspiracy/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af8fba8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/article/1998-conspiracy/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619312679;s:8:"modified";i:1619308899;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:30:"El cultivo de la conspiración";s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:276:"El cultivo de la conspiración + +El 16 de noviembre de 1996, llegué al auditorio de la biblioteca de la Universidad de Bremen justo a tiempo para mi conferencia de la tarde. Durante cinco años, me había ocupado de comentar textos antiguos para trazar la larga historia de la";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1619312679;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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Se incorporan cambios y correcciones tomando como referencia el texto original..";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609507742;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/deschooling/es.meta b/data/meta/es/book/deschooling/es.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2e0edb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/deschooling/es.meta @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:9:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609525229;s:8:"modified";i:1621776698;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}s:5:"title";s:27:"La sociedad desescolarizada";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:34:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:27:"la_sociedad_desescolarizada";s:5:"title";s:27:"La sociedad desescolarizada";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:12:"introduccion";s:5:"title";s:13:"Introducción";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:2;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:52:"por_que_debemos_privar_de_apoyo_oficial_a_la_escuela";s:5:"title";s:53:"Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la 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Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela....";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:5:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609525229;s:8:"modified";i:1621776698;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/deschooling/index.meta b/data/meta/es/book/deschooling/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f67af4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/deschooling/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609521953;s:8:"modified";i:1621776458;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:27:"La sociedad desescolarizada";s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:1:{s:22:"es:book:deschooling:es";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:0;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:519:"La sociedad desescolarizada + + * : Online + * : Deschooling society + * : 1970 + * : fue publicado por vez primera en HarPer and Row Publishers Inc., Nueva York, en 1970, bajo el título de “Deschooling society”. La primera traducción al español la publicó Barral Editores, Barcelona, España, en 1970; una nueva edición apareció bajo el sello de la Editorial Posada en 1978 y otra más bajo el de Joaquín Mortiz/Planeta en julio de 1985. Para la edición del FCE de 2006 se utilizó esta última, traducida po…";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609521953;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/energy/es.meta b/data/meta/es/book/energy/es.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b7673c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/energy/es.meta @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609510615;s:8:"modified";i:1609509700;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:18:"Energía y equidad";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:18:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:28:"la_importacion_de_una_crisis";s:5:"title";s:29:"La importación de una crisis";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:37:"el_abuso_politico_de_la_contaminacion";s:5:"title";s:39:"El abuso político de la contaminación";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:22:"la_ilusion_fundamental";s:5:"title";s:23:"La ilusión fundamental";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:3;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:8:"mi_tesis";s:5:"title";s:8:"Mi tesis";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:4;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:24:"el_marco_latinoamericano";s:5:"title";s:24:"El marco latinoamericano";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:5;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:26:"el_poderio_de_alto_voltaje";s:5:"title";s:27:"El poderío de alto voltaje";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:6;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:12:"mi_hipotesis";s:5:"title";s:13:"Mi hipótesis";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:7;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:30:"el_paradigma_de_la_circulacion";s:5:"title";s:31:"El paradigma de la circulación";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:8;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:27:"la_industria_del_transporte";s:5:"title";s:27:"La industria del transporte";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:9;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:36:"el_estupor_inducido_por_la_velocidad";s:5:"title";s:36:"El estupor inducido por la velocidad";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:10;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:15:"los_chupatiempo";s:5:"title";s:15:"Los chupatiempo";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:11;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:55:"la_aceleracion_dimension_tecnica_que_expropia_el_tiempo";s:5:"title";s:58:"La aceleración dimensión técnica que expropia el tiempo";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:12;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:35:"el_monopolio_radical_del_transporte";s:5:"title";s:35:"El monopolio radical del transporte";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:13;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:21:"el_limite_inasequible";s:5:"title";s:22:"El límite inasequible";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:14;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:28:"sobre_los_grados_del_moverse";s:5:"title";s:28:"Sobre los grados del moverse";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:15;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:44:"motores_dominantes_contra_motores_auxiliares";s:5:"title";s:44:"Motores dominantes contra motores auxiliares";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:16;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:55:"equipo_insuficiente_superdesarrollo_y_tecnologia_madura";s:5:"title";s:56:"Equipo insuficiente superdesarrollo y tecnología madura";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:17;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:12:"bibliografia";s:5:"title";s:13:"Bibliografía";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}}s:8:"abstract";s:358:"Energía y equidad + +La importación de una crisis + +Mientras mas rico el país, más de buen gusto es mostrarse preocupado por la llamada “crisis de energía”. El tema saltó a primer plano entre aquellos que Le Monde y el New York Times trataron inmediatamente después de que Kissinger anunció la suspensión de bombardeos en Vietnam. El nuevo problema";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609510615;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/energy/index.meta b/data/meta/es/book/energy/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34f96fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/energy/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:7:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1609511042;s:8:"modified";i:1621775838;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:5:"title";s:18:"Energía y equidad";s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:1:{s:17:"es:book:energy:es";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:0;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:517:"Energía y equidad + + * : Online + * : Énergie et équité + * : 1974 + * : Fue redactado por vez primera en francés y publicado en Le Monde, en mayo de 1973, en tres entregas. Desarrollado y reescrito, con ayuda de Luce Giard y de Vincent Bardet, fue objeto de una primera edición en francés en 1975, bajo las Éditions du Seuil. Sobre esta trama completa y enriquecida de trabajos conducidos en el Cidoc de Cuernavaca se estableció una versión inglesa más larga y más detallada. La primera edición en españ…";}}s:10:"persistent";a:3:{s:4:"date";a:1:{s:7:"created";i:1609511042;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.changes b/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.changes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0578421 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.changes @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +1619647227 127.0.0.1 E es:book:gender:es editor externo 517918 +1620353625 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:es franco [Introducción] 1 +1620353754 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:es franco 1 +1620353779 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:es franco [Introducción] -7 +1620353793 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:es franco [Introducción] 0 diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.indexed b/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.indexed new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7070c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.indexed @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +8+plugin_include=0.1.safeindex=1+plugin_tag=0.2.deaccent=1
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.meta b/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d18f2c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/gender/es.meta @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:9:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619491190;s:8:"modified";i:1620353793;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}s:5:"title";s:21:"El género vernáculo";s:11:"description";a:2:{s:15:"tableofcontents";a:31:{i:0;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:12:"introduccion";s:5:"title";s:13:"Introducción";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:1;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:31:"sexismo_y_crecimiento_economico";s:5:"title";s:32:"Sexismo y crecimiento económico";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:2;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:17:"el_sexo_economico";s:5:"title";s:18:"El sexo económico";s:4:"type";s:2:"ul";s:5:"level";i:1;}i:3;a:4:{s:3:"hid";s:20:"la_economia_aparente";s:5:"title";s:21:"La economía 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por otros, como la transición al modo de producción capitalista, como el paso de la égida del género al régimen del sexo. Considero que la desaparición del género vernáculo es la condición imprescindible del desarrollo del “capitalismo” y de un estilo de vida totalmente sometido a la mercancía industrial. Según el .-";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:5:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619491190;s:8:"modified";i:1620353793;}s:4:"user";s:0:"";s:7:"creator";s:0:"";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.changes b/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.changes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d8e9927 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.changes @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +1620349507 192.168.56.1 C es:book:gender:index franco creado 182 +1620349517 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:index franco -2 +1620364429 127.0.0.1 E es:book:gender:index editor externo 46 +1621563021 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:index franco 1 +1621563136 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:index franco -1 +1621563204 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:index franco 0 +1621567607 192.168.56.1 E es:book:gender:index franco 1 diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.indexed b/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.indexed new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7070c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.indexed @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +8+plugin_include=0.1.safeindex=1+plugin_tag=0.2.deaccent=1
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.meta b/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9270743 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/es/book/gender/index.meta @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:9:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1620349507;s:8:"modified";i:1621567607;}s:7:"creator";s:6:"franco";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}s:5:"title";s:21:"El género vernáculo";s:8:"relation";a:2:{s:10:"references";a:1:{s:17:"es:book:gender:es";b:1;}s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:0;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:65:"El género vernáculo + + * : Online + * : Gender + * : 1982 + * : ...";}}s:10:"persistent";a:5:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1620349507;s:8:"modified";i:1621567607;}s:7:"creator";s:6:"franco";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:11:"last_change";b:0;s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}}}
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/meta/sandbox.meta b/data/meta/sandbox.meta new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1dd9cfe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/meta/sandbox.meta @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +a:2:{s:7:"current";a:8:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619484126;s:8:"modified";i:1619484142;}s:7:"creator";s:6:"franco";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:11:"last_change";a:8:{s:4:"date";i:1619484142;s:2:"ip";s:12:"192.168.56.1";s:4:"type";s:1:"E";s:2:"id";s:7:"sandbox";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:3:"sum";s:0:"";s:5:"extra";s:0:"";s:10:"sizechange";i:-412;}s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}s:8:"internal";a:2:{s:5:"cache";b:1;s:3:"toc";b:1;}s:11:"description";a:1:{s:8:"abstract";s:327:"I suggest that these hopeful brothers and sisters be called Epimethean men. + +The three quotations are from “People” from the book Selected Poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Translated and with Introduction by Robin Milner Gulland and Peter Levi. Published by E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1962, and reprinted with their permission.";}s:8:"relation";a:1:{s:10:"firstimage";s:0:"";}}s:10:"persistent";a:5:{s:4:"date";a:2:{s:7:"created";i:1619484126;s:8:"modified";i:1619484142;}s:7:"creator";s:6:"franco";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:11:"last_change";a:8:{s:4:"date";i:1619484142;s:2:"ip";s:12:"192.168.56.1";s:4:"type";s:1:"E";s:2:"id";s:7:"sandbox";s:4:"user";s:6:"franco";s:3:"sum";s:0:"";s:5:"extra";s:0:"";s:10:"sizechange";i:-412;}s:11:"contributor";a:1:{s:6:"franco";s:6:"franco";}}}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/01/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/01/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af0e245 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/01/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 01 - Center of intercultural formation: first five years + +> GODOT, Esperanza, "Center of intercultural formation: first five years", Cuernavaca, México, Petropolis, Brazil, Centro Intercultural de documentación, Cuaderno No. 1, Cuernavaca, 1966, 59 pp. + + +## Table of contents + +``` +1. CIDOC: ITS FOCUS AND POTENTIAL + 1. Aims + 2. Development + 3. Services l96l-I966 + 4. Financial Support + 5. The Future + +2. ORGANIZATION + 1. CIF: Center of Intercultural Formation + 2. CIDOC: Centro Intercultural de Documentacion + 3. CIC: Centro de lnvestigaciones Culturales + 4. CIF Language School + 5. CenFl: Centro de Formacao Intercultural + 6. CIP: Center of Pastoral Research + 7. CELAM Advisory Commission + +3. DESCRIPTION OF CIDOC + 1. CIDOC Archives + 2. CIDOC Publications: + CIDOC INFORMA and CIF REPORTS + CIOOC Dossiers + CIDOC Sondeos + 3. CIDOC Seminars + +4. CIDOC AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE CHURCH + 1. Assistance to Intercultural Formation of Missionaries + 2. Technical Assistance to the Development of other Training Programs + 3. Contribution to the Development of Mutual Assistance among Missionaries + 4. CIDOC at the Service of the Religious Superiors outside of Latin America + 5. Development of the Institute for Pastoral Studies in Latin America [ISPLA) + 6. Center for Pastoral Research + 7. CIDOC INFORMA and CIF REPORTS + 8. SONDEOS: SOUNDINGS ON RELIGIOUS PHENOHENA IN LATIN AMERICA + +5. CIF LANGUAGE SCHOOL DESCRIPTION + 1. Purpose + 2. Strong Points and Emphases + 3. Alumni + +6. STATISTICS: FOUR MONTH COURSES IN CUERNAVACA AND PETROPOLIS + 1. Summary: Alumni of Four-Month Courses; national origin; country of assignment; ecclesiastical status + 2. Comparison of each four-month course in Cuernavaca: men and women; ecclesiastical status; country of origin; and destination + 3. Country of origin of alumni of four-month course + 4. Distribution of alumni of four-month courses in the Latin American Republics + 5. Professional competence of students admitted to CIF fouremonth courses + 6. Ecclesiastical status of students in four-month courses + 7. List of organizations outside of Latin America which sponsored students in CIF courses and workshops + 8. Summary: Table of non-Latin American participants in CIF academic programs + 9. Maps and Charts + +a. Distribution of alumni of four-month courses in Latin American Republics + b. b Professional competence of alumni of four month courses + c. Country of Origin of alumni of four-month COUFSES + d. Ecclesiastical status of alumni of four-month courses + +7. CONVERSATIONS IN CUERNAVACA: I963-I966 (Selected) + 1. CIDOC sponsored conversations + 2. Meetings co-sponsored by CIF + 3. Mggtings conducted by ISPLA-CIP (I96A-I966) + +8. STAFF AND COLLABORATORS‘ + 1. Core staff + 2. Administrative staff + 3. Teaching and research associates + 4. A Pastoral experts regularly available to CIF Pastoral Department +```
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/02/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/02/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30ab0f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/02/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 02 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Items clasificados y catalogados en los archivos CIDOC entre el 15 de junio y el 1 de diciembre de 1966" + +> CIDOC Cuaderno 02 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Items clasificados y catalogados en los archivos CIDOC entre el 15 de junio y el 1 de diciembre de 1966", Centro Intercultural de documentación, Cuaderno No. 2, Cuernavaca, 1966, 265 pp. + diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/03/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/03/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad8e0f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/03/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 03 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Religión: Clase 2 CDU" + +> CIDOC Cuaderno 03 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Religión: Clase 2 CDU", Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 3, Cuernavaca, 1967, 126 pp.
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/04/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/04/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6ed454f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/04/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 04 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Ciencias sociales: clase 3 CDU" + +> CIDOC Cuaderno 04 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Ciencias sociales: clase 3 CDU", Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 4, Cuernavaca, 1967, 152 pp.
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/05/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/05/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e2a1267 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/05/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 05 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Ciencias sociales: clase 0 CDU" + +> CIDOC Cuaderno 05 - Catálogo de adquisiciones, "Bibliografía: clase 0 CDU", Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 5, Cuernavaca, 1967, 136 pp. +
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/06/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/06/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..644892a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/06/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,257 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 06 - CIDOC Informa "Abril-Diciembre 1964" + +> CIDOC Cuaderno 06 - CIDOC Informa, "Abril-Diciembre 1964", Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 6, Volumen 1, Cuernavaca, 1968. + + +## Table of contents + + +``` +1. ABRIL + +MEB educagao de base + +CIDOC INFORMA +/noticias sobre el derrocamiento de Joao GOULART y +consecuencias en la iglesia de Brasil/ + +CIDOC INFORMA +/El MEB, la política y la iglesia en el Brasil/ + +CAMARA, Dom Helder +Mensaje... al tomar posesión de la Arquidiócesis +de Olinda y Recife en abril 12 de 1964 + + +2. MAYO + +SUESCUN +Reunión sacerdotal del 25 al 28 de febrero de 1964 + +CIDOC INFORMA +/Iglesia y política en América Latina/ + +CIDOC INFORMA +/Opiniones acerca de la Comisión Pontificia para +la América Latina/ + +CIDOC INFORMA +Transformación de noticias + +VALLIER, Ivan A. +Catolicismo y cambio social en América Latina; +de iglesia a 'secta' + +CIDOC INFORMA +/La situación de la iglesía en América Latina/ + + +3. JUNIO + +CIDOC INFORMA +Elecciones presidenciales en México; ¿qué es el PRI? + +LLERAS, Alberto +México, país con propósito + + HISPANIC AMERICAN REPORT +México: PRI candidate + +ELIZONDO, Antonio +¿En qué quedamos por fin? DIAZ ORDAZ, ¿hombre de +izquierda o de derecha? Pónganse ya de acuerdo señores + +SANTOS VALDEZ, José +Las palabras son pistolas cargadas + +CIDOC INFORMA +/El PAN y la ACCION CATOLICA MEXICANA/ + + +4. JULIO + +CIDOC INFORMA +Otro paso adelante: ISPLA; resumen de varios artículos +del P. Segundo GALILEA y definición de ISPLA + +MAHON, Leo +San Miguelito: una experiencia religiosa y social +para Latino América + +L'AMI DU CERCLE, Bulletin de Théologie +/Bibliographie sur théologie pastoral/ + + +5. AGOSTO + +ALLENDE, Salvador & FREI, Eduardo +Mosaico politico de Chile; /opiniones sobre el futuro +de la democracia en América Latina/ + +O'SHAUGHNESSY, Hugh +Chile's political future + +FICHTER, Joseph H. +El clero y los laicos; distribuciôn de las opiniones +relativas al ritmo actual del cambio social en Chile; + +EL COMERCIO +Cuba y la 0.E.A.; declaración de la IX reunión +de consulta + +NEW YORK TIMES +/About the resolution on the 'application of +measures to the present government of Cuba'/ + +EXCELSIOR +Declaración de México, en el acta + +SANTIAGO DE CUBA +Declaración... aprobada públicamente el 26 de julio +de 1964 + +TIEMPO +Relaciones; la historia juzgará. 2. + + CIDOC INFORMA +/Cuba y la 0.E.A.; declaraciones de las embajadas +en México de E.U., Guatemala y Uruguay sobre la +postura de México ante el problema cubano... + +CIDOC INFORMA +15 votos contra el Tratado de Río; /extractos +de un artículo del Dr. Luis QUINTANILLA/ + + +6. SEPTIEMBRE + +CIDOC INFORMA +¡No habra progreso sin justicia! /reflexiones +sobre comercio y desarrollo en América Latina... + +REVUE DE L'ACTION POPULAIRE +Mieux que l'aide; le commerce + +CALVEZ, Jean-Yves +Antes que la ayuda: el comercio + +NEW YORK TIMES +U.S. Curb Assailed + +BIROU, Alain +Les deboires de l'ALLIANCE POUR LE PROGRES + +CIDOC INFORMA +/Ayuda para el desarrollo; cambios en el sistema +interamericano; encuesta sobre Cuba; ... + +CIDOC INFORMA +Revista catdlica criticada; de un memorandum de la +NUNCIATURA APOSTOLICA DEL PERU + + +7. OCTUBRE + +HOORNAERT, Eduardo +A igreja, a Europa e a America Latina + +MONTEFORTE TOLEDO, Mario +¿Dónde irá Chile con la victoria de FREI? + +POLITICA +/El triunfo de FREI y la política de los E.U./ + +LE MONDE +M. FREI, presidente de la Republic du Chili + +ESTUDIOS DE ACTUALIDAD +Chile, algunos Índices económicos; distribución +del ingreso per capita, población activa + +CIDOC INFORMA +/El triunfo de Eduardo FREI, las inversiones +americanas y los comunistas; noticias tomadas... + +EXCELSIOR +Emociond el Gltimo informe. /Comentarios sobre el +VI informe presidencial de Adolfo LOPEZ MATEOS + +NOVEDADES +Homenaje al México indígena + +MILITANTES SINDICALISTAS DO NORDESTE +Mensagem aos representantes da CONFERENCIA +NACIONAL DOS BISPOS BRASILEIROS + +MADARIAGA, Salvador +Haiti + +BEAULIEN, Philippe +Haiti qui pourrit sur pied + +INFORMACIONES CATOLICAS INTERNACIONALES +Un futuro deprimente + +CIDOC INFORMA +/Haiti: elite, protestantism and politics/ + +SERVICIO DE PRENSA OBRERO CAMPESINO INTERNACIONAL; SOCI +Avanzan guerrillas trabajadores haitianos + +CIDOC INFORMA +La Paz, comisión para controlar publicaciones católicas.- +Venezuela, política.-Colegios católicos;... + + +8. NOVIEMBRE + +TORRES BODET, Jaime +La educación en un estado joven (México) con una +cultura antigua, discurso pronunciado en la inauguración +de la Asamblea Mundial de la Educación, ... + +MEXICAN EDUCATION ACADEMY, /ed./ +The right to education; paper... on the first topic of +the World Education Assembly + +ACADEMIA MEXICANA DE LA EDUCACION, /ed./ +La reforma educativa en México + +SERVICIO DE PRENSA OBRERO CAMPESINO INTERNACIONAL; SOCI +¿Todo lo que es bueno para el pueblo es comunista? pregunta Monseñor Helder CAMARA + +CIDOC INFORMA +Palabras de Hispanoamérica + +LA PRENSA +La iglesia católica y la reforma agraría + +ESTUDIOS +PERON y marzo de 1965 + +INFORMACIONES CATOLICAS INTERNACIONALES +Perú, refutación de las acusaciones hechas por un +antiguo dirigente comunista contra el clero latinoamericano + +BARRIOS, Juan +Gobierno derrocado en Bolivia; carta a la redacción + + +9. DICIEMBRE + +FLORES DE LA PENA, Horacio +La ALIANZA PARA EL PROGRESO + +MARCHA +México; el águila y la serpíente + +RICO GALAN, Victor +La OEA; ese cuerpo enfermito + +LETTRE +Libres reflexions sur la sitqation bresilienne + +BARRIOS, Juan +/Sobre la formación de la Unión Demócrata +Cristiana en Bolivia; carta a la redacción/ +``` diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/07/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/07/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5533534 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/07/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,328 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 07 - CIDOC Informa “Enero-Diciembre 1965” + +> Cuaderno 07 - CIDOC Informa, “Enero-Diciembre 1965”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 7, Volumen 2, Cuernavaca, 1968. + + +## Table of contents + +``` +ENERO + +BORRAT, Hector +Presencia cristiana en la revolución Latinoamericana + +RUHWORT +Misereor en el SPIEGEL + +ANTOINE, Pierre +Iglesia y socialización + +MARCHA +Latinoamérica, la política y 1965: una interpretación; +América Latina + +LOPEZ SILVEIRA, Juan José +La linha dura e a linha bamba + + +FEBRERO + +LA PRENSA /y otros/ +/Varios artículos periodísticos con relación a la +controversia ocurrida en el Perú... entre el 17 y +23 de diciembre de 1964/ + +EL DIA +La democracia cristiana de Italia analiza la situación política de América Latina + +LLERAS, Alberto +La iglesia cambiante en Latinoamerica + + +MARZO + +DASSAULT, Jean Louis +La iglesia en México; sintes1s de su libro +"L'église et l'état modernes du Mexique" + +RODRIGUEZ de MAGIS, Maria E%enal_ tas en +México y las corrientes nacionalista en +América Latina + + CAMARA, Helder +Discurso de paraninfo da Escola de Agranoma de +Universidade Rural + + +ABRIL + +LABELLE, Yvan +La iglesia en la Cuba socialista + +GONZALEZ, Justo L. +Christianity and Revolution: The Lesson of Cuba + +MARCHA +Iglesia y Cuba + +FLORIA, Carlos Alberto +La iglesia, los católicos y la política + +O'FARRELL, Justino +Perspectiva sociológica para el análisis de la +libertad en la Argentina + +GUAJARDO, Horacio +A pesar de PERON + +VISION +Iglesia y política; diálogo católico en Chicago +/Nota sobre a tentativa frustrada de instauracáo +de um sistema de guerrilhas no Brasil/ + +VISION +Los partidos: renovación contínua + + +MAYO + +HOUTART, Francois +El dinamismo social del continente Latinoamericano + +FALS BORDA, Orlando +Una estrategia para la iglesia en la transformación de América Latina + +PANORAMAS +El papel de la iglesia en el golpe, en la República Dominicana + +MORA, Gustavo +Noticias sobre la crisis en la Republlca +Dominicana; condena el Congreso la invasión + +NOVEDADES +Mensaje a Venezuela para explicar nuestra postura + +SOCIEDAD MARYKNOLL, /ed./ +Recomendaciones de la II Conferencia... celebrada +en Lima, Perú + +SIEMPRE +Mercado común latinoamericano + + +JUNIO + +FLORES OLEA, Victor +Sobre la ciencia política en América Latina + +GONZALEZ CASANOVA, Pablo +La democracia en México; /el clero y su participación en la vida política nacional/ + +PINTO CARVALHEIRA, Marcelo +No inauguragáo do seminario regional do nordeste + +/OPERACION TRIANGULO/ +/Observacões e sugestoes sobre.../ + +GOMEZ DE SOUZA, Luis Alberto +Los cristianos y las instituciones sociales + +EL DIA +El ataque norteamericano a la Dominicana es una +amenaza a todos los hogares de América;... + + +JULIO + +GALILEA, Segundo +La urbanizacion y la iglesia + +HOINACKI, Ceslaus +Comentarios sobre la reforma litûrgica + +/Clero de Sucre/ +/Carta al Obispo de la Arquididcesis de Sucre +haciendo referencia a la ayuda extranjera asi +como a los problemas mâs urgentes por los que +atraviesa Bolivia/ + +EL DIA +III reunión de facultades de economia de +América Latina + +EL DIA +Resoluciones de la III reunión de facultades +de economía de América Latina + +BASAURE AVILA, Luz +Religión y subdesarrollo; un estudio sobre la +realidad religiosa en Lat1noamerica + +PARDINAS ILLARES, Felipe +Marginidad y religiosidad, un dilema de Mexico + +DAW, Richard +Paradójica situación de la igles1a católica bajo +el régimen de CASTRO /Fidel/ + +CEPEDA, Alfredo +La iglesia del Brasil + + + AGOSTO + +NOTICLAS ALIADAS +Por una educación cristiana a todos los alumnos + +DUCLERQ, Michel +Une double question + +FUENTE, Carlos de la +Educación católica, por qué? + +MAZA, Enrique +Los sacerdotes revolucionarios + +ILLICH, Ivan +/Recensión del libro "Priesternot in +Lateinamerika, de PROMPER, Werner.../ + +STAVENHAGEN, Rodolfo +Siete tesis equivocadas sobre América Latina + +MACIFIORDALISI, Guillermo A. +Aspectos sociológicos del cristianismo en el +contexto de los cambios sociales en América Latina + + +SEPTIEMBRE + +LABELLE, Yvan +Las armas con que combatimos no son carnales; +David y Goliat en la América Latina de hoy + +GILLY, Adolfo +El programa del cura Camilo /TORRES/ + +SALAZAR BONDY, Sebastián +El nuevo brote guerrillero + +GONZALEZ AGUAYO, Leopoldo +La nacionalización de América Latina + +ECCLESIA +Restauración del diaconado + +MINISTERIO SACERDOTAL SAO PAULO +Diaconato + +BLARDONE, G. +Ningún compromiso con la iglesia; entrevista con +el Senador Salvador ALLENDE, en la ciudad de +Santiago, en abril de 1965 + +VALDES, Gabriel +El viaje de /Eduardo/ FREI a Europa + +LE MONDE +El viaje de /Eduardo/ FREI visto por "Le Monde" + +RECONSTRUCCION +Padre Camilo TORRES; /plataforma de unidad de acción/ + +CANTON, Carío; COREMBLIT, Oscar; +HOLLAIN, Alejandro de; /y otros/ +Ocen sociólogos señalan el peligro del plan +Camelot par Latinoamérica + +/ASAMBLEA PANAMERICANA/ +Discuten sobre natalidad... + +PEREZ RAMIREZ, Gustavo +La iglesia católica y la planificación familiar, +perspectivas en 1965 + +MACGRATH, Marcos G. +La universidad católica; discurso pronunciado... +el día de la inauguración de la Universidad de +Panamá + +JUZNIC, Stane +La doctrina de JOHNSON en América Latina + +AMARLIC, Jacques +Le plan "Camelot" + +MENDEZ ARCEO, Sergio +Conmoción por las reformas + + +OCTUBRE + +DAMMERT BELLIDO, José +Latinoamérica necesita una pastoral adecuada +a sus necesidades + +/CELAM 6 ISPLA/ +El departamento pastoral del CELAM y su órgano +de ejecución el Instituto Pastoral +Latinoamericano (ISPLA) + +CARREÑO, José + +Tres personalidades religiosas opinan: EZCURDIA, +ERTZE GARAMENDI y GARIBAY; la resolución intervencionista es una negación de los valores cristianos y del humanismo de Occidente + +BORRAT, Hector +Una opinión latinoamericana sobre el Concilio; +ida y vuelta + +BOLTON, Bennet M. +Discútase el sicoanálisis en el Concilio; +el Obispo mexicano /Sergio/ MENDEZ ARCEO puso el +tema a debate + +LEMERCIER, Gregorio +Un monasterio benedictino en sicoanâlisis + + +NOVIEMBRE + +PEREZ RAMIREZ, Gustavo +Octava conferencia internacional de sociologia +religiosa + +MARCHA +Crisis en el catolicismo uruguayo + +VETRANO, Vicente O. +La solidaridad de la iglesia alemana +Misereor y Adveniat + +CRITERIO +Adveniat + +PETIT DE MURAT, Ulyses +Uruguay en la encrucijada y agitación peronista + + +DICIEMBRE + +CONTERIS, Hiber +El rol de la Iglesia en el cambio social +de América Latina + +KENT, Malcom +Dominicana: EE.UU. teme haber lanzado un bumerang + +CHAPELA Y B., Gonzalo +El movimiento tradicionalista católico + +DIRIGENTES CATOLICOS JUVENILES DE LA REPUBLICA +DOMINICANA +Declaracion... + +COMANDO POPULAR ARMADO SINDICAL CRISTIANO +Manifiesto de la Confederación Autónoma de +Sindicatos Cristianos +```
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/09/illich01.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/09/illich01.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d6c0746 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/09/illich01.txt @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +ILLICH, Ivan. Las sombras de la caridad. /Trad. al español del artículo “The Seamy Side of Charity”/. América, 21 de enero de 1967, vol. 116, núm. 3, número completo 3002. Incluido en: [[.:index|CIDOC Cuaderno 09 - CIDOC Informa, “Enero-Junio 1967”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 9, Volumen 4, Cuernavaca, 1968.]] + +# Las sombras de la caridad + +Hace unos cinco años los católicos de Estados Unidos de Norteamérica emprendieron la peculiar tarea de una alianza para el progreso de la Iglesia de América Latina. Los cálculos suponían que para el 1970 el diez por ciento del total de sacerdotes, hermanos y hermanas americanos que rebasa los 225.000 se habrían ofrecido como voluntarios para ser enviado al sur de la frontera. Hasta hoy, las fuerzas combinadas del «clero» norteamericano en América Latina ascienden tan solo a la cifra del 1.622. Habiendo recorrido la mitad del camino en la peculiar empresa, se impone constatar si el programa lanzado sigue su curso y, lo que es aún más importante, si su finalidad original aún se justifica. Estadísticamente, el programa ha sido un fracaso. ¿Debemos sentirnos decepcionados o aliviados? + +El programa nació de un impulso producido por una arbitrariedad imaginativa y un criterio sentimental. La técnica propagandística, un debo que apunta y «una llamada para 20.000 voluntarios» fue suficiente para convencer a muchos de que «América Latina TE necesita». Nadie parecía atreverse a declarar abiertamente el por qué, aunque la primera propaganda publicada, en sus cuatro páginas de texto, incluía varias alusiones al «peligro rojo». El Departamento Latinoamericano de la Conferencia Nacional Católica de Bienestar, NCWC, le añadió el adjetivo «papel» tanto al programa, como a los voluntarios, y al llamado en si. + +Actualmente se intensifican los planes para una campaña destinada a aumentar los fondos del programa. Esta es, por lo tanto, la ocasión para reexaminar, tanto el valor de la llamada para reclutar 20.000 voluntarios, como la necesidad de recaudar millones de dólares. Ambas propuestas deben ser sometidas a debate público entre los católicos de Estados Unidos, desde el obispo hasta la viuda, ya que son ellos los que han de proveer el personal y pagar la cuenta. Se impone el análisis crítico de la situación. Nuevas consignas para otra colecta envueltas en lujo y colorido, con toda la carga emocional que éstas conllevan, servirán tan sólo para oscurecer el punto central del asunto que se discute. Examinemos calmadamente el arranque de entusiasmo caritativo de la Iglesia Americana que dio lugar a creación de los «Voluntarios Papales», «la Cruzada Estudiantil Misionera», las concentraciones masivas anuales de CICOP, las numerosas misiones diocesanas y las nuevas comunidades religiosas. + + +No me he de concentrar en detalles. Los programas mencionados se encargan de ellos. Por el contrario, me tomo el atrevimiento de señalar algunos hechos fundamentales y algunas implicaciones que hacen del «plan papal» una parte del esfuerzo multifacético para mantener a América Latina dentro de las ideologías de Occidente. Los encargados de elaborar la política eclesiástica en los Estados Unidos deben asumir la responsabilidad por las consecuencias político-sociales que van envueltas en sus bien intencionadas aventuras misioneras. Deben examinar su vocación como teólogos cristianos y sus acciones como políticos occidentales. + +El material humano y el dinero que se envían con motivaciones misioneras, llevan consigo una imagen extranjera del cristianismo, una concepción extranjera de la pastoral y un mensaje político extranjero. Llevan también consigo la huella del capitalismo norteamericano de la década del 1950. ¿Por qué no considerar, siquiera por una vez, las sombras de la «caridad»? ¿Por qué no sopesar el amargor de los daños que ocasionamos con nuestros sacrificios? Si, por ejemplo, los católicos norteamericanos se decidieran a dejar a un lado el sueño de un «diez por ciento» y se dedicaran a reflexionar sinceramente sobre las consecuencias que su ayuda conlleva, podría despertarse una clara conciencia de las falacias envueltas que daría margen a una generosidad racional y sensata. + +Preciso aún más. Hemos de distinguir con precisión entre el placer que conlleva el dar los frutos que percibe el que recibe. Me propongo señalar tan sólo los resultados negativos que el envío de dinero, personal e ideas tiene para la Iglesia de América Latina a fin de que el programa norteamericano pueda tenerlo en cuenta al hacer sus planes para el futuro. + +El costo de operaciones de la Iglesia latinoamericana en los últimos cinco años ha ido multiplicándose consistentemente. El corto de operaciones de una Universidad Católica, de una sociedad misionera o de una cadena radial, bien puede hoy en día superar el costo +de operaciones de toda la Iglesia en todo un país diez años atrás. Un tal crecimiento se hace posible tan sólo mediante los fondos que en su mayor parte vienen del extranjero. E3tos fondos se han recaudado normalmente de dos fuentes. La primera, la misma Iglesia que obtiene sus fondos en tres formas: + +1. Dólar por dólar: apelando a la generosidad de los fieles. Así ha hecho «Adveniat», «Misereor» y «Oostpriesterhulp» en Alemania y los países bajos. Este tipo de contribuciones asciende a más de 25 millones de dólares al año. + +2. Sumas globales donadas por miembros particulares de la jerarquía, siendo el caso más notorio el del Cushingo por instituciones, tales como el NCWC (National Catholic Welfare Conference), que transfirió un millón de dólares de las misiones domésticas a su fondo latinoamericano (Latin Americam Bureau). + +3. Mediante designación de sacerdotes, religiosos y laicos, entrenados a un costo considerable, y con frecuencia respaldados económicamente en sus empresas apostólicas. + +Este tipo de generosidad extranjera ha tentado a la Iglesia latinoamericana para inducirla a convertirse en un satélite del fenómeno cultural y político del Atlántico Norte. El aumento de recursos para el apostolado intensifica cada vez más la necesidad de ayuda continuada creando islas de bienestar apostólico que cada día se encuentran más incapaces de autofinanciarse. Una vez más, florece La Iglesia renovando el estigma que le imprimió la conquista: una planta que florece porque se le cultiva de afuera. Los obispos, en vez de buscar los medios de seguir con menos dinero o cerrar la empresa, se dejan atrapar por el vértigo de la búsqueda de dinero y se preparan a legar a la posteridad una institución imposible de mantener en el futuro. La educación, único renglón que podría dar buenos frutos a largo alcance, es concebida mayormente en términos de entrenamiento de burócratas cuyo interés será mantener las estructuras existentes. + +Recientemente, pude apreciar un buen ejemplo de esto: un grupo de sacerdotes latinoamericanos enviados a Europa para obtener grados académicos. En la búsqueda de la relación entre la Iglesia y el mundo, nueve de cada diez de estos sacerdotes estudiaban métodos de enseñanza —catequesis, teología pastoral o derecho canónico— y, por lo tanto, ni adelantaban directamente sus conocimientos de la Iglesia, ni sus conocimientos del mundo. Sólo unos pocos estudiaban la Iglesia en su historia y sus fuentes o el mundo en su actualidad concreta. + +Es relativamente fácil obtener grandes sumas de dinero para construir una nueva Iglesia en la salva o una escuela superior en algún suburbio de la ciudad y equiparlas de personal con nuevos misioneros. De este modo se mantiene artificialmente, a un elevado costo, un sistema pastoral obviamente intrascendente mientras se considera un lujo extravagante la investigación básica para crear un sistema pastoral vital. Becas para estudios humanísticos no eclesiásticos, dinero para experiencias pastorales llevadas a cabo con creatividad, donativos para documentación e investigación que dé margen a una crítica constructiva sobre asuntos particulares; todas estas cosas corren el temible riesgo de amenazar nuestras estructuras temporales, nuestras instalaciones clericales y nuestros métodos basados en «good business». + +Aún más asombroso que la generosidad eclesiástica a favor de la empresa eclesiástica es la segunda fuente de dinero. Se podría comparar a la Iglesia de hace diez años con una «noble dama» empobrecida que insistía en conservar una tradición imperial dando limosna de su mermado peculio. Durante los cien años o más que han transcurrido desde que España perdió sus colonias en América, la Iglesia ha ido perdiendo sus fuentes de ingreso: donativos gubernamentales, patronatos e ingresos de las tierras que poseía y que ha ido perdiendo. Aplicando el concepto colonial de la caridad, la Iglesia perdió su poder para ayudar a los pobres. Ha venido a ser considerada como una reliquia histórica, inevitablemente aliada con los políticos conservadores. + +En 1966 sucede casi todo lo contrario, por lo menos simple vista. La Iglesia ha venido a ser una agencia a la cual se le confía la administración de programas dirigidos a crear el cambio social. Su innegable dedicación le garantiza ciertos resultados. Pero cuando se ve amenazada por el cambio verdadero, se retira antes de permitir que la conciencia social que surje se propague como el fuego. La supresión de las escuelas radiales brasileñas por un alto dignatario eclesiástico, ofrece un buen ejemplo. + +En esta forma, la disciplina eclesiástica asegura al donante que su dinero rendirá más en manos de nn sacerdote, que no se habrá de evaporar y que tampoco se identificará con lo que verdaderamente es: publicidad para la empresa privada y adoctrinamiento en un modo de vida que los ricos han escogido como el más conveniente para los pobres. El que lo recibe, sin embargo, entiende bien el mensaje: el «padre» está de parte de W.R. Grace and Co., La Alianza para el Progreso, gobierno democrático, el AFLCO (American Federation of Labor Congress of Industrial Organization) y de todo lo sagrado que contiene el Panteón Occidental. + +Naturalmente, hay opiniones divididas entre si la Iglesia se dedicó con ahínco a los programas sociales para lograr conseguir fondos «para los pobres», o si buscó los fondos para ayudar a contener el Castrismo y asegurarse de este modo su prestigio institucional. Cuando la Iglesia se convierte en agencia «oficial» de un tipo de progreso, claudica de su derecho a hablar en nombre de los de abajo que están al margen de las agencias, por que van formando una mayoría cada vez más respetable. Cuando la Iglesia acepta el poder para ayudar, se ve obligada a denunciar a un Camilo Torres que es símbolo del poder de la renuncia. El dinero, por lo tanto, convierte a la Iglesia en una estructura pastoral que rebasa sus propios medios de mantenimiento y la convierte en un poder político. + +El carácter emocional superficial de la involucración no permite la reflexión serena sobre las implicaciones de la «ayuda» americana al extranjero. Motivaciones extrañas, digamos, de ayudar en Vietnam, reprime los remordimientos que podrían resultar saludables. Al fin, nuestra generación comienza a taladrar la retórica de la «lealtad» patriótica. Apenas comenzamos a reconocer la perversión de nuestra política de poder y el cauce destructivo que toman nuestros torcidos esfuerzos para imponer unilateralmente «nuestra forma de vida» a los demás. No hemos comenzado aún a enfrentarnos a las sombras que yacen detrás de los compromisos asumidos por nuestro personal clerical y a la complicidad de la Iglesia en el sofocamiento del despertar universal, el cual resulta demasiado revolucionario para poder co-existir en la «Gran Sociedad». + +Me consta que no hay ningún sacerdote o monja del extranjero, tan remiso en su misión, que no haya ayudado a enriquecer alguna vida durante su estancia en América Latina, y que no hay ningún misionero, tan incompetente, que no haya servido de medio a través del cual América Latina haya hecho alguna aportación a Europa o Norteamérica. Pero, ni la admiración que sentimos por la dedicación generosa, ni el temor de que nuestros amigos tibios se conviertan en enconados enemigos, deben impedirnos hacer frente a los hechos. Los misioneros que se envían a América Latina podrán hacer: 1) de una Iglesia extranjera, una Iglesia aún más extranjera; 2) una Iglesia abarrotada de clérigos, conducida totalmente por clérigos; 3) que los obispos se conviertan en pordioseros serviles. La discusión sobre Vietnam, traída a la palestra pública, ha quebrado la unanimidad del consenso público. Espero que despertando la conciencia pública sobre los elementos, represivos y corruptos que los programas cié ayuda «oficial» eclesiástica contienen, se ayuda a crear un hondo sentido de culpa por haber permitido que hombres y mujeres jóvenes desperdicien sus vidas dedicándose a la «evangelización» en América Latina. + +La importación masiva e indiscriminada de clero ayuda a la burocracia eclesiástica a sobrevivir en su propia colonia que se vuelve cada día más enajenada y más cómoda. Este tipo de inmigración contribuye a transformar. la antigua hacienda de Dios (en la cual los hombres eran tan sólo advenedizos) en el supermercado del Señor con un gran surtido de catecismos, liturgia y otros medios de gracia. Convierte a los campesinos que antes vegetaban, en consumidores satisfechos, y a las gentes devotas, en clientes exigentes. Llena los bolsillos sagrados proveyendo refugio para los hombres que le tienen miedo a la responsabilidad secular. + +Los frecuentadores del templo, acostumbrados a los sacerdotes, a las novenas y a los libros y cultura de España (posiblemente al retrato de Franco en la casa parroquial) ahora se encuentran con un nuevo tipo de ejecutivo, un talento administrativo y financiero que promueve un cierto tipo de democracia como el ideal cristiano. Muy pronto la gente comienza a sentir que la Iglesia está alejada, enajenada de ellos. Que es una operación importada, especializada, financiada del extranjero, que habla con un acento sagrado por cuanto extranjero. + +Esta transfusión extranjera —y la esperanza de más transfusiones— ha dado a la pusilanimidad eclesiástica una nueva esperanza de sobrevivir, otra oportunidad para revivir el arcaico y pintoresco sistema colonial. Si Norteamérica y Europa envían suficientes sacerdotes para llenar las vacantes en las parroquias, huelga la necesidad de considerar el trabajo parcial y gratuito de los seglares para llevar a cabo la mayor parte de las tareas evangélicas; se hace innecesario reexaminar la estructura de la parroquia, la función del sacerdote, la obligación dominical y el sermón clerical; no se hará esfuerzo alguno por explorar la necesidad de los diáconos casados, por idear nuevas formas de celebración de la Palabra y de la Eucaristía y por considerar las celebraciones íntimas de conversión al Evangelio dentro del ambiente familiar. La promesa de más clero es como el canto de una sirena encantada. Hace invisible el crónico exceso de clero en América Latina y hace imposible diagnosticarlo como la más grave enfermedad de la Iglesia. Esta perspectiva negativa comienza a modificarse ligeramente mediante un pequeño núcleo de personas valientes y creadoras, algunos de ellos no-latinos, que reflexionan, estudian y se esfuerzan por una verdadera reforma. + +Una gran parte del personal eclesiástico de América Latina está actualmente empleado en instituciones privadas que sirven a la clase media y alta y que frecuentemente producen ganancias respetables. Y esto en un continente donde se necesitan desesperadamente maestros, enfermeras y trabajadores sociales en los instituciones públicas que sirven a los pobres. Una gran parte del clero se dedica a funciones burocráticas, relacionadas generalmente con el expendio de sacramentos, sacramentales y «bendiciones» supersticiosas. Muchos de ellos viven en la miseria. La Iglesia, incapaz de usar su personal para tareas pastorales significativas, no puede siquiera mantener la teología para justificar el sistema, el derecho canónico para administrarlo y al clero extranjero para crear ante el mundo la imagen de que debe continuar así. + +Un sentido de valores saludable va vaciando los seminarios y las filas del sacerdocio en forma mucho más efectiva que la falta de disciplina o de generosidad. De hecho, la nueva corriente de bienestar, hace la carrera eclesiástica mucho más atractiva para los oportunistas. Como consecuencia, los obispos se convierten en pordioseros serviles y ceden a la tentación de organizar verbenas y de lanzarse a la caza de sacerdotes y fondos extranjeros para construir tales anomalías como seminarios menores. Mientras tales incursiones tengan éxito, será difícil, si no imposible, tomar el camino más duro: considerar con lealtad si en realidad necesitamos de semejante juego. + +La exportación de empleados eclesiásticos de una nueva Iglesia. Tanto las autoridades norteamericanas como las de América Latina, diversamente motivadas, igualmente temerosas, se hacen cómplices del mantenimiento de una Iglesia clericalizada e irrelevante. Insistiendo en la sacralización de empleados y propiedad, la Iglesia se ciega cada vez más a la posibilidad de sacralizar a las personas y a la humanidad. + +Resulta duro ayudar rehusándonos a dar limosna. Recuerdo que en una ocasión suspendí el reparto de comida desde las sacristías en un área de mucha hambre. Todavía siento el aguijón de una voz que me acusó: «Duerme tranquilo para el resto de tu vida con la muerte de docenas de niños en tu conciencia». Hasta ciertos doctores prefieren usar aspirinas antes que cirugía. No les remuerde la conciencia si el paciente se muere de cáncer, pero temen el riesgo del bisturí. El valor que hoy necesitamos es el que sugiere Daniel Berrigan, S. J., al escribir sobre América Latina: «Yo sugiero que suspendamos el envío de personal y cosas por tres años y que mientras tanto busquemos nuestros errores y enfrentémonos a ellos buscando el modo de no canonizarlos». + +De mi experiencia de seis años entrenando cientos de misioneros extranjeros destinados a América Latina he aprendido que los verdaderos voluntarios desean más y más enfrentarse a la verdad que pone a prueba su fe. Los superiores que mueven su personal mediante decisiones administrativas, pero que no tienen que vivir las consecuencias decepcionantes, están emocionalmente incapacitados para hacer frente a estas realidades. + +La Iglesia norteamericana debe enfrentarse al ángulo doloroso de la generosidad: el peso que la oblación gratuita de una vida impone al que recibe. Los que van a América Latina deben aceptar humildemente la posibilidad de ser inútiles y hasta de hacer daño, aunque estén dispuestos a dar todo lo que tienen. Deben aceptar el hecho de que un maltrecho programa de asistencia eclesiástica los utiliza como paliativos para mitigar las penas de una estructura cancerosa. Su única esperanza será que la receta logre dar al organismo el tiempo y el descanso suficiente para el inicio de un proceso de curación espontánea. Lo más probable es que la píldora del farmacéutico detenga al paciente de consultar al cirujano y que lo haga adicto a la droga. + +Los misioneros extranjeros se van dando cuenta, cada vez con más lucidez, de que han respondido a una llamada para tapar los agujeros de un barco que se hunde porque los oficiales no se han atrevido a lanzar los salvavidas. De no ver esto con claridad, los hombres que obedientemente han sacrificado los mejores años de su vida se habrán de encontrar en una lucha inútil por mantener a flote un crucero que anda a la deriva. + +Debemos admitir que los misioneros pueden ser utilizados como peones en una lucha ideológica de proporciones mundiales y que es blasfemia usar el Evangelio para propulsar cualquier sistema social o político. Cuando enviamos a una sociedad hombres y dinero enmarcados dentro de un programa, no pueden menos que importar ideas que les sobrevivirán. Se ha señalado, en el caso de los Cuerpos de Paz, que el cambio cultural catalizado en una aldea por un pequeño grupo de emisarios extranjeros puede ser de mucho más peso que todo el bien inmediato que de su labor puede derivarse. Lo mismo puede ser cierto del misionero americano —cerca de casa, con poderosos medios a su disposición, muchas veces enviado sólo por un corto período— que se traslada a una región de intensa colonización económica y cultural por parte de los Estados Unidos. El es parte de esta esfera de influencia que a veces se torna de intriga. A través de los misioneros norteamericanos, los Estados Unidos ensombrecen y perfilan a su modo la imagen pública de la Iglesia. El influjo de los misioneros norteamericanos coincide con el de la Alianza para el Progreso, con el de los proyectos Camelot y CÍA y parece como un bautismo de ellos. La Alianza da la impresión de estar orientada por la justicia cristiana y deja de verse como lo que es: una decepción diseñada para mantener el status quo, si bien con distintas motivaciones. El capital neto que sale de América Latina se ha triplicado en los primeros cinco años del programa de la Alianza. El programa es demasiado limitado para siquiera abrir la puerta a un crecimiento constante arraigado en el país. Es un hueso que se lanza al perro para mantenerlo callado en el patio de las Américas. + +Dentro de estas realidades, el misionero norteamericano asume el papel tradicional de un capellán-lacayo de un poder colonial. Los peligros que implícitamente conlleva el uso del dinero extranjero por parte de la Iglesia, asume proporciones caricaturescas cuando la ayuda es administrada por un «padre gringo» para silenciar a los «subdesarollados». Sería pedir demasiado a la mayoría de los americanos invitarles a criticar con cordura, claridad y franqueza la agresión socio-política de los Estados Unidos en América Latina. Y aún más difícil sería pedirles que lo hicieran sin la amargura del expatriado ni el oportunismo del renegado. + +Los grupos misioneros de Estados Unidos no pueden evitar proyectar la imagen de las «avanzadas americanas» en tierras extranjeras. Sólo americanos individuales que se mezclan con el pueblo podrán evitar esta distorsión. El misionero estadounidense es necesariamente un agente «encubierto» —sin bien inconsciente— del consenso social y político de los Estados Unidos. Pero, conscientemente y a propósito, quiere traer a América Latina los valores de su Iglesia. La adaptación y la selección raras veces llega al nivel del enjuiciamiento de los valores como tales. + +Hace diez años, la situación no se presentaba tan ambigua, cuando con buena conciencia, las sociedades misioneras servían de canales para el flujo de la mercancía de la Iglesia norteamericana hacia la América Latina. Todo, desde el «clergyman» hasta las escuelas parroquiales, desde la Confraternidad de la Doctrina Cristiana hasta las Universidades Católicas, eran considerados como productos vendibles en el mercado latinoamericano. No se necesitaba mucha propaganda para convencer a los obispos latinoamericanos de que valía la pena probar los productos rotulados «made in U.S.A.» + +Hoy la situación ha cambiado considerablemente. La Iglesia de los Estados Unidos se estremece ante los primeros hallazgos de una autoevaluación científica y masiva. No sólo se examinan y atacan los métodos y las instituciones, sino aún las ideologías que los inspiran. Resulta evidente la paradoja de un nombre que intenta implantar en una cultura totalmente diferente estructuras y programas que ahora se rechazan en su país de origen. (Hace poco llegó a mi conocimiento el interés de un grupo de norteamericanos que hacían planes para crear una escuela elemental en una parroquia de ciudad donde ya existe una docena de escuelas públicas). + +Existe también el peligro opuesto. América Latina no puede continuar tolerando ser un paraíso para los liberales de Estados Unidos que no pueden convencer a nadie en su propia casa, un escape para apóstoles demasiado «apostólicos» para encontrar su vocación como profesionales competentes dentro de su propia comunidad. Los vendedores de mercancía norteamericana amenazan con hacer pasar imitaciones de segunda clase de parroquias, escuelas, catecismos —ya pasados de moda aún en los Estados Unidos— por todo el continente latinoamericano. El escapista aventurero amenaza confundir aún más al mundo extranjero con sus declaraciones superficiales que carecen de viabilidad hasta en su propio país. + +La Iglesia americana de la generación de Vietnam encuentra difícil dedicarse a brindar ayuda al exterior sin exportar a la vez sus soluciones o sus problemas. Ambos resultan lujos prohibitivos para las naciones en desarrollo. Los mexicanos se ven obligados a pagar altos impuestos por regalos inútiles o no solicitados para no ofender a los bien intencionados amigos que se los envían. Los que hacen donativos no deben pensar en términos de este momento o de esta necesidad concreta, sino en términos de la generación completa y de los efectos futuros. Los planeadores de regalos deben preguntarse si el valor global del regalo en personal, dinero e ideas vale realmente el precio que el último análisis habrá de pagar el que lo recibo. Como afirma el Padre Berrigan, los ricos y poderosos pueden decirse a no dar, los pobres, en cambio, apenas pueden rehusar aceptar. Puesto que la limosna condiciona la mente del que pide, no hemos de culpar del todo a los obispos latinoamericanos por pedir la desorientada ayuda extranjera. Una gran parte de la culpa recae sobre la eclesiología subdesarrollada de clérigos norteamericanos que dirigen la «venta» de las buenas intenciones americanas. + +El católico norteamericano desea comprometerse a un programa eclesiástico válido, no en programas políticos y sociológicos subsidiarios, diseñados para influenciar el crecimiento de las naciones que se desarrollan conforme a un determinado programa social, aún cuando una tal doctrina lleve el nombre de «papal». Por lo tanto, el punto céntrico de la discusión no es cómo se ha de enviar personal y dinero, sino si debe o no enviarse. Mientras tanto, la Iglesia no esté en ningún peligro inminente. Nos inclinamos a salvaguardar estructuras en vez de indagar su propósito y su valor. Anhelando gloriarnos de la obra de nuestras manos, nos sentimos culpables, frustrados y coléricos cuando parte del edificio comienza a derrumbarse. En vez de tener fe en la Iglesia, intentamos frenéticamente construirla según nuestro nebulosa imagen cultural. Queremos construir comunidad descansando en técnicas y permanecemos ciegos al deseo latente de unidad lucha por lograr expresión entre los hombres. Llenos de temor, planeamos la Iglesia en base a estadísticas en vez de buscarla en la esperanza. diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/09/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/09/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a48ca2d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/09/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,141 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 09 - CIDOC Informa “Enero-Junio 1967” + +> CIDOC Cuaderno 09 - CIDOC Informa, “Enero-Junio 1967”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 9, Volumen 4, Cuernavaca, 1968. + + +## Illich's articles + +* [[.:illich01|ILLICH, Ivan. Las sombras de la caridad. /Trad. al español del artículo “The Seamy Side of Charity”/]] + + +## Table of contents + +``` +ENERO + +SHAULL, Ríchard +Desafío revolucionario a la iglesia y la teología + +LOMARDO TOLEDANO, Vícente +El marxismo y los textos sagrados + +CESPEDES, Manuel H. de +/Carta a CIF Reports en defensa de la entrevista por + +SUCESOS a Mons. César ZACCHI y al P. Carlos Manuel +de CESPEDES/ + +MANTILLA, Sebastifn +Colaboración sacerdotal de otras naciones a la obra +del apostolado en nuestro continente + +INQUI ETUDES +Conflicto en la iglasia colombiana + +INQUI ETUDES +A nuestros pastores + +INQUI ETUDES +Comentarios a la situaciéa colombiana + +INQUI ETUDES +Resignación, pobreza y la comunidad cristiana en +Colombia + +SHAPIRO, Samuel +El dileme de la Repüblica Dominicana + + +FEBRERO + +ILLICH, Ivan +Las sombras de la caridad. /Trad. al español del +artículo “The Seamy Side of Charity”/ + +LUBIN, Msurice À. +Poètes protestants haitiens, VILAIRE, Maurice, ed., + +APORTES +Lista de obras sobre investigaciones realizadas +o actualmente en curso sebre América Latina + + FLORIA, Carlos Alberto +ta Argentina ideológica + +DORRAT, Nôctor +Un auevo aervicio del MIEC + + +MARZO + +RONDERO, Javier +Le polftics de los estados Unidos en la OEA y la +convivencis americans + +CARTA AOS PADRES +As responsabilidades da igreja na America +Latine; aspectos teológicos e sociológicos + +BULNES ALDUMATE, José Marís +Nota sobre el problema educacional +en América Latina + +WILSON, Russel +La elptima crusads. /Trad. de un manuscrito + +original en inglés/ + +WILSON, Ruesel +Más sobre prioridades latinoamericanas/ + +NAZARIO, Víctor M. +Formación sacerdotal + + +ABRIL + +SUAREZ, Luis +Sacerdote y guerrillero, Camilo dejó a Colombia +un legado de angustía y de digniídad + +CONCRESO PUERTORRIQUEÑO ANTICOLONIALISTA +Libre determinación de Puerto Rico; ... + +SPALDING, Mobart À. +Amárica Latina y las univereidades norteamericanas + +FITEPATRICX, Joseph F. +La iglesia norteamericans y latinoamérica; ¿qué quiere +decir ILLICH?... + +LACIOLE, Jean +Las condiciones del diálogo + + +MAYO + +CUDUT, Nerecio U. +La iglesia y la integración de América Latina. +/Conferencia produciada en la Reunión Extraordinaria +el CELAM.../ + +VERAIRO TOLEDAMO, Vicente +El documento político mas audaz en la historia +de la iglesia católica... + + + JUNIO + +CIDOC SONDEOS +"Camilo TORRES”; presenteción del Sondeos No. 5,... + +TORRES RESTREPO, Camilo +/Carta dirígida a Mons. Rubén ISAZA/ + +TORRES RESTREPO, Camilo +Encrucijadas de la iglesía en América Latina + +UNA INVITACION A CELEBRAR +/La formación de un mundo sín privilegios ní arbitrariedades, sin superprivilegiados ni subprivilegios/ + +```
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/10/illich03.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/10/illich03.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b0fb6c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/10/illich03.txt @@ -0,0 +1,158 @@ + + +ILLICH, Iván. Sobre el celibato y casamiento de los Sacerdotes. /Tit. original del manuscrito: "El clero, una 'especie' que desaparece"/. In: SIEMPRE, México, (733):38-42, 82, 12 jul '67'. Republicado en: [[.:index|CIDOC Cuaderno 10 - CIDOC Informa, “Junio-Diciembre”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 10, Volumen 5, Cuernavaca, 1968.]] + +# El clero, una 'especie' que desaparece + +La Iglesia Romana es el organismo burocrático, no gubernamental, más grande del mundo. Emplea un millón ochocientos mil trabajadores a tiempo completo —sacerdotes, hermanos, religiosas, laicos—. Estos «empleados» trabajan dentro de una estructura corporativa que ha sido considerada por una agencia consultora americana, como una de las organizaciones dirigidas con mayor eficacia en el mundo. La Iglesia Institucional funciona al mismo nivel que la «General Motors» o la ESSO. Está bien conocida realidad a veces es aceptada con orgullo por algunas perdonas, pero para otras, este mismo funcionamiento efectivo de la maquinaria, es considerado como causa de descrédito. Los hombres sospechan que la Iglesia Institucional ha perdido su significación ante el Evangelio y ante el mundo. La vacilación, la duda y la confusión reinan entre sus directores, funcionarios y empleados. El gigante comienza a tambalearse antes del colapso. + +Parto del personal eclesiástico reacciona ante el derrumbe con angustia y miedo. Otros, hacen heroicos esfuerzos y trágicos sacrificios para prevenirlo. Otros más, con pena o con alegría, interpretan el fenómeno como un signo de la desaparición de la Iglesia Romana misma. Yo quisiera sugerir que recibamos con un espíritu de profunda alegría la desaparición de la burocracia institucional. + +En este ensayo me propongo describir algunos de los aspectos de lo que está sucediendo en la Iglesia y sugerir, al mismo tiempo, medios a través de los cuales la iglesia pueda buscar una reorganización radical en algunas de sus estructuras. No recomiendo cambios esenciales en la Iglesia y menos aún sugiero su disolución. + +La completa desaparición de su estructura visible está en contradicción con las leyes sociológicas y con el mandato divino. Sí la Iglesia va a responder al llamado de Dios y al hombre contemporáneo, su reforma debe implicar macho mas que una corrección drástica o unas mejoras para actualizarla. Trazaré un cuadro de posibles, cambios sólidamente enraizados en los orígenes mismos de la Iglesia y audazmente orientado hacia las necesidades de la sociedad del mañana. La aceptación de este tipo de reforma requerirá que la Iglesia viva la pobreza evangélica de Cristo y se desprenda de muchas riquezas espirituales de su propio pasudo. Al mismo tiempo, la Iglesia, respondiendo a la tendencia mundial de socialización progresiva, llegará a tener un profundo respeto y una alegre aceptación de este fenómeno. + +La Iglesia Institucional está en problemas. Las mismas personas de cuya lealtad y obediencia depende la eficacia de su estructura la abandonan en forma creciente. Hasta los primeros años de nuestra década, las «deserciones» eran relativamente excepcionales. Ahora son corrientes. Mañana, tal vez, serán la regla. Cada vez más, los «empleados» de la Iglesia después de un drama personal desarrollado en la intimidad de mu conciencia, quieren sacrificar la seguridad emocional, espiritual y frecuentemente financiera que el sistema benévolamente les otorga. La causa de tales «deserciones» frecuentemente no reside ni en el «espíritu mundano» ni en ninguna falla de la generosidad de los «desertores», sino más bien en la estructura misma. La estructura parroquial, feudal, autocrítica de la Iglesia que se conserva en el mundo entero responde a situaciones que sobreviven en el campo latinoamericano, donde el cura aun goza del misterioso poder del brujo y de la posición del cacique. Pero para el mundo desarrollado capitalista, para las zonas urbanas de América y particularmente para las democracias populares, esta estructura eclesiástica es una reliquia de un estilo social trasnochado destinado a conservarse en una Iglesia-museo. Más aún, nuestro mundo actual frecuentemente acelera los continuos cambios de las estructuras sociales en cuyo contexto la Iglesia debe realizar las fundones que le son propias. Para presentar con mayor claridad esta tensión entre una herencia estructural y una tarea contemporánea centraré mi atención en la naturaleza y función del ministerio, el complicado canal a través del cual la Iglesia llega al mundo. De esta manera tal vez, podremos entrever la Iglesia del mañana. + +Se hace evidente que los conceptos básicos y aceptados del ministerio dentro de la Iglesia, son boy inadecuados. En mi opinión la iglesia no necesita el número actual de empleados a tiempo completo que trabajan en su estructura operacional. Es más, la situación sugiere la necesidad de un profundo replanteamiento de los elementos que hacen posible la idea, comúnmente aceptada, del clérigo y su séquito de monjas y beatas como representan lea primarios de la Iglesia en el mundo —concepto, por otra parte, que sigue implícito en los decretos conciliares—.. Para entender mi tesis, es necesario reexaminar las relaciones que existen entre ministerio sacramental y personal a tiempo completo; entro ministerio y celibato; entre ministerio y formación teológica. + +Actualmente se supone que la mayor parte de las tareas ministeriales de la Iglesia, vi no es que todas, tienen que ser efectuadas por «curas», es decir, sacerdotes empleados a tiempo completo y sueldos bajan, normalmente egresados de seminarios y noviciados, y que aceptan la ley eclesiástica del celibato. Voy a examinar en forma separada, tres aspectos del problema para iniciar la búsqueda de nuevos caminos más evangélicos y sociológicamente más significativos. + +I.— La reducción radical del número de personas que para su subsistencia dependen de la Iglesia. + +II. — La ordenación al ministerio sacramental de hombres que trabajan y se ganan su vida en cualquier actividad productiva. + +III. — La renuncia especial y sin igual implicada en el celibato perpetuo. + +## La campaña vocacional: búsqueda de más reclutas para un ejército en decadencia + +El personal de la Iglesia goza de extraordinarios privilegios. A todo joven que busca empleo dentro del clero le es garantizada, casi automáticamente, una situación que le asegura toda una trama de beneficio? personales y sociales que se ven acrecentados con la edad y no por la capacidad o productividad. Su derecho al prestigio y a la influencia abarca más de lo que SU salario podría asegurarle. En los países desarrollados, y también en algunos que no lo son, los empleados eclesiásticos viven en cómodas casas propiedad de la Iglesia; lea es asegurado un trato especial en su educación y cuidados de su salud y son sepultados en tierra consagrada… y después de todo esto todavía se reza por ellos. La sotana y no su fidelidad a un servicio, aseguran su situación, reputación y nivel de vida. En la Iglesia post-conciliar, un mercado de trabajo, mucho más diversificado que el de cualquier otra corporación existente, los acoge, discriminando así a los laicos que no han recibido una iniciación ritual semejante A los laicos que trabajan dentro de la estructura eclesiástica se les reconoce la posesión de algunos «derechos del gremio», pero su carrera depende fundamentalmente de la habilidad que demuestren para desempeñar el papel de aduladores. + +Recientemente, la Iglesia Romana, en muchas diócesis «modernizadas», ha seguido el ejemplo de algunas iglesias protestantes; trasladando a sus emplearlos, en número creciente, del trabajo parroquial a un trabajo de oficina. Al mismo tiempo lo tradicional demanda de personal a nivel parroquial y el proceso simultáneo de agigantamiento de la maquinaria burocrática, disfrazaba la creciente pérdida de significación de ambos aspectos de la estructura. La ferviente búsqueda de más personal y de más dinero es el resultado de la «burocratización de las comisiones desburocratizantes», para usar la expresión de un discutido líder latinoamericano. Nos vemos urgidos de pedir a Dios, por una parte, que aumente el número de empleados para mantener el sistema y, por otra, que inspire a los fieles para que paguen el rosto de la expansión de la empresa. Personalmente no puedo pedir a Dios estos «beneficios», porque cualquier burocracia crece por si sola. Una tal «ayuda» sólo serviría para que una Iglesia, ya de suyo sobrecargada de personal, se sature más de clero, y en consecuencia, se debilite su misión en el mundo de hoy. Recemos, más bien, para que la Iglesia se desprenda del espíritu empresarial de nuestro siglo. + +El Vaticano mismo ilustra perfectamente este complejo problema. La administración post-conciliar se multiplica y desarrolla suplantando a la antigua maquinaria. Desde la clausura del Concilio, las doce «Venerables Congregaciones» de la Curio se han visto aumentadas con la adición de numerosos «órganos post-concíliares», que se entrelazan y superponen: comisiones, cuerpos consultativos, asambleas, comités, sínodos y servicios técnicos para hacerlos marchar. +Esta masa burocrática se hace ingobernable. Quizá esto nos ayude a comprender que los principios del gobierno corporativo no son aplicables al Cuerpo de Cristo. Es todavía menos apropiado ver a Su Vicario como director ejecutivo de una corporación que como un rey bizantino. La tecnocracia clerical se encuentra más alejada del Evangelio que la aristocracia sacerdotal. La eficacia corrompe más sutilmente el testimonio cristiano que el poder. +En una época en que hasta el Pentágono busca reducir su personal a través de contratos en el libre morcado de la industria y de la investigación, el Vaticano lanza una campaña para proveerse, dentro de sus mismos marcos, de una mayor diversificación y proliferación institucional. La administración central de esta desmesurada organización pasa de las manos de las «Venerables Congregaciones» administradas por sacerdotes italianos de carrera a las de un clero especializado reclutado de todo el mundo. La Curia Pont id a de la Edad Media se convierte en la oficina de administración y planeación de una corporación contemporánea. + +El que el sacerdote sea al mismo tiempo miembro de la aristocracia del único poder feudal que sobrevive en el mundo occidental y de un poder cuya soberanía fue reconocida en el Tratado de Letrán, es uno de los aspectos paradójicos de la política actual. Es más, este mismo poder, en forma cada vez mayor, utiliza una estructura diplomática —originalmente desarrollada para representar los intereses de la Iglesia-Estado frente a otros Estados soberanos— para ofrecer servicios a los agencias internacionales que van surgiendo, tales como la FAO, UNICEF, UNESCO y aun a la ONU. Este desarrollo exige cada vez más un mayor número de empleados para ocupar puestos dentro de una amplia gama de actividades que requieren una todavía mayor especialización técnica en los reclutados. La jerarquía por su parte, acostumbrada a ejercer un control absoluto sobre sus empicados, busca para llenar estos puestos, únicamente o clérigos domesticados. Pero este gran esfuerzo realizado para el reclutamiento intensivo se encuentra frente a una fuerte tendencia contraria: anualmente el número del personal que abandona la institución eclesiástica es casi igual al número de los nuevos reclutas. De ahí se explica que la jerarquía acepte a laicos sumisos para ocupar esos puestos. + +Algunos explican las «deserciones» del clero como la eliminación de elementos indeseables. Otros acusan a la competencia de los diferentes místicas contemporáneas. La institución instintivamente se ve obligada a explicar estas pérdidas y la concomitante crisis de vocaciones en términos que la adulan y que realzan su prestigio. Así, además, se justifica la necesidad de su entusiasta y emocional campaña pro «vocaciones». Pocos quieren admitir que el colapso de esta estructura clerical desbordada, es un claro indicio de la pérdida de su significación todavía más. Pocos son los que reconocen que el Papa mismo vería aumentada su estatura evangélica a medida que disminuyera su poder paro orientar las cuestiones sociales del mundo, y su poder de gobierno burocrático dentro de la Iglesia. + +## Ley de Parkinson: Las necesidades del «apostolado» crecen con la disponibilidad de clérigos + +Tanto los cambios realizados en la periferia institucional como los realizados en Roma, son igualmente fieles a la primera ley de Parkinson, es decir: «el trabajo aumenta con el aumento de personal disponible». Desde la clausura del Concilio, los intentos de descentralización colegial se han traducido en un crecimiento incontrolable que alcanza aún a los niveles regionales. América latina ofrece un grotesco ejemplo. Hace una generación, los obispos de América latina viajaban a Roma cada diez años más o menos, para informar al Papa. Sus otros contactos con Roma oran las peticiones formales de la diligencias y dispensas, canal izadas a través del Nuncio o de eventuales visitadores apostólicos. Hoy en día, una compleja Comisión Romana para América latina (CAL) coordina las subcomisiones pro América latina de obispos europeos y norteamericanos, para establecer un equilibra de poder con la Conferencia de Obispos Latino, americanos. Esta, a su vez se articula en un Comité (CELAM) y extensas y numerosas comisiones, secretariados, institutos y delegaciones. El CELAM mismo esta culminación de 16 Conferencias Episcopales Nacionales, algunas de las cuales son aún más complejas en su organización burocrática. Se supone que la estructura ha sido concebida para facilitar las consultas ocasionales entre los obispos, de manera que éstos, al regresar a sus diéresis, puedan actuar con mayor independencia y originalidad. + +De hecho el resultado es algo diferente, pues los obispos desarrollan una dependencia burocrática tal que tienen qué ir de reunión en reunión antes de tomar sus decisiones. Estos organismos, recientemente creados, necesitan asesoramiento técnico y absorben gran parte del clero especializado que trabaja en los niveles básicos y esenciales para desempeñar puestos directivos clericales y servicios de planeación. Un control restrictivo y una reorientación ideológica amenazan así reemplazar los planteamientos creadores y las iniciativas originales de las Iglesias locales. En América latina, el clero sobrevive, en parte, porque el servicio sacerdotal del altar está ligado al poder, al prestigio y al privilegio clerical. Esta unión, a su vez, ayuda a mantener la actual estructura. Los sacerdotes «empleados de la Iglesia» aseguran el personal necesario para ocupar los puestos en la estructura corporativa. Los sacerdotes-clérigos ase ir ni un la continuidad y la abundancia de eclesiásticos de carrera. + +La ordenación de laicos que puedan mantenerse económicamente por si mismos, para las funciones sacramentales, destruiría la burocracia y al mismo tiempo terminaría con la escasez de clérigos que tanto preocupa a los obispos. + +La llamada «crisis clerical de América del Sur» podría transformarse en fuente de renovación para la Iglesia universal. La gravedad misma de la crisis permite ahí un diagnóstico imposible en otras partes, donde el mal se logra disimular con el paliativo de campañas vocacionales fructíferas. Al desarrollo del «seglar ordenado» tienen que oponerse los que viven del sistema o se apoyan en él; las que recogen limosna o los que la gastan: los párrocos, cancilleres y presidentes de lo beneficencia, no menos que el proveedor de muebles y ornamentos «sagrados» y los cabecillas beatos. + +Algunos clérigos empiezan a darse cuenta de que viven sofocados en medio de una seguridad psicológica superflua combinada con un control restrictivo e inaceptable. Un sacerdote bien preparado en teología tiene asegurado un apoyo de por vida, pero quizás en calidad de contador diocesano y no como teólogo, sobre todo si ha sido sorprendido leyendo autores «sospechosos». Al contrario, un obispo puede enviar a un sacerdote a que haga estudios en sociología y después decidir la creación de un departamento diocesano de investigación para emplear el nuevo talento que ha adquirido dentro de la empresa familiar. + +Un creciente número de sacerdotes no está satisfecho con su trabajo, bien porque no tienen la suficiente libertad para hacer una buena tarea o bien porque se sienten impreparados para realizar la encomiendo que se les ha asignado. En el primer caso, se considera como remedio el redefinirles su función, y en el segundo, una mejor formación. Ambas soluciones sin embargo, no son más que equivocados paliativos. Hay que preguntar: + +¿No será necesario que ciertas actividades sean puestas fuera del control de la Iglesia y que a los curas se les despida de estos trabajos o se les rete a competir por esos trabajos, pero bajo condiciones y control seglares? Desde luego, si continuamos con el actual sistema, nos encontraremos siempre frente al mismo problema: el clérigo insatisfecho. + +Estos mismos hombros han comenzado a plantearse: quizá necesito prepararme para vivir en el mundo seglar, mantenerme a mí mismo como cualquier otro hombre dentro de la seriedad, si quiero actuar como un adulto en el mundo. + +Con el intento de remediar esta crisis en los próximos cinco años veremos una extraordinaria proliferación de programas de reentrenamiento para el clero. Estos programas serán de tres tipos: + +a) En forma cada vez más frecuente las diócesis y las congregaciones religiosas recurrirán a consejeros técnicos de la industria para dar cursos de capacitación clerical cuya premisa básica es que la actual estructura debe mejorar. El «producto» anacrónico del noviciado y del seminario exige nuevas aptitudes para ajustarse a una Iglesia que se moderniza técnicamente en lugar de renovarse en el espíritu. + +El «cura moderno» tiene que bregar con una multiplicación de comisiones especializadas, oficinas y secretariados; hablar una nueva jerga y ajustarse a un nuevo rito. El resultado es que el clero en tales cursos recibo una formación esencialmente regresiva, con prejuicios ideológicos y encaminada al eficaz crecimiento de «la Iglesia». Frecuentemente los actuales programas de formación eclesiástica desarrollan nada más que la habilidad del clérigo para manejar una maquinaria más compleja. + +La reorientación de los clérigos será una tarea transitoria. Durará mientras sobrevivan los llamados seminarios, las academias profesionales en las cuales se preparan jóvenes para integrarse al estado sacerdotal reminiscente del segundo estado de la revolución francesa. Hoy parece irresponsable continuar el esfuerzo de moldear jóvenes generosos para una profesión destinada a desaparecer dentro de su misma generación. + +b) El «retiro espiritual», por otra parte, frecuentemente no sirve para confirmar el compromiso personal del clérigo con el riesgo y la aventura evangélica, sino se usa para reconfirmar la creencia tambaleante del clérigo en una estructura destructora de su libertad. + +c) Es necesaria una educación adulta para adultos que conduzca al clérigo a plantear con toda lealtad las cuestiones fundamentales; las cuestiones para las cuales no hay precedente en el pasado. +¿Tiene la estructura su base en la rutina o en la revelación? ¿Debo yo, como hombre totalmente dedicado al servirlo de la Iglesia, permanecer dentro de la estructura para provocar la subversión, o debo abandonarla para poder vivir el modelo del futuro? La Iglesia necesita hombres que busquen este tipo de conciencia y de actitud crítica, hombres profundamente fíeles a la Iglesia que vivan una vida de inseguridad y riesgo, libres del control de la jerarquía, que trabajen por sacar a la Iglesia, algún día, de su estancamiento actual. los poquísimos grupos de este tipo que existen son considerados por la mentalidad clerical, como desleales y peligrosos. El rechazo del revisionista es siempre prueba de la rigidez ideológica del sistema. + +El «Sister Formation Movement» de los Estados Unidos ilustra muy bien lo que podría ser una educación lealmente. subversiva. Este movimiento actúa como un factor prometedor en la secularización de la Iglesia norteamericana. A mediados de la década pasarla, algunas monjas de varias órdenes religiosas se organizaron para lograr una modernización de los métodos empleados en la formación de las religiosas. Cuando lograron esto, y religiosos y religiosas regresaron a sus comunidades, provistos de sus respectivos doctorados, en biología o literatura, comprendieron que estaban capacitadas para solicitar un empleo académico en cualquier parte. Ya no tenían que depender más del tradicional trato privilegiado que se otorgaba a las religiosas en las instituciones de la Iglesia. + +Muchas de estas monjas-doctoradas se percataron de las ridículas restricciones que se les imponían por parte del pensamiento clerical y a sus instituciones, por parte del control eclesiástico. Para poder vivir una carrera con autenticidad, muchas se vieron en la inevitable necesidad de abandonar sus comunidades. Otras decidieron luchar para liberar sus instituciones del control represivo y destructivo de una autoridad incompetente. Las primeras fueron consideradas como desertoras, las segundas como subversivas. + +Finalmente, las órdenes comenzaron a permitir que sus miembros buscasen trabajos temporales o permanentes en el mercado libre del trabajo, según sus deseos, sin que por eso dejaran de pertenecer a la comunidad. Esto presupone que las personas mismas escojan sus amistades, sus lugares de residencia y formas de vida comunitaria. Un gran número de superioras de congregaciones religiosas femeninas han comenzado a comprender los signos de los tiempos. De pronto han visto que la era de las congregaciones religiosas ha pasado. Sin embargo, los obispos no se han dado cuenta de que un movimiento semejante se ha iniciado dentro del clero. Pero este movimiento os más débil. Los curas han sido tan mimados durante varias generaciones, en su seguridad y comodidad burguesas, y tan inflados por la importancia espiritual de su misión, que ahora su reeducación es más difícil. + +Actualmente algunos sacerdotes consideran que serían capaces de realizar un ministerio superior si pudieran trabajar en empleos seculares que implicaran verdaderas responsabilidades económicas y sociales. Ahora un sacerdote-sociólogo pone en tela de juicio el derecho de su obispo para utilizarlo como capellán o censurarlo si él busca su testimonio del Evangelio en la guerrilla. Estas tendencias producen un doble efecto dentro del clero. Por un lado el hombre comprometido se ve llevado a renunciar a sus privilegios clericales y por lo tanto a desafiar la censura; por otro lado, el hombro mediocre se ve obligado a exigir mayores beneficios y menos responsabilidades del adulto, y por consiguiente, identifica a la iglesia con la sobrevivencia del estado clerical. + +Ante esta contradicción, el Evangelio y la sociedad de una parte, y de la otra el estilo de vida clerical, algunos clérigos se enfrentan a posibles alternativas. + +Una secularización radical desafía, obviamente, la existencia del sistema parroquial. Pero ésta animaría a los generosos imaginativos a la búsqueda por propia cuenta, dejando la anacrónica y clerical estructura eclesiástica en manos de aquellos que eligen, por convicción o comodidad, la seguridad y la rutina. Esto da miedo, tanto a los obispos burocráticos, como a los clérigos «avanzados» que tratan de organizar sindicatos contra la patronal episcopal para mejorar su condición de asalariados eclesiásticos o tenor mayor voz en el capítulo. Los obispos desean más clérigos y al mismo tiempo rechazan cualquier pedido que dé más poder a estos «empleados». La actitud de ambos, tanto de los obispos como de los «sindicalistas espirituales», implica necesariamente la continuación del sistema clerical. + +Necesitamos de sacerdotes que abandonen las filas del clero sin abandonar su celibato para convertirse en pioneros de la Iglesia del futuro ¡de sacerdotes que dedicados con amor y fidelidad a la Iglesia se arriesgaron a la incomprensión y a la suspensión! ¡de sacerdotes llenos de esperanza, capaces de talos acciones, sin llegar a convertirse en duros y amargados! de sacerdotes que deseen vivir hoy día la vida ordinaria del sacerdote del mañana. + +## Una iglesia sin curas + +Un laico adulto, ordenado al díaconato, presidirá la comunidad cristiana «normal» del futuro. El ministerio será un ejercicio dentro de su tiempo libre más bien que un trabajo. La «diaconia» será la unidad institucional primaria de la Iglesia, suplantando a la parroquia. Su base será la casa, más bien que el templo. El encuentro periódico de amigos reemplazará la asamblea dominical de extraños. Un dentista, un obrero o un profesor, capaces de sostenerse económicamente por sí mismos, serán los que presidirán estos encuentros más bien que un burócrata o funcionario empleado de la iglesia. El diácono será un hombre maduro en sabiduría cristiana adquirida a lo largo de su vida en el seno de una liturgia íntima, y no el «profesional» graduado en el seminario y formado con fórmulas «teológicas». Frecuentemente el matrimonio y la educación de sus hijos y no la aceptación del celibato como condición legal para la ordenación, le darán la capacidad de un liderato responsable. + +Yo veo en el futuro el encuentro íntimo de las familias alrededor de la mesa, más bien que la asistencia impersonal de un gentío alrededor de un altar. La celebración santificará el comedor, más bien que edificios consagrados a las ceremonias. Esto no quiere decir que todas las iglesias deban sor convertidas en teatros o elefantes blancos. El obispo de Cuernavaca piensa que la tradición latinoamericana pide la existencia de por lo menos la catedral como testimonio de piedra, cuya belleza y majestad refleje el esplendor de la verdad cristiana. + +Las presentes estructuras pastorales han sido en gran parte determinadas por diez siglos de un sacerdocio clerical y celibatario. El Concilio, en 1964, dio un paso sugestivo hacia el cambio futuro de esta regla al aprobar el diaconato de hombres casados. El diácono puede ejercer casi todas las funciones pastorales, salvo la de decir misa y dar la absolución. Puede bautizar, presidir casamientos y dar la comunión. El decreto es ambiguo porque puede conducir a la proliferación de empleados de segunda categoría, sin marcar ningún cambio significativo en las actuales estructuras. Pero también puede llevar a la ordenación de hombres adultos capaces de mantenerse por sí mismos. La intención del Concilio en América del Sur podría pervertirse con el desarrollo de un diaconato clerical, económicamente dependiente de la Iglesia, retrasando así la necesaria e inevitable secularización del ministerio. + +El sacerdote normal del futuro, ganándose su vida, presidirá en su casa la reunión semanal de unos doce diáconos. Todos juntos, leerán la Escritura y en seguida estudiarán y comentarán la instrucción semanal del obispo. Después de cada misa, cada diácono llevará el Sacramento a su casa donde lo guardará junto con su crucifijo y la Biblia. El sacerdote visitará las diferentes «diaconías» y presidirá las misas que ocasionalmente se celebren. Algunas veces, parte de las «diaconías» se reunirán para celebrar una misa más solemne en un local rentado o en la catedral. + +El obispo, liberado de las actuales tareas ejecutivas y administrativas, tendrá tiempo para concelebrar de vez en cuando. Debería ser capaz de preparar y hacer circular una selección semanal de lecturas y algunos puntos de discusión. El y sus sacerdotes prepararán juntos la liturgia familiar para las «diaconías». Estos cambios requerirán una actitud diferente con respecto a la obligación a la misa dominical, y también una reevaluación del actual ritual de las prácticas penitenciales. Las leyes que obligan a «oír misa» los domingos y las que fijan cuándo hay que confesarse, fueron hechas por la iglesia, y por lo tanto las puede deshacer. + +El actual derecho canónico preveo solamente la ordenación de aquellos cuyos medios de subsistencia están asegurados de por vida por la Iglesia, y de aquellos otros cuyos bienes personales son suficientes para mantenerlos. Restringir la ordenación a este género de independencia económica es anómalo y repugnante en la sociedad de hoy. En la actualidad un hombre digno se sostiene con su trabajo y no por su carrera ceremonial en una jerarquía. Evidentemente no es contrario a los fines del derecho canónico el considerar la capacidad profesional o la seguridad social lograda como título suficiente de la independencia para la ordenación. + +El ministerio sacramental de los laicos ordenados, abrirá los ojos a una nueva comprensión de la «oposición» aparente y tradicional entre clérigo y laico en la Iglesia. En cuanto vayamos más allá de estos conceptos, veremos con más claridad su naturaleza transitoria. El Concilio, resumiendo el desarrollo histórico de los últimos 100 unos, trató de definir al sacerdote-clérigo y al laico no ordenado en dos documentos diferentes. Pero el futuro logrará hacer de esta aparente antítesis una nueva síntesis que trascienda las categorías actuales. + +Ni la imaginación ni la terminología eclesiásticas actuales están en condiciones de poder definir esta nueva función sacerdote-laico, sacerdote dominical, el sacerdote a medio turno o secularizado, el no-clérigo ordenado. El será principalmente el ministro del sacramento y de la palabra y no el factótum religioso que responde de manera superficial a una variedad de papóles sociales y sicológicos que desde la Conquista se acumularon en bis sacristías. + +Así, por fin, la Iglesia podría librarse del sistema restrictivo de beneficios y otros raros negocios. Con laicos ordenados, el cura católico, pastoralmente hablando, será algo superfluo. + +Hoy la Iglesia despierta en la ciudad. Los términos pastorales tradicionales se convierten en anomalías en el contexto da asfalto-hierro-cemento armado de la vida urbana. La renovación de la ciudad y nuevas experiencias de la comunidad exigen una revisión de la terminología de ayer. Los reyes, las coronas y los báculos ya no tienen sentido. Los hombres ya no están sujetos a soberanos ni se dejan conducir como borregos por un pastor. Las funciones de la Iglesia para crear comunidad se deshacen cuando están sostenidas por símbolos cuya fuerza dinámica reside en una estructura de símbolos autocríticos. Los católicos inquietos de la ciudad no buscan la orientación religiosa de un pastor para su acción comunitaria. Ellos saben que la acción social es ecuménica y secular en sus motivaciones, métodos y fines. Probablemente la presidenta de la junta vecinal o el profesional seglar posean mejores dotes para el liderazgo que un ex-seminarista ordenado. + +Las pontanas que saben el a-b-c de la teología no buscan la orientación moral del sacerdote. Ellas piensan por sí mismas, y frecuentemente han superado, en entendimiento teológico al Sacerdote. Padres de familia con una buena formación general, confían cada voz menos a sus hijos al sistema clerical de catequesis «profesional». Los mismos padres de familia reconocen que, si es posible evangelizar a los niños, ellos son los llamados a esta taren y que además poseen el conocimiento y la fe para cumplirla. + +Todo católico que piensa, acepta el hecho de que haya hombres que han sido investidos con poderes divinos para dirigir una reunión de cristianos o para presidir la celebración de un sacramento. Pero hay quienes empiezan a negar las pretensiones de un cura que, por el hecho de haber sido ordenado o por pretender invocar una doctrina social que presume evangélica, se considere competente para enfrentarse a toda clase de problemas de su heterogénea comunidad, sea la parroquia, la diócesis o el mundo. + +La reorganización de la vida contemporánea libera a los hombres a fin de que puedan aceptar una vocación para desempeñar las funciones ministeriales a medio tiempo. Su tiempo libre aumenta con la reducción de horas de trabajo. A temprana edad puede jubilarse y gozar de toda una amplia seguridad social. Este tiempo libre podrían emplearlo en la preparación y ejercicio de un ministerio cristiano en una sociedad pluralista y secular. + +Por supuesto que los Sanchos pastorales me pondrán muchas objeciones. El sacerdote laico o el diácono podrían querer retirarse del ministerio, podrían pecar públicamente y tal vez, él o su mujer, podrian hacerse elementos de división en la comunidad cristiana. El presento derecho canónico contiene, implícitamente, la solución. Es decir, en ese caso dispone que se le «suspenda» la licencia de ejercer sus funciones. + +La «suspensión» del ejercicio sacerdotal, en efecto, debe dejar de ser sólo un instrumento de castigo en manos de la jerarquía. El ministro ordenado debe poder decidir sobre esta cuestión. Por ejemplo, podría sentirse llamado a tomar una posición políticamente discutible y querer renunciar a seguir como símbolo apropiado de la unidad sacramental. + +## Los sacerdotes del mañana: ni curas, ni mucho menos curas casados + +Es difícil para la imaginación separar lo que las costumbres o el hábito han unido —particularmente si esta unión se consagró en la Iglesia—. Una tal unión es la que resultó en la imagen del cura: empleado en el catado clerical— ordenado a lo función sacerdotal— y sujeto al celibato eclesiástico. + +Sin pretender que la Iglesia del futuro pudiera funcionar totalmente sin sus empleados (sean ellos ordenados o no) prevemos que el núcleo-base de la Iglesia del mañana será el hombre casado, que se gana su vida independiente de la Iglesia y recibe las órdenes sagradas en edad adulta. + +Con esta afirmación: a) no ponemos en iluda el derecho del cristiano a seguir su vocación al celibato; ni, b) hablamos contra la vida religiosa y los votos; ni, c) negamos el derecho a la Iglesia a limitar la ordenación sacerdotal a los «monjes» del futuro. + +### a) La elección voluntaria del celibato: Los Quijotes evangélicos. + +En todas las etapas de la Iglesia ha habido hombres y mujeres que han renunciado libremente al matrimonio «por el reino de los cielos» consecuentes con su acto, «explican» su decisión como una realización de un llamado intimo de Dios. La experiencia misteriosa de este llamado tiene que distinguirse de la formulación discursiva de los motivos que podrían justificar tal decisión. Los defensores del celibato interpretan, muy a menudo, el abandono del mismo como la manifestación de una fe pobre de los católicos de nuestro tiempo. Al contrario, puede ser más bien la manifestación de una purificación de la fe y de una mayor autenticidad humana. Los hombres de hoy no se dejan engañar con los motivos ya alegados en los noviciados en favor del celibato: motivos sociológicos, psicológicos y mitológicos. Se dan cuenta que éstos carecen de significación, de la verdadera renuncia cristiana. De hecho, hoy, la renuncia del matrimonio ya no es económicamente necesaria para el servicio de los pobres, ni condición pura el ministerio ordenado, ni conveniencia notable para los altos estudios. El celibato ya no sigue contando con la «aprobación social». + +Los motivos sicológicos que en otras épocas han sido invocados para justificar la superioridad de la abstinencia sexual, apenas sí convencen en la actualidad. Muchos célibes, ahora sin miedo, reconocen que si en un principio habían rehusado al matrimonio fue porque tenían repugnancia, temor, les faltaba preparación o simplemente no les atraía. Poder justificar su actitud con votos, les venia bien. Ahora escogen el matrimonio porque se comprenden con más madurez o para convencerse de que sus sentimientos anteriores eran equivocados. Ya no se ven más como héroes ante los ojos de sus padres (si son «fieles»), ni como parias (si «desertan»). + +El estudio comparado de las religiones revela muchos «motivos» de la renuncia sexual, a través de la historia humana. Éstos pueden reducirse a tres: motivos ascéticos, mágicos y místicos. Algunas veces son motivos «religiosos», pero apenas si relacionados con la fe cristiana. El asceta renuncia al matrimonio para entregarse a la oración; el mago, para «salvar» con su sacrificio a un chino, el místico, para buscar una exclusiva intimidad de esposo con «el Todo». El hombre contemporáneo sabe que la renuncia sexual no hace la oración más intima, ni el amor más ardiente, ni las gracias recibidas más abundantes. El cristiano contemporáneo, frecuentemente, es hombro de fe y no religioso. + +El cristiano que hoy día renuncia al matrimonio y a los hijos «por el reino de los cielos», no busca motivos abstractos para su decisión. Su opción es un puro riesgo en la fe, es el resultado de una íntima y misteriosa experiencia de su corazón. El desea vivir ahora la pobreza absoluta e intensa que todo hombro espera experimentar a la hora de su muerte. Su vida no prueba la trascendencia de Dios. Más bien todo su ser manifiesta la fe en ella. Su decisión quijotesca de renunciar a una esposa «por el reino de los cielos» es tan íntima e incomunicable como la decisión del que prefiere a su esposa sobre todas las otras. + +### b) La institución de la vida religiosa: ¿Tropas de quijotes? + +La Iglesia ha desarrollado dos métodos para el control de este quijotismo evangélico: la organización social y jurídica de comunidades religiosas y la celebración ritual de los votos. Las órdenes religiosas ofrecen una estructura comunitaria dentro de la que sus miembros, de un lado, con un «voto», profundizan su compromiso bautismal de «santificarse» mutuamente, y del otro, permanecen disponibles como personal controlado por su superior. Estos recursos humanos han permitido a las congregaciones religiosas realizar sus obras de beneficencia y todas sus empresas. Ahora parece que buena parte de estas órdenes religiosas van a desaparecer más rápidamente que las mismas estructuras parroquiales, diocesanas o de la Curia, en cuanto baya más y más miembros que salgan de Su estructura a cumplir su vocación en el mercado libre del trabajo. Los cristianos que desean vivir el celibato evangélico, ven los motivos para entrar a las comunidades jurídicamente establecidas (aunque sean instituíos seculares) como cada vez meaos convincentes; pero sí reconocen la necesidad de unirse, provisional o permanentemente con otros que tengan el mismo espíritu, para prestarse apoyo mutuo en su común y difícil aventura espiritual. Aquellas comunidades religiosas ya establecidas y que sobrevivan, mantendrán casas de intensa oración disponibles como casas de retiro, centros de formación espiritual, monasterios. + +Nuevos formas serán exploradas en las cuales se expresará públicamente, la renuncia al matrimonio. En el pasado, la Iglesia formó a quienes renunciaron al matrimonio para vivir en un ambiente comunitario que ella misma controlaba rígidamente. Entonces era aceptable que ese compromiso encontrara su expresión en un voto concebido como acto jurídico que crea obligaciones legales. Hoy, esta misma renuncia se vive en la soledad de un mundo secular. Es más propio que hoy la Iglesia la reconozca a través de un acto litúrgico en el cual, antes de todo, se celebra un acontecimiento místico. De hecho la Iglesia empieza a tomar esta dirección al hacerse los votos religiosos progresivamente menos públicos, menos solemnes y más desligables. En la actualidad, cualquier religioso, tres semanas después de que declare que no va a cumplir con su voto, recibe la disponen. Los votos eran tratados antes romo renuncias públicas de derechos; ahora revisten más bien el carácter de declaraciones públicas de intenciones condicionadas. + +Si es la intención de la Iglesia de «celebrar» públicamente con votos la existencia en su seno de tales «carismáticos», profetas, poetas que se salen de la norma, a tal rito litúrgico, se debería admitir sólo personas excepcionales después de haber vivido muchos años de renuncia en la vida seglar, en la cual se quedan. Sólo así volveremos a la íntima y real analogía entre matrimonio cristiano y renuncia; ambos sacramentos celebrarán la trascendental comprensión implícitamente cristiana, de la profundidad y totalidad del compromiso que él ha establecido y vivido. + +### c) Sacerdocio y celibato + +Un gran sector de la Iglesia «pensante», propone que se ordenen al sacerdocio a hombres casados. El Papa se opone. Ni lo doctrina ni la tradición apoyan contundentemente su posición. Yo creo que una honda reforma de la Iglesia depende, en gran parte, de la aceptación de sus directivos durante nuestra generación. Su posición, en efecto, asegura la desaparición acelerado del clero profesional y la valoración inmediata del diaconato a medio turno. + +Varias soluciones han sido propuestas para responder a la falta de vocaciones y a las «defecciones» del clero: a saber, un clero casado, o con tratamiento mejor; hermanas y laico- a tiempo completo en tareas pastorales; publicidad más atractiva en campañas vocacionales; distribución mundial del clero existente o la construcción de seminarios. Todos son simplemente unos cuantos tímidos esfuerzos para rejuvenecer una estructura agonizante. + +Sólo algo como la revisión radical que aquí propongo, puede evitar la transformación de la Iglesia Romana en super-secta mundial. Mientras que se opere esta transformación sin miedo a donde la lleve el espíritu, la táctica del cambio prohibió ordenar sacerdotes a hombres casados. Sobran los célibes. Miles de ellos ahora rehúsan el celibato y presentan el doloroso espectáculo de hombres entrenados en la abstinencia sexual que entran tardíamente a tientas a un matrimonio muy arriesgado, por el momento —y a diferencia de los religiosos que no son sacerdotes— la Iglesia les permite casarse en secreto, arbitrariamente y de mala manera. Son sacerdotes pero les está prohibido el ejercicio de sus órdenes. + +Es necesario simplificar y efectuar de manera sincera el progreso según el cual la Iglesia permita a un sacerdote casarse. Además, todos tienen que reconocer que el bien de la Iglesia y una tradición constante exigen que el «ex cura» abandone tanto su seguridad clerical como la función ministerial. Esto es difícil tanto para el cura «que quiere salir» «sin aceptar las consecuencias, como para el obispo» «que quiere retener» o su sacerdote cueste lo que cueste. + +El masivo éxodo clerical durará mientras continúe el actual sistema. La ordenación de hombres casados al sacerdocio en esta época, sería una lamentable equivocación, la confusión que de ahí resultaría, no Herviría más que para retardar las tan necesarias reformas radicales. + +No sabemos si en un futuro lejano la Iglesia romana querrá ordenar hombres casados al sacerdocio, como siempre lo hizo la Iglesia oriental. Por el momento espero que se escojan los sacerdotes y obispos sólo entre los monjes modernos que arriba llamamos Quijotes evangélicos: legos —trabajadores o profesionistas— quienes a madura edad celebraron litúrgicamente su renuncia escatológica y carismática al matrimonio. El tiempo que otros dedican a su familia, ellos, hasta los 10 años, pueden dedicarlo a su formación intelectual y espiritual. Quizás necesitemos tal sacerdote para una docena de hombres casados, escogidos a esa misma edad para el diaconato. + +De esta manera se acaba con el «estado sacerdotal» —el segundo estado de la revolución francesa. Así, el 90% de los actuales empleados de la Iglesia saldrían sobrando, y se ahorraría mucho más del 90% del dinero que ahora se gasta en ellos. La empresa burocrática mayor del mundo se «reduciría» a ser la Iglesia más fiel a lo pobreza evangélica. diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/10/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/10/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ee82918 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/cuaderno/10/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,161 @@ +# CIDOC Cuaderno 10 - CIDOC Informa “Junio-Diciembre” + +> CIDOC Cuaderno 10 - CIDOC Informa, “Junio-Diciembre”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 10, Volumen 5, Cuernavaca, 1968. + + +## Illich's articles + +* [[.:illich01|ILLICH D., Ivan. The Vanishing Clergyman]] + +* [[.:illich02|ILLICH D., Ivan. Document: L'envers de la charité]] + +* [[.:illich03|ILLICH D., Ivan. Sobre el celibato y casamiento de los sacerdotes. /Tit. original del manuscrito: “El clero, una 'especie' que desaparece/]] + +* [[.:illich04|ILLICH D., Ivan. The Redistribution of Educational Tasks. Between Schools and Other Organs of Society]] + +* [[.:illich05|ILLICH D., Ivan. Métamorphose du clergé. /Versión francaise de Valentina BORREMANS/]] + + +## Table of contents + +``` +INTRODUCCION + +BORREMANS, Valentina +A los Señores Suscriptores de CIDOC Informa + +BORREMANS, Valentina +To the Subscribers of CIDOC Informa + +ILLICH D., Ivan +The Vanishing Clergyman + +EXCELSIOR +Deja el Sacerdocio el Prior LEMERCIER + +MAZA, Enrique +La Inviolable Conciencia; Interrogantes del Caso LEMERCIER + +SERGIO VII Obispo de Cuernavaca +Reflexión del Señor Obispo de Cuernavaca con todo el Pueblo de Dios en su Diócesis sobre el Monasterio de Nuestra Señora de la Resurrección + +BRAVO, Francisco +Panamá: Menos Sacerdotes y Más Laicos + +SNOEK C., Jaime +Tercer Mundo: Revolución y Cristianismo + +NEFFA, Julio +En lisant 1'encyclique "Populorum Progressio"... + +BECERRA DE MELO, Almeri +Método "Paulo FREIRE" de alfabetización en Brasil + +CARINO, Feliciano V. +Discusión: frustraciones y esperanzas en América Latina... + +MEJIA, Jorge L . +La Enciclica y los bienes eclesiasticos + +QUARRACINO, Antonio /Obispo de Nueve de Julio/ - +Las exigencias morales de la economía; declaración pastoral... + + ILLICH D., Ivan +Document: L'envers de la charité + +SERGIO VII Obispo de Cuernavaca +Version francaise de la Lettre Pastorale de Monseigneur Sergio MENDEZ ARCEO, Evéque de Cuernavaca + +THE EDITORS of CIF REPORTS +To CIF REPORTS Subscribers: + +SERGIO VII Obispo de Cuernavaca +Pastoral Letter + +LEMERCIER, Gregorio +(Statement of Father Gregorio LEMERCIER in "Exceleior," June 12, 1967.) + +FITZPATRICK P., Joseph +Ou veut-il en venir? + +ILLICH D., Ivan +Sobre el celibato y casamiento de los sacerdotes. /Tit. original del manuscrito: “El clero, una 'especie' que desaparece"/ + +GALILEA, Segundo +Nuevas estructuras para la pastoral en +América Latina + +BLOCH, Ernst +Du bon usage de la violence + +ILLICH D., Ivan +The Redistribution of Educational Tasks Between Schools and Other Organs of Society + +FACULTAD DE ARQUITECTURA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA DEL VALPARAISO +Situación de la facultad... declaración del Consejo de Profesores, del Instituto y del Pleno de Alumnos... + +ISAZA RESTREPO, Rubén +Carta pastoral de saludo a la Arquidiócesis de Cartagena + +CANNOBIO, Ximena +Lucha en la UC portena + +GUTIERREZ, José Armando +Carta pastoral con motivo de las guerrillas; a los sacerdotes, religiosos, fieles y hombres de buena voluntad + + GOTT, Richard +The end of a U.s. experiment in Chile + +EGLISE D'HAITI +Notre revue; Eglise d'Haiti + +SUZAN PRIETO, Margarita & CAREAGA MEDINA, Gabriel México: la ideología del estudiante universitario + +FUENTES, Carlos +Nuestras sociedades no quieren testigos y todo acto de lenguaje verdadero es en si revolucionario + +CAMARA, Dom Helder /y otros/ +15 obispos hablan en pro del Tercer Mundo. Trad. de CASTRO, Carlos A. + +BRAVO, Francisco +Panamá: moins de prétres et plus de laics, Trad. par MAILLOL, Giselle + +MACCOBY, Michael +A Psychoanalyst Looks at the Vows + +GRUPO DE SACERDOTES EXTRANJEROS +Carta de un grupo de sacerdotes extranjeros que ejercen su ministerio en Chile... + +BULNES ALDUNATE, Juan +Eres rica y no tienes necesidad de cosa alguna? Carta abierta al SINODO ARQUIDIOCESANO DE SANTIAGO + +ILLICH D., Ivan +Métamorphose du clergé. /Versión francaise de Valentine BORREMANS/ + +LEFEBVRE, Juan +"Novas dimensoes da pobreza religiosa" + +EL MUNDO +Se caracterizó CHE por su extraordinario arrojo; a nadie debe extranar que en un combate pueda haber caído él, entre los primeros + +CIDOC INFORMA +A los lectores del Servicio de Documentacion CIDOC + +UN PSYCHANALYSTE INTERPRETE LES VOEUX +Version francaise partielle de la conférence de Michael MACCOBY... + + ULTIMA HORA +300 padres contra opressao; padres denuncian: injustigas assassinam brasileiros... + +JAGUARIBE, Helio +L'Amérique Latine aujourd'hui et demain; politique, développement, révolution, socialisme. /Entretien/ + +MALDONADO PEREZ, Oscar +El Camilo TORRES de Germán GUZMAN + +ANCEL, Alfred, /Bishop/ +The encyclical on celibacy + +NAZARIO, Victor M. +The encyclical on celibacy: a comentary +``` diff --git a/data/pages/cidoc/index.txt b/data/pages/cidoc/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..794ad21 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/cidoc/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,279 @@ +# CIDOC - Centro Intercultural de documentación + +## CIDOC Cuadernos + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:01:index|Cuaderno 01]] - GODOT, Esperanza, _"Center of intercultural formation: first five years"_, Cuernavaca, México, Petropolis, Brazil, Centro Intercultural de documentación, Cuaderno No. 1, Cuernavaca, 1966, 59 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:01b:index|Cuaderno 01b]] - MANNY PAUL, Catharine, _"Amanda Labarca H . Educator to the women in Chile"_. 1969, 224p. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:02:index|Cuaderno 02]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Items clasificados y catalogados en los archivos CIDOC entre el 15 de junio y el 1 de diciembre de 1966"_, Centro Intercultural de documentación, Cuaderno No. 2, Cuernavaca, 1966, 265 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:03:index|Cuaderno 03]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Religión: Clase 2 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 3, Cuernavaca, 1967, 126 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:04:index|Cuaderno 04]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Ciencias sociales: clase 3 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 4, Cuernavaca, 1967, 152 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:05:index|Cuaderno 05]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Bibliografía: clase 0 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 5, Cuernavaca, 1967, 136 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:06:index|Cuaderno 06]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Abril-Diciembre 1964"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 6, Volumen 1, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:07:index|Cuaderno 07]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Enero-Diciembre 1965"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 7, Volumen 2, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:08:index|Cuaderno 08]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Enero-Diciembre 1966"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 8, Volumen 3, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:09:index|Cuaderno 09]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Enero-Junio 1967"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 9, Volumen 4, Cuernavaca, 1968. + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:10:index|Cuaderno 10]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Junio-Diciembre"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 10, Volumen 5, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:11:index|Cuaderno 11]] - Cuarta asamblea del Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, _"Catalogo de la exposición de libros de Geografía e Historia de Venezuela"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 11, Cuernavaca, 1968, 319 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:12:index|Cuaderno 12]] - LOLLETT C., Carlos Miguel,_" Repertorio de la bibliografía venezolana económica y social"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 12, Cuernavaca, 1968, 46 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:13:index|Cuaderno 13]] - JULIAO, Francisco, _"Cambao"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 13, Cuernavaca, 1970. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:14:index|Cuaderno 14]] - FURTER, Pierre, _"L’Imaginationcreatrice, laviolence et le changement social. Une interpretration"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 14, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:15:index|Cuaderno 15]] - HARO Barrios, María del Carmen, _"Intereses religiosos y éticos en los alumnos de psicología de las universidades: Nacional Autónoma de México e Iberoamericana"_, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 15, Cuernavaca, 1968, 88 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:16:index|Cuaderno 16]] - DELOBELLE, André, _"Die katholischeuniversitat in lateinamerika"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 16, Cuernavaca, 1968, 98 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:17:index|Cuaderno 17]] - Instituto de Estudios peruanos, _"Aspectos sociológicos del desarrollo en América Latina. Serie: documentos teóricos"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 17, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:18:index|Cuaderno 18]] - Instituto de Estudios peruanos, _"Aspectos sociológicos del desarrollo en el Perú y América Latina. Serie: mesas redondas y conferencias"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 18, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:19:index|Cuaderno 19]] - Instituto de Estudios peruanos, _"aspectos sociológicos del desarrollo en el Perú. Cambios en sociedad peruana (rural)"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 19, Cuernavaca, 1968.<br /> + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:20:index|Cuaderno 20]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Enero-Junio 1968"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 20, Volumen 6, Cuernavaca, 1968, 84 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:21:index|Cuaderno 21]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Julio-Diciembre 1968"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 21, Volumen 7, Cuernavaca, 1968, 117 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:22:index|Cuaderno 22]] - REIMER, Everett W., _"Social Planning. Collectedpapers 1957-68"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 22, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:23:index|Cuaderno 23]] - ROGGERS, William W. y Richard Graham, _"Cornell-Brazil Project. Anexperiment in learning"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 23, Cuernavaca, 1969, 151 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:24:index|Cuaderno 24]] - HARRISON Luebke, Benjamín, _"Delineation of rural communities in the state of Oaxaca, México"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 24, Cuernavaca, 1968. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:25:index|Cuaderno 25]] - FREIRE, Paulo, Raul Veloso y José Luis Fiori, _"Educacao e conscientizacao. Estensionismo rural"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 25, Cuernavaca, 1968, 102 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:26:index|Cuaderno 26]] - GRIMES, Larry M., _"Therevolutinonarycycle in theliteraryproduction of Martin Luis Guzmán"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 26, Cuernavaca, 1969, 102 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:27:index|Cuaderno 27]] - JULIAO, Francisco (ed.), _"Ligas camponesas, outubro 1962-abril 1964"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 27, Cuernavaca, 1969, 555 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:28:index|Cuaderno 28]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Religión: clase 2 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 28, Cuernavaca, 1968, 98 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:29:index|Cuaderno 29]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Ciencias Sociales: clase 3 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 29, Cuernavaca, 1968, 195 pp. + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:30:index|Cuaderno 30]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones,_"Bibliografía: clase 0 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 30, Cuernavaca, 1968, 264 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:31:index|Cuaderno 31]] - SNEE, Carole A., _"Current types of peasan-agricultural worker coalitions an their historical development in Guatemala"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 31, Cuernavaca, 1969, 129 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:32:index|Cuaderno 32]] - CONN, Stephen, _"The squatters rights of favelados"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 32, Cuernavaca, 1969. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:33:index|Cuaderno 33]] - A brazilian factory Study 1966 -JosephFrank Springer +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:34:index|Cuaderno 34]] - 16 Estudios de interpretacion social latinoamericana de roger vekemans e ismael fuenzalida +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:35:index|Cuaderno 35]] - 16 Estudios de interpretación social latinoamericana de Roger Vekemans e Ismael Fuenzalida +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:36:index|Cuaderno 36]] - CIF Reports v.1 April 1962 - March 1963 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:37:index|Cuaderno 37]] - CIF Reports v. 2 april 1963-march 1964 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:38:index|Cuaderno 38]] - CIF reports v. 3 April-December 1964 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:39:index|Cuaderno 39]] - CIF Reports v.4 January-december 1965 + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:40:index|Cuaderno 40]] - CIF Reports V.5 January-December 1966 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:41:index|Cuaderno 41]] - CIF reports v. 6 January- June 1967 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:42:index|Cuaderno 42]] - people of the montains +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:43:index|Cuaderno 43]] - Social relations in amatengo del valle - June C. Nash + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:44:index|Cuaderno 44]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Enero-Junio 1969"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 44, Volumen 8, Cuernavaca, 1969, 148 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:45:index|Cuaderno 45]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Julio-Diciembre 1969"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 45, Volumen 9, Cuernavaca, 1970, 200 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:46:index|Cuaderno 46]] - PONCE G., Jaime, Julián Rojas R., et al, _"Perú: Juli-1968. Actitudes y estructuras sociales"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 46, Cuernavaca, 1970. + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:47:index|Cuaderno 47]] - Paradise and fall on Rulfo's Pedro Páramo +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:48:index|Cuaderno 48]] - Roman et societe en Equateur (1930-1949) + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:49:index|Cuaderno 49]] - CIDOC Informa, _"Enero-Junio 1970"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 49, Volumen 10, Cuernavaca, 1970, 223 pp. + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:50:index|Cuaderno 50]] - SPRING, Joel H., _"Education and the rise of the corpote state"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 50, Cuernavaca, 1971. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:51:index|Cuaderno 51]] - FISKE, Adele M., _"Friends and friendship in themonastictradition"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 51, Cuernavaca, 1970. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:52:index|Cuaderno 52]] - ORTEGA, Benjamín, _"Repertorio para el estudio de las iglesias en la sociedad de América Latina: 1960-1969"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 52, Cuernavaca, 1970, 208 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:53:index|Cuaderno 53]] - Unidad y testimonio letras hispanoamericanas -Jose Maria Bulnes +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:54:index|Cuaderno 54]] - The dawn of epimehean man and other essays -Ivan Illich +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:55:index|Cuaderno 55]] - Social Change and social character in mexico and the united states +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:56:index|Cuaderno 56]] - Cidoc documenta ideologias iglesias julio-diciembre 1970 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:57:index|Cuaderno 57]] - Formative Undercurrent +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:58:index|Cuaderno 58]] - Everett Reimer An Essay on alternatives in education +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:59:index|Cuaderno 59]] - The formal expression of meaning in juan carlos onettis´s narrative art -Yvonne Perier Jones + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:60:index|Cuaderno 60]] - Tupamaros +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:61:index|Cuaderno 61]] - La Violencia en Guatemala como fenomeno politico -Gabriel Edgardo Aguilera Peralta +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:62:index|Cuaderno 62]] - The poetic achievement of Xavier Villaurrutia +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:63:index|Cuaderno 63]] - The Economics of scholing and international development -Martin Carnoy +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:64:index|Cuaderno 64]] - El tabú lingüístico +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:65:index|Cuaderno 65]] - ILLICH, Iván, _"Hacia el fin de la era escolar"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 65, Cuernavaca, 1971. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:66:index|Cuaderno 66]] - CIDOC. Documenta, _"Ideologías/Iglesias. Enero-Junio 1971"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno N°66, Cuernavaca, 1971, 323 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:67:index|Cuaderno 67]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Religión: clase 2 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 67, Cuernavaca, 1971, 153 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:68:index|Cuaderno 68]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Ciencias Sociales: clase 3 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 68, Cuernavaca, 1971, pp. 154-306. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:69:index|Cuaderno 69]] - Catalogo de adquisiciones, _"Bibliografía: clase 0 CDU"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 69, Cuernavaca, 1971, pp. 307-409. + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:70:index|Cuaderno 70]] - DALY, Herman E. (ed.), _"Essaytoward a steady-stateeconomy"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 70, Cuernavaca, 1971. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:71:index|Cuaderno 71]] - STEGER, Hanns Albert, _"Askeseundamourcourtois"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 71, Cuernavaca, 1971. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:72:index|Cuaderno 72]] - CASTILLO Ríos, Carlos, _"La educación en China"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 72, Cuernavaca, 1972, 34 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:73:index|Cuaderno 73]] - JOEL, Miriam, _"Africantraditions in LatinAmerica"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 73, Cuernavaca, 1972. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:74:index|Cuaderno 74]] - CIDOC. Documenta, _"Ideologías/iglesias. Julio-Diciembre 1971"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 74, Cuernavaca, 1972. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:75:index|Cuaderno 75]] - CIDOC. Documenta, _"Alternatives in education. July 1970 - June 1971"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 75, Volumen 1, Cuernavaca, 1972. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:76:index|Cuaderno 76]] - CIDOC. Documenta, _"Alternatives in education. July 1970 - June 1971"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 76, Volumen 2, Cuernavaca, 1972. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:77:index|Cuaderno 77]] - CIDOC. Documenta, _"Alternatives in education. July 1971 - June 1972"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 77, Volumen 1, Cuernavaca, 1972. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:78:index|Cuaderno 78]] - Alternatives in education +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:79:index|Cuaderno 79]] - Cidoc documenta ideología iglesias enero diciembre 1972 + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:80:index|Cuaderno 80]] - Retooling Society III Ivan Illich +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:81:index|Cuaderno 81]] - The mayan woman and change - Mary Lindsay Elmendorf +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:82:index|Cuaderno 82]] - CIDOC Documenta I/V Julio 1971 – Agosto 1972. Hipótesis – Sociedad +Convivencial Seminarios 1971 – 1975, Cuernavaca 1973 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:83:index|Cuaderno 83]] - CIDOC Documenta I/V Agosto 1972 – Enero 1973. Hipótesis – Sociedad +Convivencial Seminarios 1971 – 1975, Cuernavaca 1973 +* Cuaderno 84 - CIDOC Documenta I/V Febrero – Agosto 1973. Hipótesis – Sociedad Convivencial +Seminarios 1971 – 1975, Cuernavaca 1973 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:85:index|Cuaderno 85]] - CIDOC Documenta Ideologías / Iglesias. Enero – Diciembre 1973, Cuernavaca +1974 +* Cuaderno 86 - Hygienic Nemesis. Very first draft +* Cuaderno 87 - Law against Law: Legal Reasoning in Pasagarda Law. De Sousa Santos, Boaventura + +* **Cuaderno 1001 - Alternatives in Education, 1968-69 by REIMER, Everett** +* Cuaderno 1002 - Beecher Lectures +* Cuaderno 1003 - ? +* **Cuaderno 1004 - Cultural Action: A Dialectical Analysis by Paulo Freire** +* **Cuaderno 1005 - An Essay on Alternative in Education by Reimer, Everett** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma99250420812205899 +* **Cuaderno 1006 - The integer concept among school children in New England by Anderson, Samuel W. (Samuel Wentworth)** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940950312205899 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1007:index|Cuaderno 1007]] - Ciclo Lectures Summer 1970 -Ivan Illich +* **Cuaderno 1008 - Auswahl selbstkritischer Dokumente der latein-amerikanischen Kirche, 1965-1970 / Offener Brief an Paul VI** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932153412205899 +* **Cuaderno 1009 - Guidelines for research on neo-colonialism by Nazario, Victor** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931505312205899 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1010:index|Cuaderno 1010]] - Catalogo de publicaciones 1970 +* Cuaderno 1011 - ? +* **Cuaderno 1012 - Problematisation du system scolaire by Donabin, Miguel** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9941263112205899 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1013:index|Cuaderno 1013]] - Ciclo Lectures -Ivan Illich +* Cuaderno 1014 - Interpersonal Relational Networks +* **Cuaderno 1015 - Schools under fire The success and the failure of an ideology** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899 +* **Cuaderno 1016 - The Breakdown of Schools** +* Cuaderno 1017 - Institutional Inversion +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1018:index|Cuaderno 1018]] - Catalogo de publicaciones 1973 +* **Cuaderno 1019 - Law, Growth and Technology by Weisstub, David (1972)** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9940951312205899 +* **Cuaderno 1020 - Retooling Society II (1972)** +* **Cuaderno 1021 - Hacía una sociedad convivencial** +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1022:index|Cuaderno 1022]] - Hacia una sociedad convivencial - Ivan Illich +* **Cuaderno 1023 - Preparatory Reading Materials A142 by Ivan Illich** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9931506112205899 +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1024:index|Cuaderno 1024]] - Seminario sobre la sociedad convivencial +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1025:index|Cuaderno 1025]] - Seminar on "Tools for conviviality" working papers. January-February 1973 +* **Cuaderno 1026 - The dynamic programming of human systems by Wilkinson, John** + * https://i-share-uiu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01CARLI_UIU/gpjosq/alma9932739912205899 +* **Cuaderno 1027 - Herramientas para la convivencia** +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:1028:index|Cuaderno 1028]] - La convivialité -Ivan Illich + +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1966:index|Cuaderno Antología 1966]] - CIDOC. The university in Latin America. An Anthology of recent Articles, José M. Bulnes Aldunate y Larry M. Grimes (eds.), Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, 1966, 81 pp. +* [[cidoc:cuaderno:antologia1973:index|Cuaderno Antologia 1973]] - CIDOC. Antología: A6_", Alternativas al Médico"_, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, 1973, 194 pp. + +## Dossiers + +* Dossier 01 - Puerto Rico Idioma Escolar 62 – 65. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1966 +* Dossier 02 - Brasil o Confronto de Duas Generaçoes de Cristãos 1960. G. De Souza, Luis Alberto (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1966 +* Dossier 03 - Argentina Confederación General del Trabajo 1965. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Roggi, Luis Osvaldo (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 04 - México Huelga de la UNAM Marzo – Mayo, 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 05 - México Huelga de la UNAM Marzo – Mayo, 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 06 - Puerto Rico Reforma Universitaria 1963 – 1965. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1966 +* Dossier 07 - Brasil Control de la Natalidad Agosto 1966 – 67. Algunos documentos clave. Lagge Pessoa, Francisco (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 08 - Valparaíso Crisis de la Universidad Católica Junio – Agosto, 1967. Documentos Oficiales y Reacciones de Prensa. Bulnes A., José M. y Di Girolamo, Vittorio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 09 - Venezuela Reforma Tributaria 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969 +* Dossier 10 - Argentina Enseñanza Superior 1958. Roggi, Luis O. (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 11 - Puerto Rico Partido Acción Cristina 1960 – 62. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo, Tarsicio, (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 + * Dossier 12 - © Josefina Echevarría/ Martina Kaller-Dietrich 2007 Colombia Camilo Torres Un símbolo Controvertido 1962 – 67. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 13 - Venezuela Ley Orgánica de Educación 1966. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 14 - México Movimiento Universitario de Renovadora Orientación 1961 – 66. Reacciones de Prensa. Del Corro, Alejandro y Matar, Myriam A. (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 15 - Argentina Petróleo y Soberanía 1955 – 1964. Roggi, Luis O. (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 16 - Puerto Rico Obispos Nativos 1962 – 65. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1967 +* Dossier 17 - Venezuela “Astronautas” de COPEI 1965 – 67. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 19 - Guatemala La Violencia – I – Posiciones ante el uso de la Violencia en el Cambio Social: Prensa Nacional, 1960 – 65. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 20 - Guatemala La Violencia – II – Posiciones ante el uso de la Violencia en el Cambio Social: Prensa Nacional, 1966 Mayo 1967. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 21 - Guatemala La Violencia – III – Posiciones ante el uso de la Violencia en el Cambio Social: Prensa Nacional. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 22 - Colombia La Jerarquía Católica y los Programas de Control de la Natalidad. Enero – Marzo 1967. Algunos documentos clave. Maldonado, Oscar (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 23 - México Conflicto Estudiantil – I – 1968. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969 +* Dossier 24 - América Latina Crisis de la Iglesia Católica Junio – Setiembre de 1968. Reacciones de Prensa. Hevia, Patricio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969 +* Dossier 25 - Venezuela Diques del Delta Amacuro 1966. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V. Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 26 - Perú International Petroleum Company Limited 1968 - 69. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1970 +* Dossier 27 - Puerto Rico – UPR Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC). Bulnes Aldunate, José María y Torres, Julio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1971 +* Dossier 28 - México Reelección de Diputados 1964 – 65. Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio y Jurado G., Humberto (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969 +* Dossier 29 - Puerto Rico – UPR Abrahán Díaz González 1966 - 1969. Bulnes Aldunate, José María y Torres, Julio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1971 +* Dossier 30 - El Ché Guevara. Reacción de la prensa del Continente Americano con motivo de su muerte; octubre – noviembre 1967. Ortega, Benjamín (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968. +* Dossier 31 - Cuernavaca Fuentes para el Estudio de una Diócesis – II – Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa 1959 – ‘68. López, Baltazar (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 32 - Venezuela La Violencia – I – El Nacional. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 33 - Venezuela La Violencia – II – Disturbios y Represión de mayor trascendencia. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 34 - Venezuela La Violencia – III – PCV. Impresos clandestinos, de tirajes reducidos, Prensa suprimida y marginal. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 35 - Venezuela La Violencia – IV – MIR. Impresos clandestinos, de tirajes reducidos, Prensa suprimida y marginal. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 36 - Venezuela La Violencia – V – FLN – FALN. Impresos clandestinos de tirajes reducidos, Prensa suprimida y marginal. Del Corro, Alejandro (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Dossier 37 - México “Entredicho” del Vaticano a CIDOC 1966 - 69. Documentos y Reacciones de Prensa. Ocampo V., Tarsicio (Comp.), Cuernavaca 1969 +* Dossier 38 - Índice a CIDOC Dossier Nos. 1 – 37. 1966 - 1971. Cuernavaca 1971 + +## Sondeos + +* Sondeos 01 - Catecismos Peruanos en el Siglo XVI. Castillo Arroyo, Javier, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 02 - Etudes sur le Vodou. Montilus, Robert et autres, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 03 - Two Studies of Puerto Rico. Religion data, the Background of Consensual Union. Dohen, Dorothy, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 04 - The Parish of San Miguelito in Panama. History and Pastoral-Theological Evaluation. Bravo, Francisco, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 05 - Camilo Torres. Por el Padre Camilo Torres Restrepo (1956 – 1966), Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 06 - Católicos y Liberales en la Generación del Ochenta. Buenos Aires 1960. Auza, Néstor Tomás, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 07 - Católicos y Liberales en la Generación del Ochenta. Buenos Aires 1960. Auza, Néstor Tomás, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 08 - Concubinato en América Central. Vega, Ramón/ Taylor, Greer, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 09 - Educational Planning and Socio-Economic Development in Latin America. Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. (Editor), Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 10 - L’univers religieux des aymaras de Bolivie. Observations recueillies dans les carangas. Jalons de Pastorale. Monast, Jaques, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 11 - The cuches of the dominican Republic in the light of history. A study of the roat cuases of current problem. Wipfler, William, Cuernacava 1966 +* Sondeos 12 – 13 - Diocese de Ponta Grossa Parana. Deelen, Godofredo, Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 14 - Historia de los Congresos Católicos Argentinos 1884 – 1921. Auza, Néstor Tomás, Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 15 - El Sentimiento Religioso en la Lírica Puertorriqueña. De Sales, María, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 16 - Misa Tepozteca. Desarrollo de la Música Litúrgica en Tepoztlán, México. Leclerc, Jean-Marc, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 17 - Providence Community in Latin America. A Canadian Group of Sisters re-founds itself in Chile. Volkomener, Mary Theophane, Cuernavaca 1966 +* Sondeos 18 - Curanderismo en Venezuela. Chacón, Alfredo y Cardona, Miguel, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 19 - Documentos sobre la Pastoral 1965 – 67. Galilea, Segundo (Editor), Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 20 - El Real Colegio de San Nicolás de Pátzcuaro. Miranda Godinez, Francisco, Cuernavaca 1967 +* Sondeos 21 - The Evangelism in Depth Program of the Latin American Mission. A Description and Evaluation. Rosales, Ray S., Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 22 - The Colombian Concordat. In the light of recent trends in Catholic thought concerning Church-State relations and religious liberty. Castillo Cárdenas, Gonzalo, Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 23 - The Persecution of Protestant Christians in Colombia. 1948 – 1958. With an investigation of its background and causes. Goff, James E., Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 24 - Catálogo de Libros de la Exposición Catequística. Con un estudio histórico y bibliográfico por Lucila L. de Pérez Díaz. Biblioteca Nacional de Venezuela, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 25 - The Political Ideology of Fray Servando Teresa de Mier. Propagandist for Independence. Lombardi, John V., Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 26 - Desarrollo Económico y Moral Católica. Introducción de Roger Vekemans. Zañartu, Mario, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 27 - American Catholic Opinions of Mexican Anticlericalism 1910 – 1936. Quigley, Robert E., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 28 - Religión y Magia en Tupe (Yauyos). Delgado de Thays, Carmen, Cuernavaca 1968 +* Sondeos 29 - Castas Pastorales, 1895 – 1949. Bogarín, Juan Sinforiano, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 30 - Castas Pastorales, 1895 – 1949. Bogarín, Juan Sinforiano, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 31 - Fenomenología Religiosa de la Tribu Anti o Campa. Amazonía Peruana. Torre López, Fernando, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 32 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 1. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 33 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 2. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 34 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 3. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 35 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 4. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 36 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 5. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970 + * Sondeos 37 - © Josefina Echevarría/ Martina Kaller-Dietrich 2007 El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 6. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 38 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620, Vol. 7. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 39 - The Christian Democratic Party in Chile. A study of political organization and activity with primary emphasis on the local level. Wayland Smith, Giles, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 40 - The Significance of the Church-State Relationship to an Evangelical Program in Brazil. Lodwick, Robert E., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 41 - Catholic Innovation in a Changing Latin America. Sanders, Thomas G., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 42 - Expresiones Religiosas en el Folklore. Presentación de José Miguel Bonino. Castro, Néstor W., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 43 - Puerto Rico para Cristo. A History of the Progress of the Evangelical Missions on the Island of Puerto Rico. Moore, Ronald T., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 44 - Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en Chile (1593 – 1955). Hanisch Espindola, Walter, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 45 - Brasil: Igreja em Transiçao. Kosinki de Cavalcanti, Jose e Deelen, Godofredo, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 46 - Portrait of Half a Century. Fifty years of Presbyterianism in Brazil (1859 – 1910). Mc Intire, Robert Leonard, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 47 - Diocese de Caravelas. Introduçao de Affonso Gregory. Deelen, Godofredo, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 48 - O Apostolado das Religiosas. Pesquisa realizada nas Cidades de Recife e de Olinda Brasil 1967. Lhoëst, Bernadete, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 49 - Situación Social y Liberación. Interpretación Teológica de un Contexto Social Específico: un área urbana – industrial en el Gran Buenos Aires. De Luca, José N., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 50 - Una Imagen del Hombre Argentino. Presentación de José Míguez Bonino. Clausen, Arne, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 51 - The Significance of Changes in Latin American Catholicism since Chimbote 1953. Vitalis, Hellmut Gnadt, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 52 - Understanding the Religious Background of the Puerto Rican. Fenton, Jerry, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 53 - Comunication of the Gospel in Latin America. Nida, Eugene, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 54 - Documentos sobre la realidad de la iglesia en América Latina. 1968-1969. Rogel, Isaac (ed), Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 55 - Sectarismo Portorriqueño. Búsqueda de Comunidad y Expansión Pentecostal. Poblete, Renato, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 56 - A Presbyterian Church in Central Brazil. A Program for accelerating its development. Read, William R., Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 57 - Religiosidad y actitudes ante el cambio social de los universitarios latinoamericanos en Madrid. Diaz Casanova, Máximo, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 58 - Cuernavaca: Mentalidad Religiosa Popular. Inst. Supérieur de Pastorale Catéchétique, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 59 - El Clero en Bolivia, 1968. Ponce García, Jaime y Uzín Fernández, Oscar, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 60 - Sicuani, 1968: Estudio Socio Religioso. Negre Rigor, Pedro y Bustillos Gálvez, Franklin, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 61 - El Mito en una Comunidad Indígena: Picaflores, Veracruz. Williams García, Roberto, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 62 - The Catholic Church and Elections. A Study of the Catholic Thought on the Moral Obligation of Voting. Aleixo, José Carlos, Cuernavaca 1969 +* Sondeos 63 - Education Catholique et Sécularisation en Colombie. Rodríguez Forero, Jaime, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 64 - The Mennonite Immigrant Communities in Parana, Brazil. Minnich, Reynolds Herbert, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 65 - Protestantism in Guatemala. Its Influence on the Bicultural situation, with reference to the Roman Catholic background. Emery, Gennet Maxon, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 66 - Puerto Rico: Iglesia y Sociedad 1967 – 1969. Conferencias, Discursos, Entrevistas. Parrilla Bonilla, Antulio, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 67 - Las Vocaciones en Chile, 1536 – 1850. Hanisch Espindola, Walter, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 68 - Foreign Missionaries in Argentina 1938 – 1962. A Study of Dependence. Sweeney, Ernest S., Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 69 - Les Documents de l’épiscopat Brésilien sur le développement. De Lima, Danilo, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 70 - Caribbean Papers. Simpson, George Eaton, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 71 - El Episcopado Hispanoamericano. Institución Misionera en Defensa del Indio 1504 – 1620. Apéndice Documental, Tomo I, Vol. 8. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 72 - El episcopado hispanoamericano. Institución misioneraen defensa del indio, 15041620. Apéndice documental, Tomo II. Dussel, Enrique D., Cuernavca 1971 +* Sondeos 73 - Los Ex–Sacerdotes y Ex–Seminaristas en España. Ruiz Olabuenaga, José Ignacio, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 74 - Spiritual Care of Puerto Rican Migrants. Report on the First Conference, held in San Juan, Puerto Rico, April 11th to 16th 1955. Ferree, William, Illich, Ivan, Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. (Editors), Cuernavaca 1970 74) +* Sondeos 75 - Sacerdocios y Dominación. Bulnes Aldunate, Juan, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 76 - Vestigios Africanos en la Cultura del Pueblo Venezolano. Pollak-Eltz, Angelina, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 77 - Ensayos sobre la Trascendencia. Illich, Ivan, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 78 - José María Bulnes, Introducción por Giuseppe Alberigo, Facsímil del Textus Emendatus (Reservatum), Apuntes para un Análisis Crítico del Esquema por un grupo de Teólogos. Rogel, Isaac (Editor), Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 79 - Las Informaciones de Cristóbal de Albornoz. Documentos para el estudio del Taki Onqoy. Millones, Luis, Cuernavaca 1970 +* Sondeos 80 - Pénétration Culturelle et Presse Religieuse. Le cas d’une Revue Protestante Argentina. Lalive D’Epinay, Christian, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 81 - Dominación y Catequesis en América Latina (Siglos XVI y XVII). Rivera Pizarro, Jorge, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 82 - Catholicisme et Vaudou. Robert, Paul, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 83 - Participação e Igreja. Estudo dos Movimentos e Associações de Leigos. De Medina, Carlos Alberto y Furtado, Dimas, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 84 - Puerto Rico: Iglesia y Sociedad 1969 – 1971. Conferencias, Discursos, Entrevistas. Parrilla-Bonilla, Antulio, Cuernavaca 1971 +* Sondeos 85 - Faith and ideology in Latin American Perspective. Dehainaut, Raymond K., Cuernavaca 1972 +* Sondeos 86 - El trasondo revolucionario del sincretismio criollo. Steger, Hans-Albert, Cuernavaca 1972 +* Sondeos 87 - Images Messianiques du Brésil. Pereira de Queiroz, Maria Isaura, Cuernavaca 1972 +* Sondeos 88 - Pioneer protestant missionaries in Honduras. A.E. Bishop and J.G. Cassel and the establishment of central American mission in western Honduras, 1896-1901. Winn, Wilkins B., Cuernavaca 1973 +* Sondeos 89 - Approche Anthropologique de la Religiosité Populaire au Brésil. Tavares de Andrade, José María, Cuernavaca 1973 diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/index.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b848ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +# The American Parish + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:text|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _The American Parish_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1955 +* **#@LANG_versions@#:** + * Peter Canon, “The American Parish,” Integrity, June 1955, 5–16. +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** + * Included in the book "The Powerless Church" (2018) + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/text.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/text.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b360b1d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1955-the_american_parish/text.txt @@ -0,0 +1,409 @@ +# The American Parish + +In a modern city parish many people do not find what they are looking +for. Many of those who are dissatisfied never voice their disappointment; +many do not even realize they are disappointed. Some put the blame +for their dissatisfaction on the pastor, the bishop or the trustee of the +Church. The pastor again and his assistants, if ever they become conscious of their people’s criticism, put the blame on their parishioners’ +unreasonable requests or ungenerous help. + +Do people look to their parish for things the parish could not offer or +does the modern city parish fundamentally not offer what it should? +More practical inquiries might be directed toward the study of methods. Here we ask the more fundamental “what” should be offered and +leave the “how” to other articles. + +Take Jose, I met him one Sunday when, during the eleven o’clock +high Mass, I went out through the main door of our Church. There I saw +him among five darkaired and bronzekinned people. From far away +you could have guessed their origin, the origin of 37% of the baptized +Catholics in New York City, Puerto Rico. Why had they come to Church +and then remained outside? Had they gone in or were they waiting for +the next Mass? They were all standing in a little group and talking lethargically. I went up to them and said “que tal” which means “Hi,” and slowly +they turned around, looking at me. After a few more words their eyes +began to sparkle. Before they had been completely unrelated to the surroundings: their dresses were almost imperceptibly differently cut from +those of the other parishioners, their language was different and while +the others were in Church they were outside. Now suddenly, through +a few Spanish words they seemed related to their surroundings. They +started to speak: they all came from Moca, a little place in the hills of that +beautiful island; they had arrived here in New York just a few weeks ago. +They had found out where the Church was, and when they looked at it +they would not believe that it was a Catholic Church: a Church had to +be in the middle of a plaza, in the middle of the village, the center of a +community. Here they had found a building with some strange pointed +arches in the middle of two tall houses right on a booming street. +The Church inside was dark, with light strangely colored from +stainedlass windows, instead of the simple, whitewashed structure— +with wide openings for windows to let in as much air as possible—that +they were used to. But they had recognized this as a Catholic church, +because, upon an inspection, they had found the picture of Our Lady +of Perpetual Help on one of the altars; and that much they knew, where +that picture was, there had to be Our Lord. They had discovered the +picture on a weekday evening, and now on Sunday they had come back +to the Church, they had wanted to go to Mass. Now why did they not go +in and follow Mass? I asked them, and got an answer which baffled me. +They said, because of the ushers. They had never been accompanied to +a pew by an usher. Oftentimes they had no pews in Church. Here they +saw parishioners paying their way into Church. They didn’t realize that +these people—or their parents—had built this church by themselves, that +they now felt responsible for its support and maintenance, that it was +not like Puerto Rico where the government had built churches until the +Americans arrived. So they had turned away from Church because of the +ushers, as one of them said; because Mass starts so much on time, the +other said, Our Lady was there, they said—but the warmth and the life +of the people seemed lacking. + +I could not help thinking back to Puerto Rico; my first Sunday there +in a big parish, in the mountains. On Saturday the pastor asked me say +Mass the next day in the mountains, in three different mission chapels +(he had twelve altogether), since he would have to say the Masses in the +main village. If there was a priest around to help out, every four weeks +Mass was said on Sunday in every chapel. The first Mass I said at about +six in the morning, after I had slept all night on the altar steps of the +chapel, then I travelled on, by horseback, to the next chapel. I heard +confessions, said Mass, baptized, married . . . and off I went to the third +chapel, on horseback still, where I arrived after noon. People were sitting +around in Church eating their bananas and chewing cane, and on the +Church steps they had lighted a little fire to cook something. They continued their conversation in Church while I heard confessions; for Mass +everybody was silent and most of them knelt on the crude floor while two +lonely dogs ran around among them, and when I started to baptize the +conversation resumed. In the evening, I was amazed at the answer I got +from the pastor, a Puerto Rican trained in a United States seminary, to my +question as to whether he thought this behavior slightly disrespectful: +Our people believe that God is their Father, and they want to behave in +Church as they behave in their Father’s house. There are no ushers in +Jose’s Father’s house. Dinner does not start on time, probably he has no +watch, he goes to Church when everybody else goes to Church. Mass is an +important happening in the family’s life—a happening which brings him +together with all his neighbors. The Church is the center of his village +even if he seldom goes into it. The rare Sunday when the priest comes to +his chapel, the Mass is a big event, even if he does not attend. He knows +almost everybody whom he meets at Mass. Mass is easily understood as +a family dinner—as the “communion” of the community. + +## Another World + +No wonder that he is confused at this big, clean, Gothic building where +an usher assigns him his place next to some unknown lady, where he +is allowed to go into Church only five minutes before Mass starts, and +has to leave as soon as Mass is over—where hardly anybody is standing +outside the Church after Mass since there is no plaza—and where there +are so many Masses that you cannot see Mass as a family dinner, a house +built around you, to suit you. + +Standing there on that cold winter morning during the eleven o’clock +high Mass, I realized how hard it will be to explain to Jose and his friends +that this is the same Church which, under another climate, appears so +very different from at home. It will be hard for Jose to understand that +he will be known to God alone in Church and hardly anybody else will +recognize him. It will be hard for him to understand that you can go to +Holy Communion every day in a Church where there are several Masses +every day, and hard, too, to understand the English Gospel the priest +reads, but even more difficult than to understand will it be for him to +feel at home in English. I might be able to make him understand some +of the features of parish life—but to understand a world is far from being +at home in it. And how strange that a man should not feel at home in +the house of his Father. How strange to each other two Catholic worlds +can be. It is not always easy to see how beautiful it is that the universal +Church can look so different in different cultures. + +Or think of Maria, Jose’s sister: she came with him to Mass, and with +him was frightened away from the Church. Now she cannot believe that +this is the communion mass of the Children of Mary. Where are their +white veils? Why do they not sing, does nobody here know the song of +Our Lady of Guadalupe? And why do people now start to come out of +Church, and without talking to each other go straight across the busy, +dirty street headed for home? Why do they not hang around and talk to +each other? Jose and his friends cannot well avoid being bewildered. + +## Dissatisfied Children + +This is but one of the many instances into which you run continually, as +a parish priest, of people who do not find in their parish what they came +to look for. Jose’s problem is not from this point of view different from the +bewilderment of the convert, who during instructions has found faith in +the reality of the Mystical Body visible in Christ’s Church—and then finds +himself socially isolated among faithful churchgoers. And it is not different from the problem of the mature layman exposed to years of sermons +taken from Father Murphy’s Three Homilies for Every Sunday Gospel—or of +the young couple recently moved into a new apartment, who had hoped to +find in the parish an atmosphere in which spiritual friendship is fostered, +and found perfect distribution of sacraments, ritual and Catholic school +education, but not the spirit they had hoped for. + +To all these this parish does not give what they expect: to Jose it +does not give the atmosphere of his home, to the convert it does not +give the new human community he thought would be a consequence of +spiritual communion, to the man yearning to grow it does not give the +adult education program he hoped for, but only an endless repetition of +what he has become insensible to through yearly recital in grade school +catechism. It forces the young couple to make their own home a shelter +for friendship without adequate help from the pastor from whom they +expect it. + +All these people come to the parish because there they find what +seems to them most important: Mass, the confessional, and catechism +for their children. Objections are directed not against the things they get, +but rather against the frame within which they get them: Mass remains +the sacrifice even if it is said quickly and adorned with a hasty sermon. +Your sins are forgiven even if the priest is too rushed to give advice—and +most people are so used to a silent confessor that they might be surprised +at an instruction. Catechism remains true even if Sister has sixty children +in her parochial school class. Marriage remains valid even if all the bride +remembers of prenuptial instruction is that an overburdened priest, in +ten minutes, asked her under oath a few strange questions, such as: had +she ever been to a psychiatrist, would she be faithful to her husband, +would she promise to avoid contraception, while at the same time he had +to answer the phone on a sick call and take care of a staggering visitor at +the door. + +Is there something which could be interpreted as a criticism of the +whole system underlying all these objectionable details? Criticism of +detail is directed mostly against the officiating priest, not against the +parish as such, and therefore is not pertinent to this discussion. + +## Criteria for Criticism + +Could it be that there is something fundamentally wrong with the parish +in modern America? And if that be so, may Christians, especially laymen, +criticize their Church, of which the unit most real to them is the parish? +Many are afraid to do so out of a double misunderstanding: they do not +distinguish between criticism and blame—and they do not distinguish +the human from the divine element in the Church. + +We cannot remain forever small children and take our parents for +granted; only after the teens can a mature love for a parent develop. It’s +the same with Mother Church: an understanding of her humanity in +her human weakness will only strengthen, not diminish our love. Those +who blame the Church mostly shrink from the personal responsibility +which grows out of the realization that we are members of the Church. +Blame is a fruit of laziness and perpetuates what is deplorable. Criticism +brings about change, either in him who criticizes or in the Church criticized. It is always the fruit of hard work and prayer. A critical attitude +toward the parish is just one of the areas in which Christian love for the +Church can develop. But since criticism is always an implicit invitation +to change, we have to pass to the second point and see to what degree the +Church, or, concretely, the parish, is subject to change. And there are two +attitudes toward change, equally unChristian, among Christians. One +is the refusal of any development. This has its roots in a deep mistrust +of human nature, as if God had not entrusted men with the power to +make His institutions practicable, as if the mandate given to the apostles +had been withdrawn. This mistrust lies in this error: necessary historical +developments are taken for divine institutions. Manade frames are +taken for divine works of art. This attitude can be remedied by the study +of theology and history. Theology will show us the seed of divine revelation and will teach us what God has done Himself; history will show us +what men have done under God. + +Opposed to the refusal of any development is the attitude of those +who always want to change, who are like children who do not want to live +in the dusty home their family built over centuries, and prefer to live in a +quickly built shack on the edges of the property. If this attitude does not +have its root in the unstable character of its proponents, it is based on an +over estimation of human inventiveness within God’s supernatural plan. +The remedy to this inclination toward inorganic and sudden changes lies +in an education toward humility. Custom always offers an assumption +for wisdom, at least practical wisdom. Criticism of the modern parish +therefore presupposes some knowledge of theology and of history, which +often becomes visible in custom. + +## Follow the Man to His House . . . to the Upper Room + +Unless we know how a country grew, we do not know what it really is +like. Unless we know what the parish was meant to be by God, and what +it looked like when men first made God’s idea visible, we will not have +the basis to judge the parish we have today. How did the parish start? +Certainly not with the apostles. + +Christ did not make the parish. He made priests, and He needed a +roof over His cenacle. (The priesthood is instituted by Christ, not the +boundaries to His priesthood, expressed in modern parish limits.) For +centuries, the Church was expanding—conscious that the end of the +world was nigh. Every bishop grazed his flock, and whenever possible +had a flock small enough that he himself could say Mass for them. The +imagery for pastoral care as well as the relationship between pastor +(the bishop was the only pastor) and his faithful was taken from the +vocabulary of shepherds, Mediterranean shepherds, who have no fixed +home and wander with their sheep from pasture to pasture—from earth +to heaven. Christians considered themselves as strangers in a strange +world, children banned from their country. The word “parish” came from +a Greek verb meaning: to live like a foreigner—to be without a home. + +## The Cenacle Among Nonhristians + +The twelve apostles found it necessary to ordain one man in every community to the fullness of the priesthood. This man, the bishop of the city, +made the rounds and celebrated the sacred mysteries in the houses of +different Christians. In the Stationhurches of Rome we have a remnant +of this usage: the oldest among them carry the names of private families, +and their name expresses nothing but the address at which the Christians +would meet for Mass. In these homes Mass would be said regularly, and +often the room in which Mass was said slowly developed into a chapel— +the family ceased to use it as a dining room and the cenacle grew into a +Church. The number of Christians too, continually was growing. Soon +one pastor, the bishop, was not enough for the community, and so we see +several popes ordaining priests—priests who would say Mass where the +bishop could not go and who would preach whenever the bishop would +not find the time to do so. Often these priests attended one particular +Church in preference to others, but we cannot yet say that they were +pastors. The bishop still was the only pastor in the city, and these priests +were his assistants. Pope Innocent I in 417 tells us that he was in the +habit of breaking his host, when saying Mass, into small fragments and +sending one of these fragments to every priest celebrating in the city of +Rome, that he might let it fall into his chalice and might realize that it +is really one Mass said throughout the city, the Mass of the bishop. The +breaking of the host into three parts today is a remnant of that custom. + +## The Parish as the Heart of the City + +From the beginning, Christianity developed faster in the cities than in +the country. But by the end of the 5th century Christianity had expanded +into new mission territories, and the last strongholds of paganism in the +rural areas of southern Europe were falling by the 7th century. Always +more and more bishops asked their priests to take over independently +the exercise of their ministry. No more was the bishop the only father +and the priest nothing but his helpers; the priests themselves had to take +over under their bishops all three realms of pastoral duties: the administration of the sacraments, the teaching of the Gospel and the guidance +of the people. + +Of old when every city where Christians lived had its own bishop (or +“angel” as St. John calls him in his seven letters to the seven “Churches” +in Asia Minor), dioceses had been multiplied easily and eagerly. This is +the reason why there are so many of them in the countries which came +to the faith before the 6th century. Now the bishop made every one of his +priests responsible for a welletermined part of his people and slowly, +clearly assigned the limits to the territory for which a priest was responsible—boundaries which often on one side remained open toward the +virgin soil never yet touched by Christian preaching. + +The parish as a living cell of the diocese had been brought into existence by the Church. Christ had instituted His priesthood for His people. +In apostolic times the Church found it necessary to assign a given part of +her Mystical Body to a given bishop. He alone is priest in the full sense of +the word, he alone belongs to the teaching Church, he alone is a successor +of the apostles, he alone wears the wedding ring to show that he is married to the Church. And later on the Church found it necessary to allow +the bishop to subdivide his territory and to make his representatives, +other priests, fully responsible for a parish. +This is how the territorial parish was born, to which belong all those +who live in a given territory, and for whom the pastor assumes responsibility: to feed, teach and guide those who are in the Church and to +convert those who are outside. It went so far that in Europe the word +“parish” became the word for “village.” + +Human factors contributed not less than supernatural faith to make +the parish the heart of the community in Catholic countries. The priest +quite often was the most educated person in the village, custom and folklore centered in the Church and civil life was regulated by the progress +of the liturgical year as the life of every individual was deeply connected +with the Church in the middle of the village. Often also—sometimes +unfortunately—the church became a center for political action. Later +a breakdown in these human factors threatened to remove the parish +from its central position in the hearts of the people. And then came the +Reformation, and with it the Catholic community of Europe was broken +down. From then on we can hardly speak of a common development of +the parish in different countries. We cannot make it our objective here +to study the reasons which brought about the “loss of the masses” in +France, or the motives which made the German parish so susceptible to +the “liturgical movement,” or the final juridical organization that Pius X +(the first pastor in a long time to become pope) brought about in 1917. +Our objective is to understand historically only those elements common +to the American parish—and not those minor elements, as important +as they might be, which shaped the characteristic face of this or that +national parish. After all, we are in search of the common denominator— +if there is one—of most criticism voiced by Catholics against the Church +in this country. + +## The Protective Parish + +The American parish—if we can speak about such a thing—was always +established as a center around which a minority rallied: people who used +the parish to defend what they had. The Church always had reasons to +be concerned for the protection, not only of the faith of her children, +but also of their old Christian customs with their strong symbolic power +to evoke occasions for the profession of faith. The Church always had +been made into a bulwark of tradition and continuity. At the moment +of the big migration of Catholics to this country, the Church had reason +to be overoncerned. Poor migrants who left their country to find a +living came into a highly competitive society, heavily influenced by the +Calvinistic faith that the good succeed, and in the joy of its newound +independence, somewhat set against the newcomers. They brought their +priests with them, pastors of a migrating flock, rather than missioners +to a civilization in need. They were more concerned to conserve the +faith of their people than to convert a new nation. Heavy stress was laid +on meetings among “our own,” associations which would foster marriages among Catholics, and education which would equip the child to +remain a Catholic. The Church became a tremendous bulwark for the +Catholic. Never before had the Church had to perform this task, or at +least never before had it succeeded. Small numbers of missioners had +converted whole countries. Some Catholic minorities had withstood the +Reformation—and tiny little groups of Catholics had been able, along +with the language of their homeland, to conserve the faith in the interior of the Balkans and the Middle East. But never before had a group +of immigrants changed their national allegiance and remained faithful +to the Church. And they did it through their schools and parochial societies: which willyilly constituted another chance for Catholics to feel +themselves a minority in an alien culture. Repeated insistence that you +can be a good American and at the same time a good Catholic only contributed toward this feeling. + +## The Budding Parish + +Catholics may belong to a minority, but the Church cannot be a minority. +She is always the leaven: a minority lives in an enclave—the leaven penetrates. To separate the leaven from the flour means uselessness for both. +If Catholics ever lose their concern for those who do not have God, they +lose also their charity. Many a contemporary parish has contributed +towards this separation by preserving an atmosphere which was once +necessary but is no longer so. +In the sheltered atmosphere of a Church which continues the traditions of a geographically isolated Catholic community within a +nonatholic society, the parish has developed into a most efficient center +for the administration of the sacraments and the imparting of religious +instructions. In fact, never has there been a period in Church history +that saw such a high percentage of baptized Catholics so well instructed +and living such an intense sacramental life. Without a knowledge of the +historical background of today’s parish it would be impossible to account +for the one surprising shortcoming of this Church in America: the lack of +influence of Catholics among nonatholics, or, to say it in other words, +their lack of missionary spirit. Only by realizing that this lack is a characteristic left over from a struggle for survival do we understand that it +is not a direct refusal of responsibility—but rather a sign of immaturity. +A century ago, a newly arrived immigrant was often socially confined to his own national group—without denying his background, he +could not associate with “the old American.” That was the time when the +Church had to protect him from contact with nonatholics in fear that +through his “otherness” he might lose his faith; and the immigrant in +turn could not feel responsible for neighbors he did not know. Today it +is rare for a Catholic not to be accepted because of his background. Many +Protestants have become his neighbors, associates and friends. It is often +under the influence of a long past competition that today the Catholic +fails to meet the new missionary challenge. + +It is as if God had allowed a strong seed to mature in the earth during +the winter and now the time has come for it to bud: wellrained Catholics +all over this country are willing to risk responsibility for those outside +and are waiting for specific preparation in their parish. The word “parishioner” should not refer only to the Catholic. The parish must become +and is becoming in the consciousness of the Catholic the spiritual home +of all who live within its boundaries—even if many do not know where +their home is. This is happening all over. The Legion of Mary is growing; +these are laymen who consecrate two evenings a week to the conversion +of their neighbor. The Christian Family Movement, Cana Conferences, +the changing of oldype Church societies, and the lifeong struggle of +many a priest prepare the spirit into which converts, the fruit of various campaigns, can be welcomed. Even the Catholic outsider like Jose +is meeting with a reception on which former Catholic newcomers could +never count. + +Years ago the challenge of a new mass migration of Catholics would +have been met with the establishment of national parishes. The average +American parish had not yet started to be either American or missionary. +Today, very slowly, the way is opening for a newcomer to be a Catholic +in his own way without having to insist on it, without having to “protect” +his human background in order to save his faith. +Special Mass with Spanish Sermon? + +That Sunday when I met Jose and his friends at eleven o’clock on the +Church steps I could not help asking: should we have a special Mass +for him with a Spanish sermon? Might not such a Mass develop into +a Jim Crow meeting? Should we introduce Spanish devotions? Special +Spanish social groups? Should we allow his sister’s friends to wear their +white veils or should we prudently introduce the traditional sign of the +Children of Mary into our established congregation? Or should we hope +that a national church be established for him in our neighborhood with +the danger that his children will reject their faith with their inevitable +rejection of Spanish culture? + +## Understanding and the Future + +These questions about Jose, and many more about others who do not +find in our parishes what they seek, must be answered with some background of history and theology, and with a prudence which judges the +unique living situation. These questions must be asked courageously +and answered always anew. Criticism of the parish will thus become an +examination of conscience for everybody who engages in it: layman, +priest and outsider alike. And if it is not criticism of the clergy or the laity, +but of the institution itself, it will mostly revolve around the idea that the +protective parish is a thing of the past almost everywhere in this country. +During the winter it was good that the seed remained hidden in the +earth, but in spring, if it does not bud it rots. diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bc74df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +# The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:text|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1968 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** + * Included in: CIDOC Cuaderno 10 - CIDOC Informa, “Junio-Diciembre”, Centro intercultural de Documentación, Cuaderno No. 10, Volumen 5, Cuernavaca, 1968. + * This paper was delivered at the Conference on educational planging co-sponsored by the University of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rico Planning Board in San Juan, July 1967. + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4733fd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks/text.txt @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +# The redistribution of educational tasks between schools and other organs of society + +The purpose of this paper is not to stimulate discussion on internal change within school systems. I would l1ke to raise a different question: can the purpose of a school system established by any given society be continually and effectively renewed? If so, what are the necessary cond1t1ons for constant renewal? + +Only a limited portion of the total educational process in any given nation is organized under formal bureaucratic control. The remainder is usually left to institutions over which the planner and programmer have little influence. If we look only at that part of the educational process under formal control, we discover that only a part of it is actually performed by institutions which society considers "schools." The rest is left to programs which are not thought of as formal "schooling." This would include everything from in-service training to driver's education or sex education. + +At this moment we are beginning to analyze society's ability to reapportion education and to influence the growth and orientation of "non-school" education. In this discussion I would like to set aside the concrete mechanics of renewal in the schooling process in order to examine the conditions necessary for a constant renewal of the school's goals. + +First, I will identify the school system which I have observed, and with which I am the most familiar. Then I will list a series of conditions which I consider necessary in order for any school system to continually renew itself and by renewal I mean: allowing new levels of humanism in teaching to be reached, revising educational technology, and eventually abandoning previous tasks to "non-schools" so that the "schools" can assume new tasks. + + +## Catholic schools in Latin America + +During the last few years I have spent a great deal of time analyzing the effect of private schools on the over-all educational process in each of the Latin American nations. And in Latin America "private school" means Catholic school. The latter have a double, stated purpose: they were established to inculcate an ideology which is often taken to be the Catholic Faith, and to offer educational services (i.e. alternate schooling, usually custodial child-care) for those whose parents or sponsors are of the moneyed classes. + +The impact of the private school on the over-all scholastic picture in a developing nation can be viewed from several angles. + +1) Private education in Latin America can be understood as an economic contribution to development. Tuition to these schools can be viewed as a self-imposed additional tax by a minority group which frees regular tax funds by relieving the government of the cost of educating from five to 20 per cent of the school age population and this five to 20 percent is by no means chosen at random. Private schooling provides instruction for children whose parents or sponsors would otherwise have the power to demand above average outlays of government funds for the education of their children. It is also interesting to note that these private schools for the already-privileged in Latin America attract voluntary foreign aid in money and manpower which, since 1960, amounts to more than 20 million dollars per year. + +2) The effect of private education on development can also be viewed from a socio-political angle. The private school system is a broad, systematic device which allows the privileged sector to grow at a rate far beyond its natural growth-rate. At the same time, the private school system allows the privileged sector to acquire a new, flexible internal cohesiveness while still maintaining its very obvious aloofness. + +a. Private schools give a modern rationale both to the existence of a new elite, its identification with the old elite and the exclusion of those rejected by both. Superior, separate and ideologically differentiated private schooling in Latin America is thus important for the rich, and those favored by the rich. Private schools often act as social elevators for a special type of individual from the lower classes. It would be most interesting to determine who these people are, since the achievement-oriented character of their parents might prove to be the most important factor in deciding who will receive scholarships to private schools. + +b. It might turn out that in the long run private schools in Latin America are more important as sieves which allow a certain character type from the lower socio-economic groups to join the elite, than as opportunity for the especially imaginative or intelligent student. + + +## The planning of private Schools + +Private schools could be understood as a challenge to public education. They might provide means to develop and test new educational models, an important factor in educational planning and policy-making. This is a point which has been frequently neglected in the past. Educational planning bodies concerned with facilities and, more importantly with policies in Latin America have yet to propose effective and racional penalties and incentives to include private school initiatives in efforts to achieve overall educational goals. To date effective planning of private schools in Latin America has been politically tabu. + +At present traditional (Church) and new (private enterprise) ideologies keep private schools beyond the reach of the educational planners. Yet we can forecast a strong trend in the opposite direction: namely, that specialized instruction will be industrialized, and that public agencies will both license and contract the services of institutions dedicated to such instruction. + + +## The disestablishment of a school System + +Finally, we can consider the Catholic school system in Latin America as a model for the study of the dynamics of other school systems. We have pursued this line of research in Cuernavaca for the past six years. We have been privileged to act as self-appointed observers and promoters of the only case known to us of the disestablishment of an entire school system. Some of our observations might be relevant for other school systems and their eventual, partial disestablishment. + +Church schools are by no means a negligible factor in Latin America. The Church spends from 60 to 80 per cent of her total budget in any country (except Cuba) for the building and maintenance of schools. From five to 20 per cent of the school-age population in any Latin American nation is studying in Catholic-controlled schools. The total enrollment in Latin American Catholic schools is greater than the total public school enrollment in all but three of the Latin American countries. Yet if present trends continue this percentage will have shrunk to almost nothing by 1980. + +These trends are caused by factors beyond the control of Church administrators and constituencies: ever-rising costs, manpower crises, socio—political variables. And just as important in this trend toward the dis-establishment of the Church from schooling is the conviction of a number of key church-men that Catholic schools constitute the major obstacle to the socio-educational relevance of the Church on this continent. + +This surprising process (which I foresee) is of paradigmatic value of an often neglected relationship; namely, the relationship between education al intent and the choice of schools for the implementation of that intent. Since the Conquest the primary social function of the Latin American Church has been education. But now the Church finds herself entangled in her own school system and is trying to remove herself from school administration altogether. This trend will become surprisingly obvious by 1970. But if recognized now, policies can be created which will allow teachers to eventually accept the rethinking of education, the radical re-apportionment of educational functions or the charismatic renewal an already functioning educational system. + + +## Major points + +1) Mechanism can be built into school systems which accelerate their innovative capacity, but pressure for the renewal of a school system will usually come from outside that system. The preceding statement is a corollary of the knowledge that good schools are "teacher proof." That is, we have evidence that teachers advocate more reform of their milieu than almost any other professional group, yet they are the least effective when it comes to actually effecting that reform. This is due to the fact that the teacher's main task is to formulate questions never asked, or even accepted, outside of the classroom. At the same time, he must preside over an academic life which is accepted outside the school only if it carries the academic "label." Indeed, the better a school can function despite its "subversive" teachers who formulate questions not acceptable to non-academic society, the better teachers that school can afford to hire. The exercise of academic freedom can never be the source of the systematic improvement of the system itself. Indeed, the teacher's very job greatly dilutes his ability to change the educational system from within. His ideas will be generally ignored when he voices them beyond the walls of academia. + +2) The school planner is the last person who can make fundamental innovations in the system. His employer has already told him exactly what special educational task the school must perform, and the school planner simply arranges the allocation of resources to accomplish that task. As soon as the school planner raises the question of a totally different apportionment of the task itself he moves out of his limited area of money allocation, and into the broadest type of social planning. + +3) The definition of the school planner's task is ultimately based on +a clear separation of: a) the school system, and b) overall educational planning. + +The planner of the overall educational process, as opposed to the school planner, must decide which specific social tasks should be pe{formed by formal schooling, as differentiated from educational tasks which must be left to the responsibility of others—from mothers in a community to driving instructors. Only if this decision is made outside of the_school system, will the latter avoid becoming a "state within a state" (like the Medieval Church), or a political football. If the school planner would attempt to formulate overall educational policies, he would reduce all education and instruction demanded by clients, economic planners or politicians to a form of formal schooling. On the other hand, if the overall educational planner cannot treat the school system as a service agency to which specific tasks may be assigned, he will never be able to demand effectiveness and efficiency from that system. + +4) The demand for renewal will either take the form of a request to +serve new clients, or will be a reaction to a model tried and proved +successful elsewhere. The clients of a school system may demand that their system produce new results in a new manner which has proved successful elsewhere. '"Schools should produce..." "Schools should serve..." --it is doubtful that such demands will be effective, since good school systems are not only "teacher proof," but they are also vaccinated by constant disillusionment against utopian ideas coming from outside the system itself. Therefore, effective demands for renewal will usually take the form of a request that the system incorporate competitors. "If the teachers there can do it, why can't our teachers do it? If another system can produce these results, why can't ours?" + +5) A model is usually the agent utilized to effect change in a system. Politics aimed at polarizing power for change in educational systems consistently utilize models to create issues. An effective educational model or experiment must have four facets. The model must prove the following: + +a. That something new is now possible, that the present behavior of another can determine our own future. I would expand a bit on Jerome Bruner and say: '"Personal creativity produces an effective surprise concerning a present possibility." ("They did it!") + +b. Something previously untried has proved itself effective, that it has produced education outside of the current school system. An effective educational result has, for the first time, been defined as a scholastic need. This need is a possible result of systematic teaching, and should now be adopted here. ("Our school should do it.") + +c. The experiment raises a question. Can the educational system effectively allow the model to be reproduced? Must the reproduction of the model remain outside of the system? ("Should we do it? Is our system that 'teacher-proof:? Let 'them' organize it. It's none of our business.") + +d. Is the present system willing to pay the price of.adapting to the new process? Can the present system insure the continuation of the model through its institutionalization? ("Maybe we had better let them continue to try it.") + +6) The last characteristic (d) puts the educational experiment into a class by itself. A school system cannot produce teachers, contrary to popular opinion. It can only create more or less ideal situations for teaching. In the strict sense, educational invention is personal and inimitable. Ideally, the individual teacher is a creator with a personal style which cannot be imitated by another. Individual teaching is the "celebration" of an intimate experience which has no precedent: The charismatic and prophetic quality of a new style of teaching distinguishes it from invention of educational technology. + +Since most teachers are uninventive, dull, or worse, the school system tends to make the teacher a part of the program itself in order to guarantee that his presence in the system be worthwhile. He must "follow the teaching program” laid down by his superiors. This kind of thinking should be avoided. New teaching should not be a model for a process which will eventually be institutionalized. On the contrary, it is concrete proof of a possibility which might lead to the adoption and development of a methodological model within a school system.” + +## Summary + +This Principle could very well be restated in a paradox: Nobody should be paid for the privilege of teaching. But effective and efficient instructors should be so well paid that they can have the privilege of becoming true teachers. + +The effectiveness of planned change in a school system depends largely on the rational selection of scholastic goals within the overall educational process, formal and informal, which a society has defined for itself. + +The Latin American public school systems are irrational, comprehensive, ecclectic combinations of educational goals which have sedimented over a period of 150 years and are glued together by an intensely formalized ideology. The levels and branches of these systems, even if they are somewhat updated, are still historical relics which have ceased to be self-contained sub-systems or "careers." Now education is measured by the number of years one has "passed" on successive levels of the "educational supermarket." The student moves from the First Grade "supermarket" to the Second Grade "supermarket," and eventually may move through 15 or 20 different "supermarkets" and receive a university degree. This system will probably have to be replaced by measurement through statistically described sets of typical educational processes resulting from parallel educational services. In each of these processes almost any individual may obtain a qualitatively, narrowly defined "schooling" at almost any moment in his life. + +I propose that for the intent of the present discussion, the suggestions made here be seen against the background of history; in fact I believe that only through the study of history we will be able to gain the sufficient freedom of imagination to envisage radically new re-distribution of educational tasks between formal schooling and other forms of education or celebration. + +For this purpose, I suggest that we analyze the history of religious institutions throughout the centuries. They are the only major formally +educational bodies who, in the past, had to grapple with the issues now faced by major school systems. diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/compare.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/compare.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a34054a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/compare.txt @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +| **El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi** | **The Message of Bapu’s Hut** | +| Esta mañana, al estar en la choza donde vivió Mahatma Gandhi, traté de absorber el espíritu que presidió su concepción y empaparme de su mensaje. Hay dos cosas de este lugar que me impresionaron profundamente. Una es de orden espiritual y otra la que se refiere a sus enseres[^nota1]. Trataba de comprender el punto de vista de Gandhi cuando hizo la choza. Me gustaron muchísimo su sencillez, belleza y orden. La choza proclama el mensaje de amor e igualdad entre todos los seres. Como la casa en la que vivo en México se asemeja en muchas formas a esta choza, pude comprender su espíritu. Encontré que la choza tiene siete tipos de lugares. Al entrar hay uno en el que se colocan los zapatos y se prepara uno, física y mentalmente, para entrar en ella. Luego viene el cuarto central que es lo suficientemente amplio para alojar a una familia numerosa. Hoy, a las 4 de la mañana, mientras rezaba, había cuatro personas sentadas a mi lado, recargadas en una pared y, del otro lado, había suficiente espacio para otras cinco sentadas muy juntas. Éste es el cuarto al que todos pueden acudir para reunirse con los demás. El tercer espacio es donde Gandhi estaba y trabajaba. Hay otros dos cuartos, uno para visitas y el otro para enfermos. Hay una veranda abierta y también un espacioso baño. Todos estos espacios tienen entre ellos una relación intensamente orgánica. | This morning, while I was sitting in this hut where Mahatma Gandhi lived, I was trying to absorb the spirit of its concept and imbibe in me its message. There are two things about the hut which have impressed me greatly. One is its spiritual aspect and the other is the aspect of its amenities. I was trying to understand Gandhi’s point of view in regard to making the hut. I very much liked its simplicity, beauty and neatness. The hut proclaims the principle of love and equality with everybody. Since the house which has been provided for me in Mexico is in many ways like this hut, I could understand its spirit. Here I found that the hut has seven kinds of place. As you enter, there is a place where you put down your shoes and prepare yourself physically and mentally to go into the hut. Then comes the central room which is big enough to accommodate a large family. Today, at four in the morning, when I was sitting there for prayer, four people sat along with me, by supporting themselves on one wall, and on the other side there was also enough room for as many people again, if they sat close together. This room is where everybody can go and join others. The third space is where Gandhi himself sat and worked. There are two more rooms — one for the guests and the other for the sick. There is an open verandah and also a commodious bathroom. All of these places have a very organic relationship. | +| Siento que, si viniera gente rica a la choza, se burlaría de ella. Cuando veo las cosas desde el punto de vista de un indio común, no veo por qué una casa debería ser más grande que ésta. Está hecha de madera y de adobe. En su construcción no fue la máquina la que trabajó, sino las manos del hombre. La llamo “choza”, pero en realidad es un hogar. Hay una diferencia entre casa y hogar. La casa es donde un hombre guarda equipajes y mobiliarios. Se concibe para la seguridad y la conveniencia de los muebles más que para las del hombre mismo. En Delhi la casa donde me alojé tiene lo que se llama comodidad. El edificio está construido desde el punto de vista de lo que se requiere para alojar esos objetos cómodos. Está hecho de cemento y ladrillo y es como una caja en donde caben bien muebles y otros mobiliarios. | I feel that if rich people come to this hut, they might be making fun of it. But from the point of view of a simple Indian, I do not see why there should be a house bigger than this. This house is made of wood and mud. In its making, it is not the machine, but the hands of man which have worked. I call it a hut, but it is really a home. There is a difference between a house and a home. A house is where man keeps his luggage and furniture. It is meant more for the security and convenience of the furniture than of the man himself. In Delhi, where I had been put up, is a house where there are many conveniences. The building is constructed from the point of view of these conveniences. It is made of cement and bricks and is like a box where the furniture and other conveniences can fit in well. | +| Debemos entender que todos lo muebles y demás artículos que colectamos a lo largo de nuestras vidas nunca nos darán una fortaleza interior. Son, por decirlo así, como muletas. Mientras más objetos cómodos tengamos, mayor será nuestra dependencia de ellos y más restringida será nuestra vida. Por el contrario, el tipo de mobiliario que encontré en la choza de Gandhi es de un orden distinto y hay pocas razones para depender de ellos. Una casa instalada con todo tipo de objetos muestra que nuestro vigor nos abandona. En la medida en que perdemos la capacidad de vivir, dependemos más de los bienes que adquirimos. De la misma forma dependemos de los hospitales para conservar nuestra salud y de las escuelas para la educación de nuestros hijos. Desafortunadamente, tanto los hospitales como las escuelas no son un índice para medir el grado de salud ni la inteligencia de una nación. De hecho, el número de hospitales indica la mala salud de la gente y las escuelas hablan de su ignorancia. En forma similar, la multiplicidad de instalaciones de servicio para vivir reduce al mínimo la expresión de la creatividad de la vida del hombre. | We must understand that all furniture and other articles that we go on collecting in our lives will never give us inner strength. These are, so to say, the crutches of a cripple. The more of such conveniences we have, the more our dependence on them increases and our life gets restricted. On the contrary, the kind of furniture I find in Gandhi’s hut is of a different order, and there is very little cause for being dependent on it. A house fitted with all kinds of conveniences shows that we have become weak. The more we lose the power to live, the greater we depend upon the goods we acquire. It is like our depending upon hospitals for the health of people and upon schools for the education of our children. Unfortunately, both hospitals and schools are not an index of the health or the intelligence of a nation. Actually, the number of hospitals is indicative of the ill health of people and schools of their ignorance. Similarly, the multiplicity of facilities in living minimizes the expression of creativity in human life. | +| La triste paradoja de esta situación es que a los que tienen más comodidades se les considera como superiores. ¿No es inmoral la sociedad en la que la enfermedad tiene un estatuto eminente y donde se tiene en alto aprecio la ignorancia? Al estar en la choza de Gandhi sentí tristeza al ponderar esta perversión. He llegado a la conclusión de que nos equivocamos al pensar que la civilización industrial es el camino que conduce a la plenitud del hombre. Se ha demostrado que para el desarrollo económico no es necesario tener más y mayores herramientas para la producción ni tampoco más ingenieros, médicos y profesores; literalmente están en demasía. | Unfortunately, the paradox of the situation is that those who have more such conveniences are regarded as superior. Is it not an immoral society where illness is accorded high status and ignorance more consideration? While sitting in Gandhi’s hut I was grieved to ponder over this perversity. I have come to the conclusion that it is wrong to think of industrial civilization as a road leading toward the development of man. It has been proved that for our economic development, greater and bigger machines of production and larger and larger numbers of engineers, doctors and professors are literally supernumery. | +| Estoy convencido de que son pobres de mente, cuerpo, estilo de vida los seres que desean un espacio más grande que esta choza en la que Gandhi vivió, y siento lástima por ellos. Se rindieron ellos mismos y su yo animado a una estructura inanimada. En el proceso perdieron la elasticidad de su cuerpo y la vitalidad de su existencia. Tienen escasa relación con la naturaleza y escasa cercanía con sus congéneres. | Those who would want to have a place bigger than this hut where Gandhi lived are poor in mind, body and life style. I pity them. They have surrendered themselves and their animate selves to an inanimate structure. In the process they have lost the elasticity of their body and the vitality of their life. They have little relationship with nature and closeness with their fellowmen. | +| Al preguntar a los planificadores de hoy por qué no comprenden el sencillo enfoque que nos enseñó Gandhi, dicen que su camino es muy difícil y que la gente no sería capaz de seguirlo. Pero la realidad es que, en virtud de que los principios de Gandhi no admiten la presencia de ningún intermediario o de un sistema centralizado, los planificadores, los gerentes y los políticos se sienten excluidos. ¿Cómo es que no se entiende ese principio tan sencillo de la verdad y de la no violencia? ¿Es porque la gente siente que la no verdad y la violencia los llevará al objetivo deseado? No, no es así. El hombre común comprende plenamente que los medios correctos lo llevarán al fin correcto. Únicamente quienes tienen intereses creados rehúsan comprenderlo. Es el caso de los ricos. Cuando digo “ricos” me refiero a todos los que tienen “artículos domésticos” en su comunidad, que no son accesibles a todos. Esos son “ricos” por su estilo de vida, su alimentación, sus desplazamientos; su modo de consumo es tal que están ciegos ante la verdad. Para estos ciegos, la enseñanza de Gandhi es una cuestión difícil de entender y de asimilar. La sencillez no tiene sentido alguno para ellos. Su condición no les permite ver la verdad. Sus vidas han llegado a ser demasiado complicadas para permitirse salir de la trampa en la que cayeron. Afortunadamente, la gran mayoría de la gente no tiene una situación tal de fortuna que los haga inmunes a la verdad de la sencillez, ni viven en tal penuria que carezcan de la capacidad de entender. Incluso cuando algunos ricos ven la verdad se niegan a plegarse a ella. Es porque perdieron el contacto con el espíritu de ese país. | When I ask the planners of the day why they do not understand the simple approach Gandhi taught us, they say that Gandhi’s way is very difficult, and that people will not be able to follow it. But the reality of the situation is that since Gandhi’s principles do not tolerate the presence of any middleman or that of a centralized system, the planners and managers and politicians feel left out. How is it that such a simple principle of truth and non-violence is not being understood? Is it because people feel that untruth and violence will take them to the desired objective? No. This is not so. The common man fully understands that right means will take him to the right end. It is only the people who have some vested interest who refuse to understand it. The rich do not want to understand. By ‘rich’ I mean those who have conveniences of life which are not available to everybody in common. There are the ‘rich’ in living, eating, and getting about; and their modes of consumption are such that they have been blinded to truth. It is to the blind that Gandhi becomes a difficult proposition to understand and assimilate. They are the ones to whom simplicity does not make any sense. Their circumstances unfortunately do not allow them to see the truth. Their lives have become too complicated to enable them to get out of the trap they are in. Fortunately, for the largest number of people, there is neither so much of wealth that they become immune to the truth of simplicity, nor are they in such penury that they lack the capacity to understand. Even if the rich see the truth they refuse to abide by it. It is because they have lost contact with the soul of this country. | +| Sin embargo, es muy claro que la dignidad del hombre sólo es posible en una sociedad autosuficiente y que sufre ataques cuando se orienta hacia una industrialización progresiva. Esta choza encarna el gozo que es posible cuando se está a la par con la sociedad. Aquí la autosuficiencia es la regla del juego. Debemos captar que los productos de consumo y los bienes superfluos que posee un ser humano reducen su capacidad de sacar gozo de su entorno. Gandhi dijo en repetidas ocasiones que la productividad debe mantenerse en los límites de las necesidades. El modo de producción en la actualidad es tal que no tiene límites, y continúa aumentando sin freno. Todo esto ha sido tolerado hasta ahora, pero ha llegado el momento en que el hombre debe comprender que al depender más y más de las máquinas está avanzando hacia su propia destrucción. | It should be very clear that the dignity of man is possible only in a self-sufficient society and that it suffers as one moves toward progressive industrialization. This hut connotes the pleasures that are possible through being at par with society. Here, self-sufficiency is the keynote. We must understand that the unnecessary articles and goods which a man possesses reduce his power to imbibe happiness from the surroundings. Therefore, Gandhi repeatedly said that productivity should be kept within the limits of wants. Today’s mode of production is such that it finds no limit and goes on increasing, uninhibited. All these we have been tolerating so far, but the time has come when man must understand that by depending more and more on machines he is moving toward his own destruction. | +| El mundo civilizado, en China o en México, ha empezado a comprender que, si queremos progresar, debemos actuar de otra manera. Los hombres deben captar que, para su bien personal y de la sociedad, es mejor que la gente conserve para sí sólo lo que es suficiente para sus necesidades inmediatas. Tenemos que encontrar un método en que este pensamiento pueda expresarse cambiando los valores del mundo actual. Este cambio no podrá producirse por los gobiernos o a través de instituciones centralizadas. Tiene que crearse una atmósfera de opinión pública que permita a la gente comprender aquello que constituye la sociedad de base. Hoy, el hombre que tiene un automóvil se considera superior al que tiene una bicicleta, pero cuando vemos esto desde el punto de vista de la norma común, la bicicleta es el vehículo de las masas. Por lo tanto, debe considerarse de primordial importancia que toda la planeación de carreteras y de transporte debiera hacerse con base en la bicicleta, mientras que el automóvil debiera ocupar un lugar secundario. | The civilized world, whether it is China or America, has begun to understand that if we want to progress, this is not the way. Man should realize that for the good of the individual as well as of society, it is best that people keep for themselves only as much as is sufficient for their immediate needs. We have to find a method by which this thinking finds expression in changing the values of today’s world. This change cannot be brought about by the pressure of governments or through centralized institutions. A climate of public opinion has to be created to make people understand that which constitutes the basic society. Today the man with a motor car thinks himself superior to the man with a bicycle, though when we look at it from the point of view of the common norm, it is the bicycle which is the vehicle of the masses. The cycle, therefore, must be given the prime importance and all the planning in roads and transport should be done on the basis of the bicycle, whereas the motor car should get secondary place. | +| No obstante, la situación es exactamente la inversa: todos los planes se hacen para beneficio de los automóviles y relegan a la bicicleta a un segundo plano. En esta forma se ignoran los requerimientos del hombre común en comparación con los de las clases superiores. Esta choza de Gandhi muestra al mundo cómo se puede elevar la dignidad del hombre común. También es un símbolo de la felicidad que nos llega cuando aplicamos los principios de sencillez, disponibilidad y autenticidad. Espero que en la conferencia que tendrán sobre las Técnicas para los pobres del Tercer Mundo ustedes conserven en mente este mensaje. | The situation, however, is the reverse and all plans are made for the benefit of the motor car giving second place to the bicycle. Common man’s requirements are thus disregarded in comparison with those of the higher-ups. This hut of Gandhi’s demonstrates to the world how the dignity of the common man can be brought up. It is also a symbol of the happiness that we can derive from practising the principles of simplicity, service and truthfulness. I hope that in the conference that you are going to hold on Techniques for the Third World Poor, you will try to keep this message before you. | + +<html> +<style> +table { + border: 0 !important; +} + td { + padding: 1em !important; + margin: 0; + vertical-align: top; + border: 0 !important; +} +</style> +</html>
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2c29a93 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +# The Message of Bapu’s Hut + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:text|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _The Message of Bapu’s Hut_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1978 +* **#@LANG_versions@#:** + * [[:es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text|Spanish]] //[[.:compare|(compare)]]// +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** + * Inaugural Speech Sevagram Ashram Pratishthan Sevagram, Wardha. January 1978 + * Included in the book "In the Mirror of the Past" (1992) + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.md b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7f1aad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ + +--- +title: "The Message of Bapu’s Hut" +author: "Ivan Illich" +abstract: "https://illich.test/en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:text?rev=1633605519" +date: "**1978" +lang: "xt" +titlepage: true +titlepage-color: "FFFFFF" +titlepage-text-color: "000000" +titlepage-rule-color: "CCCCCC" +titlepage-rule-height: 4 +--- + diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f647ce0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +# The Message of Bapu’s Hut + +This morning, while I was sitting in this hut where Mahatma Gandhi lived, I was trying to absorb the spirit of its concept and imbibe in me its message. There are two things about the hut which have impressed me greatly. One is its spiritual aspect and the other is the aspect of its amenities. I was trying to understand Gandhi’s point of view in regard to making the hut. I very much liked its simplicity, beauty and neatness. The hut proclaims the principle of love and equality with everybody. Since the house which has been provided for me in Mexico is in many ways like this hut, I could understand its spirit. Here I found that the hut has seven kinds of place. As you enter, there is a place where you put down your shoes and prepare yourself physically and mentally to go into the hut. Then comes the central room which is big enough to accommodate a large family. Today, at four in the morning, when I was sitting there for prayer, four people sat along with me, by supporting themselves on one wall, and on the other side there was also enough room for as many people again, if they sat close together. This room is where everybody can go and join others. The third space is where Gandhi himself sat and worked. There are two more rooms — one for the guests and the other for the sick. There is an open verandah and also a commodious bathroom. All of these places have a very organic relationship. + +I feel that if rich people come to this hut, they might be making fun of it. But from the point of view of a simple Indian, I do not see why there should be a house bigger than this. This house is made of wood and mud. In its making, it is not the machine, but the hands of man which have worked. I call it a hut, but it is really a home. There is a difference between a house and a home. A house is where man keeps his luggage and furniture. It is meant more for the security and convenience of the furniture than of the man himself. In Delhi, where I had been put up, is a house where there are many conveniences. The building is constructed from the point of view of these conveniences. It is made of cement and bricks and is like a box where the furniture and other conveniences can fit in well. + +We must understand that all furniture and other articles that we go on collecting in our lives will never give us inner strength. These are, so to say, the crutches of a cripple. The more of such conveniences we have, the more our dependence on them increases and our life gets restricted. On the contrary, the kind of furniture I find in Gandhi’s hut is of a different order, and there is very little cause for being dependent on it. A house fitted with all kinds of conveniences shows that we have become weak. The more we lose the power to live, the greater we depend upon the goods we acquire. It is like our depending upon hospitals for the health of people and upon schools for the education of our children. Unfortunately, both hospitals and schools are not an index of the health or the intelligence of a nation. Actually, the number of hospitals is indicative of the ill health of people and schools of their ignorance. Similarly, the multiplicity of facilities in living minimizes the expression of creativity in human life. + +Unfortunately, the paradox of the situation is that those who have more such conveniences are regarded as superior. Is it not an immoral society where illness is accorded high status and ignorance more consideration? While sitting in Gandhi’s hut I was grieved to ponder over this perversity. I have come to the conclusion that it is wrong to think of industrial civilization as a road leading toward the development of man. It has been proved that for our economic development, greater and bigger machines of production and larger and larger numbers of engineers, doctors and professors are literally supernumery. + +Those who would want to have a place bigger than this hut where Gandhi lived are poor in mind, body and life style. I pity them. They have surrendered themselves and their animate selves to an inanimate structure. In the process they have lost the elasticity of their body and the vitality of their life. They have little relationship with nature and closeness with their fellowmen. + +When I ask the planners of the day why they do not understand the simple approach Gandhi taught us, they say that Gandhi’s way is very difficult, and that people will not be able to follow it. But the reality of the situation is that since Gandhi’s principles do not tolerate the presence of any middleman or that of a centralized system, the planners and managers and politicians feel left out. How is it that such a simple principle of truth and non-violence is not being understood? Is it because people feel that untruth and violence will take them to the desired objective? No. This is not so. The common man fully understands that right means will take him to the right end. It is only the people who have some vested interest who refuse to understand it. The rich do not want to understand. By ‘rich’ I mean those who have conveniences of life which are not available to everybody in common. There are the ‘rich’ in living, eating, and getting about; and their modes of consumption are such that they have been blinded to truth. It is to the blind that Gandhi becomes a difficult proposition to understand and assimilate. They are the ones to whom simplicity does not make any sense. Their circumstances unfortunately do not allow them to see the truth. Their lives have become too complicated to enable them to get out of the trap they are in. Fortunately, for the largest number of people, there is neither so much of wealth that they become immune to the truth of simplicity, nor are they in such penury that they lack the capacity to understand. Even if the rich see the truth they refuse to abide by it. It is because they have lost contact with the soul of this country. + +It should be very clear that the dignity of man is possible only in a self-sufficient society and that it suffers as one moves toward progressive industrialization. This hut connotes the pleasures that are possible through being at par with society. Here, self-sufficiency is the keynote. We must understand that the unnecessary articles and goods which a man possesses reduce his power to imbibe happiness from the surroundings. Therefore, Gandhi repeatedly said that productivity should be kept within the limits of wants. Today’s mode of production is such that it finds no limit and goes on increasing, uninhibited. All these we have been tolerating so far, but the time has come when man must understand that by depending more and more on machines he is moving toward his own destruction. + +The civilized world, whether it is China or America, has begun to understand that if we want to progress, this is not the way. Man should realize that for the good of the individual as well as of society, it is best that people keep for themselves only as much as is sufficient for their immediate needs. We have to find a method by which this thinking finds expression in changing the values of today’s world. This change cannot be brought about by the pressure of governments or through centralized institutions. A climate of public opinion has to be created to make people understand that which constitutes the basic society. Today the man with a motor car thinks himself superior to the man with a bicycle, though when we look at it from the point of view of the common norm, it is the bicycle which is the vehicle of the masses. The cycle, therefore, must be given the prime importance and all the planning in roads and transport should be done on the basis of the bicycle, whereas the motor car should get secondary place. + +The situation, however, is the reverse and all plans are made for the benefit of the motor car giving second place to the bicycle. Common man’s requirements are thus disregarded in comparison with those of the higher-ups. This hut of Gandhi’s demonstrates to the world how the dignity of the common man can be brought up. It is also a symbol of the happiness that we can derive from practising the principles of simplicity, service and truthfulness. I hope that in the conference that you are going to hold on Techniques for the Third World Poor, you will try to keep this message before you. diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1986-disvalue/index.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1986-disvalue/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ccb370 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1986-disvalue/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +# Disvalue + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:text|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Disvalue_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1986 +* **#@LANG_versions@#:** + * _Beauty And The Junkyard_. 1991. In: "Whole earth review". No. 73, pp. 64 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** + * Lecture to the first public meeting of the Entropy Society Tokyo, Keyo University, 9th November 1986 Enlarged and combined with ‘Disvaluation: The Secret Capital Accumulation’ and ‘Beauty and the Junkyard’ two unpublished manuscripts completed in March 1987 + * Included in the book "In the Mirror of the Past. Lectures and Addresses 1978-1990" (1992) + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1986-disvalue/text.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1986-disvalue/text.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ff40e51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1986-disvalue/text.txt @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +# Disvalue + +## Professor Tamanoy’s Forum + +This first public meeting of the Japanese Entropy Society provides us with an occasion to commemorate Professor Joshiro Tamanoy. Most of us knew him as friends and as pupils. The questions he asked bring together today 600 physicists and biologists, economists and green activists. + +While a Professor of Economics at Tokyo University, he translated Karl Polanyi into Japanese. But in his own teaching and writing he brought a uniquely Japanese flavor to ecological research by relating cultural to physical dimensions. He did so by focusing on the interaction between an epoch’s economic ideology and the corresponding soil-water matrix of social life. He was an active environmental politician and a master teacher. And no one who experienced his friendship will ever forget its delicacy. + +## How to name an evil + +He had few illusions. Courageously he reflected on the causes of modern war, modern ugliness and modern social inequity to the point of facing almost unbearable horror. But no one will forget Tamanoy-sensei’s balance. He never lost his compassion and subtle humor. He introduced me to the world of those who survived with the marks of the Hiroshima bomb, the _hibakusha._ And I think of him as a spiritual _hibakusha._ He lived the ‘examined life’ in the shadow of Hiroshima and Minamata. Under this cloud he forged a terminology to relate historical spaces to physical place. To this purpose he used ‘entropy’ as a _semeion,_ a signal for the impending threat to an exquisitely Japanese perception of locality referred to with terms which seem to have no comparable Western equivalent, like __ _fûdô._ __ And entropy was central to our conversations. In this lecture I want to explore the limits within which the notion of entropy can be usefully applied to social phenomena by comparing it to the notion of waste. I will then propose the notion of ‘disvalue’ in the hope that through it entropy, when used outside of physics and information theory, will be more clearly understood. + +Clausius, a German physicist, first introduced the word. In 1850 he studied the ratio between the heat content and the absolute pressure in a closed system and felt the need for a word to name this function. He was an amateur classicist and picked the Greek word _entropy_ in 1865. Since then it is used for the algorithm that describes a previously unrecognized phenomenon. By choosing _this_ word, Clausius did us a favor. _Entrópeo_ __ in classical Greek means to turn, to twist, to pervert or to humiliate. More than a century after its introduction in physics, the Greek word still seems able to bespeak a previously unknown frustrating twist that perverts our best social energies and moral intentions. + +In a few years the word has become a catchall for a variety of paradoxical twists which have two things in common. They are so new that everyday language has no traditional defined meaning for them and are so maddening that people are happy to avoid mentioning them. To taboo their own implication in non-sustainable consumption of goods and services, people grab at the non-word ‘entropy’ to make social degradation appear as just another instance of a general natural law. + +When people discuss the cultural impoverishment that appears in stupefying schooling, sickening medicine and time-killing acceleration, they are talking about perversions of good intentions, not about instances of energy or information flow. They mean the evil effects of untoward social goals that have none of the innocence of the inexorable determinism we associate with entropy in physics. The degradation of cultural variety through transnational organization of money flow is a result of greed, not a law of nature. The disappearance of subsistence cultures tied to local soils is a historical and dramatic part of the human condition _only_ in recent times. The disappearance of ‘ideologies’ that favor the water-soil matrix is due to human enterprise and endeavor. What late twentieth-century people take for granted is not something which has always been. + +Tamanoy made me understand that it is possible to include soil, water and sun in philosophical anthropology, to speak of a ‘philosophy of soil.’ After my conversations with him I rediscovered Paracelsus, who calls for the same approach. A philosophy of soil starts from the certainty that reason is worthless without a reciprocal shaping of norms and tangible reality; _seeing_ the culturally shaped body cum ‘environment’ as it is in a concrete place and time. And this interaction is formed by esthetic and moral style as much as by the ‘spirits’ which ritual and art evoke from the earthly matrix of a place. The disappearance of corresponding matrices of soil and society is an issue which we cannot examine deeply enough. And for this, comparison between the _wasting_ of cultural variety and the cosmic degradation of energy can be useful, but only under one condition: that we clearly understand the limits within which science can still generate metaphors. As a metaphor, entropy can be an eye opener. As an explanatory analog it cannot but mystify. + +## Entropy as a metaphor versus entropy as a reductive analog + +My last conversation with Dr Tamanoy took place after a long tour of his native island. He took me around Okinawa to meet with his friends, to battlefields, cave-refuges and refineries. From a curve on a mountain road we looked at the Japanese oil reserves and the bay which now lay waste. The shellfish, gardens and village life were gone. Our conversation turned to the danger of extrapolating from a dying tree to global pollution. No doubt, the latter evil is world-wide. But such world-wide despoliation and its tangible evidence ought never to distract us from sadness about this tree, this landscape, this man’s clam bed. Expert talk can easily deaden our speechless anger over _known_ wetlands that have turned into concrete or asphalt. To speak about the destruction of beauty as an instance of entropy is difficult. The metaphor tends to hide the sordid wickedness which we would otherwise deplore, and in which each one who drives or flies is involved. Words made out of technical terms are notoriously unfit for metaphorical use. When technical terms are ferried into an ethical discourse, they almost inevitably extinguish its moral meaning. + +Real _words_ have a nimbus. In contrast, _terms_ are shorn of connotations. A nimbus of connotation surrounds words like a wind chime moved by the voice. Entropy is not such a word, although many try to use it as one. When it is so used, it is delimited in two ways: it both loses the sharp edge it had as a term and it never acquires the overtones of a strong word. In a poem it is a stone and in a political discourse a cudgel. + +The words people use when they want to say something of importance are neither arbitrarily picked from a dead language — like ancient Greek — nor given their meaning only through definition. Each genuine word has its native place; it is rooted like a plant in a meadow. Some words spread like creepers, others are like hardwood. But what they do is under the control of the speaker. Each speaker tries to make his words mean what he wants to say. But there is no clear meaning in entropy when it is not used as the name of a cypher. No one can tell the person who utters this word with his mouth that he uses it wrongly. There is no right way to use a technical term in ordinary conversation. + +When ‘entropy’ is used as part of ordinary speech, it loses the power to name a formula: it fits neither sentence nor system. But it also lacks the kind of connotation that strong words have. The term gives off a halo of evocation that, unlike the meanings of sound words, is vague and arbitrary. When ‘entropy’ appears in a political statement the usage gives the impression of being scientific while in fact it is probably meaningless. If it convinces, it does so not by its own strength but by irrational seduction. It veils a moral perversion from which the speaker would otherwise recoil because it gives the impression that something weighty and scientific is being said. + +What I see, what I cry over, what deeply disturbs me on that degraded island of Okinawa is the result of presumption, aggression and human greed. Entropy powerfully suggests a strict analogy between the realm of human dignity and freedom and cosmic laws. By speaking about aggression, greed and despair within the context of entropy, I excuse crime and carelessness by evoking cosmic necessity. Instead of confessing that I advance an evil through my own lifestyle, I suggest that the elimination of beauty and variety is the unavoidable way of, equally, nature and culture. This is the issue about which Tamanoy spoke out. He defined the ideologically shaped local interaction of man and earth as the center of the cosmos. + +Yet in spite of this ambiguity, entropy remains a valuable word. When used as a suggestive, ever-limping metaphor, rather than as a reductive analogy, it serves to alert some to social degradation, the loss of beauty and variety, growing triviality and squalor. It helps us to recognize random noise; the senseless and meaningless waves that bombard all our inner and outer senses. If I could be sure that its limitations were kept in mind, I would not want to lose it. + +## Disvalue versus entropy + +When taken literally, metaphors produce absurdities. To insist that my child’s brain is a computer expresses nothing more than a trendy paternal vanity. Yet much of a metaphor’s effectiveness comes from the shock evoked in the hearer by an intentional misuse of language. And metaphor works only when the two realms between which this metaferry plies are shores within the reach of the hearer. Now, there could hardly be more distant and obscure realms than those which entropy as metaphor seeks to connect. For the typical listener, the world of science is formidable — by definition, its mathematical language is foreign to the man on the street. On the other hand, the realm in which the metaphor of entropy is supposed to act as a guide — the universe of monitored pollution, apocalyptic security, programmed education, medicalized sickness, computer-managed death and other forms of institutionalized nonsense — is so frightening that I can only face it with the respect due the devil; a constant fear of losing my heart’s sensitivity by becoming accustomed to evil. + +This is the danger associated with using the term ‘entropy’, for the frustrating and pervasive socio-economic twist that morally perverts almost every aspect of postmodern life. And yet the word did us a favor. It forced us to recognize that we are speechless in the face of a social evolution which (falsely) gives the impression of being as natural as the hypothetical chaos resulting from the irreversable run of the universe. + +The word that names this twist ought to be one that includes the historical and moral nature of our sadness, the perfidy and depravity that cause the loss of beauty, of autonomy and of that dignity which makes human labor worthy. Entropy implies that despoliation is a cosmic law, which started with the Big Bang. The social degradation that must be named is not co-equal with the universe, but something which had a beginning in mankind’s history and which, for this reason, might be brought to an end. + +I propose ‘disvalue’ as the appropriate word. Disvalue can be related to the degradation of value as entropy has been related to the degradation of energy. Entropy is a measure of the transformation of energy into a form that can no longer be converted into physical ‘work’. ‘Disvalue’ is a term that bespeaks the wasting of commons and culture with the result that traditional labor is voided of its power to generate subsistence. On this point the analogy between the two concepts is close enough to justify the metaphorical jump from astronomy to modern lifestyles and back. + +I know well that the word ‘disvalue’ is not in the dictionaries. You can devalue something which was formerly held to be precious: stocks can lose their value; old coins can rise in value; critical sociology can take a value-neutral stance; feigned love can be valueless. In all these applications of value the speaker takes ‘value’ for granted. In current usage, then, value can stand for almost anything. Indeed, it can be used to replace the good. It is born from the same mind set which in the third quarter of the last century also brought forth ‘labor force’, ‘waste’, ‘energy’ and ‘entropy’. + +By coining the concept of disvalue both the homologies and the contradictions that exist between social and physical degradation can be shown. While physical ‘work’ tends to increase entropy, the economic productivity of work is based on the previous dis-valuation of cultural labor. Waste and degradation are usually considered as side effects in the production of values. I suggest precisely the opposite. I argue that economic value accumulates only as the result of the previous wasting of culture, which can also be considered as the creation of disvalue. + +## The parable of Mexico’s ‘waste’ + +Mexico City presents the world with a new plague. In this place salmonella and amoebas are now routinely transmitted through the respiratory tract. When you first arrive in the valley of Technochtitlán, surrounded by mountains and 8,000 feet above sea level, you inevitably struggle to breathe the thin air. Half a century ago it was crisp, clean air. What you now draw into your lungs is an atmosphere heavily polluted by a smog containing a high density of solid particles, many of which are pathogenic agents. A specific set of social conditions incubates and disperses the city’s bacteria. Some of these illustrate how cultural breakdown, ideology and university-bred prejudice combine to create disvalue. The evolution of Mexico City during the last three decades is a cautionary tale describing the highly productive manufacture of disvalue. + +In the last four decades, the city grew from one to over twenty million persons. The single experience which most newcomers share before their arrival is nearly unlimited open space. Pre-Columbian agriculture did not use large domestic animals. Cow, horse and donkey were imports from Europe. Animal droppings were at a premium. The dispersal of human excrements was the rule. Most of the recent immigrants come from rural areas. They do not possess inbred toilet habits appropriate for a densely populated habitat. And Mexican notions of defecation have never been shaped by the attention paid to these matters by Hindu, Muslim or Confucian disciplines. No wonder that in Mexico City today between four and five million people lack any proper place to deposit their stool, urine and blood. The ideology of the W.C. paralyzes the cultural urbanization of patterns native to the immigrants. + +Elitist blindness to the cultural nature of excrements, when these are produced in a modern city, is compounded by highly specialized fantasies implanted in the minds of Mexican bureaucrats by international schools of hygiene. The Anglo-Saxon prejudice that physiologically blocks bowel movements unless one sits over water with a roll of paper at hand has become endemic among the Mexican governing élite. As a result, the Mexican leadership is singularly blind to the real issue at hand. Further, this élite was stimulated to megalomanic planning during the oil boom of the early seventies. At that time, huge public works were undertaken which were never completed, and the ruins of unfinished projects are taken as symbols of development which will soon restart. While many of the poor move on, recognizing that the end of development is at hand, the government continues to speak of a temporary economic crisis that has momentarily throttled the flow of dollars and water. Toilet training, combined with the illusion of living in a short-term crisis, blinds the planners and sanitation experts to the evidence that the body excrements of their four million toilet-less neighbors will only continue to remain, rot and atomize in the thin air of the high plateau. + +## The Mexican earthquake + +Then, in September, 1985, an earthquake shook not only the capital but also the complacency of some professionals. Engineers and health planners in countries like Mexico almost inevitably belong to the class who, by definition, use the W.C. But in 1985 many of these had no water at home or at work for several weeks. For the first time, some editorial writers began to question whether hygiene inevitably means the dilution of feces and the generation of black water. What should have been obvious long ago suddenly became evident conclusions for a few: it is beyond the economic power of Mexico to provide water for several million additional toilets. Further, even if there were enough money and stringent rules applied on the use of flush, the generalization of the W.C. would be a serious and disastrous aggression against rural Mexico. The attempt to pump the necessary millions of gallons would devastate the semi-arid farm communities within a radius of more than a hundred miles. It would thus force new millions into the city. Then thousands of acres of fragile soil on the terraces, some built before the Spaniards, if left untended, would wash away. The center of the Meso-American plateau would become a permanent desert. All this loss would be the result of an ideology that treats humans as natural waste producers. Thinking differently, a new political opposition arose and picked up the slogan of composting units for rich and poor. + +It was interesting to observe how this small but potentially influential group reacted in the absence of the toilet ideology. The ideal of _la_ _normalidad,_ which in Spanish means perpendicularity, went to pieces for them. These people, including some professionals but most quite poor, prisoners of the world’s greatest megacity, rejected the symbols of urban life, such as skyscrapers, deep tunnels and monster markets. The ruins of the inner city became for them a sign of hope. Hitherto unexamined certainties about water and excrement became the source of laughter. Economic development became the butt of jokes in the _pulquerias_. Obviously it did not lead to the distribution of accumulated value, but to the generation of a huge turd composed of cement and plastic needing to be tended by professional services. Sewers became the symbol for remedies required in a city set up for the economic toilet training of _homo_ _œ_ _conomicus._ + +## The history of waste + +The social definition of excrements, which in the opinion of those who generate them cannot be turned into compost, has become a cypher for the junking of people. The latter learn that they depend on services even when they act under the urge of the most elementary needs. In this perspective, the W.C. is a device to instill the habit of self-junking or self-disvaluation, which prepares one for dependence on scarce services in other spheres. It brings into existence the body percept of _homo_ the generator of waste. When people grasp that several times a day their physical needs for evacuation produce a degradation of the environment, it is easy to convince them that by their very existence they cannot but contribute to ‘entropy’. + +Waste is not the natural consequence of human existence. Professor Ludolf Kuchenbuch, who is working on a history of waste, has gathered the evidence. A concept that we take for granted does not appear before 1830. Before that date ‘waste’, as a verb and as a noun, is related to devastation, destruction, desertification, degradation. It is not something that can be removed. Professors Tamanoy and Murata have built their theory on a similar assumption: if a culture steadily enhances the interaction of sun, soil and water, its net contribution to the cosmos is positive. Human societies that create waste are those which destroy the soil-water matrix of their locality and become expansive centers for the devastation of those around them. Entropy appears as a result of the destruction of cultures and their commons. + +It is therefore unwarranted to attribute waste management to all cultures. Miasma and taboo are in no way ancestors of modern pollution. They are the symbolic rules that enhance integration and protect subsistence cultures. So-called development is a programmed disvaluation of these protections. + +## Disvalue versus waste + +Disvalue remains invisible as long as two conditions obtain. The first of these consists in the widespread belief that economic categories, whose task it is to measure ‘values’, can be used in statements about communities whose ‘business’ is not values but _the_ _good._ The good is part of a local ‘ideology’ related to the mixture of elements native to a specific place — to speak with Paracelsus or Tamanoy — while values are a measure which fits the abstract ideology of science. The second source of blindness to disvalue is an obsessive certainty about the feasibility of progress. This reduction of conviviality to primitive economics and the abhorrence of tradition, masked as a commitment to the progress of others, together foster the myopic destruction of the past. Tradition comes to be seen as a historical expression of waste, to be discarded with the trash of the past. + +Only a decade ago it still seemed possible to speak of twentieth-century progress with assurance. The economy appeared to be a machine that increases the flow of money. Energy, information and money all seemed to follow the same rules — the laws of entropy were equally applicable to each. The development of productive capacity, multiplication of trained workers and rise in savings were seen as parts of ‘growth’ which, sooner or later, would bring more money to more people. In spite of wider social disintegration due to the increase of money flow, ever more money was proposed as the fundamental requirement to satisfy the basic needs of more people! Entropy then seemed a tempting analog for the social degradation resulting from the pervasive flow. + +In the meantime, a new and radical questioning of economic verities began. As recently as twenty years ago, it was not yet ridiculous to look for a world community based on equal dignity and fairness that could be planned on the thermodynamic model of value flows. This is no longer so in the mid-eighties. Not only the promise of human equality, but even the provision of an equal chance for survival, sounds hollow. On a world scale it is obvious that growth has concentrated economic benefits, simultaneously disvaluing people and places, in such a way that survival has become impossible outside the money economy. More people are more destitute and helpless than ever before. Further, those privileges which only higher income can buy are increasingly valued primarily as an escape from the disvalue which affects the lives of all. + +The ideology of economic progress throws a shadow of disvalue on almost all activities that are culturally shaped outside of money flow. People like the immigrants to Mexico City, and beliefs such as those in local health rules, are de-valued long before effective toilets can be provided. People are forced into a new mental topology in which locations for bowel movements are scarce, even though resources to create these places are beyond the reasonable reach of the new economy in which they find themselves. The ideology of production and consumption under the implied condition of ‘natural’ scarcity takes hold of their minds while neither paid jobs nor money are attainable for them. Self-degradation, self-junking, self-wasting are different ways to name this creation of the necessary conditions for the legitimate growth of a money economy. + +This is where Joshiro Tamanoy comes in. He not only translated but he taught Karl Polanyi. He picked up the distinction between formal and substantive economies that goes back to Polanyi. Forty years after Polanyi, Tamanoy — whom I know only from conversation, since most of his writings are in a language of which I am ignorant — brought this distinction into modern Japan. It can be used to sum up our argument. Entropy is probably an effective metaphor to stress de-valuation in the formal economy. The flow of money or information can in some way be compared to the flow of heat. But it is now obvious that macro-economics tells us nothing about what people consider _good._ Therefore, entropy cannot be relevant to explain the devastation of substantive cultural patterns by which people act outside the formal money economy. This is true because the ‘exchange’ of gifts or movements of goods in the substantive economy are, by their very nature, heterogeneous to the flow-model of values postulated by a formal economy. And, as the thermodynamic flow model spreads, it extinguishes a way of life to which entropy will forever be foreign. diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ceedf39 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +# Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives" + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:text|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives"_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1995 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** + * This article was originally included as foreword of the book "Deschooling Our Lives" (1995) and was also included in "Everywhere All the Time: A New Deschooling Reader" (2008). + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/text.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/text.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b52a199 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/text.txt @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ + +# Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives" + +Leafing through the pages of _Deschooling Our Lives_ transports me back to the year 1970 when, together with Everett Reimer at the Center for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) in Cuernavaca, I gathered together some of the more thoughtful critics of education (Paulo Freire, John Holt, Paul Goodman, Jonathan Kozol, Joel Spring, George Dennison, and others) to address the futility of schooling — not only in Latin America, which was already obvious — but also in the so-called developed, industrialized world. + +On Wednesday mornings during the spring and summer of that year, I distributed drafts of essays that eventually became chapters of my book, _Deschooling Society_. Looking back over a quarter century, many of the views and criticisms that seemed so radical back in 1970 today seem rather naive. While my criticisms of schooling in that book may have helped some people reflect on the unwanted social side effects of that institution — and perhaps pursue meaningful alternatives to it — I now realize that I was largely barking up the wrong tree. To understand why I feel this way and to get a glimpse of where I am today, I invite readers to accompany me on the journey I took after _Deschooling Society_. + +My travelogue begins twenty-five years ago, when _Deschooling Society_ was about to appear. During the nine months the manuscript was at the publishers, I grew more and more dissatisfied with the text, which, by the way, did not argue for the elimination of schools. This misapprehension I owe to Cass Canfield Sr., Harper’s president, who named the book and in so doing misrepresented my thoughts. The book advocates the disestablishment of schools, in the sense in which the Church has been disestablished in the United States. By disestablishment, I meant, first, not paying public monies and, second, not granting any special social privileges to either church- or school-goers. (I even suggested that instead of financing schools, we should go further than we went with religion and have schools pay taxes, so that schooling would become a luxury object and be recognized as such.) + +I called for the disestablishment of schools for the sake of improving education and here, I noticed, lay my mistake. Much more important than the disestablishment of schools, I began to see, was the reversal of those trends that make of education a pressing need rather than a gift of gratuitous leisure. I began to fear that the disestablishment of the educational church would lead to a fanatical revival of many forms of degraded, all-encompassing education, making the world into a universal classrcom, a global schoolhouse. The more important question became, "Why do so many people—even ardent critics of schooling—become addicted to education, as to a drug?" + +Norman Cousins published my own recantation in the Saturday Review during the very week Deschooling Society came out. In it I argued that the alternative to schooling was not some other type of educational agency, or the design of educational opportunities in every aspect of life, but a society which fosters a different attitude of people toward tools. + +I expanded and generalized this argument in my next book, _Tools for Conviviality_. + +Largely through the help of my friend and colleague Wolfgang Sachs, I came to see that the educational function was already emigrating from the schools and that, increasingly, other forms of compulsory learning would be instituted in modern society. It would become compulsory not by law, but by other tricks, such as making people believe that they are learning something from TV, or compelling people to attend in-service training, or getting people to pay huge amounts of money in order to be taught how to have better sex, how to be more sensitive, how to know more about the vitamins they need, how to play games, and so on. This talk of "lifelong learning" and "learning needs" has thoroughly polluted society, and not just schools, with the stench of education. + +Then came the third stage, in the late seventies and early eighties, when my curiosity and reflections focused on the historical circumstances under which the very idea of educational needs can arise. When I wrote _Deschooling Society_, the social effects, and not the historical substance of education, were still at the core of my interest. I had questioned schooling as a desirable means, but I had not questioned education as a desirable end. I still accepted that, fundamentally, educational needs of some kind were an historical given of human nature. I no longer accept this today. + +As I refocused my attention from schooling to education, from the process toward its orientation, I came to understand education as learning when it takes place under the assumption of scarcity in the means which produce it. The "need" for education from this perspective appears as a result of societal beliefs and arrangements which make the means for so-called socialization scarce. And, from this same perspective, I began to notice that educational rituals reflected, reinforced, and actually created belief in the value of learning pursued under conditions of scarcity. Such beliefs, arrangements, and rituals, I came to see, could easily survive and thrive under the rubrics of deschooling, free schooling, or homeschooling (which, for the most part, are limited to the commendable rejection of authoritarian methods). + +What does scarcity have to do with education? If the means for learning (in general) are abundant, rather than scarce, then education never arises — one does not need to make special arrangements for "learning". If, on the other hand, the means for learning are in scarce supply, or are assumed to be scarce, then educational arrangements crop up to "ensure" that certain, important knowledge, ideas, skills, attitudes, etc., are "transmitted". Education then becomes an economic commodity, which one consumes, or, to use common language, which one "gets". Scarcity emerges both from our perceptions, which are massaged by education professionaals who are in the business of imputing educational needs, and from actual societal arrangements that make access to tools and to skilled, knowledgeable people hard to come by — that is, scarce. + +If there were one thing I could wish for the readers (and some of the writers) of _Deschooling Our Lives_, it would be this: If people are seriously to think about deschooling their lives, and not just escape from the corrosive effects of compulsory schooling, they could do no better than to develop the habit of setting a mental question mark beside all discourse on young people’s “educational needs” or “learning needs,” or about their need for a “preparation for life” I would like them to reflect on the historicity of these very ideas. Such reflection would take the new crop of deschoolers a step further from where the younger and somewhat naive Ivan was situated, back when talk of “deschooling” was born. + + +Bremen, Germany - Summer 1995 diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/Illich, Ivan - 1998 Illich-Conspiracy.PDF b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/Illich, Ivan - 1998 Illich-Conspiracy.PDF Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7184916 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/Illich, Ivan - 1998 Illich-Conspiracy.PDF diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/Illich, Ivan - 1998 Illich-Conspiracy.md b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/Illich, Ivan - 1998 Illich-Conspiracy.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5764985 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/Illich, Ivan - 1998 Illich-Conspiracy.md @@ -0,0 +1,472 @@ +Ivan Illich +Kreftingstr. 16 +D - 28203 Bremen + + + + + + + +**The Cultivation of Conspiracy ** + +A translated, edited and expanded version +of an address given by Ivan Illich at the Villa Ichon in Bremen, Germany, +on the occasion of receiving the Culture and Peace Prize of Bremen, March 14, 1998. + + + + + + + + + + + +_Printed:_ 23.06.00 +_Filename and date:_ ICHON-IB.DOC +_Old filename and date_ : Ichon-ib.c22 + + + + +_STATUS:_ +1. _Distribution_ +- no limits + +2. _Copyright_ +- To be published in: Lee Hoinacki and Carl Mitcham, eds., Ivan Illich: What’s He +Said Rowman and Littlefield, 1999. Title and date tentative. + + + + +For further information please contact: +Silja Samerski Kreftingstr.16 D - 28203 Bremen +Tel: +49-(0)421-76332 Fax: +49-(0)421-705387 e-mail: piano@uni-bremen.de + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +2 + + +**THE CULTIVATION OF CONSPIRACY ** + +A translated, edited and expanded version of an address given by Ivan Illich at the Villa Ichon +in Bremen, Germany, on the occasion of receiving the Culture and Peace Prize of Bremen, +March 14, 1998. + + +On November 16, 1996, I arrived at the library auditorium of Bremen University just in time +for my afternoon lecture. For five years now I had commented old texts to trace the long history of +western philia, of friendship. This semester's theme was the loss of the common sense for +proportionality during the lifetimes of Locke, Leibniz and Johann Sebastian Bach. On that day I +wanted to address "common sense" as the sense-organ believed to recognize "the good", the "fit" and +the "fifth". But even before I could start I had to stop: the roughly two hundred auditors had planned +a party instead of a lecture. Two months after the actual day, they had decided to celebrate my +seventieth birthday, so we feasted and laughed and danced until midnight. + +Speeches launched the affair. I was seated behind a bouquet, in the first row, and listened to +seventeen talks. As a sign of recognition, I presented a flower to each encomiast. Most speakers +were over fifty, friends I had made on four continents, a few with reminiscences reaching back to the +1950s in New York. Others were acquaintances made while teaching in Kassel, Berlin, Marburg, +Oldenburg and, since 1991, in Bremen. As I grappled for the expression of gratitude fitting each +speaker, I felt like Hugh of St. Victor, my teacher. This twelfth-century monk in a letter compares +himself to a basket-bearing donkey: not weighed down but lifted by the burden of friendships +gathered on life's pilgrimage. + +From the laudationes at the library we moved across the plaza to the liberal arts building, +whose bleak cement hallways I habitually avoid. A metamorphosis had occurred in its atmosphere. +We found ourselves in a quaint café: some five dozen small tables, each with a lighted candle on a +colored napkin. For the occasion, the university's department of domestic science had squeezed a pot +into the semester's budget, a pot large enough to cook potato soup for a company. The chancellor, +absent on business in Beijing, had hired a Klezmer ensemble. Ludolf Kuchenbuch, dean of +historians at a nearby university and a saxophonist, took charge of the jazz. A couple of clowns +performing on a bicycle entertained us with their parody of my 1972 book, Energy and Equity. + +The mayor-governor of the city state, Bremen, had picked a very old Burgundy from the +treasures of the Ratskeller. The lanky and towering official handed me the precious gift and +expressed his pleasure "that Illich at seventy, in his own words, had found in Bremen 'einen Zipfel +Heimat'," something like "the tail end of an abode." On the lips of the Bürgermeister, my expression + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +3 +seemed grotesque, but still true. I began to reflect: How could I have been induced to connect the +notion of home with the long dark winters of continual rain, where I walk through the pastures along +the Wümme that are flooded twice a day by the tide from the North Atlantic? I who, as a boy, had +felt exiled in Vienna, because all my senses were longingly attached to the South, to the blue +Adriatic, to the limestone mountains in the Dalmatia of my early childhood. + +Today's ceremony, however, is even more startling than last year's revelry, because your award +makes me feel welcomed by the citizenry rather than just by a city father. Villa Ichon is a +manifestation of Bremen's civility: neither private charity nor public agency. You, who are my hosts +in this place, define yourselves as Hanseatic merchant citizens. On the day Villa Ichon was solemnly +opened, you pointedly refused to let a city official touch the keys to this house, this "houseboat for +the uninsured and vulnerable among us" as Klaus Hübotter has called it. By insisting on your +autonomy you stressed the respectful distance of civil society from the city's government. I am +touched that this annual award, meant to honor a Bremen citizen, should today go to an errant +pilgrim, but to one who knows how to appreciate it. As the eldest son of a merchant family in a free +port city - one that was caught between the contesting powers of Byzantium and Venice - I was born +into a tradition which, in the meantime, has petered out, but not without leaving me sensitive to the +flavor of the Hanseatic hospitality you offer today. + +I first heard of Bremen when I was six, in the stories told me by my drawing teacher, who came +from one of your patrician families, and in Vienna was homesick for the North. I adopted the tiny, +black-dressed lady as Mamma Pfeiffer-Kulenkampf. One summer she came along with us to +Dalmatia, to paint. Her watercolors still grace my brothers study. From her I learned how to mix +different pigments for the contrasting atmospheres of a Mediterranean and an Atlantic shore. + +Now, a long lifetime later, I am at home in her salty gray climate. And not just at home: I now +fancy that my presence has added something to the atmosphere of Bremen university. When Dean +Johannes Beck led me from the aula through the rainy plaza into the makeshift cafe he made a +remark that I accepted as a gift. "Ivan," he said "this feels like an overflow of Barbara Duden's +house." Dean Beck put into words the accomplishment of something I had aimed at for decades \-- +the plethora of the dining-room conviviality inspiring the University Aula; The aura of our +hospitality in the Kreftingstrasse, felt well beyond its threshold. + +Even before my first Bremen semester could start, Barbara Duden got a house in the Ostertor +Viertel, beyond the old moat, just down from the drug-corner, the farmers market and the Turkish +quarter. There Barbara created an ambiance of austere playfulness. The house became a place that +at the drop of a hat accommodates our guests. If \-- after my lecture on Fridays \-- the spaghetti bowl +must feed more than the two dozen who fit around the table made from flooring timber, guests squat +on Mexican blankets in the next room. + + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +4 +Over the years our "Kreftingstraße" has fostered privileged closeness in respectful, disciplined, +critical intercourse: friendships between old acquaintances who drop in from far away, and new +ones, three, even four decades younger than my oldest companion Ceslaus Hoinacki, who shares his +room with our Encyclopedias. Friendship makes ties unique, but some more than others bear the +burden of the host. Kassandra who lives elsewhere, has a key to the house and brings the flowers +and Matthias, the virtuoso drummer who stays downstairs, in the room that opens on the tiny +garden, belong to the dozen who can equally welcome the newcomer at the threshold, stir the soup, +orient conversation, do the dishes and ... correct my manuscripts as well as those of each other. + +Learned and leisurely hospitality is the only antidote to the stance of deadly cleverness that is +acquired in the professional pursuit of objectively secured knowledge. I remain certain that the quest +for truth cannot thrive outside the nourishment of mutual trust flowering into a commitment to +friendship. Therefore I have tried to identify the climate that fosters and the "conditioned air" that +hinders the growth of friendship. + +Of course I can remember the taste of strong atmospheres from other epochs in my life: I have +never doubted that \-- today, more than ever \-- a "monastic" ambience is the prerequisite to the +independence needed for a historically based indictment of society. Only the gratuitous commitment +of friends can enable me to practice the ascetisme required for modern near-paradoxes: as that of +renouncing systems analysis while typing on my Toshiba. + +My early suspicion that atmosphere was a prerequisite for the kind of studium to which I had +dedicated myself became a conviction through my contact with post-Sputnik American universities. +After just one year as vice-chancellor of a university in Puerto Rico, in 1957 I and a few others +wanted to question the development ideology to which Kennedy no less than Castro subscribed. I put +all the money I had - today the equivalent of the prize you just gave me - into the purchase of a one- +room wooden shack in the mountains that overlook the Caribbean. With three friends I wanted a +place of study in which every use of the personal pronoun "nos-otros" would truthfully refer back to +the four of "us", and be accessible to our guests as well; I wanted to practice the rigor that would +keep us far from the "we" that invokes the security found in the shadow of an academic discipline: +we as "sociologists", "economists" and so forth. As one of us, Charlie Rosario, put it: "All +departments smell - of disinfectants, at their best; and poisoned sterilized aura." The "casita" on the +route to Adjuntas soon became so obnoxious that I had to leave the Island. + +This freed me to start a "thinkery" in Mexico that five years later turned into CIDOC. In his +introductory talk for today's celebration congressman Freimut Duve told you about it. In those +distant years Duve was editor at Rowohlt, took care of my German books and several times spent +time with me there, in Cuernavaca. He told you about the spirit prevailing in that place: a climate of +mutually tempered forbearance. It was this aura, this quality or air, through which this ephemeral +venture could become a world crossroads, a meeting place for those who, long before this had + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +5 +become fashionable, questioned the innocence of "development." Only the mood that Duve hinted at +can explain the disproportionate influence that this small place exerted in challenging the goods of +socio-economic development. + +CIDOC was closed by common accord on April first, ten years to the day after its foundation. +With Mexican music and dancing we celebrated its closing. Duve told you about her, who did it, +Valentina Borremans: she had directed and organized CIDOC from its inception, and he told you +about his admiration for the style in which she closed it by mutual consent of its 63 collaborators. +She knew that the soul of this free, independent and powerless "thinkery" would have been squashed +soon by its rising influence. + +CIDOC shut its doors in the face of criticism by its most serious friends, people too earnest to +grasp the paradox of atmosphere. These were mainly persons for whom the hospitable atmosphere +of CIDOC had provided a unique forum. They thrived in the aura of CIDOC, and outright rejected +our certainty that atmosphere invites institutionalization by which it will be corrupted. You never +know what will nurture the spirit of a philia, while you can be certain what will stifle it. Spirit +emerges by surprise, and it's a miracle when it abides; it is stifled by every attempt to secure it; it's +debauched when you try to use it. + +Few understood this. With Valentina I opened the mayor's bottle of Burgundy in Mexico to +celebrate one of them. We drank the wine to the memory of Alejandro Del Corro, a now deceased +Argentine Jesuit who lived and worked with me since the early sixties. With his Laica he traveled +around South America, collaborating with guerrilleros to save their archives for history. Alejandro +was a master at moderating aura. Wen he presided, his delicate attention to each guest: guerrillero, +US civil servant, trash collector or professor felt at home with each other around the CIDOC table. +Alejandro knew that you cannot lay a claim on aura, he knew about the evanescence of atmosphere. + +I speak of atmosphere, faute de mieux. In Greek, the word is used for the emanation of a star, +or for the constellation that governs a place; alchemists adopted it to speak of the layers around our +planet. Maurice Blondel reflects its much later French usage for bouquet des ésprits, the scent those +present contribute to a meeting. I use the word for something frail and often discounted, the air that +weaves and wafts and evokes memories, like those attached to the Burgundy long after the bottle has +been emptied. + +To sense an aura, you need a nose. The nose, framed by the eyes, runs below the brain. What +the nose inhales ends in the guts; every yogi and hesichast knows this. The nose curves down in the +middle of the face. Pious Jews are conscious of the image because what Christians call "walking in +the sight of God" the Hebrew expresses as "ambling under God's nose and breath." To savor the feel +of a place, you trust your nose; to trust another, you must first smell him. + + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +6 +In its beginnings, western civic culture wavered between cultivated distrust and sympathetic +trust. Plato believed it would be upsetting for Athenian citizens to allow their bowels to be affected +by the passion of actors in the theater; he wanted the audience to go no further than reflecting on the +words. Aristotle respectfully modified his teacher's opinion. In the Poetics, he asks the spectators to +let gesture and mimicry, the rhythm and melody of breath, reach their very innards. Citizens should +attend the theater, not just to understand, but to be affected by each other. For Aristotle, there could +be no transformation, no purifying catharsis, without such gripping mimesis. Without gut level +experience of the other, without sharing his aura, you can't be saved from yourself. + +Some of that sense of mimesis comes out in an old German adage, "Ich kann Dich gut riechen" +(I can smell you well), which is still used and understood. But it's something you don't say to just +anyone; it's an expression that is permissible only when you feel close, count on trust, and are +willing to be hurt. It presupposes the truth of another German saying, "Ich kann Dich gut leiden" (I +can suffer [put up with] you [well]). You can see that nose words have not altogether disappeared +from ordinary speech, even in the age of daily showers. + +I remember my embarrassment when, after years of ascetical discipline, I realized that I still +had not made the connection between nose and heart, smell and affection. I was in Peru in the mid- +fifties, on my way to meet Jaime, who welcomed me to his modest hut for the third time. But to get +to the shack, I had to cross the Rimac, the open cloaca of Lima. The thought of sleeping for a week +in this miasma almost made me retch. That evening, for some reason I suddenly understood with a +shock what Carlos had been telling me all along, "Ivan, don't kid yourself; don't imagine you can be +friends with people you can't smell." That one jolt unplugged my nose; it enabled me to dip into the +aura of Carlos's house, and allowed me to merge the atmosphere I brought along into the ambience +of his home. + +This discovery of my nose for the scent of the spirit occurred forty years ago, in the time of the +DC-4, belief in development programs, and the apparently benign Peace Corps. It was the time +when DDT was still too expensive for Latin American slum dwellers, when most people had to put +up with fleas and lice on their skins, as they put up with the old, the crippled and idiots in their +homes. It was the time before Xerox, fax and e-mail. But it was also a time before smog and AIDS. +I was then considered a crank because I foresaw the unwanted side effects of development, because I +spoke to unions on technogenic unemployment, and to leftists on the growing polarization between +rich and poor in the wake of expanding commodity dependence. What seemed hysteria then has now +hardened into well documented facts; some of these facts are too horrible to face. They must be +exorcised: bowdlerizing them by research, assigning their management to specialized agencies, and +conjuring them by prevention programs. But while the depletion of life forms, the growing immunity +of pathogens, climate changes, the disappearance of the job culture, and uncontrollable violence now +make up the admitted side effects of economic growth, the menace of modern life for the survival of +atmospheres is hardly recognized as a terrible threat. + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +7 + +This is the reason I dare to annoy you with the memory of that walk in the dusk with my nose +full of the urine and feces emanating from the Rimac. That landscape no longer exists; cars +now fill a highway hiding the sewage. The skin and scalp of Indians is no longer the habitat of lice; +now the allergies produced by industrial chemicals cause the itch. Makeshift shanties have been +replaced by public housing; each apartment has its plumbing and each family member a separate +bed - the guest knows that he imposes an inconvenience. The miasma of the Rimac has become a +memory in a city asfixiated by industrial smog. I juxtapose then and now because this allows me to +argue that the impending loss of spirit, of soul, of what I call atmosphere, could go unnoticed. + +Only persons who face one another in trust can allow its emergence. The bouquet of friendship +varies with each breath, but when it is there it needs no name. For a long time I believed that there +was no one noun for it, and no verb for its creation. Each time I tried one, I was discouraged; all the +synonyms for it were shanghaied by its synthetic counterfeits: mass-produced fashions and cleverly +marketed moods, chic feelings, swank highs and trendy tastes. Starting in the seventies, group +dynamics retreats and psychic training, all to generate "atmosphere," became major businesses. +Discreet silence about the issue I am raising seemed preferable to creating a misunderstanding. + +Then, thirty years after that evening above the Rimac, I suddenly realized that there is indeed a +very simple word that says what I cherished and tried to nourish, and that word is peace. Peace, +however, not in any of the many ways its cognates are used all over the world, but peace in its post- +classical, European meaning. Peace, in this sense, is the one strong word with which the atmosphere +of friendship created among equals has been appropriately named. But to embrace this, one has to +come to understand the origin of this peace in the conspiratio, a curious ritual behavior almost +forgotten today. + +This is how I chanced upon this insight. In 1986, a few dozen peace research centers in Africa +and Asia were planning to open a common resource center. The founding assembly was held in +Japan, and the leaders were looking for a Third World speaker. However, for reasons of delicacy, +they wanted a person who was neither Asian nor African, and took me for a Latin American; then +they pressured me to come. So I packed my guayabera shirt and departed for the Orient. + +In Yokohama I addressed the group, speaking as a historian. I wanted first to dismantle any +universal notion of peace; I wanted to stress the claim of each ethnos to its own peace, the right of +each community to be left in its peace. It seemed important to make clear that peace is not an +abstract condition, but a very specific spirit to be relished in its particular, incommunicable +uniqueness by each community. + +However, my aim in Yokohama was twofold: I wanted to examine not only the meaning but +also the history and perversion of peace in that appendix to Asia and Africa we call Europe. After + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +8 +all, most of the world in the twentieth century is suffering from the enthusiastic acceptance of +European ideas, including the European concept of peace. The assembly in Japan gave me a chance +to contrast the unique spirit of peace that was born in Christian Europe with its perversion and +counterfeit when, in international political parlance, an ideological link is created between economic +development and peace. I argued that only by de-linking pax (peace) from development could the +heretofore unsuspected glory hidden in pax be revealed. But to achieve this before a Japanese +audience was difficult. + +The Japanese have an iconogram that stands for something we do not have or say or feel: +foodó. My teacher, Professor Tamanoy, explained foodó to me as, "the inimitable freshness that +arises from the commingling of a particular soil with the appropriate waters." Trusting my learned +pacifist guide, since deceased, I started from the notion of foodó. It was easy to explain that both +Athenian philia and Pax Romana, as different as they are from each other, are incomparable to +foodó. Athenian philia bespeaks the friendship among the free men of a city, and Roman pax +bespeaks the administrative status of a region dominated by the Legion that had planted its insignia +into that soil. Thanks to Professor Tamanoy's assistance, it was easy to elaborate on the +contradictions and differences between these two notions, and get the audience to comment on +similar heteronomies in the cultural meaning of peace within India or between neighboring groups in +Tanzania. The kaleidoscopic incarnations of peace all referred to a particular, highly desirable +atmosphere. So far the conversation was easy. + +However, speaking about pax in the proto-Christan epoch turned out to be a delicate matter, +because around the year 300 pax became a key word in the Christian liturgy. It became the +euphemism for a mouth-to-mouth kiss among the faithful attending services; pax became the +camouflage for the osculum (from os, mouth), or the conspiratio, a commingling of breaths. My +friend felt I was not just courting misunderstanding, but perhaps giving offense, by mentioning such +body-to-body contact in public. The gesture, up to this day, is repugnant to Japanese. + +The Latin osculum is neither very old nor frequent. It is one of three words that can be +translated by the English, "kiss." In comparison with the affectionate basium and the lascivious +suavium, osculum was a latecomer into classical Latin, and was used in only one circumstance as a +ritual gesture: In the second century, it became the sign given by a departing soldier to a woman, +thereby recognizing her expected child as his offspring. + +In the Christian liturgy of the first century, the osculum assumed a new function. It became one +of two high points in the celebration of the Eucharist. Conspiratio, the mount-to-mouth kiss, became +the solemn liturgical gesture by which participants in the cult-action shared their breath or spirit +with one another. It came to signify their union in one Holy Spirit, the community that takes shape +in God's breath. The ecclesia came to be through a public ritual action, the liturgy, and the soul of +this liturgy was the conspiratio. Explicitly, corporeally, the central Christian celebration was + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +9 +understood as a co-breathing, a con-spiracy, the bringing about of a common atmosphere, a divine +milieu. + +The other eminent moment of the celebration was, of course, the comestio, the communion in +the flesh, the incorporation of the believer in the body of the Incarnate Word, but communio was +theologically linked to the preceding con-spiratio. Conspiratio became the strongest, clearest and +most unambiguously somatic expression for the entirely non-hierarchical creation of a fraternal +spirit in preparation for the unifying meal. Through the act of eating, the fellow conspirators were +transformed into a "we," a gathering which in Greek means ecclesia. Further, they believed that the +"we" is also somebody's "I"; they were nourished by shading into the "I" of the Incarnate Word. The +words and actions of the liturgy are not just mundane words and actions, but events occurring after +the Word, that is, after the Incarnation. Peace as the commingling of soil and waters sounds cute to +my ears; but peace as the result of conspiratio exacts a demanding, today almost unimaginable +intimacy. + +The practice of the osculum did not go unchallenged; documents reveal that the conspiratio +created scandal early on. The rigorist African Church Father, Tertullian, felt that a decent matron +should not be subjected to possible embarrassment by this rite. The practice continued, but not its +name; the ceremony required a euphemism. From the later third century on, the osculum pacis was +referred to simply as pax, and the gesture was often watered down to some slight touch to signify +the mutual spiritual union of the persons present through the creation of a fraternal atmosphere. +Today, the pax before communion, called "the kiss of peace," is still integral to the Roman, +Slavonic, Greek and Syrian Mass, although it is often reduced to a perfunctory handshake. + +I could no more avoid telling the story in Yokohama than today in Bremen. Why? Because the +very idea of peace understood as a hospitality that reaches out to the stranger, and of a free +assembly that arises in the practice of hospitality cannot be understood without reference to the +Christian liturgy in which the community comes into being by the mouth-to-mouth kiss. + +However, jusyt as the antecedents of peace among us cannot be understood without reference to +conspiration, the historical uniqueness of a city's climate, atmosphere or spirit calls for this +reference. The European idea of peace that is synonymous with the somatic incorporation of equals +into a community has no analogue elsewhere. Community in our European tradition is not the +outcome of an act of authoritative foundation, nor a gift from nature or its gods, nor the result of +management, planning and design, but the consequence of a conspiracy, a deliberate, mutual, +somatic and gratuitous gift to each other. The prototype of that conspiracy lies in the celebration of +the early Christian liturgy in which, no matter their origin, men and women, Greeks and Jews, slaves +and citizens, engender a physical reality that transcends them. The shared breath, the con-spiratio +are the "peace" understood as the community that arises from it. + + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +10 +Historians have often pointed out that the idea of a social contract, which dominates political +thinking in Europe since the 14th century, has its concrete origins in the way founders of medieval +towns conceived urbane civilities. I fully agree with this. However, by focusing on the contractual +aspect of this incorporation attention is distracted from the good that such contracts were meant to +protect, namely, peace resulting from a conspiratio. One can fail to perceive the pretentious +absurdity of attempting a contractual insurance of an atmosphere as fleeting and alive, as tender and +robust, as pax. + +The medieval merchants and craftsmen who settled at the foot of a lord's castle felt the need to +make the conspiracy that united them into a secure and lasting association. To provide for their +general surety, they had recourse to a device, the conjuratio, a mutual promise confirmed by an oath +that uses God as a witness. Most societies know the oath, but the use of God's name to make it stick +first appears as a legal device in the codification of roman law made by the Christian emperor +Theodosius. "Conjuration" or the swearing together by a common oath confirmed by the invocation +of God, just like the liturgical osculum is of Christian origin. Conjuratio which uses God as epoxy +for the social bond presumably assures stability and durability to the atmosphere engendered by the +conspiratio of the citizens. In this linkage between conspiratio and conjuratio, two equally unique +concepts inherited from the first millennium of Christian history are intertwined, but the latter, the +contractual form soon overshadowed the spiritual substance. + +The medieval town of central Europe thus was indeed a profoundly new historical gestalt: the +conjuratio conspirativa, which makes European urbanity distinct from urban modes elsewhere. It +implies a peculiar dynamic strain between the atmosphere of conspiratio and its legal, contractual +constitution. Ideally, the spiritual climate is the source of the city's life that flower into a hierarchy, +like a shell or frame, to protect its order. Insofar as the city is understood to originate in a +conspiratio, it owes its social existence to the pax the breath, shared equally among all. + +This long reflection on the historical precedence to the cultivation of atmosphere in late +twentieth century Bremen seemed necessary to me to defend its intrinsically conspiratorial nature. It +seems necessary to understand why, arguably, independent criticism of the established order of +modern, technogene, information-centered society can grow only out of a milieu of intense +hospitality. + +As a scholar I have been shaped by a monastic traditions and by the interpretation of medieval +texts. Early on I took it for granted that the principal condition for an atmosphere that is propitious +to independent thought is the hospitality cultivated by the host: a hospitality that excludes +condescension as scrupulously as seduction; a hospitality that by its simplicity defeats the fear of +plagiarism as much as that of clientage; a hospitality that by its openness dissolves intimidation as +studiously as servility; a hospitality that exacts from the guests as much generosity as it imposes on +the host. I have been blessed with a large portion of it, with the taste of a relaxed, humorous, + + +* * * + +_Ivan Illich: The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +11 +sometimes grotesque fit among mostly ordinary but sometimes outlandish companions who are +patient with one another. More so in Bremen than anywhere else. + + +* * * diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/index.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e27fdb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +# The Cultivation of Conspiracy + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:text|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _The Cultivation of Conspiracy_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1998 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** + * A translated, edited and expanded version of an address given by Ivan Illich at the Villa Ichon in Bremen, Germany, on the occasion of receiving the Culture and Peace Prize of Bremen, March 14, 1998. + * Included in the book "The Challenges of Ivan Illich: A Collective Reflection" (2002) + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/text.txt b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/text.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5041131 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/article/1998-conspiracy/text.txt @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +# The Cultivation of Conspiracy + +On November 16, 1996, I arrived at the library auditorium of Bremen University just in time for my afternoon lecture. For five years now I had commented old texts to trace the long history of western philia, of friendship. This semester's theme was the loss of the common sense for proportionality during the lifetimes of Locke, Leibniz and Johann Sebastian Bach. On that day I wanted to address "common sense" as the sense-organ believed to recognize "the good", the "fit" and the "fifth". But even before I could start I had to stop: the roughly two hundred auditors had planned a party instead of a lecture. Two months after the actual day, they had decided to celebrate my seventieth birthday, so we feasted and laughed and danced until midnight. + +Speeches launched the affair. I was seated behind a bouquet, in the first row, and listened to seventeen talks. As a sign of recognition, I presented a flower to each encomiast. Most speakers were over fifty, friends I had made on four continents, a few with reminiscences reaching back to the 1950s in New York. Others were acquaintances made while teaching in Kassel, Berlin, Marburg, Oldenburg and, since 1991, in Bremen. As I grappled for the expression of gratitude fitting each speaker, I felt like Hugh of St. Victor, my teacher. This twelfth-century monk in a letter compares himself to a basket-bearing donkey: not weighed down but lifted by the burden of friendships gathered on life's pilgrimage. + +From the laudationes at the library we moved across the plaza to the liberal arts building, whose bleak cement hallways I habitually avoid. A metamorphosis had occurred in its atmosphere. We found ourselves in a quaint café: some five dozen small tables, each with a lighted candle on a colored napkin. For the occasion, the university's department of domestic science had squeezed a pot into the semester's budget, a pot large enough to cook potato soup for a company. The chancellor, absent on business in Beijing, had hired a Klezmer ensemble. Ludolf Kuchenbuch, dean of historians at a nearby university and a saxophonist, took charge of the jazz. A couple of clowns performing on a bicycle entertained us with their parody of my 1972 book, Energy and Equity. + +The mayor-governor of the city state, Bremen, had picked a very old Burgundy from the treasures of the Ratskeller. The lanky and towering official handed me the precious gift and expressed his pleasure "that Illich at seventy, in his own words, had found in Bremen 'einen Zipfel Heimat'," something like "the tail end of an abode." On the lips of the Bürgermeister, my expression seemed grotesque, but still true. I began to reflect: How could I have been induced to connect the notion of home with the long dark winters of continual rain, where I walk through the pastures along the Wümme that are flooded twice a day by the tide from the North Atlantic? I who, as a boy, had felt exiled in Vienna, because all my senses were longingly attached to the South, to the blue Adriatic, to the limestone mountains in the Dalmatia of my early childhood. + +Today's ceremony, however, is even more startling than last year's revelry, because your award makes me feel welcomed by the citizenry rather than just by a city father. Villa Ichon is a manifestation of Bremen's civility: neither private charity nor public agency. You, who are my hosts in this place, define yourselves as Hanseatic merchant citizens. On the day Villa Ichon was solemnly opened, you pointedly refused to let a city official touch the keys to this house, this "houseboat for the uninsured and vulnerable among us" as Klaus Hübotter has called it. By insisting on your autonomy you stressed the respectful distance of civil society from the city's government. I am touched that this annual award, meant to honor a Bremen citizen, should today go to an errant pilgrim, but to one who knows how to appreciate it. As the eldest son of a merchant family in a free port city - one that was caught between the contesting powers of Byzantium and Venice - I was born into a tradition which, in the meantime, has petered out, but not without leaving me sensitive to the flavor of the Hanseatic hospitality you offer today. + +I first heard of Bremen when I was six, in the stories told me by my drawing teacher, who came from one of your patrician families, and in Vienna was homesick for the North. I adopted the tiny, black-dressed lady as Mamma Pfeiffer-Kulenkampf. One summer she came along with us to Dalmatia, to paint. Her watercolors still grace my brothers study. From her I learned how to mix different pigments for the contrasting atmospheres of a Mediterranean and an Atlantic shore. + +Now, a long lifetime later, I am at home in her salty gray climate. And not just at home: I now fancy that my presence has added something to the atmosphere of Bremen university. When Dean Johannes Beck led me from the aula through the rainy plaza into the makeshift cafe he made a remark that I accepted as a gift. "Ivan," he said "this feels like an overflow of Barbara Duden's house." Dean Beck put into words the accomplishment of something I had aimed at for decades -- the plethora of the dining-room conviviality inspiring the University Aula; The aura of our hospitality in the Kreftingstrasse, felt well beyond its threshold. + +Even before my first Bremen semester could start, Barbara Duden got a house in the Ostertor Viertel, beyond the old moat, just down from the drug-corner, the farmers market and the Turkish quarter. There Barbara created an ambiance of austere playfulness. The house became a place that at the drop of a hat accommodates our guests. If -- after my lecture on Fridays -- the spaghetti bowl must feed more than the two dozen who fit around the table made from flooring timber, guests squat on Mexican blankets in the next room. + +Over the years our "Kreftingstraße" has fostered privileged closeness in respectful, disciplined, critical intercourse: friendships between old acquaintances who drop in from far away, and new ones, three, even four decades younger than my oldest companion Ceslaus Hoinacki, who shares his room with our Encyclopedias. Friendship makes ties unique, but some more than others bear the burden of the host. Kassandra who lives elsewhere, has a key to the house and brings the flowers and Matthias, the virtuoso drummer who stays downstairs, in the room that opens on the tiny garden, belong to the dozen who can equally welcome the newcomer at the threshold, stir the soup, orient conversation, do the dishes and ... correct my manuscripts as well as those of each other. + +Learned and leisurely hospitality is the only antidote to the stance of deadly cleverness that is acquired in the professional pursuit of objectively secured knowledge. I remain certain that the quest for truth cannot thrive outside the nourishment of mutual trust flowering into a commitment to friendship. Therefore I have tried to identify the climate that fosters and the "conditioned air" that hinders the growth of friendship. + +Of course I can remember the taste of strong atmospheres from other epochs in my life: I have never doubted that -- today, more than ever -- a "monastic" ambience is the prerequisite to the independence needed for a historically based indictment of society. Only the gratuitous commitment of friends can enable me to practice the ascetisme required for modern near-paradoxes: as that of renouncing systems analysis while typing on my Toshiba. + +My early suspicion that atmosphere was a prerequisite for the kind of studium to which I had dedicated myself became a conviction through my contact with post-Sputnik American universities. After just one year as vice-chancellor of a university in Puerto Rico, in 1957 I and a few others wanted to question the development ideology to which Kennedy no less than Castro subscribed. I put all the money I had - today the equivalent of the prize you just gave me - into the purchase of a one- room wooden shack in the mountains that overlook the Caribbean. With three friends I wanted a place of study in which every use of the personal pronoun "nos-otros" would truthfully refer back to the four of "us", and be accessible to our guests as well; I wanted to practice the rigor that would keep us far from the "we" that invokes the security found in the shadow of an academic discipline: we as "sociologists", "economists" and so forth. As one of us, Charlie Rosario, put it: "All departments smell - of disinfectants, at their best; and poisoned sterilized aura." The "casita" on the route to Adjuntas soon became so obnoxious that I had to leave the Island. + +This freed me to start a "thinkery" in Mexico that five years later turned into CIDOC. In his introductory talk for today's celebration congressman Freimut Duve told you about it. In those distant years Duve was editor at Rowohlt, took care of my German books and several times spent time with me there, in Cuernavaca. He told you about the spirit prevailing in that place: a climate of mutually tempered forbearance. It was this aura, this quality or air, through which this ephemeral venture could become a world crossroads, a meeting place for those who, long before this had +become fashionable, questioned the innocence of "development." Only the mood that Duve hinted at can explain the disproportionate influence that this small place exerted in challenging the goods of socio-economic development. + +CIDOC was closed by common accord on April first, ten years to the day after its foundation. With Mexican music and dancing we celebrated its closing. Duve told you about her, who did it, Valentina Borremans: she had directed and organized CIDOC from its inception, and he told you about his admiration for the style in which she closed it by mutual consent of its 63 collaborators. She knew that the soul of this free, independent and powerless "thinkery" would have been squashed soon by its rising influence. + +CIDOC shut its doors in the face of criticism by its most serious friends, people too earnest to grasp the paradox of atmosphere. These were mainly persons for whom the hospitable atmosphere of CIDOC had provided a unique forum. They thrived in the aura of CIDOC, and outright rejected our certainty that atmosphere invites institutionalization by which it will be corrupted. You never know what will nurture the spirit of a philia, while you can be certain what will stifle it. Spirit emerges by surprise, and it's a miracle when it abides; it is stifled by every attempt to secure it; it's debauched when you try to use it. + +Few understood this. With Valentina I opened the mayor's bottle of Burgundy in Mexico to celebrate one of them. We drank the wine to the memory of Alejandro Del Corro, a now deceased Argentine Jesuit who lived and worked with me since the early sixties. With his Laica he traveled around South America, collaborating with guerrilleros to save their archives for history. Alejandro was a master at moderating aura. Wen he presided, his delicate attention to each guest: guerrillero, US civil servant, trash collector or professor felt at home with each other around the CIDOC table. Alejandro knew that you cannot lay a claim on aura, he knew about the evanescence of atmosphere. + +I speak of atmosphere, faute de mieux. In Greek, the word is used for the emanation of a star, or for the constellation that governs a place; alchemists adopted it to speak of the layers around our planet. Maurice Blondel reflects its much later French usage for bouquet des ésprits, the scent those present contribute to a meeting. I use the word for something frail and often discounted, the air that weaves and wafts and evokes memories, like those attached to the Burgundy long after the bottle has been emptied. + +To sense an aura, you need a nose. The nose, framed by the eyes, runs below the brain. What the nose inhales ends in the guts; every yogi and hesichast knows this. The nose curves down in the middle of the face. Pious Jews are conscious of the image because what Christians call "walking in the sight of God" the Hebrew expresses as "ambling under God's nose and breath." To savor the feel of a place, you trust your nose; to trust another, you must first smell him. + +In its beginnings, western civic culture wavered between cultivated distrust and sympathetic trust. Plato believed it would be upsetting for Athenian citizens to allow their bowels to be affected by the passion of actors in the theater; he wanted the audience to go no further than reflecting on the words. Aristotle respectfully modified his teacher's opinion. In the Poetics, he asks the spectators to let gesture and mimicry, the rhythm and melody of breath, reach their very innards. Citizens should attend the theater, not just to understand, but to be affected by each other. For Aristotle, there could be no transformation, no purifying catharsis, without such gripping mimesis. Without gut level experience of the other, without sharing his aura, you can't be saved from yourself. + +Some of that sense of mimesis comes out in an old German adage, "Ich kann Dich gut riechen" (I can smell you well), which is still used and understood. But it's something you don't say to just anyone; it's an expression that is permissible only when you feel close, count on trust, and are willing to be hurt. It presupposes the truth of another German saying, "Ich kann Dich gut leiden" (I can suffer [put up with] you [well]). You can see that nose words have not altogether disappeared from ordinary speech, even in the age of daily showers. + +I remember my embarrassment when, after years of ascetical discipline, I realized that I still had not made the connection between nose and heart, smell and affection. I was in Peru in the mid- fifties, on my way to meet Jaime, who welcomed me to his modest hut for the third time. But to get to the shack, I had to cross the Rimac, the open cloaca of Lima. The thought of sleeping for a week in this miasma almost made me retch. That evening, for some reason I suddenly understood with a shock what Carlos had been telling me all along, "Ivan, don't kid yourself; don't imagine you can be friends with people you can't smell." That one jolt unplugged my nose; it enabled me to dip into the aura of Carlos's house, and allowed me to merge the atmosphere I brought along into the ambience of his home. + +This discovery of my nose for the scent of the spirit occurred forty years ago, in the time of the DC-4, belief in development programs, and the apparently benign Peace Corps. It was the time when DDT was still too expensive for Latin American slum dwellers, when most people had to put up with fleas and lice on their skins, as they put up with the old, the crippled and idiots in their homes. It was the time before Xerox, fax and e-mail. But it was also a time before smog and AIDS. I was then considered a crank because I foresaw the unwanted side effects of development, because I spoke to unions on technogenic unemployment, and to leftists on the growing polarization between rich and poor in the wake of expanding commodity dependence. What seemed hysteria then has now hardened into well documented facts; some of these facts are too horrible to face. They must be exorcised: bowdlerizing them by research, assigning their management to specialized agencies, and conjuring them by prevention programs. But while the depletion of life forms, the growing immunity of pathogens, climate changes, the disappearance of the job culture, and uncontrollable violence now make up the admitted side effects of economic growth, the menace of modern life for the survival of atmospheres is hardly recognized as a terrible threat. + +This is the reason I dare to annoy you with the memory of that walk in the dusk with my nose full of the urine and feces emanating from the Rimac. That landscape no longer exists; cars now fill a highway hiding the sewage. The skin and scalp of Indians is no longer the habitat of lice; now the allergies produced by industrial chemicals cause the itch. Makeshift shanties have been replaced by public housing; each apartment has its plumbing and each family member a separate bed - the guest knows that he imposes an inconvenience. The miasma of the Rimac has become a memory in a city asfixiated by industrial smog. I juxtapose then and now because this allows me to argue that the impending loss of spirit, of soul, of what I call atmosphere, could go unnoticed. + +Only persons who face one another in trust can allow its emergence. The bouquet of friendship varies with each breath, but when it is there it needs no name. For a long time I believed that there was no one noun for it, and no verb for its creation. Each time I tried one, I was discouraged; all the synonyms for it were shanghaied by its synthetic counterfeits: mass-produced fashions and cleverly marketed moods, chic feelings, swank highs and trendy tastes. Starting in the seventies, group dynamics retreats and psychic training, all to generate "atmosphere," became major businesses. Discreet silence about the issue I am raising seemed preferable to creating a misunderstanding. + +Then, thirty years after that evening above the Rimac, I suddenly realized that there is indeed a very simple word that says what I cherished and tried to nourish, and that word is peace. Peace, however, not in any of the many ways its cognates are used all over the world, but peace in its post- classical, European meaning. Peace, in this sense, is the one strong word with which the atmosphere of friendship created among equals has been appropriately named. But to embrace this, one has to come to understand the origin of this peace in the conspiratio, a curious ritual behavior almost forgotten today. + +This is how I chanced upon this insight. In 1986, a few dozen peace research centers in Africa and Asia were planning to open a common resource center. The founding assembly was held in Japan, and the leaders were looking for a Third World speaker. However, for reasons of delicacy, they wanted a person who was neither Asian nor African, and took me for a Latin American; then they pressured me to come. So I packed my guayabera shirt and departed for the Orient. + +In Yokohama I addressed the group, speaking as a historian. I wanted first to dismantle any universal notion of peace; I wanted to stress the claim of each ethnos to its own peace, the right of each community to be left in its peace. It seemed important to make clear that peace is not an abstract condition, but a very specific spirit to be relished in its particular, incommunicable uniqueness by each community. + +However, my aim in Yokohama was twofold: I wanted to examine not only the meaning but also the history and perversion of peace in that appendix to Asia and Africa we call Europe. After all, most of the world in the twentieth century is suffering from the enthusiastic acceptance of European ideas, including the European concept of peace. The assembly in Japan gave me a chance to contrast the unique spirit of peace that was born in Christian Europe with its perversion and counterfeit when, in international political parlance, an ideological link is created between economic development and peace. I argued that only by de-linking pax (peace) from development could the heretofore unsuspected glory hidden in pax be revealed. But to achieve this before a Japanese audience was difficult. + +The Japanese have an iconogram that stands for something we do not have or say or feel: foodó. My teacher, Professor Tamanoy, explained foodó to me as, "the inimitable freshness that arises from the commingling of a particular soil with the appropriate waters." Trusting my learned pacifist guide, since deceased, I started from the notion of foodó. It was easy to explain that both Athenian philia and Pax Romana, as different as they are from each other, are incomparable to foodó. Athenian philia bespeaks the friendship among the free men of a city, and Roman pax bespeaks the administrative status of a region dominated by the Legion that had planted its insignia into that soil. Thanks to Professor Tamanoy's assistance, it was easy to elaborate on the contradictions and differences between these two notions, and get the audience to comment on similar heteronomies in the cultural meaning of peace within India or between neighboring groups in Tanzania. The kaleidoscopic incarnations of peace all referred to a particular, highly desirable atmosphere. So far the conversation was easy. + +However, speaking about pax in the proto-Christan epoch turned out to be a delicate matter, because around the year 300 pax became a key word in the Christian liturgy. It became the euphemism for a mouth-to-mouth kiss among the faithful attending services; pax became the camouflage for the osculum (from os, mouth), or the conspiratio, a commingling of breaths. My friend felt I was not just courting misunderstanding, but perhaps giving offense, by mentioning such body-to-body contact in public. The gesture, up to this day, is repugnant to Japanese. + +The Latin osculum is neither very old nor frequent. It is one of three words that can be translated by the English, "kiss." In comparison with the affectionate basium and the lascivious suavium, osculum was a latecomer into classical Latin, and was used in only one circumstance as a ritual gesture: In the second century, it became the sign given by a departing soldier to a woman, thereby recognizing her expected child as his offspring. + +In the Christian liturgy of the first century, the osculum assumed a new function. It became one of two high points in the celebration of the Eucharist. Conspiratio, the mount-to-mouth kiss, became the solemn liturgical gesture by which participants in the cult-action shared their breath or spirit with one another. It came to signify their union in one Holy Spirit, the community that takes shape in God's breath. The ecclesia came to be through a public ritual action, the liturgy, and the soul of this liturgy was the conspiratio. Explicitly, corporeally, the central Christian celebration was understood as a co-breathing, a con-spiracy, the bringing about of a common atmosphere, a divine milieu. + +The other eminent moment of the celebration was, of course, the comestio, the communion in the flesh, the incorporation of the believer in the body of the Incarnate Word, but communio was theologically linked to the preceding con-spiratio. Conspiratio became the strongest, clearest and most unambiguously somatic expression for the entirely non-hierarchical creation of a fraternal spirit in preparation for the unifying meal. Through the act of eating, the fellow conspirators were transformed into a "we," a gathering which in Greek means ecclesia. Further, they believed that the "we" is also somebody's "I"; they were nourished by shading into the "I" of the Incarnate Word. The words and actions of the liturgy are not just mundane words and actions, but events occurring after the Word, that is, after the Incarnation. Peace as the commingling of soil and waters sounds cute to my ears; but peace as the result of conspiratio exacts a demanding, today almost unimaginable intimacy. + +The practice of the osculum did not go unchallenged; documents reveal that the conspiratio created scandal early on. The rigorist African Church Father, Tertullian, felt that a decent matron should not be subjected to possible embarrassment by this rite. The practice continued, but not its name; the ceremony required a euphemism. From the later third century on, the osculum pacis was referred to simply as pax, and the gesture was often watered down to some slight touch to signify the mutual spiritual union of the persons present through the creation of a fraternal atmosphere. Today, the pax before communion, called "the kiss of peace," is still integral to the Roman, Slavonic, Greek and Syrian Mass, although it is often reduced to a perfunctory handshake. + +I could no more avoid telling the story in Yokohama than today in Bremen. Why? Because the very idea of peace understood as a hospitality that reaches out to the stranger, and of a free assembly that arises in the practice of hospitality cannot be understood without reference to the Christian liturgy in which the community comes into being by the mouth-to-mouth kiss. + +However, jusyt as the antecedents of peace among us cannot be understood without reference to conspiration, the historical uniqueness of a city's climate, atmosphere or spirit calls for this reference. The European idea of peace that is synonymous with the somatic incorporation of equals into a community has no analogue elsewhere. Community in our European tradition is not the outcome of an act of authoritative foundation, nor a gift from nature or its gods, nor the result of management, planning and design, but the consequence of a conspiracy, a deliberate, mutual, somatic and gratuitous gift to each other. The prototype of that conspiracy lies in the celebration of the early Christian liturgy in which, no matter their origin, men and women, Greeks and Jews, slaves and citizens, engender a physical reality that transcends them. The shared breath, the con-spiratio are the "peace" understood as the community that arises from it. + +Historians have often pointed out that the idea of a social contract, which dominates political thinking in Europe since the 14th century, has its concrete origins in the way founders of medieval towns conceived urbane civilities. I fully agree with this. However, by focusing on the contractual aspect of this incorporation attention is distracted from the good that such contracts were meant to protect, namely, peace resulting from a conspiratio. One can fail to perceive the pretentious absurdity of attempting a contractual insurance of an atmosphere as fleeting and alive, as tender and robust, as pax. + +The medieval merchants and craftsmen who settled at the foot of a lord's castle felt the need to make the conspiracy that united them into a secure and lasting association. To provide for their general surety, they had recourse to a device, the conjuratio, a mutual promise confirmed by an oath that uses God as a witness. Most societies know the oath, but the use of God's name to make it stick first appears as a legal device in the codification of roman law made by the Christian emperor Theodosius. "Conjuration" or the swearing together by a common oath confirmed by the invocation of God, just like the liturgical osculum is of Christian origin. Conjuratio which uses God as epoxy for the social bond presumably assures stability and durability to the atmosphere engendered by the conspiratio of the citizens. In this linkage between conspiratio and conjuratio, two equally unique concepts inherited from the first millennium of Christian history are intertwined, but the latter, the contractual form soon overshadowed the spiritual substance. + +The medieval town of central Europe thus was indeed a profoundly new historical gestalt: the conjuratio conspirativa, which makes European urbanity distinct from urban modes elsewhere. It implies a peculiar dynamic strain between the atmosphere of conspiratio and its legal, contractual constitution. Ideally, the spiritual climate is the source of the city's life that flower into a hierarchy, like a shell or frame, to protect its order. Insofar as the city is understood to originate in a conspiratio, it owes its social existence to the pax the breath, shared equally among all. + +This long reflection on the historical precedence to the cultivation of atmosphere in late twentieth century Bremen seemed necessary to me to defend its intrinsically conspiratorial nature. It seems necessary to understand why, arguably, independent criticism of the established order of modern, technogene, information-centered society can grow only out of a milieu of intense hospitality. + +As a scholar I have been shaped by a monastic traditions and by the interpretation of medieval texts. Early on I took it for granted that the principal condition for an atmosphere that is propitious to independent thought is the hospitality cultivated by the host: a hospitality that excludes condescension as scrupulously as seduction; a hospitality that by its simplicity defeats the fear of plagiarism as much as that of clientage; a hospitality that by its openness dissolves intimidation as studiously as servility; a hospitality that exacts from the guests as much generosity as it imposes on the host. I have been blessed with a large portion of it, with the taste of a relaxed, humorous, sometimes grotesque fit among mostly ordinary but sometimes outlandish companions who are patient with one another. More so in Bremen than anywhere else. diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/awareness/en.txt b/data/pages/en/book/awareness/en.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..97e05de --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/awareness/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1,988 @@ +# Celebration of awareness + +## Introduction + +There is no need for an introduction of the following papers or of their author. If, nevertheless, Dr. Illich has honored me by the invitation to write such an introduction, and if I gladly accepted, the reason in both our minds seems to be that this introduction offers an occasion that permits clarifying the nature of a common attitude and faith, in spite of the fact that some of our views differ considerably. Even the author's own views today are not always the same as those he held at the time he wrote these papers, on different occasions, over the course of the years. But he has remained true to himself in the very core of his approach and it is this core that we share. + +It is not easy to find the proper word to describe this core. How can a fundamental approach to life be caught in a concept without distorting and twisting it? Yet since we need to communicate with words, the most adequate —or rather, the least inadequate—term seems to be "humanist radicalism." + +What is meant by radicalism? What does humanist radicalism imply? + +By radicalism I do not refer primarily to a certain set of ideas, but rather to an attitude, to an "approach," as it were. To begin with this approach can be characterized by the motto: de omnibus dubitandum; everything must be doubted, particularly the ideological concepts which are virtually shared by everybody and have consequently assumed the role of indubitable common-sensical axioms. + +To "doubt" in this sense does not imply a psychological state of inability to arrive at decisions or convictions, as is the case in obsessional doubt, but the readiness and capacity for critical questioning of all assumptions and institutions which have become idols under the name of common sense, logic, and what is supposed to be "natural." This radical questioning is possible only if one does not take the concepts of one's own society or even of an entire historical period—like Western culture since the Renaissance—for granted, and furthermore if one enlarges the scope of one's awareness and penetrates into the unconscious aspects of one's thinking. Radical doubt is an act of uncovering and discovering; it is the dawning of the awareness that the Emperor is naked, and that his splendid garments are nothing but the product of one's phantasy. + +Radical doubt means to question; it does not necessarily mean to negate. It is easy to negate by simply positing the opposite of what exists; radical doubt is dialectical inasmuch as it comprehends the process of the unfolding of oppositions and aims at a new synthesis which negates and affirms. + +Radical doubt is a process; a process of liberation from idolatrous thinking; a widening of awareness, of imaginative, creative vision of our possibilities and options. The radical approach does not occur in a vacuum. It does not start from nothing, but it starts from the roots, and the root, as Marx once said, is man. But to say "the root is man" is not meant in a positivistic, descriptive sense. When we speak of man we speak of him not as a thing but as a process; we speak of his potential for developing all his powers; those for greater intensity of being, greater harmony, greater love, greater awareness. We also speak of man with a potential to be corrupted, of his power to act being transformed into the passion for power over others, of his love of life degenerating into the passion to destroy life. + +Humanistic radicalism is radical questioning guided by insight into the dynamics of man's nature; and by concern for man's growth and full unfolding. In contrast to contemporary positivistic thinking it is not "objective," if objectivity means theorizing without a passionately held aim which impels and nourishes the process of thinking. But it is exceedingly objective if it means that every step in the process of thinking is based on critically sifted evidence, and furthermore if it takes a critical attitude toward common-sensical premises. All this means that humanist radicalism questions every idea and every institution from the standpoint of whether it helps or hinders man's capacity for greater aliveness and joy. This is not the place to give lengthy examples for the kind of common-sensical premises that are questioned by humanist radicalism. It is not necessary to do so either, since Dr. Illich's papers deal precisely with such examples as the usefulness of compulsive schooling, or of the present function of priests. Many more could be added, some of which are implied in the author's papers. I want to mention only a few like the modern concept of "progress," which means the principle of ever-increasing production, consumption, timesaving, maximal efficiency and profit, and calculability of all economic activities without regard to their effect on the quality of living and the unfolding of man; or the dogma that increasing consumption makes man happy, that the management of large-scale enterprises must necessarily be bureaucratic and alienated; that the aim of life is having (and using), not being; that reason resides in the intellect and is split from the affective life; that the newer is always better than the older; that radicalism is the negation of tradition; that the opposite of "law and order" is lack of structure. In short, that the ideas and categories that have arisen during the development of modern science and industrialism are superior to those of all former cultures and indispensable for the progress of the human race. + +Humanistic radicalism questions all these premises and is not afraid of arriving at ideas and solutions that may sound absurd. I see the great value in the writings of Dr. Illich precisely in the fact that they represent humanistic radicalism in its fullest and most imaginative aspect. The author is a man of rare courage, great aliveness, extraordinary erudition and brilliance, and fertile imaginativeness, whose whole thinking is based on his concern for man's unfolding—physically, spiritually, and intellectually. The importance of his thoughts in this as well as his other writings lies in the fact that they have a liberating effect on the mind by showing entirely new possibilities; they make the reader more alive because they open the door that leads out of the prison of routinized, sterile, preconceived notions. By the creative shock they communicate —except to those who react only with anger at so much nonsense—they help to stimulate energy and hope for a new beginning. + +Erich Fromm + +## Foreword + +Each chapter in this volume records an effort of mine to question the nature of some certainty. Each therefore deals with deception—the deception embodied in one of our institutions. Institutions create certainties, and taken seriously, certainties deaden the heart and shackle the imagination. It is always my hope that my statements, angry or passionate, artful or innocent, will also provoke a smile, and thus a new freedom—even though the freedom comes at a cost. + +Shortly after original publication most of these papers became notorious. This was not accident. Each essay was written in a different language, addressed to a different group of believers, meant to hit home at a particular crisis of confidence. Each rubbed some well-established bureaucrats the wrong way, at the moment the latter were finding it difficult to rationalize a "business as usual" position. + +These pieces were, therefore, literally written for the moment. The passage of time since some of them appeared has qualified an occasional detail: statistics, or the situation discussed—even my own attitude—may have altered since, in some manner or degree. But I have purposely not, in the journalistic phrase, "updated" the articles for presentation in this book form. They constitute a point of view on a phenomenon of a time, and should stand thus. Their compilation has also inevitably resulted in some repetitive statements of fact and some + +duplications of expressions. These too I leave as stated, for emphasis and for the record—though I would have avoided them had I thought originally that one day I would gather my occasional writings under one cover. + +Ivan D. Illich + +Cuernavaca, Morelos Mexico 1970 + +## A call to celebration + +This "call to celebration" was a manifesto jointly enunciated by and reflecting the mood of a group of friends in 1967, among them Robert Fox and Robert Theobald. It was written at the time of the March on the Pentagon. This call to face facts, rather than deal in illusions—to live change, rather than rely on engineering-is an attempt to re-introduce the word "celebration into ordinary English. + +I and many others known and unknown to me call upon you + +— to celebrate our joint power to provide all human beings with the food, clothing, and shelter they need to delight in living; + +— to discover, together with us, what we must do to use mankind's power to create the humanity, the dignity, and the joyfulness of each one of us; + +— to be responsibly aware of your personal ability to express your true feelings and to gather us together in their expression. + +We can only live these changes: we cannot think our way to humanity. Every one of us, and every group with which we live and work, must become the model of the era which we desire to create. The many models which will develop should give each one of us an environment in which we can celebrate our potential—and discover the way into a more humane world. + +We are challenged to break the obsolete social and economic systems which divide our world between the overprivileged and the underprivileged. All of us, whether governmental leader or protester, businessman or worker, professor or student share a common guilt. We have failed to discover how the necessary changes in our ideals and our social structures can be made. Each of us, therefore, through our ineffectiveness and our lack of responsible awareness, causes the suffering around the world. + +All of us are crippled—some physically, some mentally, some emotionally. We must therefore strive cooperatively to create the new world. There is no time left for destruction, for hatred, for anger. We must build, in hope and joy and celebration. Let us meet the new era of abundance with self-chosen work and freedom to follow the drum of one's own heart. Let us recognize that a striving for self-realization, for poetry and play, is basic to man once his needs for food, clothing, and shelter have been met—that we will choose those areas of activity which will contribute to our own development and will be meaningful to our society. + +But we must also recognize that our thrust toward self-realization is profoundly hampered by outmoded, industrial age structures. We are presently constrained and driven by the impact of man's ever growing powers. Our existing systems force us to develop and accept any weaponry system which may be technologically possible; our present systems force us to develop and accept any improvement in machinery, equipment, materials, and supplies which will increase production and lower costs; our present systems force us to develop and accept advertising and consumer seduction. + +In order to persuade the citizen that he controls his destiny, that morality informs decisions, and that technology is the servant rather than the driving force, it is necessary today to distort information. The ideal of informing the public has given way to trying to convince the public that forced actions are actually desirable actions. + +Miscalculations in these increasingly complex rationalizations and consequent scandal, account for the increasing preoccupation with the honesty of both private and public decision makers. It is therefore tempting to attack those holding roles such as national leader, administrator, manager, executive, labor leader, professor, student, parent. But such attacks on individuals often disguise the real nature of the crisis we confront: the demonic nature of present systems which force man to consent to his own deepening self-destruction. + +We can escape from these dehumanizing systems. The way ahead will be found by those who are unwilling to be constrained by the apparently all-deterrnining forces and structures of the industrial age. Our freedom and power are determined by our willingness to accept responsibility for the future. + +Indeed the future has already broken into the present. We each live in many times. The present of one is the past of another, and the future of yet another. We are called to live, knowing and showing that the future exists and that each one of us can call it in, when we are willing, to redress the balance of the past. + +In the future we must end the use of coercive power and authority: the ability to demand action on the basis of one's hierarchical position. If any one phrase can sum up the nature of the new era, it is the end of privilege and license. + +We must abandon our attempt to solve our problems through shifting power balances or attempting to create more efficient bureaucratic machines. + +We call you to join man's race to maturity, to work with us in inventing the future. We believe that a human adventure is just beginning: that mankind has so far been restricted in developing its innovative and creative powers because it was overwhelmed by toil. Now we are free to be as human as we will. + +The celebration of man's humanity through joining together in the healing expression of one's relationships with others, and one's growing acceptance of one's own nature and needs, will clearly create major confrontations with existing values and systems. The expanding dignity of each man and each human relationship must necessarily challenge existing systems. + +The call is to live the future. Let us join together joyfully to celebrate our awareness that we can make our life today the shape of tomorrow's future. + + +## Violence a mirror for americans + +The compulsion to do good is an innate American trait. Only North Americans seem to believe that they always should, may, and actually can choose somebody with whom to share their blessings. Ultimately this attitude leads to bombing people into the acceptance of gifts. + +In early 19681 tried with insistence to make some of my friends understand this image of the American overseas. I was speaking mainly to resisters engaged in organizing the march on the Pentagon. I wanted to share with them a profound fear: the fear that the end of the war in Vietnam would permit hawks and doves to unite in a destructive war on poverty in the Third World. + +The qualified failure of the war on poverty, with its fruits of urban riots, has begun to open the eyes of Americans to the reasons for the failure of the Alliance for Progress, with its fruits of threatened rebellion. Both are related to the failure to win the hearts and minds of the people of Asia by an outpouring of money and human lives that Americans perceive as an expression of heroic generosity, in the defense of South Vietnam. Failure in Harlem, Guatemala, and Vietnam has a common root. All three have miscarried because the United States gospel of massive material achievement lacks credibility for the world's overwhelming majorities. I believe that insight into the meaning of United States good will as perceived by Latin Americans or Asians would enable Americans to perceive the meaning of the problem of their own slums; it could even lead to the perception of a new and more effective policy. + +I have had the opportunity to observe this growing awareness of a common root of failure in my contacts with students at Cuernavaca. There, at the Center of Inter-cultural Documentation, for the past two years we have offered a sequence of workshops to compare the experience of poverty in capital-rich and capital-starved societies. We have witnessed the initial shock in many Americans dedicated to the war against poverty, when they observed and studied Latin America and realized for the first time that there is a link between minority marginality at home and mass marginatum overseas. Their emotional reaction is usually more acute than the intellectual insight that produces it. We have seen more than one man lose his balance as he suddenly lost the faith that for him had previously supported that balance, the faith that says: "The American way is the solution for all." For any good man, whether he is a social worker in Watts or a missioner on his way to Bolivia, it means pain and panic to realize that he is seen by 90 per cent of mankind as the exploiting outsider who shores up his privilege by promoting a delusive belief in the ideals of democracy, equal opportunity, and free enterprise among people who haven't a remote possibility of profiting from them. + +At this stage of the war in Vietnam the violent symptoms are too horrible to permit a lucid analysis of the causes that produce them. It is therefore more important to focus United States attention on the other two programs, the war on poverty and the Alliance for Progress: one, a war conducted by social workers; the other, an alliance that has maintained or swept into power military regimes in two-thirds of the Latin American countries. Both originated in the name of good will; both are now seen as pacification programs; both are pregnant with violence. + +The war on poverty aims at the integration of the so-called underprivileged minorities of the United States into the mainstream of the American way of life; the Alliance for Progress aims at the integration of the so-called underdeveloped countries of Latin America into the community of industrialized nations. Both programs were designed to have the poor join in the American dream. Both programs failed. The poor refused to dream on command. The order to dream and the money they got only made them rambunctious. Huge funds were appropriated to start the United States minorities and the Latin American majorities on the way of integration into a United States-style middle class: the world of college attendance, universal consumer credit, the world of household appliances and insurance, the world of church and movie attendance. An army of generous volunteers swarmed through New York ghettos and Latin American jungle canyons, pushing the persuasion that makes America tick. + +The frustrated social worker and the former Peace Corps volunteer are now among the few who explain to mainline America that the poor are right in rejecting forced conversion to the American gospel. Only seven years after the majority missionary enterprise of the Alliance was launched, riot squads at home, military governments in Latin America, and the army in Vietnam keep asking for more funds. But now it can be seen that the money is needed not for the uplift of the poor, but to protect the frail beachhead into the middle class that has been gained by the few converts who have benefited here or there by the American way of life. + +Comparison of these three theaters of United States missionary effort and war will help bring home a truism: the American society of achievers and consumers, with its two-party system and its universal schooling, perhaps befits those who have got it, but certainly not the rest of the world. A 15 per cent minority at home who earn less than $3,000 a year, and an 80 per cent majority abroad who earn less than $300 a year are prone to react with violence to the schemes by which they are fitted into coexistence with affluence. This is the moment to bring home to the people of the United States the fact that the way of life they have chosen is not viable enough to be shared. Eight years ago I told the late Bishop Manuel Larrain, the president of the Conference of Latin American Bishops, that I was prepared if necessary to dedicate my efforts to stop the coming of missionaries to Latin America. His answer still rings in my ears: "They may be useless to us in Latin America, but they are the only North Americans whom we will have the opportunity to educate. We owe them that much." + +At this moment, when neither the allure of money nor the power of persuasion nor control through weapons can efface the prospect of violence, during the summer in the slums and throughout the year in Guatemala, Bolivia, or Venezuela, we can analyze the analogies in the reactions to United States policy in the three main theaters of its defensive war: the war by which it defends its quasi-religious persuasion in Watts, Latin America, and Vietnam. Fundamentally this is the same war fought on three fronts; it is the war to "preserve the values of the West." Its origin and expression are associated with generous motives and a high ideal to provide a richer life for all men. But as the threatening implications of that ideal begin to emerge, the enterprise grinds down to one compelling purpose: to protect the style of life and the style of death that affluence makes possible for a very few; and since that style cannot be protected without being expanded, the affluent declare it obligatory for all. "That they may have more" begins to be seen in its real perspective: "That I may not have less." + +In all three theaters of war the same strategies are used: money, troopers, teachers. But money can benefit only a few in the ghettos, and a few in Latin America, and a few in Vietnam; and the consequent concentration of imported benefits on a few requires their ever tighter protection against the many. For the majority of marginal people, the economic growth of their surroundings means rising levels of frustration. On all three frontiers of affluence, therefore, the gun becomes important to protect the achiever. Police reinforcements go hand in hand with bands of armed citizens in the United States. In Guatemala the recently murdered military attache of the United States had just admitted that the American Embassy had to assist in arming right-wing goon squads because they are more efficient in maintaining order (and certainly more cruel) than the army. + +Next to money and guns, the United States idealist turns up in every theater of the war; the teacher, the volunteer, the missioner, the community organizer, the economic developer. Such men define their role as service. Actually they frequently wind up numbing the damage done by money and weapons, or seducing the "underdeveloped" to the benefits of the world of affluence and achievement. They especially are the ones for whom "ingratitude" is the bitter reward. They are the personifications of Good Old Charlie Brown: "How can you lose when you are so sincere?" + +I submit that, if present trends continue, from now on the violence in Harlem, in Latin America, in Asia, will increasingly be directed against the foreign and native "persuasion pusher" of this kind. Increasingly the "poor" will slam the door in the face of salesmen for the United States system of politics, education, and economics as an answer to their needs. This rejection goes hand in hand with a growing loss of faith in his own tenets on the part of the salesman of United States social consensus. Disaffection, helplessness, and the response of anger at the United States have undermined the thrust of the formerly guileless enthusiast of the American way and American methods. + +I submit that foreign gods (ideals, idols, ideologies, persuasions, values) are more offensive to the "poor" than the military or economic power of the foreigner. It is more irritating to feel seduced to the consumption of overpriced sugar-water called Coca-Cola than to submit helplessly to doing the same job an American does, only at half the pay. It angers a person more to hear a priest preach cleanliness, thrift, resistance to socialism, or obedience to unjust authority, than to accept military rule. If I read present trends correctiy, and I am confident I do, during the next few years violence will break out mostly against symbols of foreign ideas and the attempt to sell these. And I fear that this violence, which is fundamentally a healthy though angry and turbulent rejection of alienating symbols, will be exploited and will harden into hatred and crime. The recent violence in Detroit, Washington, and Cincinnati after the murder of Martin Luther King shows how the impatience of the ghetto dwellers in the United States can erupt into violence and vandalism at the slightest spark. + +Violence, therefore, covers a broad spectrum of experience: from the explosion of frustrated vitality to the fanatical rejection of alienating idols. It is important to stress this distinction. But as United States thinkers are horrified by the heartless slaughter in Vietnam, and fascinated by the inability of a white majority to suppress the life of a people, it is not easy to keep the distinction clear. The emotional involvement of the average United States student with Vietnam and the ghettos is so deep, it is almost taboo to call his attention to the distinction. For this reason we must welcome any educational effort that allows United States students to perceive reactions to the United States way of life in the third theater of the war against poverty: Latin America. + +In the mirror of Latin America, violence in American ghettos and on the borders of China can be seen in its new meaning, as a rejection of American values. From experience of years in Cuernavaca, dealing with United States "idea salesmen," I know this insight is costly to come by. There is no exit from a way of life built on $5,000-plus per year, and there is no possible road leading into this way of life for nine out of ten men in our generation and the next. And for the nine it is revolting to hear a message of economic and social salvation presented by the affluent that, however sincerely expressed, leads the "poor" to believe that it is their fault that they do not fit into God's world as it should be and as it has been decreed that it should be around the North Atlantic. + +It is not the American way of life lived by a handful of millions that sickens the billions, but rather the growing awareness that those who live the American way will not tire until the superiority of their quasi-religious persuasion is accepted by the underdogs. Living violence always breaks out against the demand that a man submit to idols. Planned violence is then promoted as justified by the need to reduce a man or a people to the service of the idol they threaten to reject. Francisco Juliao, the peasant leader from Northeast Brazil who now lives in exile in Cuernavaca, recently made a statement that clarifies these principles. "Never," he said, "but never put weapons into the hands of the people. Whosoever puts weapons into the hands of the people destroys. Weapons put into the hands of the people will always be used against them. Weapons always defeat the poor who receive them. Only the brick and the stick a man picks up in anger will not defile him as a man." + +In this light it is important for the North American citizen to learn from the insight gained these years by Latin American thinkers. Let him look at Colombia where there are bandits who kill for gain, and soldiers and guerrilleros who kill each other for the sake of discipline or in the service of a flag, and there is the angry man who kills in a mob that erupts in riot; and finally there is the witness, like Camilo Torres, who purposefully withdraws to the mountains to demonstrate his ability to survive in the face of an oppressive regime and thus wants to prove its illegitimacy. Soldier and bandit can organize; riots can be incited and their frustrated vitality can go stale or be channeled with deadly rationality into the service of some "ideal." Testimony will always remain a lonely task that ends up on a hill like Calvary. True testimony of profound nonconformity arouses the fiercest violence against it, but I do not see how such witness could ever be organized or institutionalized. + +The study of violence in Latin America deeply touches the life of the United States observer, but—for a moment still—allows him to stay disengaged. It is always easier to see the illusions in one's neighbor's eyes than the delusions in one's own. A critical examination of the effect that intense social change has on the intimacy of the human heart in Latin America is a fruitful way to insight into the intimacy of the human heart in the United States. In the capital-starved economies of Latin America, a great majority live excluded, now and forever, from the benefits of a thriving United States-style elite middle class. In the immensely rich economy of the United States, a small minority clamors that, in the same way, it is excluded from the mass of the middle class. The comparison should enable the United States observer to understand the world-wide growth of two societies, separate and unequal, and to appreciate the dynamics that provoke violence between them. + +## Not foreigners yet foreign + +From 1951 to 1956 I lived as a priest in Incarnation Parish on the West Side of New York's Manhattan. Puerto Ricans were then being crowded into the walk-ups between Amsterdam Avenue and Broadway. They were displacing many families who had moved a generation earlier straight from Ireland to this area. I became involved in the inevitable conflict between these peoples and also in the controversy about its meaning. + +As a newcomer to the United States I was surprised to see how New Yorkers, from druggist to mayor, fell back upon ready stereotypes to guide their policy decisions. Whatever was worth understanding about Puerto Ricans, they apparently felt, could be explained in old categorical terms coined for preceding groups of immigrants. That which had served for the Poles or Italians should fit the Puerto Ricans. + +At that time I tried to obtain recognition of the fact that, at least for the Roman Catholic Church, the Puerto Rican immigration represented a phenomenon without precedent. Amazingly, I found an inquisitive listener to my opinion in Cardinal Spellman. + +After the introduction of the quota system in 1924, it seemed that the melting process in New York City was finally about to catch up with the number of people tossed into the pot. Then in the late forties, the city was presented with a novel challenge, an invasion of American-born "foreigners," the Puerto Ricans. In Vito Marcantonio's heyday (1943) there were less than thirty-five thousand Puerto Ricans in New York; at present (1956) there are more than half a million, and indications are that the migration has not yet reached its peak. + +These Puerto Ricans are not foreigners, and yet they are more foreign than most of the immigrants who preceded them. About this seeming paradox the well-meaning should be well-informed, since to be received kindly merely because one is a foreigner is a cold kind of condescension: the chances are that the man who thus receives you is determined never really to know you. + +If on the one hand a man consistently designates you a foreigner, he usually precludes any possibility of appreciating that which is unique to your group—besides the fact that it is not his own. If on the other hand, misunderstanding St. Paul's instruction to make himself Jew with the Jews and Greek with the Greeks, he approaches you with an exegesis such as "We are all Americans," he denies your right, and his, to a heritage, to be human, with roots reaching back in history. + +This fallacy is at the bottom of the attitude of many well-meaning people toward the Puerto Rican immigrants: let them do what the Irish or Italians did, or let them attempt what the Jews attempted; let them grow gradually through their own national parishes, territorial ghettos, and political machines to full "Americanization"; let them vociferously assert that they are as good Americans as the man next door. These attitudes are very common in New York, where the arrival of successive migratory waves is taken for granted. It is too often gratuitously assumed that the future novel about the Puerto Rican journey will be fashioned after either The Last Hurrah or Marjorie Morningstar, or will be a combination of both. + +The welfare investigator who says to Jose Rivera, "My parents went through the same experience," neither lies nor expresses xenophobia—he just misunderstands, like the politician who tries again to use methods which worked when Italian was spoken in Harlem. + +When the Irish and the Germans came here a century ago, New York City was faced with a challenge of a kind never experienced before and of a size never to be duplicated. In 1855 one-third of the city's population (500,000) consisted of immigrants who had arrived in the previous decade; against this proportion the one-fifteenth of the city's population which in 1955 consisted of recently arrived Puerto Ricans (again 500,000) seems insignificant. + +In the days of the heavy influx to America, wave after wave of immigrants arrived, settled, and became accustomed to new patterns of life. The newcomers spoke different languages, worshiped in different churches, came from different climates, wooed in different fashions, ate different dishes, sang different songs. But under these apparent differences they had much in common. They came from the Old Continent and arrived as refugees or settlers to become Americans and to stay for good. They brought their own clergy-rabbi, priest, or minister—and the symbols of past millennia which were their own, Saint Patrick, the Mafia, or Loretto, no less than the Turnverein. They settled in special sections of the city and kept to themselves for years before they ventured to take part in that experience new to all of diem: life in a pluralistic society. They fell into a common pattern, and it is no wonder that those who had been here long enough to consider themselves part of a settled stratum fell into the habit of assuming a priori that each new incoming group would be analogous to theirs. This assumption, in fact, proved to be true until after World War II, with the exception of two groups, the Orientals and the Southern Negroes. + +Then suddenly the Puerto Ricans arrived en masse. New York had never before known such an invasion, an invasion of Americans who came from an older part of the New World into New York, which by the way had been part of the diocese of San Juan long before Henry Hudson discovered Manhattan. And New York had never had to deal with born American citizens who in their schools had learned English as a foreign language. + +These strange Americans were sons of a Catholic country where for centuries slaves had found refuge, where the population of a little over two million is overwhelmingly white but where a difference in the shade of the skin is no impediment, either to success or to marriage. Yet theirs was the first sizable group coming from overseas into New York to be tagged by many as "colored," much less because of the racial heredity of some than for the vaguely sensed great difference between them and former new arrivals. + +This was a new type of immigrant: not a European who had left home for good and strove to become an American, but an American citizen, who could come here for the time between one harvest and another and return home for vacation with a week's salary spent on an air coach ticket. This was not the fugitive from racial or religious persecution in his own country, but the child of "natives" in a Spanish colony or perhaps the descendant of a Spanish official in the colonial service; not a man accustomed to be led by men of his own stock—priest, politician, rebel, or professor—but for four hundred years a subject in a territory administered by foreigners, first Spanish, then American, only recently come into its own. + +The new arrival from Puerto Rico was not the Christian in his own right who received the Faith from the sons of his own neighbors, but the fruit of missionary labor typical of the Spanish Empire. He was a Catholic, born of parents who were also Catholics, yet he received the Sacraments from a foreigner because the government was afraid that to train native priests might be to train political rebels. + +Even the physical configuration of the world from which he came was different. He was a man from an island where nature is provident and a friend, where field labor means much more harvesting than planting. When nature rebels every few decades, he is powerless; in the hurricanes he cannot but see the finger of God. + +Until recently nobody in Puerto Rico built a house with the idea that it should survive the elements or withstand the climate by air conditioning. What a difference from the Pole and the Sicilian, both of whom built houses to withstand nature, climate, and time, both of whom built houses to separate their lives from that of nature. One might have come from the Russian steppe or the ghetto and the other from an olive grove on the coast, but both knew what winter meant; they knew that a house was there to protect them from the cold, a place within which to make a home. It was easy for the Pole and the Sicilian to settle in tenements and to live confined there. But the new immigrant from the tropics knew no winter, and the home he left was a hut in which you slept but around which you lived with your family. The hut was the center of his day's activities, not their limit. To come to a tenement, to need heat, to need glass in your windows, to be frowned on for tending to live beyond your doors—this was all contrary to the Puerto Rican's traditional habits, and as surprising to him as it is for the New Yorker to realize that for any immigrants these basic assumptions of his life should be surprising. + +The new Puerto Rico, the Puerto Rico of 1956, is studded with concrete houses and opens a new factory every day. It is a proving ground for the most advanced forms of community organizations, and it has the fastest-declining rate for illiteracy and the fastest-falling mortality in the world. Yet these facts must not make us think that the traditional outlook of its people has changed or will change tomorrow. These material improvements are the outcome of the first decade of Munoz Marin's administration, but they do not wipe out the Island's past nor are they intended to make of San Juan a suburb of New York. + +The differences between the Puerto Rican migration and the influx of Europeans are fundamental. Indeed, in the shortness of its history Puerto Rico is more foreign to Europe than to America. These differences account for much of the distinctive behavior characteristics of Puerto Ricans in New York, and the lack of knowledge of these differences accounts for many misunderstandings on the part of old New Yorkers. + +Many a Puerto Rican does not leave the Island with a clear plan of settling on the mainland. How can a man who leaves on the spur of the moment, planning to make a fast dollar in New York and be back as soon as he has enough to buy a store, take roots in New York? I remember one woman who was in despair because her husband had disappeared on his way to the cane fields, carrying his machete. She thought, of course, that a rival had grabbed him from her. And then, after a week, she got a money order from Chicago. On the way to the cane field he had run into a hiring gang and decided to try his luck—and that was the reason he neglected to come home for dinner. In a case like this, in which a man "drops in" on New York, with no intentions of staying but of eventually commuting "home," how can the transient have the same effect on his neighborhood in New York as the old immigrant who came to stay? Yet the statistical curve of emigration from the Island is in exact correlation with the curve of employment on the mainland. If employment is scarce, the reflux increases correspondingly. Many, even after years in New York, feel they got stuck there because of money. + +With the arrival of hundreds of thousands from Puerto Rico and the other Central American states (it is estimated that more than one-fourth of New York's Spanish-American population is not Puerto Rican), not only a new language but a new pattern of living has been added to the city. Instead of the strangers speaking only a foreign tongue who formerly arrived exhausted from the long journey, American citizens, all of whom know some basic English, arrive in airplanes within six hours of leaving their tropical island. + +The old immigrants settled in national neighborhoods; the new transatlantic commuter spreads out all over the city; ten years after the beginning of the Puerto Rican mass influx Spanish has already become ubiquitous in New York. Unlike European immigrants, all Puerto Ri-cans know some English, and this helped, but there is another factor that has contributed to Latin Americans spreading to all quarters of the city. In former times when a neighborhood became a center for the newest immigrant group, it was either a slum or tended to become one. And once a neighborhood had deteriorated it hardly ever was redeemed. The great immigration from Puerto Rico started after World War II, due to such factors as cheap air transportation, acquaintance with the mainland acquired by many during service in the army, rising education under the new political order on the island, and, last but not least, the growing pressure of a population which has more than doubled since the beginning of the century. At that same time the city was embarking on its great slum clearance program and the first blocks to be torn down were almost invariably those where the newest and poorest immigrant had just settled. As a result, the Puerto Ricans began to be resettled all around town in new projects and on a non-discriminatory basis. + +Considering this dispersal and the tendency to commute to the Island, it is no wonder that there are hardly any Puerto Rican national neighborhoods in the traditional sense in New York. One result is that it is difficult for Puerto Ricans to develop local grass-roots leadership within their own group; either their concentration per city block is too thin, or the intention to stick to the neighborhood is absent, or the necessity to organize in association with their own is weak because all are citizens who at least understand some English and have official "protection" from the Commonwealth government labor office-the first instance of something like a "Consulate for American Nationals." And there is no doubt that another factor contributing to the relative lack of leadership is caused by hundreds of years of colonial administration. + +Thus Puerto Ricans in New York find it more difficult than groups which came before them to form their own in-group leadership, if they do not find it completely impossible. This fact gives them a very real advantage over former migrations in one sense, because it almost forces them into an active participation in the established community. On the other hand, the sudden challenge of having to participate in a settled New York community proves too arduous for many who might have been able to become leaders in their own cliques. + +A lack of consideration on the part of New York civic leaders for the distinctive character of this new Puerto Rican migration, as compared to previous immigrant experiences, can do real damage to the community by either retarding or injuring the new pattern of assimilation which will have to form. If this lack of understanding should be present in the leaders of the Catholic Church, it can seriously damage souls. + +One-third of the baptized Catholics in Manhattan and the lower Bronx are Spanish-Americans at this moment. The Puerto Ricans are the first group of Catholics with a distinctly non-European tradition of Catholicism to come to the East Coast. The lack of native priests, due to the colonial and imperialistic atmosphere of more than four hundred years of the Island's history, and also the special approaches due to missionary conditions, have profoundly molded the behavior of Puerto Ricans as Catholics. + +Notwithstanding the very recent trend toward rapid urbanization, the majority of Puerto Ricans are dispersed over the steep hills of the interior, living in huts in the midst of small clearings among bananas and flamboyants, with magnificent views, but too far from church to attend Mass every Sunday. Traditionally, they take the Sacraments on those rare occasions when the priest comes to visit them in the chapel in their barrio—but for generations they have had to baptize their own children because the priest came so seldom. Under such circumstances regular attendance at Sunday Mass is not a confirmed element of Catholic practice. Living habits of the tropics, feudal-colonial social organization, and the confluence of Indian, African, and European cultures played their part. The Church's law declaring a marriage between two Catholics valid even when not entered into before a priest, if a priest could not be available in less than a month, made people forget the need for a priest. It had an adverse effect on the frequency of marriages in church, and still has today. + +"Bad habits" like these are not a sign of lack of Catholic spirit, but rather the effects of a peculiar ecclesiastical history. Many United States Catholics are used to a wide variety of national customs in national parishes and a great difference in practices among various ethnic groups; when faced with the lack of "practice" of their faith by Puerto Ricans, they might be tempted to identify them with some other foreign group in whom the effects of a different background show up in similar behavior, or might even deny altogether that Puerto Ricans are Catholic. But for anybody who has ever breathed the atmosphere of the Island there is no doubt that theirs is a Catholic folk-culture: children who might never make their First Communion will regularly ask their parents' blessing before leaving the house; people who might never have been taught the catechism will devotedly invoke the names of Our Lord or the Virgin and plaster their homes with holy pictures and sign themselves with the Cross before leaving home. Even the fact that a man refuses to get married in church sometimes testifies for rather than against his Catholicity; he does not want to bind himself forever by a Church marriage. + +In Puerto Rico God's house extends from the church into the plaza. Not only do the processions or posedas require the out-of-doors as a continuation of the church, but also the church is often too small, and throngs attend Mass by looking through doors and windows. Unless his neighbor on the mainland understands the different meaning "family," "church," or "home" has for a man from the tropics, he will not understand why Jose plays the guitar on his doorstep, or why Maria walks from statue to statue during Mass for a little chat with the saints or perhaps enters church only after service, because she is repelled by the formality of the ushers. + +All of this points toward the need the Puerto Ricans have to win some respect for their background. What they need is not more help but less categorization according to previous schemes, and more understanding. Only thus will they be able to make the unique cultural, political, and economic contribution for which they seem destined: Spanish-Christian tradition, a Catholicism in which is taken for granted an eminently Christian attitude toward the mixing of races, a freshness and simplicity of outlook proper to the tropics, a new pattern of political freedom in association with the United States, a bridge between the hemispheres politically and culturally no less than economically—these are only a few of the assets that the mass migration of Puerto Ricans to the mainland can contribute to New York and the United States. + + +## The eloquence of silence + +Five years on the streets of New York made me aware of the need for some method of bringing native New Yorkers to friendship with Puerto Ricans. Minister, teachers, social workers, all were submerged in a Spanish-speaking crowd. They needed to learn the language, but even more they needed to attune their ears and open their hearts to the anguish of a people who were lonely, frightened, and powerless. + +Quite evidently the mere study of Spanish was not enough. The man who can construct sentences with words and grammar may be much further from reality than he who knows that he does not speak a language. I saw how intensely Puerto Ricans rejected the Americano who studied them for the purpose of "integrating them" in the city. They even refused to answer in Spanish, because behind his benevolence they sensed the condescension, and often the contempt. A program was needed to help native New Yorkers to enter into the spirit of poverty. + +In 1956 I became Vice Rector of the Catholic University of Puerto Rico and this gave me a chance to prepare people for work in the Spanish ghettos. We offered workshops combining the very intensive study of spoken Spanish with field experience and with the academic study of Puerto Rican poetry, history, songs, and social reality. Many of my students came at great personal sacrifice. More than half were priests, mostly below the age of thirty-five. They had decided to spend their lives among the poor in the inner city. It is now difficult to remember how the Catholic clergy then felt about its duty. It was hard to convince an Irish-American pastor to permit his curate to spend his time on people who never came to church. The Spanish language was a potent tool for curates who wanted to use their time and the resources of the Church for work among the poor. Because—presumably—the Spanish language identified those poor who were born Catholics, and to whom the Church under no circumstances could deny an equal share of its ministry. When seven years later the war on poverty broke out, a substantial number of recognized leaders and critics were these men who had met each other in Puerto Rico. With this group of students I could explore the deeper meaning involved in the learning of a foreign language. In fact, I believe that properly conducted language learning is one of the few occasions in which an adult can go through a deep experience of poverty, of weakness, and of dependence on the good will of another. Every evening we gathered for an hour of silent prayer. At the beginning of the hour one of us would offer points for meditation. The following is one of the sessions recorded by a participant. + +The science of linguistics has brought into view new horizons in the understanding of human communications. An objective study of the ways in which meanings are transmitted has shown that much more is relayed from one man to another through and in silence than in words. Words and sentences are composed of silences more meaningful than the sounds. The pregnant pauses between sounds and utterances become luminous points in an incredible void: as electrons in the atom, as planets in the solar system. Language is as a cord of silence with sounds the knots-as nodes in a Peruvian quipu, in which the empty spaces speak. With Confucius we can see language as a wheel. The spokes centralize, but the empty spaces make the wheel. + +It is thus not so much the other man's words as his silences which we have to learn in order to understand him. It is not so much our sounds which give meaning, but it is through the pauses that we will make ourselves understood. The learning of a language is more the learning of its silences than of its sounds. Only the Christian believes in the Word as coeternal Silence. Among men in time, rhythm is a law through which our conversation becomes a yang-yin of silence and sound. + +To learn a language in a human and mature way, therefore, is to accept the responsibility for its silences and for its sounds. The gift a people gives us in teaching us their language is more a gift of the rhythm, the mode, and the subtleties of its system of silences than of its system of sounds. It is an intimate gift for which we are accountable to the people who have entrusted us with their tongue. A language of which I know only the words and not the pauses is a continuous offense. It is as the caricature of a photographic negative. + +It takes more time and effort and delicacy to learn the silence of a people than to learn its sounds. Some people have a special gift for this. Perhaps this explains why some missioners, notwithstanding their efforts, never come to speak properly, to communicate delicately through silences. Although they "speak with the accent of natives" they remain forever thousands of miles away. The learning of the grammar of silence is an art much more difficult to learn than the grammar of sounds. + +As words must be learned by listening and by painful attempts at imitation of a native speaker, so silences must be acquired through a delicate openness to them. Silence has its pauses and hesitations, its rhythms and expressions and inflections; its durations and pitches, and times to be and not to be. Just as with our words, there is an analogy between our silence with men and with God. To learn the full meaning of one, we must practice and deepen the other. + +First among the classification of silences is the silence of the pure listener, of womanly passivity; the silence through which the message of the other becomes "he in us," the silence of deep interest. It is threatened by another silence—the silence of indifference, the silence of disinterest which assumes that there is nothing I want or can receive through the communication of the other. This is the ominous silence of the wife who woodenly listens to her husband relating the little things he so earnestly wants to tell her. It is the silence of the Christian who reads the gospel with the attitude that he knows it backward and forward. It is the silence of the stone—dead because it is unrelated to life. It is the silence of the missioner who never understood the miracle of a foreigner whose listening is a greater testimony of love than that of another who speaks. The man who shows us that he knows the rhythm of our silence is much closer to us than one who thinks that he knows how to speak. + +The greater the distance between the two worlds, the more this silence of interest is a sign of love. It is easy for most Americans to listen to chitchat about football; but it is a sign of love for a Midwesterner to listen to the jai alai reports. The silence of the city priest on a bus listening to the report of the sickness of a goat is a gift, truly the fruit of a missionary form of long training in patience. + +There is no greater distance than that between a man in prayer and God. Only when this distance dawns on consciousness can the grateful silence of patient readiness develop. This must have been the silence of the Virgin before the Ave which enabled her to become the eternal model of openness to the Word. Through her deep silence the Word could take Flesh. + +In the prayer of silent listening, and nowhere else, can the Christian acquire the habit of this first silence from which the Word can be born in a foreign culture. This Word conceived in silence is grown in silence too. + +A second great class in the grammar of silence is the silence of the Virgin after she conceived the Word—the silence from which not so much the Fiat as the Magnificat was born. It is the silence which nourishes the Word conceived rather than opening man to conception. It is the silence which closes man in on himself to allow him to prepare the Word for others. It is the silence of syntony; the silence in which we await the proper moment for the Word to be born into the world. + +This silence too is threatened, not only by hurry and by desecration of multiplicity of action, but by the habit of verbal confection and mass production which has no time for it. It is threatened by the silence of cheapness which means that one word is as good as another and that words need no nursing. + +The missioner, or foreigner, who uses words as they are in the dictionary does not know this silence. He is the man who looks up English words in himself when he wants to find a Spanish equivalent, rather than seeking the word which would syntonize; rather than finding the word or gesture or silence which would be understood, even if it has no equivalent in his own language or culture or background; the man who does not give the seed of a new language time to grow on the foreign soil of his soul. This is a silence before words, or between them; the silence within which words live or die. It is the silence of the slow prayer of hesitation; of prayer in which words have the courage to swim in a sea of silence. It is diametrically opposed to other forms of silence before words —the silence of the artificial flower which serves as a remembrance of words which do not grow, the pause in between repetition. It is the silence of the missioner who waits for the dispensation of the next memorized platitude because he has not made the effort to penetrate into the living language of others. The silence before words is also opposed to the silence of brewing aggression which can hardly be called silence—this too an interval used for the preparation of words, but words which divide rather than bring together. This is the silence to which the missioner is tempted who clings to the idea that in Spanish nothing means what he wants to say. It is the silence in which one verbal aggression — even though veiled — prepares the other. + +The next great class in the grammar of silence we will call the silence beyond words. The farther we go, the farther apart does good and bad silence grow in each classification. We now have reached the silence which does not prepare any further talk. It is the silence which has said everything because there is nothing more to say. This is the silence beyond a final yes or a final no. This is the silence of love beyond words, as well as the silence of no, forever; the silence of heaven or of hell. It is the definite attitude of a man who faces the Word which is Silence, or the silence of a man who has obstinately turned away from Him. + +Hell is this silence, deadly silence. Death in this silence is neither the deadness of a stone, indifferent to life, nor the deadness of a pressed flower, memory of life. It is the death after life, a final refusal to live. There can be noise and agitation and many words in this silence. It has only one meaning which is common to the noises it makes and the gaps between them. No. + +There is a way in which this silence of hell threatens missionary existence. In fact with the unusual possibilities of witnessing through silence, unusual ability to destroy through it are open to the man charged with the Word in a world not his own. Missionary silence risks more: it risks becoming a hell on earth. + +Ultimately missionary silence is a gift, a gift of prayer —learned in prayer by one infinitely distant, infinitely foreign and experienced in love for men, much more distant and foreign ever than men at home. The missioner can come to forget that his silence is a gift, a gift in its deepest sense gratuitously given, a gift concretely transmitted to us by those who are willing to teach us their language. If the missioner forgets this and attempts to conquer by his own power that which only others can bestow, then his existence begins to be threatened. The man who tries to buy the language like a suit, the man who tries to conquer the language through grammar so as to speak it "better than the natives around here," the man who forgets the analogy of the silence of God and the silence of others and does not seek its growth in prayer, is a man who tries basically to rape the culture into which he is sent, and he must expect the corresponding reactions. If he is human at all he will realize that he is in a spiritual prison, but he will not admit that he has built it around himself; rather he will accuse others of being his jailers. The wall between himself and those to whom he was sent will become ever more impenetrable. As long as he sees himself as "missioner" he will know that he is frustrated, that he was sent but got nowhere; that he is away from home but has never landed anywhere; that he left his home and never reached another. + +He continues to preach and is ever more aware that he is not understood, because he says what he thinks and speaks in a foreign farce of his own language. He continues to "do things for people" and considers them ungrateful because they understand that he does these things to bolster his ego. His words become a mockery of language, an expression of the silence of death. + +It requires much courage at this point to return to the patient silence of interest or to the delicacy of the silence within which words grow. Out of numbness, muteness has grown. Often out of the fear of facing the difficulty late in life of trying again to learn a language, a habit of despair is born. The silence of hell—a typically missionary version of it has been born in his heart. + +At the pole opposed to despair there is the silence of love, the holding of hands of the lovers. The prayer in which the vagueness before words has given place to the pure emptiness after them. The form of communication which opens the simple depth of the soul. It comes in flashes and it can become a lifetime—in prayer just as much as with people. Perhaps it is the only truly universal aspect of language, the only means of communication which was not touched by the curse of Babel. Perhaps it is the one way of being together with others and with the Word in which we have no more foreign accent. + +There is still another silence beyond words, but the silence of the Pieta. It is not a silence of death but the silence of the mystery of death. It is not the silence of active acceptance of the will of God out of which the Fiat is born nor the silence of manly acceptance of Geth-semane in which obedience has its roots. The silence you as missioners seek to acquire in this Spanish course is the silence beyond bewilderment and questions; it is a silence beyond the possibility of an answer, or even reference to a word which preceded. It is the mysterious silence through which the Lord could descend into the silence of hell, the acceptance without frustration of a life, useless and wasted on Judas, a silence of freely willed powerless-ness through which the world was saved. Born to redeem the world, Mary's Son had died at the hands of His people, abandoned by His friends and betrayed by Judas whom He loved but could not save—silent contemplation of the culminating paradox of the Incarnation which was useless for the redemption of at least one personal friend. The opening of the soul to this ultimate silence of the Pieta is the culmination of the slow maturing of the three previous forms of missionary silence. + +## Seamy side of charity + +In 1960 Pope John XXIII enjoined all United States and Canadian religious superiors to send, within ten years, 10 per cent of their effective strength in priests and nuns to Latin America. This papal request was interpreted by most United States Catholics as a call to help modernize the Latin American Church along the lines of the North American model The continent on which half of all Catholics live had to be saved from "Castro-Communism." + +I was opposed to the execution of this order: I was convinced that it would do serious damage to those sent, to their clients, and to their sponsors back home. I had learned in Puerto Rico that there are only a few people who are not stunted, or wholly destroyed, by lifelong work "for the poor" in a foreign country. The transfer of United States living standards and expectations could only impede the revolutionary changes needed, and the use of the gospel in the service of capitalism or any other ideology was wrong. Finally 1 knew that while the United States needed much information about all aspects of Latin America, "missionaries" would only hamper its collection: the feedback from missionaries is notoriously bizarre. The projected crusade had to be stopped. + +With two friends, Miss Feodora Standoff and Brother Gerry Morris, I set up a center in Cuernavaca. (We chose this spot because of its climate, location, and logistics.) Upon the opening of our center I stated two of the purposes of our undertaking. The first was to help diminish the damage threatened by the papal order. Through our educational program for missionaries we intended to challenge them to face reality and themselves, and either refuse their assignments or-if they accepted-to be a little bit less unprepared. Secondly, we wanted to gather sufficient influence among the decision-making bodies of mission-sponsoring agencies to dissuade them from implementing the plan. + +Throughout the 1960s our experience and reputation in the intensive training of foreign professionals for assignment to South America, and the fact that we continued to be the only center specializing in this type of education, ensured a continuing flow of students through our center—notwithstanding our stated, basically subversive purposes. + +By 1966, instead of the 10 per cent called for in 1960, barely 0.7 per cent of United States and Canadian clergy had moved south. Among the educated groups within the United States Church serious doubts had arisen about the desirability of the entire enterprise. But among bishops and the great majority of uneducated Catholics the lachrymose feedback from Latin America and an intense public relations campaign conducted from Washington continued to raise enthusiasm for the "Help Save Latin America" cause. Under these circumstances public and intensive controversy had to be sponsored, and for that purpose I wrote the following article for the Jesuit magazine America in January 1967. It was deliberate timing: I knew that at the end of that month three thousand churchmen—Catholic and Protestant, from the United States and Latin America—would meet in Boston to give new impetus to their programs, and that Ramparts was about to publish its expose on Central Intelligence Agency help to student movements, especially in Latin America. + +Five years ago, United States Catholics undertook a peculiar alliance for the progress of the Latin American church. By 1970, 10 per cent of more than 225,000 priests, brothers, and sisters would volunteer to be shipped south of the border. In those five years the combined United States male and female "clergy" in South America has increased by only 1,622. Halfway is a good time to determine whether a program launched is still sailing on course, and more importantly, if its destination still seems worth while. Numerically, the program was certainly a flop. Should this fact be a source of disappointment or relief? + +The project relied on an impulse supported by uncritical imagination and sentimental judgment. A pointed finger and a "call for 20,000" convinced many that "Latin America needs You." Nobody dared state clearly why, though the first published propaganda included several references to the "Red danger" in four pages of text. The Latin America Bureau of the National Catholic Welfare Conference attached the word "papal" to the program, the volunteers, and the call itself. + +A campaign for more funds is now being proposed. This is the moment, therefore, at which the call for 20,000 persons and the need for millions of dollars should be re-examined. Both appeals must be submitted to a public debate among United States Catholics, from bishop to widow, since they are the ones asked to supply the personnel and pay the bill. Critical thinking must prevail. Fancy and colorful campaign slogans for another collection, with their appeal to emotion, will only cloud the real issues. Let us coldly examine the American Church's outburst of charitable frenzy which resulted in the creation of "papal" volunteers, student "mission crusades," the annual Catholic Inter-American Cooperation Program mass assemblies, numerous diocesan missions, and new religious communities. + +I will not focus on details. The above programs themselves continually study and revise minutiae. Rather I dare to point out some fundamental facts and implications of the so-called papal plan-part of the many-faceted effort to keep Latin America within the ideologies of the West. Church policy makers in the United States must face up to the sociopolitical consequences involved in their well-intentioned missionary ventures. They must review their vocation as Christian theologians and their actions as Western politicians. + +Men and money sent with missionary motivation carry a foreign Christian image, a foreign pastoral approach, and a foreign political message. They also bear the mark of North American capitalism of the 1950s. Why not, for once, consider the seamy side of charity; weigh the inevitable burdens foreign help imposes on the South American Church; taste the bitterness of the damage done by our sacrifices? If, for example, United States Catholics would simply turn from the dream of "10 per cent," and do some honest thinking about the implication of their help, the awakened awareness of intrinsic fallacies could lead to sober, meaningful generosity. + +But let me be more precise. The unquestionable joys of giving and the fruits of receiving should be treated as two distinctly separate chapters. I propose to delineate only the negative results that foreign money, men, and ideas produce in the South American Church, in order that the future United States program may be tailored accordingly. + +During the past five years, the cost of operating the Church in Latin America has multiplied many times. There is no precedent for a similar rate of increase in Church expenses on a continental scale. Today one Catholic university, mission society, or radio chain may cost more to operate than the whole country's Church a decade ago. Most of the funds for this kind of growth came from outside and flowed from two types of sources. The first is the Church itself, which raised its income in three ways: + +1\. Dollar by dollar, appealing to the generosity of the faithful, as was done in Germany and the Low Countries by Adveniat, Misereor, and Oostpriesterhulp. These contributions reach more than twenty-five million dollars a year. + +2\. Through lump sum contributions, made by individual churchmen-such as Cardinal Cushing, the outstanding example; or by institutions-such as the National Catholic Welfare Conference, transferring one million dollars from the home missions to the Latin America Bureau. + +3\. By assigning priests, religious and laymen, all trained at considerable cost and often backed financially in their apostolic undertakings. + +This kind of foreign generosity has enticed the Latin American Church into becoming a satellite to North Atlantic cultural phenomena and policy. Increased apostolic resources intensified the need for this continued flow and created islands of apostolic well-being, each day further beyond the capacity of local support. The Latin American Church flowers anew by returning to what the Conquest stamped her: a colonial plant that blooms because of foreign cultivation. Instead of learning how to get along with less money or else close up shop, bishops are being trapped into needing more money now and bequeathing an institution impossible to run in the future. Education, the one type of investment that could give long-range returns, is conceived mostly as training for bureaucrats who will maintain the existing apparatus. + +Recently I saw an example of this in a large group of Latin American priests who had been sent to Europe for advanced degrees. In order to relate the Church to the world, nine-tenths of these men were studying teaching methods—catechetics, pastoral theology, or canon law— and thereby not directly advancing their knowledge of either the Church or the world. Only a few studied the Church in its history and sources, or the world as it is. + +It is easy to come by big sums to build a new church in a jungle or a high school in a suburb, and then to staff the plants with new missioners. A patently irrelevant pastoral system is artificially and expensively sustained, while basic research for a new and vital one is considered an extravagant luxury. Scholarships for non-ecclesiastical humanist studies, seed money for imaginative pastoral experimentation, grants for documentation and research to make specific constructive criticism all run the frightening risk of threatening our temporal structures, clerical plants, and "good business" methods. + +Even more surprising than churchly generosity for churchly concern is a second source of money. A decade ago the Church was like an impoverished grande dame trying to keep up an imperial tradition of almsgiving from her reduced income. In the more than a century since Spain lost Latin America, the Church has steadily lost government grants, patrons' gifts, and, finally, the revenue from its former lands. According to the colonial concept of charity, the Church lost its power to help the poor. It came to be considered a historical relic, inevitably the ally of conservative politicians. + +By 1966 almost the contrary seems true—at least, at first sight. The Church has become an agent trusted to run programs aimed at social change. It is committed enough to produce some results. But when it is threatened by real change, it withdraws rather than permit social awareness to spread like wildfire. The smothering of the Brazilian radio schools by a high Church authority is a good example. + +Thus Church discipline assures the donor that his money does twice the job in the hands of a priest. It will not evaporate, nor will it be accepted for what it is: publicity for private enterprise and indoctrination to a way of life that the rich have chosen as suitable for the poor. The receiver inevitably gets the message: the "padre" stands on the side of W. R. Grace and Company, Esso, the Alliance for Progress, democratic government, the AFL-CIO, and whatever is holy in the Western pantheon. + +Opinion is divided, of course, on whether the Church went heavily into social projects because it could thus obtain funds "for the poor," or whether it went after the funds because it could thus contain Castroism and assure its institutional respectability. By becoming an "official" agency of one kind of progress, the Church ceases to speak for the underdog who is outside all agencies but who is an ever growing majority. By accepting the power to help, the Church necessarily must denounce a Camilo Torres, who symbolizes the power of renunciation. + +Money thus builds the Church a "pastoral" structure beyond its means and makes it a political power. + +Superficial emotional involvement obscures rational thinking about American international "assistance." Healthy guilt feelings are repressed by a strangely motivated desire to "help" in Vietnam. Finally, our generation begins to cut through the rhetoric of patriotic "loyalty." We stumblingly recognize the perversity of our power politics and the destructive direction of our warped efforts to impose unilaterally "our way of life" on all. We have not yet begun to face the seamy side of clerical manpower involvement and the Church's complicity in stifling universal awakening too revolutionary to lie quietly within the "Great Society." + +I know that there is no foreign priest or nun so shoddy in his work that through his stay in Latin America he has not enriched some life; and that there is no missioner so incompetent that through him Latin America has not made some small contribution to Europe and North America. But neither our admiration for conspicuous generosity, nor our fear of making bitter enemies out of lukewarm friends, must stop us from facing the facts. Missioners sent to Latin America can make (1) an alien Church more foreign, (2) an overstaffed Church priest-ridden, and (3) bishops into abject beggars. Recent public discord has shattered the unanimity of the national consensus on Vietnam. I hope that public awareness of the repressive and corruptive elements contained in "official" ecclesiastical assistance programs will give rise to a real sense of guilt: guilt for having wasted the lives of young men and women dedicated to the task of evangelization in Latin America. + +Massive, indiscriminate importation of clergy helps the ecclesiastical bureaucracy survive in its own colony, which every day becomes more foreign and comfortable. This immigration helps to transform the old-style hacienda of God (on which the people were only squatters) into the Lord's supermarket, with catechisms, liturgy, and other means of grace heavily in stock. It makes contented consumers out of vegetating peasants, demanding clients out of former devotees. It lines the sacred pockets, providing refuge for men who are frightened by secular responsibility. + +Churchgoers, accustomed to priests, novenas, books, and culture from Spain (quite possibly to Franco's picture in the rectory), now meet a new type of executive, administrative, and financial talent promoting a certain type of democracy as the Christian ideal. The people soon see that the Church is distant, alienated from them—an imported, specialized operation, financed from abroad, which speaks with a holy, because foreign, accent. + +This foreign transfusion—and the hope for more—gave ecclesiastical pusillanimity a new lease on life, another chance to make the archaic and colonial system work. If North America and Europe send enough priests to fill the vacant parishes, there is no need to consider laymen—unpaid for part-time work—to fulfill most evangelical tasks; no need to re-examine the structure of the parish, the function of the priest, the Sunday obligation and clerical sermon; no need to explore the use of the married diaconate, new forms of celebration of the Word and Eucharist, and intimate familial celebrations of conversion to the gospel in the milieu of the home. The promise of more clergy is like a bewitching siren. It makes the chronic surplus of clergy in Latin America invisible and it makes it impossible to diagnose this surplus as the gravest illness of the Church. Today, this pessimistic evaluation is slightly altered by a courageous and imaginative few—non-Latins among them—who see, study, and strive for true reform. + +A large proportion of Latin American Church personnel are presently employed in private institutions that serve the middle and upper classes and frequently produce highly respectable profits; this on a continent where there is a desperate need for teachers, nurses, and social workers in public institutions that serve the poor. A large part of the clergy are engaged in bureaucratic functions, usually related to peddling sacraments, sacramentals, and superstitious "blessings." Most of them live in squalor. The Church, unable to use its personnel in pastorally meaningful tasks, cannot even support its priests and the 670 bishops who govern them. Theology is used to justify this system, canon law to administer it, and foreign clergy to create a world-wide consensus on the necessity of its continuation. + +A healthy sense of values empties the seminaries and the ranks of the clergy much more effectively than does a lack of discipline and generosity. In fact, the new mood of well-being makes the ecclesiastical career more attractive to the self-seeker. Bishops turn servile beggars, become tempted to organize safaris, and hunt out foreign priests and funds for constructing such anomalies as minor seminaries. As long as such expeditions succeed, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to take the emotionally harder road: to ask ourselves honestly if we need such a game. + +Exporting Church employees to Latin America masks a universal and unconscious fear of a new Church. North and South American authorities, differently motivated but equally fearful, become accomplices in maintaining a clerical and irrelevant Church. Sacralizing employees and property, this Church becomes progressively more blind to the possibilities of sacralizing person and community. + +It is hard to help by refusing to give alms. I remember once having stopped food distribution from sacristies in an area where there was great hunger. I still feel the sting of an accusing voice saying: "Sleep well for the rest of your life with the death of dozens of children on your conscience." Even some doctors prefer aspirins to radical surgery. They feel no guilt having the patient die of cancer, but fear the risk of applying the knife. The courage needed today is that expressed by Daniel Berrigan, S.J., writing of Latin America: "I suggest we stop sending anyone or anything for three years and dig in and face our mistakes and find out how not to canonize them." + +From six years' experience in training hundreds of foreign missioners assigned to Latin America, I know that real volunteers increasingly want to face the truth that puts their faith to the test. Superiors who shift personnel by their administrative decisions but do not have to live with the ensuing deceptions are emotionally handicapped facing these realities. + +The United States Church must face the painful side of generosity: the burden that a life gratuitously offered imposes on the recipient. The men who go to Latin America must humbly accept the possibility that they are useless or even harmful, although they give all they have. They must accept the fact that a limping ecclesiastical assistance program uses them as palliatives to ease the pain of a cancerous structure, the only hope being that the prescription will give the organism enough time and rest to initiate a spontaneous healing. It is far more probable that the pharmacist's pill will both stop the patient from seeking a surgeon's advice and addict him to the drug. + +Foreign missioners increasingly realize that they heeded a call to plug the holes in a sinking ship because the officers did not dare launch the life rafts. Unless this is clearly seen, men who obediently offer the best years of then-lives will find themselves tricked into a useless struggle to keep a doomed liner afloat as it limps through uncharted seas. + +We must acknowledge that missioners can be pawns in a world ideological struggle and that it is blasphemous to use the gospel to prop up any social or political system. When men and money are sent into a society within the framework of a program, they bring ideas that live after them. It has been pointed out, in the case of the Peace Corps, that the cultural mutation catalyzed by a small foreign group might be more effective than all the immediate services it renders. The same can be true of the North American missioner—close to home, having great means at his disposal, frequently on a short-term assignment— who moves into an area of intense United States cultural and economic colonization. He is part of this sphere of influence and, at times, intrigue. Through the United States missioner, the United States shadows and colors the public image of the Church. The influx of United States missioners coincides with the Alliance for Progress, Camelot, and CIA projects and looks like a baptism of all three. The Alliance appears directed by Christian justice and is not seen for what it is: a deception designed to maintain the status quo, albeit variously motivated. During the program's first five years, the net capital leaving Latin America has tripled. The program is too small to permit even the achievement of a threshold of sustained growth. It is a bone thrown to the dog, that he remain quiet in the backyard of the Americas. + +Within these realities, the United States missioner tends to fulfill the traditional role of a colonial power's lackey chaplain. The dangers implicit in Church use of foreign money assume the proportion of caricature when this aid is administered by a "gringo" to keep the "underdeveloped" quiet. It is, of course, too much to ask of most Americans that they make sound, clear, and outspoken criticisms of United States sociopolitical aggression in Latin America, even more difficult that they do so without the bitterness of the expatriate or the opportunism of the turncoat. + +Groups of United States missioners cannot avoid projecting the image of "United States outposts." Only individual Americans mixed in with local men could avoid this distortion. The missioner of necessity is an "undercover" a sent—albeit unconscious—for United States so-cial and political consensus. But, consciously and purposely, he wishes to bring the values of his Church to South America; adaptation and selection seldom reach the level of questioning the values themselves. + +The situation was not so ambiguous ten years ago, when in good conscience mission societies were channels for the flow of traditional United States Church hardware to Latin America. Everything from the Roman collar to parochial schools, from United States catechisms to Catholic universities, was considered salable merchandise in the new Latin American market. Not much salesmanship was needed to convince the Latin bishops to give the "Made in U.S.A." label a try. + +In the meantime, however, the situation has changed considerably. The United States Church is shaking from the first findings of a scientific and massive self-evaluation. Not only methods and institutions, but also the ideologies that they imply, are subject to examination and attack. The self-confidence of the American ecclesiastical salesman is therefore shaky. We see the strange paradox of a man attempting to implant, in a really different culture, structures and programs that are now rejected in the country of their origin. (I recently heard of a Catholic grammar school being planned by United States personnel in a Central American city parish where there are already a dozen public schools.) + +There is an opposite danger, too. Latin America can no longer tolerate being a haven for United States liberals who cannot make their point at home, an outlet for apostles too "apostolic" to find their vocation as competent professionals within their own community. The hardware salesman threatens to dump second-rate imitations of parishes, schools, and catechisms—outmoded even in the United States-all around the continent. The traveling escapist threatens further to confuse a foreign world with his superficial protests, which are not viable even at home. The American Church of the Vietnam generation finds it difficult to engage in foreign aid without exporting either its solutions or its problems. Both are prohibitive luxuries for developing nations. Mexicans, to avoid offending the sender, pay high duties for useless or unasked-for gifts sent them by well-meaning American friends. Gift givers must think not of this moment and of this need, but in terms of a full generation of the future effects. Gift planners must ask if the global value of the gift in men, money, and ideas is worth the price the recipient will ultimately have to pay for it. As Father Berrigan suggests, the rich and powerful can decide not to give; the poor can hardly refuse to accept. Since almsgiving conditions the beggar's mind, the Latin American bishops are not entirely at fault in asking for misdirected and harmful foreign aid. A large measure of the blame lies with the underdeveloped ecclesiology of United States clerics who direct the "sale" of American good intentions. + +The United States Catholic wants to be involved in an ecclesiologically valid program, not in subsidiary political and social programs designed to influence the growth of developing nations according to anybody's social doctrine, be it even described as the Pope's. The heart of the discussion is therefore not how to send more men and money, but rather why they should be sent at all. The Church, in the meantime, is in no critical danger. We are tempted to shore up and salvage structures rather than question their purpose and truth. Hoping to glory in the works of our hands, we feel guilty, frustrated, and angry when part of the building starts to crumble. Instead of believing in the Church, we frantically attempt to construct it according to our own cloudy cultural image. We want to build community, relying on techniques, and are blind to the latent desire for unity that is striving to express itself among men. In fear, we plan our Church with statistics, rather than trustingly search for the living Church which is right among us. + +## The vanishing clergyman + +I drafted this paper in 1959 and published it, at the request of a friend, in The Critic of Chicago, in 1967. + +Great changes must take place in the structure of the Catholic Church if it is to survive. I believe that such changes will come about and, moreover, that they can now be visualized in terms consistent with the most radically traditional theology. Nevertheless, such changes would thoroughly upset the idea of the Catholic Church deeply imbedded in the imagination of Catholics and non-Catholics alike. + +One could have spoken about these changes in abstract terms. 1 preferred to illustrate my general thesis by indicating what, in my opinion, will happen to the "clergyman," to his status, his role, his self-image, his professional standing. 1 wanted to raise a question, clearly and simply. But I had further reasons for making my statement through a concrete example. + +For one, I did not want to say anything theologically new, daring, or controversial. + +Only a spelling-out of the social consequences would make a thesis as orthodox as mine sufficiently controversial to be discussed within the overwhelming conservative majority of the Church. + +A second reason for my decision to focus on the clergy was the attempt to render the discussion relevant to the "Catholic left." Suggestions for a reform of the Catholic priesthood abounded in these quarters in the mid-sixties. The majority of these suggestions seemed neither sufficiently revolutionary to be worth while {a married clergy, priests engaged in social action or revolution) nor sufficiently faithful to fundamental traditional positions—which I would not like to see compromised (such as the value of freely chosen celibacy, the episcopal structure of the Church, the permanence of priestly ordination). + +The Roman Church is the world’s largest non-governmental bureaucracy. It employs 1.8 million full-time workers—priests, brothers, sisters, and laymen. These employees work within a corporate structure which an American business consultant firm rates as among the most efficiently operated organizations in the world. The institutional Church functions on a par with the General Motors Company and the Chase Manhattan Bank. Recognition of this fact is accepted, sometimes, with pride. But to some, the machine-like smoothness itself seems to discredit the Church. Men suspect that it has lost its relevance to the gospel and to the world. Wavering, doubt, and confusion reign among its directors, functionaries, and employees. The giant begins to totter before it collapses. + +Some church personnel react to the breakdown with pain, anguish, and fright. Some make heroic efforts and tragic sacrifices to prevent it. Some, regretfully or joyfully, interpret the phenomenon as a sign of the disappearance of the Roman Church itself. I would like to suggest that we welcome the disappearance of institutional bureaucracy in a spirit of deep joy. In this essay, I shall describe some aspects of what is taking place in the Church, and suggest ways in which the Church could seek a radical reorganization in some of its structures. I am not recommending essential changes in the Church; even less do I suggest its dissolution. The complete disappearance of its visible structure would contradict sociological law and divine mandate. But change does entail much more than drastic amendment or updating reform if the Church is to respond to God’s call and contemporary man. I shall outline certain possible changes, solidly rooted in the origins of the Church, and boldly reaching out to the necessities of tomorrow’s society. Acceptance of this kind of reform will require the Church to live the evangelical poverty of Christ. At the same time, the Church, sensitive to the process of the world’s progressive socialization, will come to have a deep respect for, and joyful acceptance of, this phenomenon. + +The institutional Church is in trouble. The very persons on whose loyalty and obedience the efficiency structure depends increasingly abandon it. Until the early sixties, the “ defections ” were relatively rare. Now they are common. Tomorrow they may be the pattern. After a personal drama played out in the intimacy of conscience, more and more ecclesiastical employees will decide to sacrifice the emotional, spiritual, and financial security which the system benevolently provided for them. I suspect that within this generation these persons will have become a majority of the Church’s personnel. + +The problem lies not with the “spirit” of the world, nor with any failure in generosity among the “defectors,” but rather with the structure itself. This can be taken as an almost aprioristic conclusion, since the present structures developed as a response to past situations vastly different from our own. Further, our world continually accelerates its rapid changes of societal structures , in the context of which the Church must carry out its real functions. To see the situation more clearly, I shall focus my attention on the nature and function of ministry, the complex channel through which the Church touches the world. We can thus gain some insight into the Church of tomorrow. + +It seems evident that basic and accepted concepts of ministry in the Church are clearly inadequate. Quantitatively, for example , the Church really does not need the present number of full-time employees who work in its operational structure. More fundamentally, the situation suggests the need for a deep reappraisal of the elements which make up. the current idea of the priest as the Church’s basic representative in the world—a concept still maintained in the conciliar decrees. Specifically there is need for a re-examination of the relation between sacramental ministry and full-time personnel, between ministry and celibacy, and between ministry and theological education. + +Today it is assumed that most if not all of the Church’s ministerial operations must be carried out by full-time underpaid employees who possess a kind of theological education and who accept an ecclesiastical law of celibacy. In order to begin a search for new directions which are more evangelically and sociologically relevant, I shall discuss separately four aspects of the problem : the radical reduction in the number of persons dependent on the Church for their livelihood; the ordination to sacramental ministry of men independently employed in the world; the special and unique renunciation implied in perpetual celibacy ; the relation between sacramental ministry and theological education. + +### The clergy desire for more and need for less + +The Church’s personnel enjoy remarkable privileges. Every teenager who seeks employment among the clergy is almost automatically guaranteed a status which confers a variety of personal and social benefits, most of which come with advancing age, not because of competence or productivity. His rights to social and economic security are more far-reaching than plans for the guaranteed income. + +Ecclesiastical employees live in comfortable Church-owned housing, are assured preferential treatment in Church-owned and operated health services, are mostly trained in ecclesiastical educational institutions, and are buried in hallowed ground—after which they are prayed for. The habit or collar, not competent productivity, assures one’s status and living. An employment market, more diversified than any existing corporation, caters to the employee, discriminating against laymen who do not share his ritual initiation. Laymen who work in the ecclesiastical structure are recognized as possessing some few “civil rights,” but their careers depend principally on their ability to play the role of Uncle Toms. + +Recently the Roman Church has followed the example of some Protestant churches in shifting more of its employees from parish work to paper pushing. At the same time, the traditional demand for increased personnel at the parish level and the simultaneously burgeoning process of overinflated bureaucratic machinery masks the increasing irrelevance of both these aspects of the structure. Organizational explosion results in a feverish search for more personnel and money. We are urged to beg God to send more employees into the bureaucratic system and to inspire the faithful to pay the cost. Personally, I cannot ask God for these “benefits.” The inherently self-perpetuating expansion of Church personnel operates well enough without additional help, and only serves to make an already overstaffed Church more priest-ridden, thereby debilitating the Church’s mission in today’s world. + +The Vatican itself best illustrates the complex problem. Post-conciliar administrative growth supersedes and supplants the old machinery. Since the end of the Council, the twelve venerable curial congregations have been increased by the addition of numerous intermeshing and overlapping post-conciliar organs—commissions, councils, consultative bodies, committees, assemblies , synods. This bureaucratic maze becomes ungovernable. Good. Perhaps this will help us to see that principles of corporate government are not applicable to the Body of Christ. It is even less appropriate to see His Vicar as the chief executive of a corporation than as a Byzantine king. Clerical technocracy is even further from the gospel than priestly aristocracy. And we may come to recognize that efficiency corrupts Christian testimony more subtly than power. + +At a time when even the Pentagon seeks to reduce its manpower pool by contracting specific jobs in the open market of industry and research, the Vatican launches a drive toward greater self-contained institutional diversification and proliferation . The central administration of this top-heavy organizational giant passes out of the hands of the “venerable congregations” staffed by Italian career priests into those of clerical specialists recruited from all over the world. The Pontifical Curia of the Middle Ages becomes a contemporary corporation’s planning and administrative headquarters. + +One of the paradoxical aspects of today’s structure is that the organization priest is also a member of the aristocracy of the only feudal power left in the Western world—a power whose sovereign status was recognized in the Lateran conventions. Further, this same power increasingly uses a diplomatic structure —one originally developed to represent the Church’s interests vis-à-vis other sovereign states—in order to offer services to the emerging international agencies, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNICEF, UNESCO, and to the United Nations itself. This development demands more and more employees for a wider range of jobs, requiring even more specialized education for the recruits. The hierarchy, accustomed to absolute control over its employees, seeks to staff these positions with captive clergy. But the big push on more intensive recruitment runs head-on into a strong and contrary trend: yearly almost as many trained personnel leave as are recruited. Hence we see the reluctant acceptance of submissive and obedient laymen to fill the gap. + +Some individuals explain clerical “defections” as the elimination of undesirable elements. Others blame the various contemporary mystiques of the world. The institution instinctively attempts to explain this loss and the concomitant vocation “crisis” in terms flattering to itself. Then too one needs strong justification for the enthusiastic and emotional drives for more “ vocations .” Few wish to admit that the collapse of an overextended and disproportionate clerical framework is a clear sign of its irrelevance. Fewer see that the Pope himself would grow in evangelical stature and fidelity in proportion as his power to affect social issues in the world and his administrative command in the Church decline. + +Changes on the institutional periphery are as faithful to “Parkinson’s Law” as changes in Rome: work grows with available personnel. Since the end of the Council, attempts at collegial decentralization have resulted in a wildly uncontrolled growth of bureaucracy reaching to the local level. Latin America offers a grotesque example. A generation ago Latin American bishops traveled to Rome about every ten years to report to the Pope. Their only other contacts with Rome were the stylized petitions for indulgences of dispensations, channeled through the Nuncio, and occasional Curial Visitators. Today a complex Roman Commission for Latin America coordinates subcommissions of European and American bishops in the power balance with the Latin American Bishops’ Assembly. This is organized in a board ( Consejo Episcopal Latinoamericano ) and numerous commissions , secretariats, institutes, and delegations. CELAM itself is the crown of sixteen national bishops’ conferences, some of which are even more complex in bureaucratic organization. The entire structure is designed to facilitate occasional consultations among bishops, in order that, returning to their dioceses, they might act with greater independence and originality. The real results are rather different. The bishops develop the bureaucratic mentality necessary to keep up with the merry-go-round character of the increasingly frequent meetings. The newly created organisms absorb large numbers of trained grass-roots personnel into clerical staff and planning services. Restrictive and unimaginative central control replaces creative and fresh approaches in the local churches. + +In the entire Church a clergy survives partly because priestly service at the altar is united with clerical power and privilege. This union helps to maintain the existing structure. Church-employed priests assure a personnel supply to fill places in the corporate structure. Priest-clerics assure the continuance and abundance of career-minded churchmen. The ordination of self-supporting laymen to sacramental functions would eventually destroy the bureaucracy. But men whose mentality and security have been formed and maintained by the system instinctively fear the ordination of persons who remain in secular employment. The diocesan chancellor, the Catholic Charities director, and the pastor feel as much threatened by declericalization as the Catholic university president, the supplier of ecclesiastical finery and furnishings, and such civic leaders as Saul Alinsky. In different ways all are supported by, or depend upon, the power and prestige of the clergy. Nevertheless, the ordination of secularly employed men may be one of the Church’s great advances. + +Today, some clerics begin to see that they are smothered in a scandalous and unnecessary security combined with restrictive and unacceptable controls. A priest, well-trained in theology, is assured life-long support, but it may be as an accountant, and not as a theologian, if he has been caught reading certain “ suspect ” foreign authors. Conversely, a Latin American bishop may send a priest for sociological studies in Europe and then decide to create a diocesan department of research to use the new talent he has acquired. + +Some priests are dissatisfied with their work, either because their freedom to do a good job is curtailed, or because they feel unprepared for the specific task assigned them. In the first instance , better job descriptions are proposed as a remedy; in the second, better education for the jobholder. Both solutions are no more than misguided palliatives. The question must be asked: Should not this job be dropped from Church control, and the cleric either fired or challenged to compete for it—under secular control and conditions? Of course if we continue the present system , we are still stuck with our problem: the dissatisfied cleric. + +Therefore the next five years will see a proliferation of retraining programs for the clergy. The outmoded product of novitiate and seminary needs different skills and attitudes to fit into the “new” Church: a multiplying growth of specialized commissions , bureaus, and secretariats. But it’s going to be a problem, selling the programs. The men themselves are beginning to say: Perhaps I need training to move into the secular world, to support myself as other men in society, to act as an adult in the world. + +Dioceses and religious congregations increasingly use business consultants, whose criteria of success are taken from the American Management Association, and whose premise is that the present structure must be maintained. The resulting clergy in-service training is essentially repressive, ideologically biased, and directed toward efficient Church growth. Present ecclesiastical training improves a man’s ability to operate a more complex machine. A retreat only serves to confirm a man’s per sonal commitment to the structure. An adult formation concept is needed, one which would lead men to search for the right questions. Is this structure rooted in routine or revelations? Should I, a man totally at the service of the Church, stay in the structure in order to subvert it, or leave in order to live the model of the future? The Church needs men seeking this kind of conscious and critical awareness—men deeply faithful to the Church, living a life of insecurity and risk, free from hierarchical control, working for the eventual “disestablishment” of the Church from within. The very few such groups in existence today are branded as disloyal and dangerous by the clerical mentality. + +A good example of such subversive education is provided by the Sister Formation Movement in the United States. This movement acts as a major factor working toward the secularization of the American Church from within. In the mid-fifties, a group of sisters set up a lobby to pressure for advanced professional education of religious. When this had been achieved, and the brothers and sisters returned to their communities with Ph.D.s, they were competent to apply for academic jobs anywhere. They no longer had to rely on preferential treatment traditionally accorded in Church institutions to religious, irrespective of their talent or professional training. + +Many of these trained persons become conscious of ridiculous restrictions imposed upon them and their institutions by the clerical mind and ecclesiastical control. Some saw themselves facing the necessity of leaving their communities in order to live a meaningful and relevant career. Others chose to work for the liberation of their institutions from repressive and destructive Church control. The former were branded as defectors and the latter as subversives. Finally, religious congregations began to allow their members to seek temporary or permanent employment of their own choice in the open market, while remaining members of the community. This will lead to the persons themselves choosing their companions, places of residence, and form of community living. + +Many superiors of religious women have recently begun to understand the signs of the times. Suddenly they see the possibility that the era of religious congregations might be over. Bishops are not yet aware that an analogous movement is at work among the clergy. But this movement is weaker and less sophisticated , because of the retarded nature of the American clergy. For several generations they have been pampered into unquestioning submission by their middle-class comfort and security. + +Today some priests believe that they might be better ministers if they worked at secular jobs that entail real social and economic responsibility. A priest-artist, for example, questions the bishop’s right to employ him as a scribe, or to suspend him if he seeks real work in Greenwich Village. These trends produce a double effect among the clergy. The committed man is moved to renounce his clerical privileges, thereby risking suspension, and the mediocre man is moved to clamor for more fringe benefits and less adult responsibility, thereby settling down more comfortably in his clerical security. + +Seeing the evangelical and social contradictions in the bureaucracy , some courageously face the possible alternatives. I know many who desire full-time jobs in poverty programs, as community organizers, teachers, researchers, professional men. They desire to earn their livings and live as celibate laymen, while exercising their ministerial functions on a part-time basis in the service of the faithful, and under the bishop’s authority. They ask if the system is sensitive enough to the real society to evolve a new form of radical and personal declericalization which would entail neither suspension from orders nor dispensation from celibacy. + +Of course, such radical secularization threatens the existing parochial system. It would encourage the imaginative and generous to strike out on their own and thereby leave the clerical and outdated ecclesiastical structure in the hands of those who choose security and routine. It would frighten both bureaucratic bishops and rebellious DuBays. The bishops desire more clerics, but reject any demands for employee privileges, especially the notion of unionized power. The attitudes of both the bishops and the DuBays necessarily imply the furtherance of the clerical system. + +Men in secular society sometimes recognize a real hypocrisy in this system. Groups founded for social protest and revolutionary action find the clergy suspect. The former, when they act, freely risk their careers for a cause to which their conscience impels them. The priest or nun who suddenly becomes aware that a real world exists and belatedly joins such actions risks a gentle reprimand at most Usually the more enlightened superior is quite pleased and happy with his “courageous” subject. It is much cheaper to permit a few naïve protesters, rather than face the frightening price of Christian institutional testimony to society. + +To begin the task of giving this testimony, may we pray for an increase of priests who choose “radical” secularization? For priests who leave the Church in order to pioneer the church of the future? For priests who, faithfully dedicated to and loving the Church, risk misunderstanding and suspension? For priests, full of hope, capable of such actions without becoming hard and embittered? For extraordinary priests, willing to live today the ordinary life of tomorrow’s priest? + +### The shape of the future ministry + +An adult layman, ordained to the ministry, will preside over the “normal” Christian community of the future. The ministry will be an exercise of leisure rather than a job. The “diaconia” will supplant the parish as the fundamental institutional unit in the church. The periodic meeting of friends will replace the Sunday assembly of strangers. A self-supporting dentist, factory worker, professor, rather than a church-employed scribe or functionary , will preside over the meeting. The minister will be a man mature in Christian wisdom through his lifelong participation in an intimate liturgy, rather than a seminary graduate formed professionally through “theological” formulae. Marriage and the education of growing children, rather than the acceptance of celibacy as a legal condition for ordination, will confer responsible leadership on him. + +I foresee the face-to-face meeting of families around a table, rather than the impersonal attendance of a crowd around an altar. Celebration will sanctify the dining room, rather than consecrated buildings the ceremony. This does not mean that all churches will be converted into theaters or real estate white elephants. For example, the Bishop of Cuernavaca believes that Latin American tradition requires the existence of the cathedral church as a kind of testimony in stone, whose beauty and majesty reflect the splendor of Christian truth. + +Present pastoral structures have been largely determined by ten centuries of a clerical and celibate priesthood. In 1964 the Council took a suggestive step toward changing this pattern when it approved a married diaconate. The decree is ambiguous, since it could lead to a proliferation of second-rate clergy without making any significant change in present structures. But it can also lead to the ordination of adult, self-supporting men. The danger would be in developing a clerical church-supported diaconate, thereby delaying the necessary and inevitable secularization of the ministry. + +The “ordinary” future priest, earning his living outside the church, will preside over a weekly meeting of a dozen deacons in his house. Together they will read the Scripture, then study and comment upon the bishop’s weekly instruction. After the meeting, when it includes Mass, each deacon will take the Sacrament to his own home, where he will keep it with his crucifix and Bible. The priest will visit his various “diaconias” and preside at their occasional Mass. At times a number of the “diaconias” will meet for a more solemn Mass in a rented hall or in a cathedral. + +Freed of present executive and administrative duties, both the bishop and his priests will have time for occasional celebrations . The bishop will be able to prepare and circulate his weekly selection from the Fathers and the outline for discussion. He and his priests will together prepare the home liturgy for the “diaconias.” These changes will require a different attitude toward weekly Mass obligation as well as a re-evaluation of present ritual practices of penance. + +Present canon law provides for the ordination of those whose lifelong livelihood has been guaranteed by the Church, and of those whose own estate is sufficient to support them. To restrict ordination to this kind of economic independence seems anomalous , if not revolting, in today’s society. Today, a man supports himself by working at a job in the world, not by performing a role in a hierarchy. It is certainly not contrary to the purposes of canon law to consider professional ability or earned social security as sufficient sign of independence for ordination. + +The sacramental ministry of ordained laymen will open our eyes to a completely new understanding of the traditional “ opposition ” between pastor and layman in the Church. As we move beyond both these concepts, we shall clearly see their transitory character. The Council, summarizing a historical development of the last hundred years, attempted to define the clerical priest and the unordained layman in two separate documents . But the future will achieve, from the apparent antithesis, a new synthesis which transcends present categories. + +The current ecclesiastical imagination is still inadequate for defining this new function—the lay priest, Sunday priest, part-time or secularized minister, ordained non-cleric. Principally he will be the minister of sacrament and word, not the jack-of- all-trades , superficially responding to a bewildering variety of social and psychological roles. With his emergence the Church will finally free itself from the restrictive system of benefices. More importantly the Church will have abandoned the complex series of services which have resulted in the minister becoming an artificial appendix to established social functions. The ordained layman will make the Catholic parson pastorally superfluous. + +The Church awakens anew in the city. Traditional pastoral analogies become anomalies in the asphalt, steel, and concrete context of city life. Urban renewal and new experiences of community call for another look at older terminology. Kings, crowns, and staffs have lost their meaning. Men are not subjects of sovereigns , and they impatiently question how they can be sheep led by a shepherd. The Church’s community-creating functions break down when supported by symbols whose driving force lies in an authority structure. Sophisticated urban Catholics do not seek authoritative guidance for community action from a pastor. They know that social action is ecumenical and secular in motive, method, and goal. The Protestant minister or the secularist professional can possess better credentials of leadership. + +Theologically literate persons no longer seek moral guidance from a priest. They themselves think. Frequently, they have long ago surpassed the priest in theological formation. Parents with a good liberal education are increasingly skeptical of entrusting their children to the clerical system of “professional” cate-chesis . If children can be evangelized, parents see that they are called to the task, and possess the knowledge and faith to carry it out. + +No thinking Catholic questions accepting the ritual which recognizes that a man has received divine power to moderate a meeting of Christians or preside over the celebration of a sacrament . But men begin to reject the claims of a pastor who, because of his ordination or consecration, feigns competency to deal with any problem of his heterogeneous congregation, be it the parish, the diocese, or the world. + +The reorganization of contemporary life frees men to accept a vocation for part-time ministerial functions. Leisure time increases with reduced working hours, early retirement, and more inclusive social security benefits—time available for the preparation and exercise of Christian ministry in a pluralistic and secular society. + +It is apparent that many objections can be raised. The lay priest or deacon might wish to withdraw from the ministry, he might publicly sin, he or his wife might become divisive factors in the Christian community. Present canon law implicitly contains the solution—let him be “suspended” from his functions. Suspension must become an option for both the man and the community, not just a punishment reserved to the bishop. The ordained minister might feel called to take a controversial position on some secular matter in society, and thereby cease to be a fitting symbol of sacramental unity. He might in conscience feel that he must become a sign of contradiction, not only to the world, but also in the world. Let him or the community freely seek suspension. The community which has recognized his charism and presented him to the bishop, can also respect his liberty of conscience and allow him to act accordingly. He himself , as minister, has no special benefits, income, or status to defend . His daily life has not been determined by his priesthood. Rather, the latter has been characterized by his secular commitment . + +### Ministry and celibacy + +Man finds it difficult to separate what habit or custom has united. The union of the clerical state, holy orders, and celibacy in the life of the Church has confused the understanding of the individual realities involved and prevented us from seeing the possibility of their separation. The clergy have stood on their socioeconomic status and power, defending their exclusive right to the priesthood. We seldom see theological arguments directed against the ordained laymen, except perhaps in reference to the inadequacy of the term itself. Only Catholic clerics who wish to marry, and married Protestant ministers who fear to lose their clerical status, defend the extension of ecclesiastical social security to a married minister. + +The link between celibacy and priestly orders now comes under heavy attack, in spite of authoritative statements defending it Exegetical, pastoral, and social arguments are marshaled against it. By their action, increasing numbers of priests not only deny it, but also abandon both celibacy and the ministry. The problem is admittedly complex, since two realities of faith— sacramental ministry of priesthood and the personal mystery of extraordinary renunciation—meet. Our secular language breaks down in the delicate analysis of their mutual relationships. The formulation and discussion of three separate questions may help us to see the proper distinctions and lead us to understand the nature of the relationships involved. The choice of voluntary celibacy, the institution of religious communities, and the legal prescription of a celibate priesthood must be seen separately. + +At all times in the Church, men and women have freely renounced marriage “for the sake of the kingdom.” Consistent with such an action, they simply “explain” their decision as a personal realization of an intimate vocation from God. This mysterious experience of vocation must be distinguished from the discursive formulation of reasons to “justify” such a decision. To many, such arguments appear meaningless. This conclusion leads men to abandon their commitment to celibacy. The defenders of celibacy frequently interpret this action as manifesting a poor or weak faith among contemporary Catholics. On the contrary, it may just as well be evidence of the purification of their faith. Men now see through the alleged motives—sociological, psychological , and mythological—for celibacy, and recognize their irrelevance to true Christian renunciation. Renunciation of marriage is not economically necessary for service to the poor, nor legally a condition for the ordained ministry, nor significantly convenient for higher studies. Persons who acted on these motives now fail to see their value and relevance. Celibacy can no longer enlist social approval in its defense. + +Psychological motives formerly invoked to justify the superiority of sexual abstinence are hardly acceptable today. Many celibates now see that they initially refused marriage because they were repelled, afraid, unprepared, or simply not attracted. Now they choose marriage, either because of a more mature understanding of themselves, or to prove their original feelings wrong. They no longer see themselves as heroes to their parents, because they are “faithful,” nor as pariahs, because they “defect.” + +Comparative studies in religion reveal many “reasons” for sexual renunciation throughout human history. These may be reduced to ascetical, magical, and mystical motives. Oftentimes they are “religious,” but hardly related to the Christian faith. The ascetic renounces marriage for freedom to pray; the magician, to “save” a Chinese baby through his sacrifice; the mystic, to seek exclusive bridal intimacy with “the All.” Contemporary man knows that sexual renunciation does not make prayer more intimate , love more ardent, or graces received more abundant. + +Today the Christian who renounces marriage and children for the kingdom’s sake seeks no abstract or concrete reason for his decision. His choice is pure risk in faith, the result of the intimate and mysterious experience of his heart. He chooses to live now the absolute poverty every Christian hopes to experience at the hour of death. His life does not prove God’s transcendence ; rather, his whole being expresses faith in it. His decision to renounce a spouse is as intimate and incommunicable as another’s decision to prefer his spouse over all others. + +The Church has evolved two devices to control an evangelical charism: the social and juridical organization of religious communities , and the ritual celebration of vows. Religious orders provide a community structure within which the member is supposed to deepen his baptismal commitment to sanctity, and make himself available for the manpower pool controlled by his superior. This captive personnel force enabled the religious congregations to conduct benevolent and business enterprises. Now it appears that these institutional works will disappear even faster than parish, diocesan, and curial structures, as more and more members leave to fulfill their vocations in the open job market. + +Christians desiring to live evangelical celibacy see fewer reasons for joining the established, juridical communities—even secular institutes—but they do recognize the necessity to band together with others of like mind, temporarily or permanently, to seek mutual support in their common and difficult spiritual adventure. Those established religious communities which remain in existence will maintain houses of intensive prayer, available as retreat houses, spiritual training centers, monasteries, or deserts. To arrive at this kind of Christian poverty and witness , the congregations legislate their impending demise by approving shortened skirts, changing prayer schedules, and experimenting in social action. Perhaps this legislative sniping at superficialities will serve to diminish the pain of those in the dying structure, easing their stay to the bitter end. + +As the traditionally accepted reasons for maintaining the present juridical communities evaporate, other means of making a lifelong vow will be explored. The Church has traditionally accepted the possibility of the private vow. Less and less shall we see this in exclusively legal terms. As living a vow moves from clerical structures to a life of renunciation in the secular world, it seems more appropriate to signify the joyful acceptance of this kind of commitment not through a juridical act creating legal obligations but through a liturgical celebration of a mystical fact. The Church moves in this direction as vows become less public, solemn, and binding. Today any religious receives his dispensation when he states that he does not intend to keep his vow. Formerly vows were treated as public renunciations of rights; now they seem more like public statements of conditional intentions. The religious makes much ado of the fact that he is not married and that he will not marry—unless, of course, he changes his mind. We move from a religious “state” to a religious “stage.” This confusion and pharisaic legalism is a sorry testimony to the world. + +The celebration of a vow should be a rite established by the Church, publicly testifying to belief in the authenticity of a particular Christian vocation and charism. Only exceptional persons, after many years of living their renunciation in secular life, should be admitted to such a liturgical celebration. The Church thereby publicly manifests its willingness to entrust the testimony of a mystery to the fidelity of these new “monks.” Only then shall we return to the real and close analogy between Christian marriage and renunciation. Both sacraments will celebrate the Christian’s full awareness of the depth and totality of a commitment he has established and lived in the real society of men. + +A large segment of the thinking Church questions the tie between celibacy and the priesthood. The Pope insists on their connection. Neither doctrine nor tradition gives definitive support to his position. I believe that the emergence of a new pastoral Church depends largely on compliance with his directive during our generation. His position helps assure the speedy death of the clergy. + +To counteract the trends of declining vocations and clerical dropouts, many solutions are proposed: married clergy, sisters and laymen in pastoral tasks, brighter appeals in vocation campaigns , world-wide distribution of existing clergy. All are simply so many pusillanimous attempts to rejuvenate a dying structure. + +During our generation, at least, there is no need to consider the ordination of married men to the priesthood. We have more than enough unmarried ones. Ordaining married priests would slow up any real pastoral reform. But there is a second, and more delicate, reason for this decision. Thousands of priests now reject celibacy, and present the painful spectacle of men trained for sexual abstinence groping belatedly into big-risk marriage. The Church dispenses them secretly, arbitrarily, and awkwardly . They are forbidden further exercise of their orders. Having chosen marriage, they could still exercise priestly functions, but they would cease to be models—except perhaps to others like themselves. + +The real need here is to clarify and liberalize the process by which the Church allows a priest to marry. Further, all must see that the good of the Church requires the “ex-priest” to abandon both clerical security and ministerial function. This is as difficult for the priest who “wants out” without accepting the concomitant consequences, as it is for the bishop who wants to “hang onto” his priest at all costs. The clerical mass exodus will only last as long as the present clerical system exists. During this time ordination of married men would be a sad mistake. The resulting confusion would only delay needed radical reforms. + +The one institution which has no future in the Church and which is at the same time most impervious to any radical reform, today loses an increasing number of its men because of the legislation of celibacy. The over-all seriousness of the seminary crisis, of itself, forces us to probe much more deeply into the entire question of ministerial education in the Church. + +### Sacramental ministry and theological education + +Since Trent the Church has insisted on forming and educating its ministers in its own professional academies. It hoped that this process would continue through the minister’s personal initiative, within his structured and clerical life. The Church trained its ministers for a life it rigidly controlled. But the further recruitment of young and generous men in order to shape them in the mold of clerical life as it is still described by the Vatican Council will soon border on the immoral. At the moment it seems highly irresponsible to continue the preparation of men for a disappearing profession. + +This does not mean that Christian ministry will require less intellectual formation. But this latter can develop only on the condition of a better and more general Christian education. The problem here is that this term has become confusingly all-inclusive and thereby lost its precise meaning. It must be redefined . Personal maturity, theological precision, contemplative prayer, and heroic charity are not specifically Christian. Atheists can be mature; non-Catholics, theologically precise; Buddhists, mystics, and pagans heroically generous. The specific result of Christian education is the sensus ecclesiae, “the sense of the Church.” The man joined to this is rooted in the living authority of the Church, lives the imaginative inventiveness of the faith, and expresses himself in terms of the gifts of the Spirit. + +This “sense” is the result of reading the sources of authentic Christian tradition, of participation in the prayerful celebration of the liturgy, of a distinct way of life. It is the fruit of experiencing Christ and the measure of prayer’s real depth. It follows upon penetration of the faith’s content through the light of intelligence and the force of will. When choosing an adult for the diaconate or priesthood, we shall look for this “sense” in him, rather than accept theology credits or time spent in retreat from the world. We shall not look for professional competence to teach the public, but prophetic humility to moderate a Christian group. + +I assume that weekly preparation through readings for liturgical celebration is a better formation for the exercise of ministry than specialization in theological studies. In saying this, I do not intend to underrate the importance of rigorous theological study. I only want to put it in its proper place. Ultimately, the function of theology is to clarify a contemporary statement, or verify its fidelity to revealed truth. The contemporary expression of revealed truth is only the result of the Church’s faith. The function of theological science, therefore, is analogous to that of literary criticism. The lectio divina is akin to the savoring of literature itself. Theology verifies our fidelity; spiritual reading nourishes our faith. As the social sciences become more complex and specialized in response to the problems of technological society, so the fidelity of the Christian community increasingly depends on its competence to express the faith in a language new to the Christian, who lives in a situation never before interpreted in the light of the gospel. The Church will grow in the child-like simplicity of its faith and in the intellectual depth of its theology. + +Nearly all of what is now considered theological science will pass out of the exclusive competence of the Church. Already most of the subjects of the seminary curriculum are competently taught in secular universities by men of all faiths. With the closing of the seminary the omnicompetent theological generalist will disappear . The study of theology will become oriented toward specialized research and teaching, rather than toward all-round professional performance. Christian professors who possess this “sense” of the Church will orient students toward a biblical and ecclesial unity in their studies, a task never really accomplished by ecclesiastical curriculums. + +Theological study will also become more widespread. The Christian college graduate, desiring to participate more actively in his weekly small group liturgy, will seek intellectual analysis in systematic theological reading and studies. He will have the time to do so because of the increase of leisure time in our society . Those who will have combined the asceticism leading to sexual renunciation with their years of study and liturgical participation will be uniquely fitted for the episcopacy. The Christian community will not hesitate or err in recognizing their charism. + +Increasingly the Church’s teaching function will cease to express itself in pastoral letters condemning abortion and encyclicals advocating social justice. The Church will discover new faith and power in the revealed word. It will teach through a living and intimate liturgy centered around this word. Small Christian communities will be nourished in its joyful celebration. + +The Spirit, continually re-creating the Church, can be trusted. Creatively present in each Christian celebration, He makes men conscious of the kingdom which lives in them. Whether composed of a few persons around the deacon, or of the Church’s integral presence around the bishop, the Christian celebration renews the whole Church, the whole of humanity. The Church will clearly manifest the Christian faith as the progressively joyful revelation of love’s personal meaning—the same love which all men celebrate. + + +## The powerless church + +In April of 1967 the secretaries for social action of the Anglican church met for a consultation. I was invited to attend. Dozens of social issues were on the table, and on some there was more than one conflicting position. I had the impression that on each issue the assembly made an effort to determine which position could he labeled the Christian one, and if this failed, tried at least to designate one as more Christian than the other. + +One of my contributions to this conference was the address which follows. It concerns the role of the church in social change and development. + +It is my thesis that only the church can “reveal” to us the full meaning of development. To live up to this task the church must recognize that she is growing powerless to orient or produce development. The less efficient she is as a power the more effective she can be as a celebrant of the mystery. + +This statement, if understood, is resented equally by the hier-arch who wants to justify collections by increasing his service to the poor, and by the rebel priest who wants to use his collar as an attractive banner in agitation. Both make a living off the social service the church renders. In my mind both symbolize obstacles to the specific function of the church: the annunciation of the gospel. + +This specific function of the church must be a contribution to development which could not be made by any other institution. I believe that this contribution is faith in Christ. Applied to development faith in Christ means the revelation that the development of humanity tends toward the realization of the kingdom, which is Christ already present in the church. The church interprets to modem man development as a growth into Christ. She introduces him to the contemplation of this mystery in prayer and to its celebration in her liturgy. + +I believe that the specific task of the church in the modern world is the Christian celebration of the experience of change. In order to fulfill this task the church will have to renounce progressively the “power to do good” she now has, and see this power pass into the hands of a new type of institution: the voluntary and ever controversial embodiments of secular religion. + +Later I will explain what I mean by the progressive renunciation of power and the growth of secular religion. Here I wish to explain what I mean by the celebration of change. + +We have ceased to live against a rigid framework. All-enveloping , penetrating change is the fundamental experience of our age, which comes as a shock to those brought up in a different age. + +In the past the same experience was exceptional and had many appearances: exile … migration … imprisonment … overseas assignment … education … hospitalization. All these traditionally represent the sudden loss of the environment which had given form to a man’s feelings and concepts. This experience of change is now faced as a lifelong process by every individual in technological society. + +In Cuernavaca we have set up a center at which we train persons to feel with others what change means to their hearts. What happens to the intimacy of a person when his familiar surroundings suddenly disappear, and with them the symbols he reveres? What happens when the words into which he was taught to pour the stream of his life lose their accustomed meaning? + +What happens to the feelings of a mountain Indian thrown into a factory? What anguish does the Chicago missionary feel when he is suddenly exposed to the mountains of Bolivia, and finds himself used as a cover-up for napalm bombs? What happens to the heart of a nun who leaves the convent? + +These questions are precise and elusive: each must be fitted to the one heart it opens. + +What threat and what challenge does social change represent to this individual or to that social group? How does this heart or that common mood react to a change in setting? We speak about threat and about challenge because the reaction to transition is very ambiguous. It can allow for new insights, can open new perspectives and therefore confront the person with new awareness of choice. In other words, development can be a setting for salvation which leads to resurrection. But also transition can reduce a bewildered individual to a defensive self-centeredness, to dependence and aggression; it can lead into the agony of a lived destruction of life, straight into hell. + +Neither efficiency nor comfort nor affluence is a criterion for the quality of change. Only the reaction of the human heart to change indicates the objective value of that change. All measures of change which disregard the response of the human heart are either evil or naïve. Development is not judged against a rule but against an experience. And this experience is not available through the study of tables but through the celebration of shared experience: dialogue, controversy, play, poetry—in short, self-realization in creative leisure. + +The church teaches us to discover the transcendental meaning of this experience of life. She teaches us in liturgical celebration to recognize the presence of Christ in the growing mutual relatedness which results from the complexity and specialization of development . And she reveals to us the personal responsibility for our sins: our growing dependence, solitude, and cravings which result from our self-alienation in things and systems and heroes. She challenges us to deeper poverty instead of security in achievements; personalization of love (chastity) instead of depersonalization by idolatry; faith in the other rather than prediction. + +Thus the church does not orient change, or teach how to react to it. It opens a new dimension of specific faith to an ecumenical experience of transcendent humanism. All men experience life—the Christian believes he has discovered its meaning. + +What the church contributes through evangelization is like the laughter in the joke. Two hear the same story—but one gets the point. It is like the rhythm in the phrase which only the poet catches. + +The new era of constant development must not only be enjoyed , it must be brought about. What is the task of the church in the gestation of the new world? + +The church can accelerate time by celebrating its advent, but it is not the church’s task to engineer its shape. She must resist that temptation. Otherwise she cannot celebrate the wondrous surprise of the coming, the advent. + +The future has already broken into the present. We each live in many times. The present of one is the past of another, and the future of yet another. We are called to live knowing that the future exists, and that it is shared when it is celebrated. The change which has to be brought about can only be lived. We cannot plan our way to humanity. Each one of us and each of the groups with which we live and work must become a model of the era we desire to create. The many models which will develop should give to each one of us an environment in which we celebrate our creative response to change with others who need us. + +Let the church be courageous enough to lead us in the celebration by highlighting its depth. Let the church discern the spirit of God wherever charismatic gifts call the future into the present and thus create a model to live. + +Let the church be mater et magistra of this play—accentuate its beauty; let her teach us to live change because it is enriching and joyful, and not just produce it because it is useful. + +Awareness of change heightens the sense of personal responsibility to share its benefits. Awareness of change therefore does not only lead to a call to celebration but also to a call to work; to the elimination of obstacles which make it impossible for others to free themselves from toil and illusion. + +Social change always implies a change of social structure, a change of formalized values, and finally a change of social character . These three factors constrain invention and creativity, and action against these constraints becomes a responsibility of those who experience them as shackles. Hence, social change involves a triple reaction: + +* The reorganization of social structure, which is felt as subversion or revolution. +* The attempt to get beyond public illusions which justify structures, which implies the ridicule of ideologies and is felt as ungodliness or as education. +* The emergence of a new “social character,” which is experienced by many with utter confusion and anguish. + +Throughout history the church has participated constantly in the shaping of social change: either as a force of conservation or as a force of social promotion. She has blessed governments and condemned them. She has justified systems and declared them as unholy. She has recommended thrift and bourgeois values and declared them anathema. + +We believe that now the moment has come for the church to withdraw from specific social initiative—taken in the name of church structure. Let us follow the example of the Pope: have the courage to allow churchmen to make statements so ephemeral that they could never be construed as being the church’s teaching. + +This withdrawal is very painful. The reason is precisely that the church still has so much power—which has so often been used for evil. Some now argue that, given the power, it should now be used to make amends. + +If the church at present in Latin America does not use the power she has accumulated for fundamental education, labor organization, cooperative promotion, political orientation, she leaves herself open to criticism—from without, of creating a power vacuum; and from within, in the terms of “if anybody, the church can bear having power, because she is self-critical enough to renounce its abuse!” + +But if the church uses the power basis she has—for example, in the field of education—then she perpetuates her inability to witness to that which is specific in her mission. + +Social innovation is becoming an increasingly complex process. Innovative action must be taken with increasing frequency and sophistication. This requires men who are courageous, dedicated, willing to lose their careers. I believe that this innovative action will increasingly be taken by groups committed to radically humanist ideals, and not gospel authority, and should therefore not be taken by churches. + +The modern humanist does not need the gospel as a norm; the Christian wants to remain free to find through the gospel a dimension of effective surprise beyond and above the humanistic reason which motivated social action. + +The social-action group needs operational freedom: the freedom to let convenience or opportunism dictate the choice of priorities of objectives, tactics, and even strategy. The same social goal might be intended by two opposed groups, one choosing violence as a method, the other non-violence. + +Social action by necessity divides tactical opponents. But if organized around deeply held, radically human, ideological tenets, it also acts as a powerful catalyst for new forms of secular ecumenicism: the ecumenicism of action springing from common radical conviction. + +Ideological tenets generate secular-religious, civic-religious ideas. Social action organized around such ideas, therefore, frees the church from the age-old dilemma of risking its unity in the celebration of faith in favor of its service to controversial charity. + +The Christian response has been deeply affected by the acceleration of time; by change, development, by growth having become normal and permanence the exception. Formerly the king could be at the opposite pole from the priest, the sacred from the profane, the churchly from the secular, and we could speak about the impact which one would have on the other. + +We stand at the end of a century-long struggle to free man from the constraint of ideologies, persuasions, and religions as guiding forces in his life. A non-thematic awareness of the significance of the incarnation emerges: an ability to say one great “Yes” to the experience of life. + +A new polarity emerges: a day-by-day insight into the tension between the manipulation of things and the relationship to persons. + +We become capable of affirming the autonomy of the ludicrous in face of the useful, of the gratuitous as opposed to the purposeful , of the spontaneous as opposed to the rationalized and planned, of creative expression made possible by inventive solution . + +We will need ideological rationalizations for a long time to achieve purposefully planned inventive solutions to social problems . Let consciously secular ideology assume this task. + +I want to celebrate my faith for no purpose at all. + +## The futility of schooling + +To provide every citizen in the United States with a level of schooling now enjoyed by the well-off one-third would require the addition of forty billion dollars per year to the present cost of elementary and secondary education in the United States, which is about thirty-seven billion. This sum exceeds the present expenditure for the war in Vietnam. Evidently the United States is too poor to provide compensatory education on this scale. And yet it is politically inexpedient and intellectually disreputable to question the elusive goal of providing equal educational opportunities for all citizens by giving them access to an equd number of years in school. + +One man ’ s illusions are often best recognized in the light of another man ’ s delusions. My discussion of the futility of schooling in the Third World— published as a magazine article in 1968—may help to demonstrate the general futility of world-wide educational institutions. + +For the past two decades, demographic considerations have colored all discussion about development in Latin America. In 1950 some 200 million people occupied the area extending from Mexico to Chile. Of these, 120 million lived directly or indirectly on primitive agriculture. Assuming both effective population controls and the most favorable possible results from programs aimed at the increase of agriculture, by 1985 forty million people will produce most of the food for a total population of 360 million. The remaining 320 million will be either marginal to the economy or will have to be incorporated somehow into urban living and industrial production. + +During these same past twenty years, both Latin American governments and foreign technical assistance agencies have come to rely increasingly on the capacity of grammar, trade, and high schools to lead the non-rural majority out of its marginality in shanty towns and subsistence farms into the type of factory, market, and public forum which corresponds to modern technology . It was assumed that schooling would eventually produce a broad middle class with values resembling those of highly industrialized nations, despite the economy of continued scarcity. + +Accumulating evidence now indicates that schooling does not and cannot produce the expected results. Some years ago the governments of the Americas joined in an Alliance for Progress, which has, in practice, served mainly the progress of the middle classes in the Latin nations. In most countries the Alliance has encouraged the replacement of a closed, feudal, hereditary elite by one which is supposedly “meritocratic” and open to the few who manage to finish school. Concomitantly, the urban service proletariat has grown at several times the rate of the traditional landless rural mass and has replaced it in importance. The marginal majority and the schooled minority grow ever further apart. One old feudal society has brought forth two classes, separate and unequal. + +This development has led to educational research focused on the improvement of the learning process in schools and on the adaptations of schools themselves to the special circumstances prevailing in underdeveloped societies. But logic would seem to require that we do not stop with an effort to improve schools; rather that we question the assumption on which the school system itself is based. We must not exclude the possibility that the emerging nations cannot be schooled, that schooling is not a viable answer to their need for universal education. Perhaps this type of insight is needed to clear the way for a futuristic scenario in which schools as we know them today would disappear. + +The social distance between the growing urban mass and the new elite is a new phenomenon, unlike the traditional forms of discrimination known in Latin America. This new discrimination is not a transitory thing which can be overcome by schooling . On the contrary: I submit that one of the reasons for the awakening frustration in the majorities is the progressive acceptance of the “liberal myth,” the assumption that schooling is an assurance of social integration. + +The solidarity of all citizens based on their common graduation from school has been an inalienable part of the modern, Western self-image. Colonization has not succeeded in implanting this myth equally in all countries, but everywhere schooling has become the prerequisite for membership in a managerial middle class. The constitutional history of Latin America since its independence has made the masses of this continent particularly susceptible to the conviction that all citizens have a right to enter—and, therefore, have some possibility of entering—their society through the door of a school. + +More than elsewhere, in Latin America the teacher as missionary for the school-gospel has found adherents at the grassroots . Only a few years ago many of us were happy when finally the Latin American school system was singled out as the area of privileged investment for international assistance funds. In fact, during the past years, both national budgets and private investment have been stimulated to increase educational allocations. But a second look reveals that this school system has built a narrow bridge across a widening social gap. As the only legitimate passage to the middle class, the school restricts all unconventional crossings and leaves the underachiever to bear the blame for his marginality. + +This statement is difficult for Americans to understand. In the United States, the nineteenth-century persuasion that free schooling ensures all citizens equality in the economy and effective participation in the society survives. It is by no means certain that the result of schooling ever measured up to this expectation, but the schools certainly played a more prominent role in this process some hundred years ago. + +In the United States of the mid-nineteenth century, six years of schooling frequently made a young man the educational superior of his book. In a society largely dominated by unschooled achievers, the little red schoolhouse was an effective road to social equality. A few years in school for all brought most extremes together. Those who achieved power and money without schooling had to accept a degree of equality with those who achieved literacy and did not strike it rich. Computers, television , and airplanes have changed this. Today in Latin America, in the midst of modern technology, three times as many years of schooling and twenty times as much money as was then spent on grammar schools will not produce the same social result. The dropout from the sixth grade is unable to find a job even as a punch card operator or a railroad hand. + +Contemporary Latin America needs school systems no more than it needs railroad tracks. Both—spanning continents—served to speed the now-rich and established nations into the industrial age. Both, if now handled with care, are harmless heirlooms from the Victorian period. But neither is relevant to countries emerging from primitive agriculture directly into the jet age. Latin America cannot afford to maintain outmoded social institutions amid modern technological processes. + +By “school,” of course, I do not mean all organized formal education. I use the term “school” and “schooling” here to designate a form of child care and a rite de passage which we take for granted. We forget that this institution and the corresponding creed appeared on the scene only with the growth of the industrial state. Comprehensive schooling today involves year-round, obligatory, and universal classroom attendance in small groups for several hours each day. It is imposed on all citizens for a period of ten to eighteen years. School divides life into two segments, which are increasingly of comparable length. As much as anything else, schooling implies custodial care for persons who are declared undesirable elsewhere by the simple fact that a school has been built to serve them. The school is supposed to take the excess population from the street, the family, or the labor force. Teachers are given the power to invent new criteria according to which new segments of the population may be committed to a school. This restraint on healthy, productive, and potentially independent human beings is performed by schools with an economy which only labor camps could rival. + +Schooling also involves a process of accepted ritual certification for all members of a “schooled” society. Schools select those who are bound to succeed and send them on their way with a badge marking them fit. Once universal schooling has been accepted as the hallmark for the in-members of a society, fitness is measured by the amount of time and money spent on formal education in youth rather than ability acquired independently from an “accredited” curriculum. + +A first important step toward radical educational reform in Latin America will be taken when the educational system of the United States is accepted for what it is: a recent, imaginative social invention perfected since World War II and historically rooted in the American frontier. The creation of the all-pervasive school establishment, tied into industry, government, and the military, is an invention no less original than the guild-centered apprenticeship of the Middle Ages, or the doctrina de los índios and the reductión of Spanish missionaries in Mexico and Paraguay , respectively, or the lycée and les grandes écoles in France. Each one of these systems was produced by its society to give stability to an achievement; each has been heavily pervaded by ritual to which society bowed; and each has been rationalized into an all-embracing persuasion, religion, or ideology. The United States is not the first nation that has been willing to pay a high price to have its educational system exported by missionaries to all corners of the world. The colonization of Latin America by the catechism is certainly a noteworthy precedent. + +It is difficult now to challenge the school as a system because we are so used to it. Our industrial categories tend to define results as products of specialized institutions and instruments. Armies produce defense for countries. Churches procure salvation in an afterlife. Binet defined intelligence as that which his tests test. Why not, then, conceive of education as the product of schools? Once this tag has been accepted, unschooled education gives the impression of something spurious, illegitimate, and certainly unaccredited. + +For some generations, education has been based on massive schooling, just as security was based on massive retaliation and, at least in the United States, transportation on the family car. The United States, because it industrialized earlier, is rich enough to afford schools, the Strategic Air Command, and the car—no matter what the toll. Most nations of the world are not that rich; they behave, however, as if they were. The example of nations which “made it” leads Brazilians to pursue the ideal of the family car—just for a few. It compels Peruvians to squander on Mirage bombers—just for a show. And it drives every government in Latin America to spend up to two-fifths of its total budget on schools, and to do so unchallenged. + +Let us insist, for a moment, on this analogy between the school system and the system of transportation based on the family car. Ownership of a car is now rapidly becoming the ideal in Latin America—at least among those who have a voice in formulating national goals. During the past twenty years, roads, parking facilities, and services for private automobiles have been immensely improved. These improvements benefit overwhelmingly those who have their own cars—that is, a tiny percentage. The bias of the budget allocated for transportation thus discriminates against the best transportation for the greatest number—and the huge capital investments in this area ensure that this bias is here to stay. In some countries, articulate minorities now challenge the family car as the fundamental unit of transportation in emerging societies. But everywhere in Latin America it would be political suicide to advocate radical limitations on the multiplication of schools. Opposition parties may challenge at times the need for superhighways or the need for weapons which will see active duty only in a parade. But what man in his right mind would challenge the need to provide every child with a chance to go to high school? + +Before poor nations could reach this point of universal schooling , however, their ability to educate would be exhausted. Even ten or twelve years of schooling are beyond 85 per cent of all men of our century if they happen to live outside the tiny islands where capital accumulates. Nowhere in Latin America do 27 per cent of any age group get beyond the sixth grade, nor do more than 1 per cent graduate from a university. Yet no government spends less than 18 per cent of its budget on schools, and many spend more than 30 per cent. Universal schooling, as this concept has been defined recently in industrial societies, is obviously beyond their means. The annual cost of schooling a United States citizen between the ages of twelve and twenty-four equals as much as most Latin Americans earn in two or three years. + +Schools will stay beyond the means of the developing nations: neither radical population control nor maximum reallocations of government budgets nor unprecedented foreign aid would end the present unfeasibility of school systems aimed at twelve years of schooling for all. Population control needs time to become effective when the total population is as young as that of tropical America. The percentage of the world’s resources invested in schooling cannot be raised beyond certain levels, nor can this budget grow beyond foreseeable maximal rates. Finally, foreign aid would have to increase to 30 per cent of the receiving nation’s national budget to provide effectively for schooling, a goal not to be anticipated. + +Furthermore, the per capita cost of schooling itself is rising everywhere as schools accept those who are difficult to teach, as retention rates rise, and as the quality of schooling itself improves. This rise in cost neutralizes much of the new investments. Schools do not come cheaper by the dozen. + +In view of all these factors, increases in school budgets must usually be defended by arguments which imply default In fact, however, schools are untouchable because they are vital to the status quo. Schools have the effect of tempering the subversive potential of education in an alienated society because, if education is confined to schools, only those who have been schooled into compliance on a lower grade are admitted to its higher reaches. In capital-starved societies not rich enough to purchase unlimited schooling, the majority is schooled not only into compliance but also into subservience. + +Since Latin American constitutions were written with an eye on the United States, the ideal of universal schooling was a creative utopia. It was a condition necessary to create the Latin American nineteenth-century bourgeoisie. Without the pretense that every citizen has a right to go to school, the liberal bourgeoisie could never have developed; neither could the middle-class masses of present-day Europe, the United States, and Russia , nor the managerial middle elite of their cultural colonies in South America. But the same school which worked in the last century to overcome feudalism has now become an oppressive idol which protects those who are already schooled. Schools grade and, therefore, they degrade. They make the degraded accept his own submission. Social seniority is bestowed according to the level of schooling achieved. Everywhere in Latin America more money for schools means more privilege for a few at the cost of most, and this patronage of an elite is explained as a political ideal. This ideal is written into laws which state the patently impossible : equal scholastic opportunities for all. + +The number of satisfied clients who graduate from schools every year is much smaller than the number of frustrated dropouts who are conveniently graded by their failure for use in a marginal labor pool. The resulting steep educational pyramid defines a rationale for the corresponding levels of social status. Citizens are “schooled” into their places. This results in politically acceptable forms of discrimination which benefit the relatively few achievers. + +The move from the farm to the city in Latin America still frequently means a move from a world where status is explained as a result of inheritance into a world where it is explained as a result of schooling. Schools allow a head start to be rationalized as an achievement. They give to privilege not only the appearance of equality but also of generosity: should somebody who missed out on early schooling be dissatisfied with the status he holds, he can always be referred to a night or trade school. If he does not take advantage of such recognized remedies, his exclusion from privilege can be explained as his own fault. Schools temper the frustrations they provoke. + +The school system also inculcates its own universal acceptance . Some schooling is not necessarily more education than none, especially in a country where every year a few more people can get all the schooling they want while most people never complete the sixth grade. But much less than six years seems to be sufficient to inculcate in the child the acceptance of the ideology which goes with the school grade. The child learns only about the superior status and unquestioned authority of those who have more schooling than he has. + +Any discussion of radical alternatives to school-centered formal education upsets our notions of society. No matter how inefficient schools are in educating a majority, no matter how effective schools are in limiting the access to the elite, no matter how liberally schools shower their non-educational benefits on the members of this elite, schools do increase the national income. They qualify their graduates for more economic production. In an economy on the lower rungs of development toward United States-type industrialization, a school graduate is enormously more productive than a dropout. Schools are part and parcel of a society in which a minority is on the way to becoming so productive that the majority must be schooled into disciplined consumption . Schooling therefore—under the best of circumstances—helps to divide society into two groups: those so productive that their expectation of annual rise in personal income lies far beyond the national average, and the overwhelming majority whose income also rises, but at a rate clearly below the former’s. These rates, of course, are compounded and lead the two groups further apart. + +Radical innovation in formal education presupposes radical political changes, radical changes in the organization of production , and radical changes in man’s image of himself as an animal which needs school. This is often forgotten when sweeping reforms of the schools are proposed and fail because of the societal framework we accept. For instance, the trade school is sometimes advocated as a cure-all for mass schooling. Yet it is doubtful that the products of trade schools would find employment in a continuously changing, ever more automated economy. Moreover the capital and operating costs of trade schools, as we know them today, are several times as high as those for a standard school of the same grade. Also, trade schools usually take in sixth graders, who, as we have seen, are already the exception. Trade schools pretend to educate by creating a spurious facsimile of the factory within a school building. + +Instead of the trade school, we should think of a subsidized transformation of the industrial plant. It should be possible to obligate factories to serve as training centers during off-hours, for managers to spend part of their time planning and supervising this training, and for the industrial process to be so redesigned that it has educational value. If the expenditures for present schools were partly allocated to sponsor this kind of educational exploitation of existing resources, then the final results—both economic and educational—might be incomparably greater. If, further, such subsidized apprenticeship were offered to all who ask for it, irrespective of age, and not only to those who are destined to be employees in the particular plant, industry would have begun to assume an important role now played by school. We would be on the way to disabuse ourselves of the idea that manpower qualification must precede employment, that schooling must precede productive work. There is no reason for us to continue the medieval tradition in which men are prepared for the “secular world” by incarceration in a sacred precinct, be it monastery , synagogue, or school. + +A second, frequently discussed, remedy for the failure of schools is fundamental, or adult, education. It has been proved by Paulo Freire in Brazil that those adults who can be interested in political issues of their community can be made literate within six weeks of evening classes. The program teaching such reading and writing skills, of course, must be built around the emotion-loaded key words of the adults’ political vocabulary. Understandably this fact has gotten Freire’s program into trouble. It has also been suggested that the dollar-cost of ten separate months of adult education is equal that of one year of early schooling, and can be incomparably more effective than schooling at its best. + +Unfortunately, “adult education” now is conceived principally as a device to give the “underprivileged” a palliative for the schooling he lacks. The situation would have to be reversed if we wanted to conceive of all education as an exercise in adulthood . We should consider a radical reduction of the length of the formal, obligatory school sessions to only two months each year—but spread this type of formal schooling over the first twenty or thirty years of a man’s life. + +While various forms of in-service apprenticeship in factories and programmed math and language teaching could assume a large proportion of what we have previously called “instruction,” two months a year of formal schooling should be considered ample time for what the Greeks meant by scholē—leisure for the pursuit of insight. No wonder we find it nearly impossible to conceive of comprehensive social changes in which the educational functions of schools would thus be redistributed in new patterns among institutions we do not now envisage. We find it equally difficult to indicate concrete ways in which the non-educational functions of a vanishing school system would be redistributed. We do not know what to do with those whom we now label “children” or “students” and commit to school. + +It is difficult to foresee the political consequences of changes as fundamental as those proposed, not to mention the international consequences. How should a school-reared society coexist with one which has gone “off the school standard,” and whose industry, commerce, advertising, and participation in politics is different as a matter of principle? Areas which develop outside the universal school standard would lack the common language and criteria for respectful coexistence with the schooled. Two such worlds, such as China and the United States, might almost have to seal themselves off from each other. + +Rashly, the school-bred mind abhors the educational devices available to these worlds. It is difficult mentally to “accredit” Mao’s party as an educational institution which might prove more effective than the schools are at their best—at least when it comes to inculcating citizenship. Guerrilla warfare in Latin America is another education device much more frequently misused or misunderstood than applied. Che Guevara, for instance, clearly saw it as a last educational resort to teach a people about the illegitimacy of their political system. Especially in unschooled countries, where the transistor radio has come to every village, we must never underrate the educational functions of great charismatic dissidents like Dom Helder Camara in Brazil or Camilo Torres in Colombia. Castro described his early charismatic harangues as “teaching sessions.” + +The schooled mind perceives these processes exclusively as political indoctrination, and their educational purpose eludes its grasp. The legitimation of education by schools tends to render all non-school education an accident, if not an outright misdemeanor . And yet it is surprising with what difficulty the school-bred mind perceives the rigor with which schools inculcate their own presumed necessity, and with it the supposed inevitability of the system they sponsor. Schools indoctrinate the child into the acceptance of the political system his teachers represent, despite the claim that teaching is non-political. + +Ultimately the cult of schooling will lead to violence, as the establishment of any religion has led to it. If the gospel of universal schooling is permitted to spread in Latin America, the military’s ability to repress insurgency must grow. Only force will ultimately control the insurgency inspired by the frustrated expectation that the propagation of the school-myth enkindles. + +The maintenance of the present school system may turn out to be an important step on the way to Latin American fascism. Only fanaticism inspired by idolatry of a system can ultimately rationalize the massive discrimination which will result from another twenty years of grading a capital-starved society by school marks. + +The time has come to recognize the real burden of the schools in the emerging nations, so that we may become free to envisage change in the social structure which now makes schools a necessity . I do not advocate a sweeping utopia like the Chinese commune for Latin America. But I do suggest that we plunge our imagination into the construction of scenarios which would allow a bold reallocation of educational functions among industry, politics, short scholastic retreats, and intensive preparation of parents for providing early childhood education. The cost of schools must be measured not only in economic, social, and educational terms, but in political terms as well. Schools, in an economy of scarcity invaded by automation, accentuate and rationalize the coexistence of two societies, one a colony of the other. + +Once it is understood that the cost of schooling is not inferior to the cost of chaos, we might be on the brink of courageously costly compromise. Today it is as dangerous in Latin America to question the myth of social salvation through schooling as it was three hundred years ago to question the divine rights of the Catholic kings. + +## School the sacred cow + +Only if we understand the school system as the central myth-making ritual of industrial societies can we explain the deep need for it, the complex myth surrounding it, and the inextricable way in which schooling is tied into the self-image of contemporary man. A graduation speech at the University of Puerto Rico in Rio Piedras provided me with an opportunity to probe this relationship. + +This is a time of crisis in the institution of the school, a crisis which may mark the end of the “age of schooling” in the Western world. I speak of the “age of schooling” in the sense in which we are accustomed to speak of the “feudal age” or of the “ Christian era.” The “age of schooling” began about two hundred years ago. Gradually the idea grew that schooling was a necessary means of becoming a useful member of society. It is the task of this generation to bury that myth. + +Your own situation is paradoxical. At the end and as a result of your studies, you are enabled to see that the education your children deserve, and will demand, requires a revolution in the school system of which you are a product. + +The graduation rite that we solemnly celebrate today confirms the prerogatives which Puerto Rican society, by means of a costly system of subsidized public schools, confers upon the sons and daughters of its most privileged citizens. You are part of the most privileged 10 per cent of your generation, part of that minuscule group which has completed university studies. Public investment in each of you is fifteen times the educational investment in the average member of the poorest 10 per cent of the population, who drops out of school before completing the fifth grade. + +The certificate you receive today attests to the legitimacy of your competence. It is not available to the self-educated, to those who have acquired competence by means not officially recognized in Puerto Rico. The programs of the University of Puerto Rico are all duly accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. + +The degree which the university today confers upon you implies that over the last sixteen years or more your elders have obliged you to submit yourselves, voluntarily or involuntarily, to the discipline of this complex scholastic rite. You have in fact been daily attendants, five days a week, nine months a year, within the sacred precinct of the school and have continued such attendance year after year, usually without interruption. Governmental and industrial employees and the professional associations have good reasons to believe that you will not subvert the order to which you have faithfully submitted in the course of completing your “rites of initiation.” + +Much of your youth has been spent within the custody of the school. It is expected that you will now go forth to work, to guarantee to future generations the privileges conferred upon you. + +Puerto Rico is the only society in the Western Hemisphere to devote 30 per cent of its governmental budget to education. It is one of six places in the world which devote between 6 and 7 per cent of national income to education. The schools of Puerto Rico cost more and provide more employment than any other public sector. In no other social activity is so large a proportion of the total population of Puerto Rico involved. + +A huge number of people are observing this occasion on television . Its solemnity will, on the one hand, confirm their sense of educational inferiority and, on the other, raise their hopes, largely doomed to disappointment, of one day themselves receiving a university degree. + +Puerto Rico has been schooled. I don’t say educated but, rather, schooled. Puerto Ricans can no longer conceive of life without reference to the school. The desire for education has actually given way to the compulsion of schooling. Puerto Rico has adopted a new religion. Its doctrine is that education is a product of the school, a product which can be defined by numbers. There are the numbers which indicate how many years a student has spent under the tutelage of teachers, and others which represent the proportion of his correct answers in an examination. Upon the receipt of a diploma the educational product acquires a market value. School attendance in itself thus guarantees inclusion in the membership of disciplined consumers of the technocracy —just as in past times church attendance guaranteed membership in the community of saints. From governor to jíbaro, Puerto Rico now accepts the ideology of its teachers as it once accepted the theology of its priests. The school is now identified with education as the church once was with religion. + +Today’s agencies of accreditation are reminiscent of the royal patronage formerly accorded the Church. Federal support of education now parallels yesterday’s royal donations to the Church. The power of the diploma has grown so rapidly in Puerto Rico that the poor blame their misery on precisely the lack of that which assures to you, today’s graduates, participation in society’s privileges and powers. + +Research shows that twice as many high school graduates in Puerto Rico as in the States want to pursue university studies; while the probability of graduating from college for the Puerto Rican high school graduate is much lower than it would be in the States. This widening discrepancy between aspirations and resources can result only in a deepening frustration among the inhabitants of the Island. + +The later a Puerto Rican child drops out of school the more keenly does he feel his failure. Contrary to popular opinion, increasing emphasis on schooling has actually increased class conflict in Puerto Rico, and has also increased the sense of inferiority which Puerto Ricans suffer in relation to the United States. + +Upon your generation falls the obligation of developing for Puerto Rico an educational process radically different from that of the present and independent of the example of other societies. It is yours to question whether Puerto Rico really wants to transform itself irrevocably into a passive product of the teaching profession. It is yours to decide whether you will subject your children to a school that seeks respectability in North American accreditation, its justification in the qualification of the labor force, and its function in permitting the children of the middle class to keep up with the Joneses of Westchester County, New York. + +The real sacred cow in Puerto Rico is the school. Proponents of commonwealth, statehood, and independence all take it for granted. Actually, none of these political alternatives can liberate a Puerto Rico which continues to put its primary faith in schooling. Thus, if this generation wants the true liberation of Puerto Rico, it will have to invent educational alternatives which put an end to the “age of schooling.” This will be a difficult task. Schooling has developed a formidable folklore. The begowned academic professors whom we have witnessed today evoke the ancient procession of clerics and little angels on the day of Corpus Christi. The Church, holy, catholic, apostolic, is rivaled by the school, accredited, compulsory, untouchable, universal . Alma Mater has replaced Mother Church. The power of the school to rescue the denizen of the slum is as the power of the Church to save the Muslim Moor from hell. (Gehenna meant both slum and hell in Hebrew.) The difference between Church and school is mainly that the rites of the school have now become much more rigorous and onerous than were the rites of the Church in the worst days of the Spanish Inquisition. + +The school has become the established church of secular times. The modern school had its origins in the impulse toward universal schooling, which began two centuries ago as an attempt to incorporate everyone into the industrial state. In the industrial metropolis the school was the integrating institution. In the colonies the school inculcated the dominant classes with the values of the imperial power and confirmed in the masses their sense of inferiority to this schooled elite. Neither the nation nor the industry of the precybernetic era can be imagined without universal baptism into the school. The dropout of this era corresponds to the lapsed marrano of eleventh-century Spain. + +We have, I hope, outlived the era of the industrial state. We shall not live long, in any case, if we do not replace the anachronism of national sovereignty, industrial autarchy, and cultural narcissism—which are combined into a stew of leftovers by the schools. Only within their sacred precincts could such old potage be served to young Puerto Ricans. + +I hope that your grandchildren will live in an Island where the majority give as little importance to attending class as is now given to attending the Mass. We are still far from this day and I hope that you will take the responsibility for bringing it to pass without fear of being damned as heretics, subversives, or ungrateful creatures. It may comfort you to know that those who undertake the same responsibility in socialist lands will be similarly denounced. + +Many controversies divide our Puerto Rican society. Natural resources are threatened by industrialization, the cultural heritage is adulterated by commercialization, dignity is subverted by publicity, imagination by the violence which characterizes the mass media. Each of these is a theme for extensive public debate. There are those who want less industry, less English, and less Coca-Cola, and those who want more. All agree that Puerto Rico needs many more schools. + +This is not to say that education is not discussed in Puerto Rico. Quite the contrary. It would be difficult to find a society whose political and industrial leaders are as concerned with education . They all want more education, directed toward the sector which they represent. These controversies merely serve, however , to strengthen public opinion in the scholastic ideology which reduces education to a combination of classrooms, curricula , funds, examinations, and grades. + +I expect that by the end of this century, what we now call school will be a historical relic, developed in the time of the railroad and the private automobile and discarded along with them. I feel sure that it will soon be evident that the school is as marginal to education as the witch doctor is to public health. + +A divorce of education from schooling is, in my opinion, already on the way, speeded by three forces: the Third World, the ghettos, and the universities. Among the nations of the Third World, schooling discriminates against the majority and disqualifies the self-educated. Many members of the “black” ghettos see the schools as a “whitening” agent. Protesting university students tell us that school bores them and stands between them and reality. These are caricatures, no doubt, but the mythology of schooling makes it difficult to perceive the underlying realities. + +The criticism today’s students are making of their teachers is as fundamental as that which their grandfathers made of the clergy. The divorce of education from schooling has its model in the demythologizing of the church. We fight now, in the name of education, against a teaching profession which unwillingly constitutes an economic interest, as in times past the reformers fought against a clergy which was, often unwillingly, a part of the ancient power elite. Participation in a “production system ,” of no matter what kind, has always threatened the prophetic function of the Church as it now threatens the educational function of the school. + +School protest has deeper causes than the pretexts enunciated by its leaders. These, although frequently political, are expressed as demands for various reforms of the system. They would never have gained mass support, however, if students had not lost faith and respect in the institution which nurtured them. Student strikes reflect a profound intuition widely shared among the younger generation: the intuition that schooling has vulgarized education, that the school has become anti-educational and anti-social, as in other epochs the Church has become anti-Christian or Israel idolatrous. This intuition can, I believe, be explicitly and briefly formulated. + +The protest of some students today is analogous to the dissidence of those charismatic leaders without whom the Church would never have been reformed: their prophecies led to martyrdom , their theological insights to their persecutions as heretics, their saintly activity often led to the stake. The prophet is always accused of subversion, the theologian of irreverence, and the saint is written off as crazy. + +The Church has always depended for its vitality upon the sensitivity of its bishops to the appeals of the faithful, who see the rigidity of the ritual as an obstacle to their faith. The churches, incapable of dialogue between their ruling clerics and their dissidents, have become museum pieces, and this could easily happen with the school system of today. It is easier for the university to attribute dissidence to ephemeral causes than to attribute this dissidence to a profound alienation of the students from the school. It is also easier for student leaders to operate with political slogans than to launch basic attacks upon sacred cows. The university that accepts the challenge of its dissident students and helps them to formulate in a rational and coherent manner the anxiety they feel because they are rejecting schooling exposes itself to the danger of being ridiculed for its supposed credulity. The student leader who tries to promote in his companions the consciousness of a profound aversion to their school (not to education itself) finds that he creates a level of anxiety which few of his followers care to face. + +The university has to learn to distinguish between sterile criticism of scholastic authority and a call for the conversion of the school to the educational purposes for which it was founded, between destructive fury and the demand for radically new forms of education—scarcely conceivable by minds formed in the scholastic tradition; between, on the one hand, cynicism which seeks new benefits for the already privileged and, on the other, Socratic sarcasm, which questions the educational efficacy of accepted forms of instruction in which the institution is investing its major resources. It is necessary, in other words, to distinguish between the alienated mob and profound protest based on rejection of the school as a symbol of the status quo. + +In no other place in Latin America has investment in education , demand for education, and information about education, increased so rapidly as in Puerto Rico. There is no place, therefore , in which members of your generation could begin the search for a new style of public education so readily as in Puerto Rico. It is up to you to get us back, recognizing that the generations which preceded you were misled in their efforts to achieve social equality by means of universal compulsory schooling. + +In Puerto Rico three of every ten students drop out of school before finishing the sixth grade. This means that only one of every two children, from families with less than the median income , completes the elementary school. Thus half of all Puerto Rican parents are under a sad illusion if they believe that their children have more than an outside chance of entering the university. + +Public funds for education go directly to the schools, without students having any control of them. The political justification for this practice is that it gives everyone equal access to the classroom. However, the high cost of this type of education, dictated by educators trained largely outside Puerto Rico, makes a public lie of the concept of equal access. Public schools may benefit all of the teachers but benefit mainly the few students who reach the upper levels of the system. It is precisely our insistence on direct financing of the “free school” that causes this concentration of scarce resources on benefits for the children of the few. + +I believe that every Puerto Rican has the right to receive an equal part of the educational budget. This is something very different and much more concrete than the mere promise of a place in the school. I believe, for example, that a young thirteen-year -old who has had only four years of schooling has much more right to the remaining educational resources than students of the same age who have had eight years of schooling. The more “disadvantaged” a citizen is, the more he needs a guarantee of his right. + +If in Puerto Rico it were decided to honor this right, then the free school would immediately have to be abandoned. The annual quota of each person of school age would obviously not support a year of schooling, at present costs. The insufficiency would, of course, be even more dramatic if the total educational budget for all levels were divided among the population from six to twenty-five years of age, the period between kindergarten and graduate studies, to which all Puerto Ricans supposedly have free access. + +These facts leave us three options: leave the system as it is, at the cost of justice and conscience; use the available funds exclusively to assure free schooling to children whose parents earn less than the median income; or use the available public resources to offer to all the education that an equal share of these resources could assure to each. The better-off could, of course, supplement this amount and might continue to offer their children the doubtful privilege of participating in the process which you are completing today. The poor would certainly use their share to acquire an education more efficiently and at lower cost. + +The same choices apply, a fortiori, to other parts of Latin America where frequently not more than $20.00 a year in public funds would be available for each child if the 20 per cent of tax receipts now destined for education were distributed equally to all children who should be in school under existing laws. This amount could never pay for a year of conventional schooling. It would however be enough to provide a good many children and adults with one month of intensive education year after year. It would also be enough to finance the distribution of educational games leading to skills with numbers, letters, and logical symbols . And to sponsor successive periods of intensive apprenticeship . In Northeast Brazil, Paulo Freire (who was forced to leave the country) showed us that with a single investment of this amount he was able to educate 25 per cent of an illiterate population to the point where they could do functional reading. But this, as he made clear, was only possible when his literacy program could focus on the key words that are politically controversial within a community. + +My suggestions may mortify many. But it is from the great positivists and liberals that we inherited the principle of using public funds for the administration of schools directed by professional educators; just as, previously, tithes had been given to the Church to be administered by priests. It remains for you to fight the free public school in the name of true equality of educational opportunity. I admire the courage of those of you willing to enter this fight. + +Youth wants educational institutions that provide them with education. They neither want nor need to be mothered, to be certified, or to be indoctrinated. It is difficult, obviously, to get an education from a school that refuses to educate without requiring that its students submit simultaneously to custodial care, sterile competition, and indoctrination. It is difficult, obviously, to finance a teacher who is at the same time regarded as guardian, umpire, counselor, and curriculum manager. It is uneconomical to combine these functions in one institution. It is precisely the fusion of these four functions, frequently antithetical , which raises the cost of education acquired in school. This is also the source of our chronic shortage of educational resources. It is up to you to create institutions that offer education to all at a cost within the limits of public resources. + +Only when Puerto Rico has psychologically outgrown the school will it be able to finance education for all, and only then will truly efficient, non-scholastic forms of education find acceptance . Meanwhile, these new forms of education will have to be designed as provisional means of compensating for the failures of the schools. In order to create new forms of education, we will have to demonstrate alternatives to the school that offer preferable options to students, teachers, and taxpayers. + +There is no intrinsic reason why the education that schools are now failing to provide could not be acquired more successfully in the setting of the family, of work and communal activity, in new kinds: of libraries and other centers that would provide the means of learning. But the institutional forms that education will take in tomorrow’s society cannot be clearly visualized, either could any of the great reformers anticipate concretely the institutional styles that would result from their reforms. The fear that new institutions will be imperfect, in their turn, does not jusify our servile acceptance of present ones. + +This plea to imagine a Puerto Rico without schools must, for many of you, come as a surprise. It is precisely for surprise that true education prepares us. The purpose of public education should be no less fundamental than the purpose of the Church, although the purpose of the latter is more explicit. The basic purpose of public education should be to create a situation in which society obliges each individual to take stock of himself and his poverty. Education implies a growth of an independent sense of life and a relatedness which go hand in hand with increased access to, and use of, memories stored in the human community. The educational institution provides the focus for this process. This presupposes a place within the society in which each of us is awakened by surprise; a place of encounter in which others surprise me with their liberty and make me aware of my own. The university itself, if it is to be worthy of its traditions , must be an institution whose purposes are identified with the exercise of liberty, whose autonomy is based on public confidence in the use of that liberty. + +My friends, it is your task to surprise yourselves, and us, with the education you succeed in inventing for your children. Our hope of salvation lies in our being surprised by the Other. Let us learn always to receive further surprises. I decided long ago to hope for surprises until the final act of my life—that is to say, in death itself. + +## Sexual power and political potency + +In urban areas of Latin America, at least one of four pregnancies terminates in abortion. In many inner city districts the rate is even higher. At the end of their childbearing age, at least two women in five have braved serious damage to their health, disrepute, and often gruesome guilt to avoid the birth of another child. All this happens in a culture in which common law marriage and illegitimate births approach and even exceed church marriages or legitimate births, and no stigma comparable to that known in the Anglo-Saxon world attaches to either. It also happens in a culture where other people’s abandoned children are easily welcomed for upbringing in one’s own family, without any formality. Evidently a lot of people do not want to have any more children. + +Most of these abortions are performed by midwives, herb-doctors and witches, except in Uruguay and Argentina, where many doctors volunteer their illegal services even to the poor. Abortion is by far the most frequent cause of death among young women. These women need an alternative to the present situation. + +The conditions for increased carnage are favorable. Enough girls have already been born to insure a doubling of women of childbearing age in the very early eighties. Neither development nor revolution can prevent growing misery for an exploding and hungry population, which drifts into abulia and passivity. It would be misleading to tell a woman seeking an abortion that a rosy future is on the horizon for her child. + +But also, where can politicians afford to take a strong, positive stand for either birth control or legal abortion? Only a strong-man could afford simultaneously to dare traditional Catholics who speak about sin, communists who want to out-breed the U.S. imperialists and nationalists who speak about colonizing vast unsettled expanses. + +The major change in public policy must be initiated at the grass roots. Present programs, semi-clandestine, try to gain acceptance for birth control among the common people. I suggest that a major campaign demanding clear population policies should rise from the grass roots. In the following article, I explain why this campaign must be coupled with a major effort leading to critically increased political awareness. This was originally a speech given at a meeting of population experts in 1967. Since it has frequently been quoted, I have left it unchanged, fully aware that my attempt to be compact makes it difficult reading. + +This speech was given some months before publication of the notorious papal encyclical on birth control. I had hoped that the Pope would speak, but wagered that he would keep silent. I lost my wager, and was disappointed. I had hoped that the Pope would speak about the ambiguity of technology, as well as the need for a more intense consciousness and love on the part of men forced by circumstances to use that technology. I had hoped that the Pope would make all men face the fact that lowered infant mortality must be accompanied by equally lowered birth rates, if we wanted to avoid widespread de-humanization, and that we were obligated as Christians to restrain self reproduction. The results of modern hygiene’s fostering physical life must be countered by the the use of modern hygiene to check its cancerous growth. + +Instead the Pope came out with a document written in dead, juridical language, a document into which one can read all this, but one which lacks courage, is in bad taste, and takes the initiative away from Rome in the attempt to lead modern men in Christian humanism. This is sad. + +In Latin America the population is exploding. The citizenry of Mexico is doubled every eighteen years, that of Brazil every seventeen, and that of Peru every twenty. A swelling of the lower age groups is occurring in countries where, even now, two-thirds of youth cannot complete an elementary education. The result of this is not only inferior education for the great majority, but also the growing awareness of the adult masses that they are being excluded from all the key institutions of middle class society. The brief education they receive is, in the long run, an education in dissatisfaction. + +Birth control programs in Latin America generally fail because they stress the fear of poverty rather than the joy of life. An individual may employ contraception as the only defense against imminent misery—or he can choose it as a constructive means for a more human life. But there is nothing constructive in the present message of family planning. It is addressed to the same audience as the TV commercial and billboard advertising: the minority that is moving into the middle class. Today’s clients for consumer goods and contraceptives in Mexico and Brazil form an odd and a marginal lot; they are the very few who will allow their sexual patterns to be affected by an appeal involving constant consumption and material advancement. + +Success in modern schools, in modern jobs, or at modern sex seem related. Such success remains the privilege of a minority in Latin America. Although this minority is drawn from all strata of society, it is selected from those “achievers” who know how to maintain the growth rate of their personal income above the national average. And this class of strivers surges into political power, providing further privilege to those already on their way to affluence. Even if family planning were practiced by this small group, it would have little impact on the over-all population growth. The “others” (which in Latin America means most) remain excluded from an equal opportunity to plan their families. Like the legal provisions for social, educational, and political equality, opportunities for the poor to practice birth control are but a mockery. + +Within the present political and social context, it is impossible to induce the majority of the people to adopt birth control. Neither seduction nor current efforts at education work. To seduce effectively, the marketing of birth control would have to become more aggressive: twenty-five dollars offered for the insertion of each coil, one hundred dollars for each sterilization. To educate effectively, governments would be promoting their own subversion through sudden and widespread adult education. For it is clear that the education that enables adults to formulate their own dissent risks the loss of all constraints on freedom and imagination. + +The double failure of seduction and education is based on a discrepancy between the new message and the style of life common to Latin America’s peasant majorities. For most, the idea that sexual technique can prevent conception is incredible; but even less credible to them is the idea that such techniques will produce personal affluence. Both claims seem to invoke magic. Further, the style by which this magical remedy is pushed has an odious smell. It evokes a rich establishment solicitous of teaching the poor how not to reproduce their like. + +Even the approach to the individual is frequently brash, involving the tragic moment in a woman’s life when, as an alternative to the next abortion, she has become a receptive victim for initiation into the mystery of contraception. Claim, style, and method put the accent on protection against life rather than freedom for it. No wonder they fail. + +To be attractive, family planning would have to be embraced as a way to express a deeper sense of life rather than be used as a mere protection against evil. + +The appeal to magic, myth, and mystery must be dropped by both the proponents and the opponents of contraception. Obviously this is not easy. The vision of increasing world poverty overwhelms the imagination, and the creation of a myth is one way to escape unbearable anguish. The transformation of hungry persons into a mythical corporate enemy is as old as mankind, but so is the illusion that we can manage the myths we have made. + +Once the “poor” have been reduced to a faceless river reaching the high-water mark on a statistical table, birth control campaigns can be credited with magical power and invoked to conjure away further flooding. Such programs give the impression that individuals should recognize themselves as drops in a swelling tide, so that each can do his best to reduce his kind. Not surprisingly, nobody does. + +Only professors can delude themselves into the belief that men can be prodded to take for their personal motives in family planning the possibly valid policy reasons of the economist and the sociologist. One’s vital behavior is always beyond the reach of a decision made by others. + +Populations are mindless: they can be managed but not motivated. Only persons can make up their minds; and the more they make up their minds, the less they can be controlled. People who freely decide to control their own fertility have new motivations or aspirations to political control. It is clear that responsible parenthood cannot be separated from the quest for power in politics. Programs that aim at such goals are unwelcome under the military governments prevailing in South America, and such programs are not the kind usually financed by the United States. + +The development of Latin America as a Western colony requires massive schooling for children, to fit them passively into the acceptance of an ideology that keeps them “democratically” in place. Political order cannot tolerate too much awareness or originality or risk. The kind of education of adults that is analytical and dialectic leads inevitably to a liberation from taboos. Idols cannot be knocked off selectively; the kind of adult education that is aimed at dethroning some idols dethrones them all and is always politically subversive. + +Kindred insights usually reinforce each other. The awareness that sex does not have to lead to unwanted motherhood provokes another concept: the insight that economic survival does not have to breed political exploitation. The freedom of the mate and of the citizen lead over the same road. Each taboo left behind means one obstacle less in the change from the social conditions that make all idols necessary. + +All those who will give birth before 1984 are now in life. For each I ask: Will this child become a passive object, manipulated and sated by a technological milieu that encroaches on his feelings ? Or will this child grow into a man who shares in the responsibility for a set of social trends? Will demographers trim his sex patterns to fit the planned population curve, just as industrial designers fit his job behavior to investment needs? Or will his move from the subsistence farm to a sprawling city increase his conscious control over his own life history? + +In other words, will the city swallow his life? Or will he live with deeper freedom in the city? This is the question for 300 millions. Two-thirds of the 200-odd million inhabitants of America, below the Rio Grande, now are considered “rural.” Yet less than 35 per cent of the 350 millions expected in the next generation will make a living from agriculture. Most of those now alive—or those to be born during the next fifteen years—are existing in a world where mind, mores, and myth are rooted in a rural past. This means they come from a milieu in which personal success depends on the struggle for scarce resources, say, limited land, and where survival of one’s group had to be ensured by massive procreation against high mortality. Peasants value possession , tradition, and multiple fertility. This taste finds expression in their style of language, symbol, ideology, and religion. + +Peasants’ culture provides categories that endow even extreme rural privation with dignity. The individual who moves to the city loses this powerful hereditary tool, and awareness and acceptance of this loss becomes a condition for survival. This requires a change in each man: a change both of behavior and of personal bearings. + +This necessary change in behavior is the sum total of the change in the many strains of conduct that, like the strands of a rope, make up a human life. Each change in a man’s actions (on the job, in the street, or with his girl friend) is the fruit of his personal insight. Either it has freed him for the invention of a new habit, or it has resulted in his deadening submission to the new rhythm of the city. + +Even more revolutionary than change behavior, however, are the new moorings the personality must find in the city. Urbanization for the individual means the search for new bearings in a world that assigns new coordinates to his most intimate feelings and drives. Character forces are given new labels and new slogans, and symbols are attached to them, to fit them into a new ideology. + +The city, like any other engineered product, is sold to the newcomer with a set of instructions for its use. These instructions mystify the non-believer, the man who has not subscribed to the prevailing beliefs. This city creed has many dogmas. It prizes a medically protracted span of life, scholastic performance and certification, continued advancement and achievement on the job. Production and consumption become measuring sticks for most values, including fertility. + +Change in behavior, change in bearings, and change in belief go hand in hand. Only the few capable of this triple change can elbow their way into the tiny islands of affluence. + +Within this context, high consumption combined with high fertility is a luxury that few can afford. These few, quite often, are not the old bourgeois, but couples who by good luck rose quickly and established themselves. For most families the speed of social climb depends upon tight control of family size. + +The lifelong discipline demanded by such control is hard on any adolescent raised in a hut, untrained as he is for silent deference to the humdrum of schooling, or the monotony of an office, or docility toward clock and schedule. A rare combination of character, circumstances, and peers is necessary to teach a peasant the set of disciplines by which he alone can ensure his climb to the upper reaches of city, business, or family life. The city is a much better selector than teacher. + +The personality structure or character that makes for a child’s success in school ensures the passing of those who will also fit the corporate structure in the modern city. Those labeled by a certificate and outfitted with a car are presumably those most suited to take the needed precautions to lower their fertility and raise their insurance. The proven correlation of high schooling and low fertility is usually interpreted as a result of a schooling that renders pupils capable of using technical know-how, such as contraceptives. Actually the contrary is probable: schools select those already inclined toward such technical know-how. This is much more true in countries where grammar schools are selective and by that selection exclude more individuals than they accept. + +Let me explain: the height of a social pyramid in Kansas and Caracas is about the same. What is different, north and south, is its shape. At best, three men out of one hundred in Caracas take the path corresponding to high school graduation, the family car, private health insurance and corresponding hygiene. I suggest that we distinguish between those who were lifted onto this level by birth and privilege and those who climbed there. These latter are much more carefully selected in Caracas than in Kansas. The steeper the pyramid, the more successfully it bars weakly motivated climbers who would barely even amble to the top of a slightly slanted incline. Those who scale the narrow and steep passage to success in Caracas must be sustained by more common drives and aims than those who are pushed up the broad flight of stairs of the United States college. + +We are frequently reminded that family planning was adopted rapidly by certain ethnic groups, for example, Puerto Ricans in New York. Fertility of the entire group declined suddenly as the group moved to the city. This is true of those who made up their minds to go to New York and then “made it” there: those who moved out of Harlem, through school and into jobs that pay more than $7,000 annually. They are the ones who survived the police, drugs, discrimination, and welfare. Indeed, they rose faster than any ethnic group before them, and their fertility, too, fell faster. + +Similar groups of leapfrog immigrants to affluence can be spotted all over Latin America. Their members tend to join the Lions Club, Knights of Columbus, the Christian Family movement , and other clubs that allow them to organize for further privilege for their kind. “The Association for the Protection of the Middle Classes” recently formed by Esso employees in Caracas is a good example of their tactics. But the fact that members of such groups do control their fertility is no proof that contraception is, even partially, a result of a more comfortable life. It means more probably that at present in Latin America only a few can be bewitched by the mirage of affluence. + +It is revealing that fertility among the United States poor, particularly in the black ghetto, remains near Latin American levels. The common element is not some numerical indicator but a mood. In the United States ghetto, economic averages have been reached that are out of sight for our generation in Latin America. Per capita income, years of schooling, expenditure on health, printed pages read per person—all are beyond the healthy aspiration of 80 per cent of all Peruvians or Colombians, for example. But both here and there, political participation is low, power is limited, and the mood bleak. For the United States Negro the signs pointing to integration and affluence have led all too often to a dead-end street. + +During the last two years, the United States public has begun, very rapidly, to sympathize with the Negro sentiment against birth control in the ghetto. It is more shocking that the same public considers the poor overseas less sensitive and more gullible than those at home. More free advice in Brazil is supposed to turn the same trick that failed in the United States ghetto. A rebuff at home is to be taken seriously. That same rebuff overseas can be written off as folly and hysteria. + +Last year in Brazil the Roman Catholic bishops and the communists combined to arouse public indignation against supposed favors extended by the military government to missionaries who import U.S.-produced “serpents” into Amazonia. The serpentinas (coils) were to be “put into women” to render them sterile and to make Amazonia fit for colonization by Negroes imported from the United States, it was said. + +The population expert bred around the North Atlantic easily interprets this as an outburst of sick imagination, rather than a symbolic protest against the United States serpent, soliciting tropical Eve to taste the apple of affluence. The economist, the planner, and the doctor tacitly assume that all men are compulsive consumers and achievers yearning for well-paid jobs and wishing themselves in the shoes of those who have made it with fewer babies and more things. Such reasoning is based on a presumed “law of human nature,” but that presumption is at least as spurious as that preached by the Catholics. Too often missionaries condescendingly see their own idiosyncrasies as other peoples’ natures. + +Current American conversation in English about population unwittingly promotes an “imperialist” bias. I suggest that we awaken to this bias and handle it as an acceptable variable in policy making. But equally I suggest that we beware of joining in the controversy over sin, usually conducted in Latin, or in the conspiracy to outbreed the paleface, which sounds Chinese. + +Only for a minority in Caracas or São Paulo could having a small family pay off immediately in higher living standards. For some 90 per cent, a meaningful improvement of such standards through birth control is beyond even their own temporal horizon. Most “constructive” reasons peddled to this majority for family control, therefore, are deceptive. They usually imply a subtle indoctrination of “middle class values.” Acceptance of these values should forestall revolution against them. He who has learned to see wealth as the key sign of success, and children the major obstacle to growing rich, might now blame his children for his poverty. Few do, of course, because the argument is outrageous and also untrue. + +To obtain the unreasoned assent of the majority all kinds of programs are launched, most of them emphasizing immediate economic gain for the individual: direct rewards for each contraceptive treatment; oblique favors to small families; subtle, persuasive nudges connecting rising levels of expectation with low fertility. None works well enough. Why? + +The fear of unattainable affluence does not intimidate the traditionally poor, just as the appeal to Hell has hardly influenced the sexual behavior of devout Catholics. In any case, it is cynical to expect them to forgo present enjoyment for the sake of a paradise that is open to others but is beyond, and will remain beyond, their reach. Nowhere do people breed according to White House policies or the Pope’s commands. Socioeconomic “reasons” and moral codes are equally ineffective in introducing contraceptives. The use of ideology to push or oppose family planning is always a call to idolatry and, therefore, anti-human. + +Ideology can arouse in some persons regressive forces and lead them to the use of contraceptives. Ideology can justify the desire for money, resentment, envy, unwillingness to share, the fear of risk, or the desire to keep up with whatever Joneses. Ideology can explain these tendencies as contributions to political stability and productivity. But such reasoned sex control works only with a few, and they are strange and sick; their ideological motivations more frequently lead to irresponsible aggression than to discipline. Birth control is sold to the great majority under false pretenses; for them, it is a blind alley to enrichment and there it does not decrease fertility. The use of ideology to motivate individual behavior then is not only inhuman but it is also a fallacious policy. In such private matters, an appeal to patriotism, public spirit, or religion is usually a good excuse—but rarely a good reason. + +For example, let me compare the documented failure of teachers to turn out readers to the failure of welfare agencies to teach contraception. Teachers try to convince Juanito that he should want to read in order to be able to know, and work, and vote. But Juanito wants none of this, and there is no reason why he should. Reading will hardly lead to college unless he gets help from an uncle who is already there. And his vote in Latin America today is certainly less meaningful than ten years ago when the Alliance for Progress began. The one argument that might convince Juanito to stay in school is the need for a certificate that is supposed to open the door to a job—many years later. + +People learn complex skills best if this process of learning affords the learner an opportunity to give clear shape to feelings of images that already exist in his heart. Only he who discovers the help of written words in order to face his fears and make them fade, and the power of words to seize his feelings and give them form, will want to dig deeper into other people’s writing. The mere ability to decipher the written message will only lead indoctrinated masses to submit to instruction by schools and for factories, and at best enable them thereafter to use their leisure time to escape into cheap pulp-reading or make out the dubbed versions of foreign films. + +Health workers tend to proceed very much like the teachers, except that they suggest that a pessary rather than a book will serve as the flying carpet into the better life. The product of the druggist, the stationer and the witch are used in the same style. Therefore, women who just swallow contraception are not better off than those who submit to print, or trust love potions or, superstitiously, Saint Anthony. + +Schools succeed, at high cost, in producing literacy in a few children: only one out of four, in all of Latin America, go beyond the sixth grade. Welfare clinics have equally modest results in teaching adults contraception: only one out of four who seek advice ceases bearing children. Both agencies help to maintain the mold and the fold of the West. An economic comparison of school and clinic speaks for a shift of resources from literacy to birth control. On a short-term basis (let us say over fifteen years) the savings to a nation from one prevented life is much greater than the rise in productivity resulting from one schooled child. + +Classroom and clinic both select better than they teach. If their combined budget were cut, it would probably not very significantly affect over-all fertility. But such a cut in favor of other programs cannot be taken into consideration unless it is understood to what degree the present school and health programs are politically necessary. + +Latin American society is regarded as barren even by some of its utopian dreamers. Even educational reformers speak and act as if teachers on this continent are unable to bring forth something truly new in education. Whenever effective adult education programs are conceived and grow and threaten tradition, they are declared spurious and either aborted or ridiculed. Certainly large-scale programs are never financed, the excuse being that on such a scale the methods proposed for them have never been proven. + +Military governments must fear Socrates: he must be jailed, exiled, ridiculed, or driven underground. Few great, popular, and respected Latin American teachers are employed in their own countries. If such men join the government, the Church, or an international agency, they will be threatened by corruption through compromise. + +There is a profound difference in the character of those who participate in Latin American educational structures, and this difference makes it difficult for North Americans to understand the reasons fundamental education is both more important and more dangerous in South America than it is in the ghetto. In Latin America the political establishment consists of the less than 3 per cent of heads of family who have graduated from secondary school. For this minority, any massive involvement of the unschooled in political argument threatens a profound change. Therefore programs that might ultimately promote such involvement are either written off as self-defeating demagoguery, or quelled, quite understandably, as incitement to riot. Certainly they are not financed. + +The prevailing uneven distribution of schooling is usually considered a major obstacle to the spread of technological know-how and to effective political participation. Huge increases of school budgets for children are recommended as the one way of spreading political power and technological know-how, including contraception. This policy, in my opinion, rests on three erroneous assumptions: an overestimation of the educational efficiency of schools; an unrealistic expectation that a geometric increase of resources for schooling could ever become feasible; and a lack of confidence in the educational value of politically oriented education. + +Paulo Freire, the exiled Brazilian educator, has shown that about 15 per cent of the illiterate adult population of any village can be taught to read and write in six weeks, and at a cost comparable to a fraction of one school year for a child. An additional 15 per cent can learn the same but more slowly. For that purpose he asks his team to prepare in each village a list of words that have the greatest intensity of meaning. Usually these words relate to politics and are, therefore, a focus of controversy. His literacy sessions are organized around the analysis of the chosen words. The persons attracted by this literacy program are mostly those with political potential. We must assume that they are interested in dialogue and that learning to read and write its key words means for them a step to carry their political participation to new levels of intensity and effectiveness. + +Obviously such education is selective. So are our present schools. The difference is that political potential makes the written page the place of encounter for the potentially subversive elements in society, rather than making it a sieve through which to pass those children who prove tolerant to compliance and qualified failure. Freire’s alumni consume a diet that is different from the pulp and trash on which dropouts feed. + +I will never forget an evening with Freire’s pupils, hungry peasants in Sergipe, in early 1964. One man got up, struggled for words and finally put into one utterance the argument I want to make in this article: “I could not sleep last night … because last evening I wrote my name … and I understood that I am I … this means that we are responsible.” + +Responsible citizenship and responsible parenthood go hand in hand. Both are the result of an experienced relatedness of the self to others. The discipline of spontaneous behavior is effective, creative, and sustained only if it is accepted with other people in mind. The decision to act as responsible mate and parent implies participation in political life and acceptance of the discipline this demands. Today in Brazil this means readiness for revolutionary struggle. + +In this perspective, my suggestion to orient large-scale formal educational programs for adults intensively toward family planning implies a commitment in favor of a political education. The struggle for political liberation and popular participation in Latin America can be rooted in new depth and awareness if it will spring from the recognition that, even in the most intimate domains of life, modern man must accept technology as a condition . Conducted in this style, education to modem parenthood could become a powerful form of agitation to help an uprooted mass grow into “people.” + +## Planned poverty the end result of technical assistance + +At the beginning of the second development decade, at the time the “Pearson Report” was presented to Robert McNamara, it seemed important to discuss alternatives to the current notions of development, which, though based on supposedly irrefutable evidence, actually concealed highly questionable presuppositions. + +It is now common to demand that the rich nations convert their war machine into a program for the development of the Third World. The poorer four-fifths of humanity multiply unchecked while their per capita consumption actually declines. This population expansion and decrease of consumption threaten the industrialized nations, who may still, as a result, convert their defense budgets to the economic pacification of poor nations. And this in turn could produce irreversible despair, because the plows of the rich can do as much harm as their swords. United States trucks can do more lasting damage than United States tanks. It is easier to create mass demand for the former than for the latter. Only a minority needs heavy weapons, while a majority can become dependent on unrealistic levels of supply for such productive machines as modern trucks. Once the Third World has become a mass market for the goods, products, and processes which are designed by the rich for themselves, the discrepancy between demand for these Western artifacts and the supply will increase indefinitely. The family car cannot drive the poor into the jet age, nor can a school system provide the poor with education, nor can the family refrigerator ensure healthy food for them. + +It is evident that only one man in a thousand in Latin America can afford a Cadillac, a heart operation, or a Ph.D. This restriction on the goals of development does not make us despair of the fate of the Third World, and the reason is simple. We have not yet come to conceive of a Cadillac as necessary for good transportation , or of a heart operation as normal healthy care, or of a Ph.D. as the prerequisite of an acceptable education. In fact we recognize at once that the importation of Cadillacs should be heavily taxed in Peru, that an organ transplant clinic is a scandalous plaything to justify the concentration of more doctors in Bogotá, and that a betatron is beyond the teaching facilities of the University of São Paulo. + +Unfortunately it is not held to be universally evident that the majority of Latin Americans—not only of our generation, but also of the next and the next again—cannot afford any kind of automobile, or any kind of hospitalization, or for that matter an elementary school education. We suppress our consciousness of this obvious reality because we hate to recognize the corner into which our imagination has been pushed. So persuasive is the power of the institutions we have created that they shape not only our preferences, but actually our sense of possibilities. We have forgotten how to speak about modern transportation that does not rely on automobiles and airplanes. Our conceptions of modern health care emphasize our ability to prolong the lives of the desperately ill. We have become unable to think of better education except in terms of more complex schools and of teachers trained for ever longer periods. Huge institutions producing costly services dominate the horizons of our inventiveness. + +We have embodied our world view into our institutions and are now their prisoners. Factories, news media, hospitals, governments , and schools produce goods and services packaged to contain our view of the world. We—the rich—conceive of progress as the expansion of these establishments. We conceive of heightened mobility as luxury and safety packaged by General Motors or Boeing. We conceive of improving the general well-being as increasing the supply of doctors and hospitals, which package health along with protracted suffering. We have come to identify our need for further learning with the demand for ever longer confinement to classrooms. In other words, we have packaged education with custodial care, certification for jobs, and the right to vote, and wrapped them all together with indoctrination in the Christian, liberal, or communist virtues. + +In less than a hundred years industrial society has molded patent solutions to basic human needs and converted us to the belief that man’s needs were shaped by the Creator as demands for the products we have invented. This is as true for Russia and Japan as for the North Atlantic community. The consumer is trained for obsolescence, which means continuing loyalty toward the same producers who will give him the same basic packages in different quality or new wrappings. + +Industrialized societies can provide such packages for personal consumption for most of their citizens, but this is no proof that these societies are sane, or economical, or that they promote life. The contrary is true. The more the citizen is trained in the consumption of packaged goods and services, the less effective he seems to become in shaping his environment. His energies and finances are consumed in procuring ever new models of his staples, and the environment becomes a by-product of his own consumption habits. + +The design of the “package deals” of which I speak is the main cause of the high cost of satisfying basic needs. So long as every man “needs” his car, our cities must endure longer traffic jams and absurdly expensive remedies to relieve them. So long as health means maximum length of survival, our sick will get ever more extraordinary surgical interventions and the drugs required to deaden their consequent pain. So long as we want to use school to get children out of their parents’ hair or to keep them off the street and out of the labor force, our young will be retained in endless schooling and will need ever increasing incentives to endure the ordeal. + +Rich nations now benevolently impose a strait jacket of traffic jams, hospital confinements, and classrooms on the poor nations, and by international agreement call this “development.” The rich and schooled and old of the world try to share their dubious blessings by foisting their prepackaged solutions onto the Third World. Traffic jams develop in São Paulo while almost a million northeastern Brazilians flee the drought by walking five hundred miles. Latin American doctors get training at The Hospital for Special Surgery in New York, which they apply to only a few, while amoebic dysentery remains endemic in slums where 90 per cent of the population live. A tiny minority gets advanced education in basic science in North America—not infrequently paid for by their own governments. If they return at all to Bolivia, they become second-rate teachers of pretentious subjects at La Paz or Cochabamba. The rich export outdated versions of their standard models. + +The Alliance for Progress is a good example of benevolent production for underdevelopment. Contrary to its slogans, it did succeed—as an alliance for the progress of the consuming classes, and for the domestication of the Latin American masses. The Alliance has been a major step in modernizing the consumption patterns of the middle classes in South America by integrating them with the dominant culture of the North American metropolis . At the same time, the Alliance has modernized the aspirations of the majority of citizens and fixed their demands on unavailable products. + +Each car which Brazil puts on the road denies fifty people good transportation by bus. Each merchandised refrigerator reduces the chance of building a community freezer. Every dollar spent in Latin America on doctors and hospitals costs a hundred lives, to adopt a phrase of Jorge de Ahumada, the brilliant Chilean economist. Had each dollar been spent on providing safe drinking water, a hundred lives could have been saved. Each dollar spent on schooling means more privileges for the few at the cost of the many; at best it increases the number of those who, before dropping out, have been taught that those who stay longer have earned the right to more power, wealth, and prestige. What such schooling does is to teach the schooled the superiority of the better schooled. + +All Latin American countries are frantically intent on expanding their school systems. No country now spends less than the equivalent of 18 per cent of tax-derived public income on education —which means schooling—and many countries spend almost double that. But even with these huge investments, no country yet succeeds in giving five full years of education to more than one-third of its population; supply and demand for schooling grow geometrically apart. And what is true about schooling is equally true about the products of most institutions in the process of modernization in the Third World. + +Continued technological refinements of products which are already established on the market frequently benefit the producer far more than the consumer. The more complex production processes tend to enable only the largest producer to replace outmoded models continually, and to focus the demand of the consumer on the marginal improvement of what he buys, no matter what the concomitant side effects: higher prices, diminished life span, less general usefulness, higher cost of repairs. Think of the multiple uses for a simple can opener, whereas an electric one, if it works at all, opens only some kinds of cans, and costs one hundred times as much. + +This is equally true for a piece of agricultural machinery and for an academic degree. The midwestern farmer can become convinced of his need for a four-axle vehicle which can go 70 mph on the highways, has an electric windshield wiper and upholstered seats, and can be turned in for a new one within a year or two. Most of the world’s farmers don’t need such speed, nor have they ever met with such comfort, nor are they interested in obsolescence. They need low-priced transport, in a world where time is not money, where manual wipers suffice, and where a piece of heavy equipment should outlast a generation. Such a mechanical donkey requires entirely different engineering and design than one produced for the United States market. This vehicle is not in production. + +Most of South America needs paramedical workers who can function for indefinite periods without the supervision of an M.D. Instead of establishing a process to train midwives and visiting healers who know how to use a very limited arsenal of medicines while working independently, Latin American universities establish every year a new school of specialized nursing or nursing administration to prepare professionals who can function only in a hospital, and pharmacists who know how to sell increasingly more dangerous drugs. + +The world is reaching an impasse where two processes converge : ever more men have fewer basic choices. The increase in population is widely publicized and creates panic. The decrease in fundamental choice causes anguish and is consistently overlooked . The population explosion overwhelms the imagination, but the progressive atrophy of social imagination is rationalized as an increase of choice between brands. The two processes converge in a dead end: the population explosion provides more consumers for everything from food to contraceptives, while our shrinking imagination can conceive of no other ways of satisfying their demands except through the packages now on sale in the admired societies. + +I will focus successively on these two factors, since, in my opinion, they form the two coordinates which together permit us to define underdevelopment. + +In most Third World countries, the population grows, and so does the middle class. Income, consumption, and the well-being of the middle class are all growing while the gap between this class and the mass of people widens. Even where per capita consumption is rising, the majority of men have less food now than in 1945, less actual care in sickness, less meaningful work, less protection. This is partly a consequence of polarized consumption and partly caused by the breakdown of traditional family and culture. More people suffer from hunger, pain, and exposure in 1969 than they did at the end of World War II, not only numerically, but also as a percentage of the world population . + +These concrete consequences of underdevelopment are rampant ; but underdevelopment is also a state of mind, and understanding it as a state of mind, or as a form of consciousness, is the critical problem. Underdevelopment as a state of mind occurs when mass needs are converted to the demand for new brands of packaged solutions which are forever beyond the reach of the majority. Underdevelopment in this sense is rising rapidly even in countries where the supply of classrooms, calories, cars, and clinics is also rising. The ruling groups in these countries build up services which have been designed for an affluent culture; once they have monopolized demand in this way, they can never satisfy majority needs. + +Underdevelopment as a form of consciousness is an extreme result of what we can call in the language of both Marx and Freud Verdinglichung, or reification. By reification I mean the hardening of the perception of real needs into the demand for mass manufactured products. I mean the translation of thirst into the need for a Coke. This kind of reification occurs in the manipulation of primary human needs by vast bureaucratic organizations which have succeeded in dominating the imagination of potential consumers. + +Let me return to my example taken from the field of education . The intense promotion of schooling leads to so close an identification of school attendance and education that in everyday language the two terms are interchangeable. Once the imagination of an entire population has been “schooled,” or indoctrinated to believe that school has a monopoly on formal education, then the illiterate can be taxed to provide free high school and university education for the children of the rich. + +Underdevelopment is the result of rising levels of aspiration achieved through the intensive marketing of “patent” products. In this sense, the dynamic underdevelopment that is now taking place is the exact opposite of what I believe education to be: namely, the awakening awareness of new levels of human potential and the use of one’s creative powers to foster human life. Underdevelopment, however, implies the surrender of social consciousness to prepackaged solutions. + +The process by which the marketing of “foreign” products increases underdevelopment is frequently understood in the most superficial ways. The same man who feels indignation at the sight of a Coca-Cola plant in a Latin American slum often feels pride at the sight of a new normal school growing up alongside. He resents the evidence of a foreign “license” attached to a soft drink which he would like to see replaced by “Cola-Mex.” But the same man is willing to impose schooling—at all costs—on his fellow citizens, and is unaware of the invisible license by which this institution is deeply enmeshed in the world market. + +Some years ago I watched workmen putting up a sixty-foot Coca-Cola sign on a desert plain in the Mexquital. A serious drought and famine had just swept over the Mexican highland. My host, a poor Indian in Ixmiquilpan, had just offered his visitors a tiny tequila glass of the costly black sugar-water. When I recall this scene I still feel anger; but I feel much more incensed when I remember UNESCO meetings at which well-meaning and well-paid bureaucrats seriously discussed Latin American school curricula, and when I think of the speeches of enthusiastic liberals advocating the need for more schools. + +The fraud perpetrated by the salesmen of schools is less obvious but much more fundamental than the self-satisfied salesmanship of the Coca-Cola or Ford representative, because the schoolman hooks his people on a much more demanding drug. Elementary school attendance is not a harmless luxury, but more like the coca chewing of the Andean Indian, which harnesses the worker to the boss. + +The higher the dose of schooling an individual has received, the more depressing his experience of withdrawal. The seventh grade dropout feels his inferiority much more acutely than the dropout from the third grade. The schools of the Third World administer their opium with much more effect than the churches of other epochs. As the mind of a society is progressively schooled, step by step its individuals lose their sense that it might be possible to live without being inferior to others. As the majority shifts from the land into the city, the hereditary inferiority of the peon is replaced by the inferiority of the school dropout who is held personally responsible for his failure. Schools rationalize the divine origin of social stratification with much more rigor than churches have ever done. + +Until this day no Latin American country has declared youthful underconsumers of Coca-Cola or cars as lawbreakers, while all Latin American countries have passed laws which define the early dropout as a citizen who has not fulfilled his legal obligations . The Brazilian government recently almost doubled the number of years during which schooling is legally compulsory and free. From now on any Brazilian dropout under the age of sixteen will be faced during his lifetime with the reproach that he did not take advantage of a legally obligatory privilege. This law was passed in a country where not even the most optimistic could foresee the day when such levels of schooling would be provided for only 25 per cent of the young. The adoption of international standards of schooling forever condemns most Latin Americans to marginality or exclusion from social life—in a word, underdevelopment. + +The translation of social goals into levels of consumption is not limited to only a few countries. Across all frontiers of culture , ideology, and geography today, nations are moving toward the establishment of their own car factories, their own medical and normal schools—and most of these are, at best, poor imitations of foreign and largely North American models. + +The Third World is in need of a profound revolution of its institutions. The revolutions of the last generation were overwhelmingly political. A new group of men with a new set of ideological justifications assumed power to administer fundamentally the same scholastic, medical, and market institutions in the interest of a new group of clients. Since the institutions have not radically changed, the new group of clients remains approximately the same size as that previously served. This appears clearly in the case of education. Per pupil costs of schooling are today comparable everywhere since the standards used to evaluate the quality of schooling tend to be internationally shared. Access to publicly financed education, considered as access to school, everywhere depends on per capita income. (Places like China and North Vietnam might be meaningful exceptions.) + +Everywhere in the Third World modern institutions are grossly unproductive, with respect to the egalitarian purposes for which they are being reproduced. But so long as the social imagination of the majority has not been destroyed by its fixation on these institutions, there is more hope of planning an institutional revolution in the Third World than among the rich. Hence the urgency of the task of developing workable alternatives to “modern” solutions. + +Underdevelopment is at the point of becoming chronic in many countries. The revolution of which I speak must begin to take place before this happens. Education again offers a good example: chronic educational underdevelopment occurs when the demand for schooling becomes so widespread that the total concentration of educational resources on the school system becomes a unanimous political demand. At this point the separation of education from schooling becomes impossible. + +The only feasible answer to ever increasing underdevelopment is a response to basic needs that is planned as a long-range goal for areas which will always have a different capital structure. It is easier to speak about alternatives to existing institutions, services, and products than to define them with precision. It is not my purpose either to paint a Utopia or to engage in scripting scenarios for an alternate future. We must be satisfied with examples indicating simple directions that research should take. + +Some such examples have already been given. Buses are alternatives to a multitude of private cars. Vehicles designed for slow transportation on rough terrain are alternatives to standard trucks. Safe water is an alternative to high-priced surgery. Medical workers are an alternative to doctors and nurses. Community food storage is an alternative to expensive kitchen equipment. Other alternatives could be discussed by the dozen. Why not, for example, consider walking as a long-range alternative for locomotion by machine, and explore the demands which this would impose on the city planner? And why can’t the building of shelters be standardized, elements be precast, and each citizen be obliged to learn in a year of public service how to construct his own sanitary housing? + +It is harder to speak about alternatives in education, partly because schools have recently so completely preempted the available educational resources of good will, imagination, and money. But even here we can indicate the direction in which research must be conducted. + +At present, schooling is conceived as graded, curricular, class attendance by children, for about one thousand hours yearly during an uninterrupted succession of years. On the average, Latin American countries can provide each citizen with between eight and thirty months of this service. Why not, instead, make one or two months a year obligatory for all citizens below the age of thirty? + +Money is now spent largely on children, but an adult can be taught to read in one-tenth the time and for one-tenth the cost it takes to teach a child. In the case of the adult there is an immediate return on the investment, whether the main importance of his learning is seen in his new insight, political awareness, and willingness to assume responsibility for his family’s size and future, or whether the emphasis is placed on increased productivity . There is a double return in the case of the adult, because not only can he contribute to the education of his children, but to that of other adults as well. In spite of these advantages, basic literacy programs have little or no support in Latin America, where schools have a first call on all public resources. Worse, these programs are actually ruthlessly suppressed in Brazil and elsewhere, where military support of the feudal or industrial oligarchy has thrown off its former benevolent disguise. + +Another possibility is harder to define, because there is as yet no example to point to. We must therefore imagine the use of public resources for education distributed in such a way as to give every citizen a minimum chance. Education will become a political concern of the majority of voters only when each individual has a precise sense of the educational resources that are owing to him—and some idea of how to sue for them. Something like a universal GI Bill of Rights could be imagined, dividing the public resources assigned to education by the number of children who are legally of school age, and making sure that a child who did not take advantage of his credit at the age of seven, eight, or nine would have the accumulated benefits at his disposal at age ten. + +What would the pitiful education credit which a Latin American republic could offer to its children provide? Almost all of the basic supply of books, pictures, blocks, games, and toys that are totally absent from the homes of the really poor, but enable a middle class child to learn the alphabet, the colors, shapes and other classes of objects and experiences which ensure his educational progress. The choice between these things and schools is obvious. Unfortunately, the poor, for whom alone the choice is real, never get to exercise this choice. + +Defining alternatives to the products and institutions which now preempt the field is difficult, not only, as I have been trying to show, because these products and institutions shape our conception of reality itself, but also because the construction of new possibilities requires a concentration of will and intelligence in a higher degree than ordinarily occurs by chance. This concentration of will and intelligence on the solution of particular problems regardless of their nature we have become accustomed over the last century to call research. + +I must make clear, however, what kind of research I am talking about. I am not talking about basic research either in physics, engineering, genetics, medicine, or learning. The work of such men as F. H. C. Crick, Jean Piaget, and Murray Gell-Mann must continue to enlarge our horizons in other fields of science. The labs and libraries and specially trained collaborators these men need cause them to congregate in the few research capitals of the world. Their research can provide the basis for new work on practically any product. + +I am not speaking here of the billions of dollars annually spent on applied research, for this money is largely spent by existing institutions on the perfection and marketing of their own products . Applied research is money spent on making planes faster and airports safer; on making medicines more specific and powerful and doctors capable of handling their deadly side effects; on packaging more learning into classrooms; on methods to administer large bureaucracies. This is the kind of research for which some kind of counterfoil must somehow be developed if we are to have any chance to come up with basic alternatives to the automobile, the hospital, and the school, and any of the many other so-called “evidently necessary implements for modern life.” + +I have in mind a different, and peculiarly difficult, kind of research, which has been largely neglected up to now, for obvious reasons. I am calling for research on alternatives to the products which now dominate the market; to hospitals and the profession dedicated to keeping the sick alive; to schools and the packaging process which refuses education to those who are not of the right age, who have not gone through the right curriculum , who have not sat in a classroom a sufficient number of successive hours, who will not pay for their learning with submission to custodial care, screening, and certification or with indoctrination in the values of the dominant elite. + +This counterresearch on fundamental alternatives to current prepackaged solutions is the element most critically needed if the poor nations are to have a livable future. Such counter-research is distinct from most of the work done in the name of the “year 2000,” because most of that work seeks radical changes in social patterns through adjustments in the organization of an already advanced technology. The counterresearch of which I speak must take as one of its assumptions the continued lack of capital in the Third World. + +The difficulties of such research are obvious. The researcher must first of all doubt what is obvious to every eye. Second, he must persuade those who have the power of decision to act against their own short-run interests or bring pressure on them to do so. And, finally, he must survive as an individual in a world he is attempting to change fundamentally so that his fellows among the privileged minority see him as a destroyer of the very ground on which all of us stand. He knows that if he should succeed in the interest of the poor, technologically advanced societies still might envy the “poor” who adopt this vision. + +There is a normal course for those who make development policies, whether they live in North or South America, in Russia or Israel. It is to define development and to set its goals in ways with which they are familiar, which they are accustomed to use in order to satisfy their own needs, and which permit them to work through the institutions over which they have power or control. This formula has failed, and must fail. There is not enough money in the world for development to succeed along these lines, not even in the combined arms and space budgets of the superpowers. + +An analogous course is followed by those who are trying to make political revolutions, especially in the Third World. Usually they promise to make the familiar privileges of the present elites, such as schooling, hospital care, etc., accessible to all citizens ; and they base this vain promise on the belief that a change in political regime will permit them to sufficiently enlarge the institutions which produce these privileges. The promise and appeal of the revolutionary are therefore just as threatened by the counterresearch I propose as is the market of the now dominant producers. + +In Vietnam a people on bicycles and armed with sharpened bamboo sticks have brought to a standstill the most advanced machinery for research and production ever devised. We must seek survival in a Third World in which human ingenuity can peacefully outwit machined might. The only way to reverse the disastrous trend to increasing underdevelopment, hard as it is, is to learn to laugh at accepted solutions in order to change the demands which make them necessary. Only free men can change their minds and be surprised; and while no men are completely free, some are freer than others. + +## A constitution for cultural revolution + +At the invitation of the publishers of the annual Great Ideas volume I wrote the article which follows, and which I feel is an appropriate conclusion to this book. Its purpose was to initiate discussion about the need of constitutional principles which would guarantee an ongoing cultural revolution in a technological society. The article originally appeared in Great Ideas Today 1970, published by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. + +During the decade just past we have gotten used to seeing the world divided into two parts: the developed and the underdeveloped . People in the development business may prefer to speak of the developed nations and the less developed or developing nations. This terminology suggests that development is both good and inevitable. Others, especially protagonists of revolutionary change, speak of the “Third World” and wait for the day when the wretched of the earth will rise in armed revolt against the imperialist powers and shift control over existing institutions from North to South, from White to Black, from metropolis to colony. + +A vulgar example of the first assumption is the Rockefeller Report on the Americas. Its doctrine is aptly summed up by President Nixon: “This I pledge to you tonight: the nation that went to the moon in peace for all mankind is ready to share its technology in peace with its nearest neighbors.” The governor, in turn, proposes that keeping the pledge might require a lot of additional weaponry in South America. + +The Pearson Report on partnership in development is a much more sophisticated example of the development mentality. It outlines policies which will permit a few more countries to join the charmed circle of the consumer nations but which will actually increase the poverty of the poor half in these same countries : because the strategies proposed will sell them ever more thoroughly on goods and services ever more expensive and out of their reach. The policy goals of most revolutionary movements and governments I know—and I do not know Mao’s China—reflect another type of cynicism. Their leaders make futile promises that—once in power for a sufficient length of time—more of everything which the masses have learned to know and to envy as privileges of the rich will be produced and distributed . Both the purveyors of development and the preachers of revolution advocate more of the same. They define more education as more schooling, better health as more doctors, higher mobility as more high-speed vehicles. The salesmen for United States industry, the experts for the World Bank, and ideologues of power for the poor seem to forget that heart surgery and college degrees remain beyond the reach of the majority for generations. + +The goals of development are always and everywhere stated in terms of consumer value packages standardized around the North Atlantic—and therefore always and everywhere imply more privileges for a few. Political reorganization cannot change this fact; it can only rationalize it. Different ideologies create different minorities of privileged consumers, but heart surgery or a university education is always priced out of range for all but a few: be they the rich, the orthodox, or the most fascinating subjects for experiments by surgeons or pedagogues. + +Underdevelopment is the result of a state of mind common to both socialist and capitalist countries. Present development goals are neither desirable nor reasonable. Unfortunately anti-imperialism is no antidote. Although exploitation of poor countries is an undeniable reality, current nationalism is merely the affirmation of the right of colonial elites to repeat history and follow the road traveled by the rich toward the universal consumption of internationally marketed packages, a road which can ultimately lead only to universal pollution and universal frustration. + +The central issue of our time remains the fact that the rich are getting richer and the poor, poorer. This hard fact is often obscured by another apparently contradictory fact. In the rich countries the poor expect a quantity and quality of commodities beyond the dreams of Louis XIV, while many of the so-called developing countries enjoy much higher economic growth rates than those of industrialized countries at a similar stage of their own histories. From icebox to toilet and from antibiotic to television , conveniences are found necessary in Harlem which Washington could not have imagined at Mount Vernon, just as Bolívar could not have foreseen the social polarization now inevitable in Caracas. But neither rising levels of minimum consumption in the rich countries nor of urban consumption in the poor countries can close the gap between rich and poor nations or between the rich and poor of any one nation. Modern poverty is a by-product of a world market catering to the ideologies of an industrial middle class. Modern poverty is built into an international community where demand is engineered through publicity to stimulate the production of standard commodities. In such a market, expectations are standardized and must always outrace marketable resources. + +In the United States, for all its gargantuan prosperity, real poverty levels rise faster than the median income. In the capital-starved countries, median incomes move rapidly away from rising averages. Most goods now produced for rich and poor alike in the United States are beyond the reach of all but a few in other areas. In both rich and poor nations consumption is polarized while expectation is equalized. + +During the decade now beginning we must learn a new language , a language that speaks not of development and under-development but of true and false ideas about man, his needs, and his potential. Development programs all over the world progressively lead to violence, either in the form of repression or of rebellion. This is neither due to the evil intentions of capitalists nor to the ideological rigidity of communists, but to the radical inability of men to tolerate the by-products of industrial and welfare institutions developed in the early industrial age. In the late sixties attention has suddenly been drawn to the inability of man to survive his industry. During the late sixties it has become evident that less than 10 per cent of the human race consumes more than 50 per cent of the world’s resources, and produces 90 per cent of the physical pollution which threatens to extinguish the biosphere. But this is only one aspect of the paradox of present development. During the early seventies it will become equally clear that welfare institutions have an analogous regressive effect. The international institutionalization of social service, medicine, and education which is generally identified with development has equally overwhelming destructive by-products. + +We need an alternative program, an alternative both to development and to merely political revolution. Let me call this alternative program either institutional or cultural revolution, because its aim is the transformation of both public and personal reality. The political revolutionary wants to improve existing institutions —their productivity and the quality and distribution of their products. His vision of what is desirable and possible is based on consumption habits developed during the last hundred years. The cultural revolutionary believes that these habits have radically distorted our view of what human beings can have and want. He questions the reality that others take for granted, a reality that, in his view, is the artificial by-product of contemporary institutions, created and reinforced by them in pursuit of their short-term ends. The political revolutionary concentrates on schooling and tooling for the environment that the rich countries , socialist or capitalist, have engineered. The cultural revolutionary risks the future on the educability of man. + +The cultural revolutionary must not only be distinguished from the political magician but also from both the neo-Luddite and the promoter of intermediary technology. The former behaves as if the noble savage could either be restored to the throne or the Third World transformed into a reservation for him. He opposes the internal combustion engine rather than opposing its packaging into a product designed for exclusive use by the man who owns it. Thus the Luddite blames the producer; the institutional revolutionary tries to reshape the design and distribution of the product. The Luddite blames the machine; the cultural revolutionary heightens awareness that it produces needless demands. The cultural revolutionary must also be distinguished from the promoter of intermediary technology who is frequently merely a superior tactician paving the road to totally manipulated consumption. + +Let me illustrate what I mean by a cultural revolution within one major international institution, by taking as an example the institution which currently produces education. I mean, of course, obligatory schooling: full-time attendance of age-specific groups at a graded curriculum. + +Latin America has decided to school itself into development. This decision results in the production of homemade inferiority. With every school that is built, another seed of institutional corruption is planted, and this is in the name of growth. + +Schools affect individuals and characterize nations. Individuals merely get a bad deal; nations are irreversibly degraded when they build schools to help their citizens play at international competition. For the individual, school is always a gamble. The chances may be very slim, but everyone shoots for the same jackpot. Of course, as any professional gambler knows, it is the rich who win in the end and the poor who get hooked. And if the poor man manages to stay in the game for a while, he will feel the pain even more sharply when he does lose, as he almost inevitably must. Primary school dropouts in a Latin American city find it increasingly difficult to get industrial jobs. + +But no matter how high the odds, everyone plays the game, for, after all, there is only one game in town. A scholarship may be a long shot, but it is a chance to become equal to the world’s best-trained bureaucrats. And the student who fails can console himself with the knowledge that the cards were stacked against him from the outset. + +More and more, men begin to believe that, in the schooling game, the loser gets only what he deserves. The belief in the ability of schools to label people correctly is already so strong that people accept their vocational and marital fate with a gambler’s resignation. In cities, this faith in school-slotting is on the way to sprouting a more creditable meritocracy—a state of mind in which each citizen believes that he deserves the place assigned to him by school. A perfect meritocracy, in which there would be no excuses, is not yet upon us, and I believe it can be avoided. It must be avoided, since a perfect meritocracy would not only be hellish, it would be hell. + +Educators appeal to the gambling instinct of the entire population when they raise money for schools. They advertise the jackpot without mentioning the odds. And those odds are high indeed for someone who is born brown, poor, or in the pampa. In Latin America, no country is prouder of its legally obligatory admission-free school system than Argentina. Yet only one Argentinian of five thousand born into the lower half of the population gets as far as the university. + +What is only a wheel of fortune for an individual is a spinning wheel of irreversible underdevelopment for a nation. The high cost of schooling turns education into a scarce resource, as poor countries accept that a certain number of years in school makes an educated man. More money gets spent on fewer people. In poor countries, the school pyramid of the rich countries takes on the shape of an obelisk, or a rocket. School inevitably gives individuals who attend it and then drop out, as well as those who don’t make it at all, a rationale for their own inferiority. But for poor nations, obligatory schooling is a monument to self-inflicted inferiority. To buy the schooling hoax is to purchase a ticket for the back seat in a bus headed nowhere. + +Schooling encrusts the poorest nations at the bottom of the educational bucket. The school systems of Latin America are fossilized deposits of a dream begun a century ago. The school pyramid is a-building from top to bottom throughout Latin America. All countries spend more than 20 per cent of their national budget and nearly 5 per cent of their gross national product on its construction. Teachers constitute the largest profession and their children are frequently the largest group of students in the upper grades. Fundamental education is either redefined as the foundation for schooling, and therefore placed beyond the reach of the unschooled and the early dropout, or is defined as a remedy for the unschooled, which will only frustrate him into accepting inferiority. Even the poorest countries continue to spend disproportionate sums on graduate schools—gardens which ornament the penthouses of skyscrapers built in a slum. + +Bolivia is well on the way to suicide by an overdose of schooling. This impoverished, landlocked country creates papier-mâché bridges to prosperity by spending more than a third of its entire budget on public education and half as much again on private schools. A full half of this educational misspending is consumed by 1 per cent of the school-age population. In Bolivia, the university student’s share of public funds is a thousand times greater than that of his fellow citizen of median income . Most Bolivian people live outside the city, yet only 2 per cent of the rural population makes it to the fifth grade. This discrimination was legally sanctioned in 1967 by declaring grade school obligatory for all—a law that made most people criminal by fiat and the rest immoral exploiters by decree. In 1970, the university entrance examinations were abolished with a flourish of egalitarian rhetoric. At first glance, it does seem a libertarian advance to legislate that all high school graduates have a right to enter the university—until you realize that less than 2 per cent of Bolivians finish high school. + +Bolivia may be an extreme example of schooling in Latin America. But on an international scale, Bolivia is typical. Few African or Asian countries have attained the progress now taken for granted there. + +Cuba is perhaps an example of the other extreme. Fidel Castro has tried to create a major cultural revolution. He has reshaped the academic pyramid, and promised that by 1980 the universities can be closed, since all of Cuba will be one big university with higher learning going on at work and leisure. Yet the Cuban pyramid is still a pyramid. There is no doubt that the redistribution of privilege, the redefinition of social goals, and the popular participation in the achievement of these goals have reached spectacular heights in Cuba since the revolution. For the moment, however, Cuba is showing only that, under exceptional political conditions, the base of the present school system can be expanded exceptionally. But there are built-in limits to the elasticity of present institutions, and Cuba is at the point of reaching them. The Cuban revolution will work—within these limits. Which means only that Dr. Castro will have masterminded a faster road to a bourgeois meritocracy than those previously taken by capitalists or bolsheviks. Sometimes, when he is not promising schools for all, Fidel hints at a policy of deschooling for all, and the Isle of Pines seems to be a laboratory for redistribution of educational functions to other social institutions. But unless Cuban educators admit that work-education which is effective in a rural economy can be even more effective in an urban one, Cuba’s institutional revolution will not begin. No cultural revolution can be built on the denial of reality. + +As long as communist Cuba continues to promise obligatory high school completion by the end of this decade, it is, in this regard, institutionally no more promising than fascist Brazil, which has made a similar promise. In both Brazil and Cuba, enough girls have already been born to double the number of potential mothers in the 1980s. Per capita resources available for education can hardly be expected to double in either country, and even if they could, no progress would have been made at all. In development-mad Brazil and in humanist Cuba, waiting for Godot is equally futile. Without a radical change in their institutional goals, both “revolutions” must make fools of themselves. Unfortunately, both seem headed for manifest foolishness, albeit by different routes. The Cubans allow work, party, and community involvement to nibble away at the school year, and call this radical education, while the Brazilians let United States experts peddle teaching devices that only raise the per capita cost of classroom attendance. + +The production of inferiority through schooling is more evident in poor countries and perhaps more painful in rich countries. The 10 per cent in the United States with the highest incomes can provide most of the education for their children through private institutions. Yet they also succeed in obtaining ten times more of the public resources devoted to education than the poorest 10 per cent of the population. In Soviet Russia a more puritanical belief in meritocracy makes the concentration of schooling privileges on the children of urban professionals even more painful. + +In the shadow of each national school-pyramid, an international caste system is wedded to an international class structure. Countries are ranged like castes, whose educational dignity is determined by the average years of schooling of its citizens. Individual citizens of all countries achieve a symbolic mobility through a class system which makes each man accept the place he believes to have merited. + +The political revolutionary strengthens the demand for schooling by futilely promising that under his administration more learning and increased earning will become available to all through more schooling. He contributes to the modernization of a world class structure and a modernization of poverty. It remains the task of the cultural revolutionary to overcome the delusions on which the support of school is based and to outline policies for the radical deschooling of society. + +The basic reason for all this is that schooling comes in quanta. Less than so much is no good and the minimum quantum carries a minimum price. It is obvious that with schools of equal quality a poor child can never catch up with a rich one, nor a poor country with a rich country. It is equally obvious that poor children and poor countries never have equal schools but always poorer ones, and thus fall ever further behind, so long as they depend on schools for their education. + +Another illusion is that most learning is a result of teaching. Teaching may contribute to certain kinds of learning under certain circumstances. The strongly motivated student faced with the task of learning a new code may benefit greatly from the discipline we now associate mostly with the old-fashioned schoolmaster . But most people acquire most of their insight, knowledge, and skill outside of school—and in school only insofar as school in a few rich countries becomes their place of confinement during an increasing part of their lives. The radical deschooling of society begins, therefore, with the unmasking by cultural revolutionaries of the myth of schooling. It continues with the struggle to liberate other men’s minds from the false ideology of schooling—an ideology which makes domestication by schooling inevitable. In its final and positive stage it is the struggle for the right to educational freedom. + +A cultural revolutionary must fight for legal protection from the imposition of any obligatory graded curriculum. The first article of a bill of rights for a modern and humanist society corresponds to the first amendment of the United States Constitution . The state shall make no law with respect to an establishment of education. There shall be no graded curriculum, obligatory for all. To make this disestablishment effective, we need a law forbidding discrimination in hiring, voting, or admission to centers of learning based on previous attendance at some curriculum. This guarantee would not exclude specific tests of competence, but would remove the present absurd discrimination in favor of the person who learns a given skill with the largest expenditure of public funds. A third legal reform would guarantee the right of each citizen to an equal share of public educational resources, the right to verify his share of these resources, and the right to sue for them if they are denied. A generalized GI bill, or an edu-credit card in the hand of every citizen, would effectively implement this third guarantee. + +Abolition of obligatory schooling, abolition of job discrimination in favor of persons who have acquired their learning at a higher cost, plus establishment of edu-credit, would permit the development of a free exchange for educational services. According to present political ideology, this exchange could be influenced by various devices: premiums paid to those who acquire certain needed skills, interest-bearing edu-credit to increase the privileges of those who use it later in life, advantages for industries that incorporate additional formal training into the work routine. + +A fourth guarantee to protect the consumer against the monopoly of the educational market would be analogous to antitrust laws. + +I have shown in the case of education that a cultural or institutional revolution depends upon the clarification of reality. Development as now conceived is just the contrary: management of the environment and the tooling of man to fit into it. Cultural revolution is a review of the reality of man and a redefinition of the world in terms which support this reality. Development is the attempt to create an environment and then educate at great cost to pay for it. + +A bill of rights for modern man cannot produce cultural revolution . It is merely a manifesto. I have outlined the principles of an educational bill of rights. These principles can be generalized. + +The disestablishment of schooling can be generalized to freedom from monopoly in the satisfaction of any basic need. Discrimination on the basis of prior schooling can be generalized to discrimination in any institution because of underconsumption or underprivilege in another. A guarantee of equal education resources is a guarantee against regressive taxation. An educational antitrust law is obviously merely a special case of antitrust laws in general, which in turn are statutory implementations of constitutional guarantees against monopoly. + +The social and psychological destruction inherent in obligatory schooling is merely an illustration of the destruction implicit in all international institutions which now dictate the kinds of goods, services, and welfare available to satisfy basic human needs. Only a cultural and institutional revolution which reestablishes man’s control over his environment can arrest the violence by which development of institutions is now imposed by a few for their own interest. Maybe Marx has said it better, criticizing Ricardo and his school: “They want production to be limited to ‘useful things,’ but they forget that the production of too many useful things results in too many useless people.” diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/awareness/es.txt b/data/pages/en/book/awareness/es.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..74b4892 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/awareness/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../es/book/awareness/es.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/awareness/index.txt b/data/pages/en/book/awareness/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a679da5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/awareness/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +# Celebration of Awarenness + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:en|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Alternativas_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1969 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** ... + + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/en.txt b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/en.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a7b0216 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1,666 @@ +# Tools for Conviviality + +## Acknowledgments + +The multidimensional analysis of ceilings for industrial growth was first formulated in a Spanish document co-authored by Valentina Borremans and myself and submitted as a guideline for a meeting of two dozen Chilean socialists and other Latin Americans at CIDOC (the Center for Intercultural Documentation) in Cuernavaca, Mexico. The next version was presented at the Zeno Symposium organized by Professor Richard Wollheim in Cyprus. It was published in Esprit , Paris, March 1972, with criticisms by Th. Adam, Pierre Caussat, J. P. Chevenement, Paul Fraisse, Yves Goussault, Pierre Kende, J. W. Lapierre, Michel Panoff, Henri Pequignot, Jean Marie Domenach, and Paul Thibaud. A third version served me and my deceased friend Greer Taylor as the basis for our participation in the Canadian Conference on the Law in January 1972 in Ottawa. Comments by David Weisstub , Nils Christie, Allen M. Linden, J. G. Castel, H. W. Arthurs, José Antonio Viera-Gallo, J. C. Smith, and Bonaventura de Sousa Santos, and other critical papers by jurists, will be published in mid-1973 in Toronto. During the summer of 1972, participants in my CIDOC seminar contributed very helpful papers. I’m especially grateful for the assistance of John Bradley, John Brewer, José Maria and Veronica Bulnes, Martin Cohen, Irene Curbelo de Diaz, Dennis Detzel, Joseph Fitzpatrick, Amnon Goldworth, Conrad Johnson, Hartmut von Hentig, John MacKnight, Michael Maccoby, Leslie Marcus, Francisco Miró Quesada, Marie-Noëlle Monteil, William Ophuls, Marta H. Reed, Everett Reimer, Francisco Varela, Etienne Verne, Jacques Vidal and German Zabala. Dennis Sullivan has patiently and critically assisted me in editing the final version. After I had delivered this manuscript to the publisher, I received valuable suggestions from J. P. Naik and his friends in India. These have seeped into the text to the extent this can happen in the correction of proofs. Second only to Valentina Borremans and Greer Taylor, Heinz von Foerster, Erich Fromm, Hermann Schwember and Abrahán Diaz Gonzales have exerted the most decisive influence on the formulation of my ideas. + +## Introduction + +During the next several years I intend to work on an epilogue to the industrial age. I want to trace the changes in language, myth, ritual, and law which took place in the current epoch of packaging and of schooling. I want to describe the fading monopoly of the industrial mode of production and the vanishing of the industrially generated professions this mode of production serves. + +Above all I want to show that two-thirds of mankind still can avoid passing through the industrial age, by choosing right now a postindustrial balance in their mode of production which the hyperindustrial nations will be forced to adopt as an alternative to chaos. To prepare for this task I submit this essay for critical comment. + +In its present form this book is the result of conversations at CIDOC in Cuernavaca during the summer of 1972. Participants in my seminar will recognize their ideas, and often their words. I ask my collaborators to accept my sincere thanks, especially for their written contributions. + +This essay has become too long to appear as an article and too intricate to be read in several installments. It is a progress report. I respectfully thank Ruth Nanda Anshen for issuing this tract as a volume, in World Perspectives , published by Harper & Row. + +For several years at CIDOC in Cuernavaca we have conducted critical research on the monopoly of the industrial mode of production and have tried to define conceptually alternative modes that would fit a postindustrial age. During the late sixties this research centered on educational devices. By 1970 we had found that: + +Universal education through compulsory schooling is not possible. + +Alternative devices for the production and marketing of mass education are technically more feasible and ethically less tolerable than compulsory graded schools. Such new educational arrangements are now on the verge of replacing traditional school systems in rich and in poor countries. They are potentially more effective in the conditioning of job-holders and consumers in an industrial economy. They are therefore more attractive for the management of present societies, more seductive for the people, and insidiously destructive of fundamental values. + +A society committed to high levels of shared learning and critical personal intercourse must set pedagogical limits on industrial growth. + +I have published the results of this research in a previous volume of World Perspectives, entitled Deschooling Society. I clarified some of the points left ill defined in that book by writing an article published in the Saturday Review of April 19, 1971. + +Our analysis of schooling has led us to recognize the mass production of education as a paradigm for other industrial enterprises , each producing a service commodity, each organized as a public utility, and each defining its output as a basic necessity. At first our attention was drawn to the compulsory insurance of professional health care, and to systems of public transport, which tend to become compulsory once traffic rolls above a certain speed. We found that the industrialization of any service agency leads to destructive side effects analogous to the unwanted secondary results well known from the overproduction of goods. We had to face a set of limits to growth in the service sector of any society as inescapable as the limits inherent in the industrial production of artifacts. We concluded that a set of limits to industrial growth is well formulated only if these limits apply both to goods and to services which are produced in an industrial mode. So we set out to clarify these limits. + +I here submit the concept of a multidimensional balance of human life which can serve as a framework for evaluating man’s relation to his tools. In each of several dimensions of this balance it is possible to identify a natural scale. When an enterprise grows beyond a certain point on this scale, it first frustrates the end for which it was originally designed, and then rapidly becomes a threat to society itself. These scales must be identified and the parameters of human endeavors within which human life remains viable must be explored. + +Society can be destroyed when further growth of mass production renders the milieu hostile, when it extinguishes the free use of the natural abilities of society’s members, when it isolates people from each other and locks them into a man-made shell, when it undermines the texture of community by promoting extreme social polarization and splintering specialization, or when cancerous acceleration enforces social change at a rate that rules out legal, cultural, and political precedents as formal guidelines to present behavior. Corporate endeavors which thus threaten society cannot be tolerated. At this point it becomes irrelevant whether an enterprise is nominally owned by individuals, corporations , or the state, because no form of management can make such fundamental destruction serve a social purpose. + +Our present ideologies are useful to clarify the contradictions which appear in a society which relies on the capitalist control of industrial production; they do not, however, provide the necessary framework for analyzing the crisis in the industrial mode of production itself. I hope that one day a general theory of industrialization will be stated with precision, that it will be formulated in terms compelling enough to withstand the test of criticism. Its concepts ought to provide a common language for people in opposing parties who need to engage in the assessment of social programs or technologies, and who want to restrain the power of man’s tools when they tend to overwhelm man and his goals. Such a theory should help people invert the present structure of major institutions. I hope that this essay will enhance the formulation of such a theory. + +It is now difficult to imagine a modern society in which industrial growth is balanced and kept in check by several complementary , distinct, and equally scientific modes of production. Our vision of the possible and the feasible is so restricted by industrial expectations that any alternative to more mass production sounds like a return to past oppression or like a Utopian design for noble savages. In fact, however, the vision of new possibilities requires only the recognition that scientific discoveries can be used in at least two opposite ways. The first leads to specialization of functions, institutionalization of values and centralization of power and turns people into the accessories of bureaucracies or machines. The second enlarges the range of each person ’s competence, control, and initiative, limited only by other individuals’ claims to an equal range of power and freedom. + +To formulate a theory about a future society both very modern and not dominated by industry, it will be necessary to recognize natural scales and limits. We must come to admit that only within limits can machines take the place of slaves; beyond these limits they lead to a new kind of serfdom. Only within limits can education fit people into a man-made environment: beyond these limits lies the universal schoolhouse, hospital ward, or prison. Only within limits ought politics to be concerned with the distribution of maximum industrial outputs, rather than with equal inputs of either energy or information. Once these limits are recognized, it becomes possible to articulate the triadic relationship between persons, tools, and a new collectivity. Such a society, in which modern technologies serve politically interrelated in dividuals rather than managers, I will call “convivial.” + +After many doubts, and against the advice of friends whom I respect, I have chosen “convivial” as a technical term to designate a modern society of responsibly limited tools. In part this choice was conditioned by the desire to continue a discourse which had started with its Spanish cognate. The French cognate has been given technical meaning (for the kitchen) by Brillat-Savarin in his Physiology of Taste: Meditations on Transcendental Gastron omy . This specialized use of the term in French might explain why it has already proven effective in the unmistakably different and equally specialized context in which it will appear in this essay. I am aware that in English “convivial” now seeks the company of tipsy jollyness, which is distinct from that indicated by the OED and opposite to the austere meaning of modern “ eutra pelia ,” which I intend. By applying the term “convivial” to tools rather than to people, I hope to forestall confusion. + +“Austerity,” which says something about people, has also been degraded and has acquired a bitter taste, while for Aristotle or Aquinas it marked the foundation of friendship. In the Summa Theologica , II, II, in the 186th question, article 5, Thomas deals with disciplined and creative playfulness. In his third response he defines “austerity” as a virtue which does not exclude all enjoyments , but only those which are distracting from or destructive of personal relatedness. For Thomas “austerity” is a complementary part of a more embracing virtue, which he calls friendship or joyfulness. It is the fruit of an apprehension that things or tools could destroy rather than enhance eutrapelia (or graceful playfulness) in personal relations[^n01]. + +## Two Watersheds + +The year 1913 marks a watershed in the history of modern medicine . Around that year a patient began to have more than a fifty-fifty chance that a graduate of a medical school would provide him with a specifically effective treatment (if, of course, he was suffering from one of the standard diseases recognized by the medical science of the time). Many shamans and herb doctors familiar with local diseases and remedies and trusted by their clients had always had equal or better results. + +Since then medicine has gone on to define what constitutes disease and its treatment. The Westernized public learned to demand effective medical practice as defined by the progress of medical science. For the first time in history doctors could measure their efficiency against scales which they themselves had devised . This progress was due to a new perspective of the origins of some ancient scourges; water could be purified and infant mortality lowered; rat control could disarm the plague; treponemas could be made visible under the microscope and Salvarsan could eliminate them with statistically defined risks of poisoning the patient; syphilis could be avoided, or recognized and cured by rather simple procedures; diabetes could be diagnosed and self-treatment with insulin could prolong the life of the patient. Paradoxically, the simpler the tools became, the more the medical profession insisted on a monopoly of their application, the longer became the training demanded before a medicine man was initiated into the legitimate use of the simplest tool, and the more the entire population felt dependent on the doctor. Hygiene turned from being a virtue into a professionally organized ritual at the altar of a science. + +Infant mortality was lowered, common forms of infection were prevented or treated, some forms of crisis intervention became quite effective. The spectacular decline in mortality and morbidity was due to changes in sanitation, agriculture, marketing, and general attitudes toward life. But though these changes were sometimes influenced by the attention that engineers paid to new facts discovered by medical science, they could only occasionally be ascribed to the intervention of doctors. + +Indirectly, industrialization profited from the new effectiveness attributed to medicine; work attendance was raised, and with it the claim to efficiency on the job. The destructiveness of new tools was hidden from public view by new techniques of providing spectacular treatments for those who fell victims to industrial violence such as the speed of cars, tension on the job, and poisons in the environment. + +The sickening side effects of modern medicine became obvious after World War II, but doctors needed time to diagnose drug-resistant microbes or genetic damage caused by prenatal X-rays as new epidemics. The claim made by George Bernard Shaw a generation earlier, that doctors had ceased to be healers and were assuming control over the patient’s entire life, could still be regarded as a caricature. Only in the mid-fifties did it become evident that medicine had passed a second watershed and had itself created new kinds of disease. + +Foremost among iatrogenic (doctor-induced) diseases was the pretense of doctors that they provided their clients with superior health. First, social planners and doctors became its victims. Soon this epidemic aberration spread to society at large. Then, during the last fifteen years, professional medicine became a major threat to health. Huge amounts of money were spent to stem immeasurable damage caused by medical treatments. The cost of healing was dwarfed by the cost of extending sick life; more people survived longer months with their lives hanging on a plastic tube, imprisoned in iron lungs, or hooked onto kidney machines. New sickness was defined and institutionalized; the cost of enabling people to survive in unhealthy cities and in sickening jobs skyrocketed . The monopoly of the medical profession was extended over an increasing range of everyday occurrences in every man’s life. + +The exclusion of mothers, aunts, and other nonprofessionals from the care of their pregnant, abnormal, hurt, sick, or dying relatives and friends resulted in new demands for medical services at a much faster rate than the medical establishment could deliver . As the value of services rose, it became almost impossible for people to care. Simultaneously, more conditions were defined as needing treatment by creating new specializations or paraprofessions to keep the tools under the control of the guild. + +At the time of the second watershed, preservation of the sick life of medically dependent people in an unhealthy environment became the principal business of the medical profession. Costly prevention and costly treatment became increasingly the privilege of those individuals who through previous consumption of medical services had established a claim to more of it. Access to specialists , prestige hospitals, and life-machines goes preferentially to those people who live in large cities, where the cost of basic disease prevention, as of water treatment and pollution control, is already exceptionally high. The higher the per capita cost of prevention , the higher, paradoxically, became the per capita cost of treatment. The prior consumption of costly prevention and treatment establishes a claim for even more extraordinary care. Like the modern school system, hospital-based health care fits the principle that those who have will receive even more and those who have not will be taken for the little that they have. In schooling this means that high consumers of education will get postdoctoral grants, while dropouts learn that they have failed. In medicine the same principle assures that suffering will increase with increased medical care; the rich will be given more treatment for iatrogenic diseases and the poor will just suffer from them. + +After this second turning point, the unwanted hygienic by-products of medicine began to affect entire populations rather than just individual men. In rich countries medicine began to sustain the middle-aged until they became decrepit and needed more doctors and increasingly complex medical tools. In poor countries, thanks to modern medicine, a larger percentage of children began to survive into adolescence and more women survived more pregnancies. Populations increased beyond the capacities of their environments and the restraints and efficiencies of their cultures to nurture them. Western doctors abused drugs for the treatment of diseases with which native populations had learned to live. As a result they bred new strains of disease with which modern treatment, natural immunity, and traditional culture could not cope. On a world-wide scale, but particularly in the U.S.A., medical care concentrated on breeding a human stock that was fit only for domesticated life within an increasingly more costly, man-made, scientifically controlled environment. One of the main speakers at the 1970 AMA convention exhorted her pediatric colleagues to consider each newborn baby as a patient until the child could be certified as healthy. Hospital-born, formula -fed, antibiotic-stuffed children thus grow into adults who can breathe the air, eat the food, and survive the lifelessness of a modern city, who will breed and raise at almost any cost a generation even more dependent on medicine. + +Bureaucratic medicine spread over the entire world. In 1968, after twenty years of Mao’s regime, the Medical College of Shanghai had to conclude that it was engaged in the training of “ so-called first-rate doctors … who ignore five million peasants and serve only minorities in cities…. They create large expenses for routine laboratory examinations … prescribe huge amounts of antibiotics unnecessarily … and in the absence of hospital or laboratory facilities have to limit themselves to explaining the mechanisms of the disease to people for whom they cannot do anything, and to whom this explanation is irrelevant.” In China this recognition led to a major institutional inversion. Today, the same college reports that one million health workers have reached acceptable levels of competence. These health workers are laymen who in periods of low agricultural manpower needs have attended short courses, starting with the dissection of pigs, gone on to the performance of routine lab tests, the study of the elements of bacteriology, pathology, clinical medicine, hygiene, and acupuncture, and continued in apprenticeship with doctors or previously trained colleagues. These “barefoot doctors” remain at their work places but are excused occasionally when fellow workers require their assistance. They have responsibility for environmental sanitation, for health education, immunization , first aid, primary medical care, postillness follow-up, as well as for gynecological assistance, birth control, and abortion education . Ten years after the second watershed of Western medicine had been acknowledged, China intends to have one fully competent health worker for every hundred people. China has proved that a sudden inversion of a major institution is possible. It remains to be seen if this deprofessionalization can be sustained against the overweening ideology of unlimited progress and pressures from classical doctors to incorporate their barefoot homonym as part-time professionals on the bottom rung of a medical hierarchy. + +In the West during the sixties dissatisfaction with medicine grew in proportion to its cost, reaching the greatest intensity in the U.S.A. Rich foreigners flocked to the medical centers of Boston , Houston, and Denver to seek exotic repair jobs, while the infant mortality of the U.S. poor remained comparable to that in some tropical countries of Africa and Asia. Only the very rich in the United States can now afford what all people in poor countries have: personal attention around the deathbed. An American can now spend in two days of private nursing the median yearly cash income of the world’s population. + +Instead of exposing the systemic disorder, however, only the symptoms of “sick” medicine are now publicly indicted in the United States. Spokesmen for the poor object to the capitalist prejudices of the AMA and the income of doctors. Community leaders object to the lack of community control over the delivery systems of professional health maintenance or of sick care, believing that laymen on hospital boards can harness professional medics. Black spokesmen object to the concentration of research grants on the types of disease which tend to strike the white, elderly, overfed foundation official who approves them. They ask for research on sickle-cell anemia, which strikes only the black. The general voter hopes that the end of the war in Vietnam will make more funds available for an increase of medical production. This general concern with symptoms, however, distracts attention from the malignant expansion of institutional health care which is at the root of the rising costs and demands and the decline in well-being . + +The crisis of medicine lies on a much deeper level than its symptoms reveal and is consistent with the present crisis of all industrial institutions. It results from the development of a professional complex supported and exhorted by society to provide increasingly “better” health, and from the willingness of clients to serve as guinea pigs in this vain experiment. People have lost the right to declare themselves sick; society now accepts their claims to sickness only after certification by medical bureaucrats. + +It is not strictly necessary to this argument to accept 1913 and 1955 as the two watershed years in order to understand that early in the century medical practice emerged into an era of scientific verification of its results. And later medical science itself became an alibi for the obvious damage caused by the medical professional . At the first watershed the desirable effects of new scientific discoveries were easily measured and verified. Germ-free water reduced infant mortality related to diarrhea, aspirin reduced the pain of rheumatism, and malaria could be controlled by quinine. Some traditional cures were recognized as quackery, but, more importantly, the use of some simple habits and tools spread widely. People began to understand the relationship between health and a balanced diet, fresh air, calisthenics, pure water and soap. New devices ranging from toothbrushes to Band-Aids and condoms became widely available. The positive contribution of modern medicine to individual health during the early part of the twentieth century can hardly be questioned. + +But then medicine began to approach the second watershed. Every year medical science reported a new breakthrough. Practitioners of new specialties rehabilitated some individuals suffering from rare diseases. The practice of medicine became centered on the performance of hospital-based staffs. Trust in miracle cures obliterated good sense and traditional wisdom on healing and health care. The irresponsible use of drugs spread from doctors to the general public. The second watershed was approached when the marginal utility of further professionalization declined, at least insofar as it can be expressed in terms of the physical well-being of the largest number of people. The second watershed was superseded when the marginal dis utility increased as further monopoly by the medical establishment became an indicator of more suffering for larger numbers of people. After the passage of this second watershed, medicine still claimed continued progress, as measured by the new landmarks doctors set for themselves and then reached: both predictable discoveries and costs. For instance, a few patients survived longer with transplants of various organs. On the other hand, the total social cost exacted by medicine ceased to be measurable in conventional terms. Society can have no quantitative standards by which to add up the negative value of illusion, social control, prolonged suffering, loneliness, genetic deterioration, and frustration produced by medical treatment. + +Other industrial institutions have passed through the same two watersheds. This is certainly true for the major social agencies that have been reorganized according to scientific criteria during the last 150 years. Education, the mails, social work, transportation , and even civil engineering have followed this evolution. At first, new knowledge is applied to the solution of a clearly stated problem and scientific measuring sticks are applied to account for the new efficiency. But at a second point, the progress demonstrated in a previous achievement is used as a rationale for the exploitation of society as a whole in the service of a value which is determined and constantly revised by an element of society , by one of its self-certifying professional élites. + +In the case of transportation it has taken almost a century to pass from an era served by motorized vehicles to the era in which society has been reduced to virtual enslavement to the car. During the American Civil War steam power on wheels became effective. The new economy in transportation enabled many people to travel by rail at the speed of a royal coach, and to do so with a comfort kings had not dared dream of. Gradually, desirable locomotion was associated and finally identified with high vehicular speeds. But when transportation had passed through its second watershed, vehicles had created more distances than they helped to bridge; more time was used by the entire society for the sake of traffic than was “saved.” + +It is sufficient to recognize the existence of these two watersheds in order to gain a fresh perspective on our present social crisis. In one decade several major institutions have moved jointly over their second watershed. Schools are losing their claim to be effective tools to provide education; cars have ceased to be effective tools for mass transportation; the assembly line has ceased to be an acceptable mode of production. + +The characteristic reaction of the sixties to the growing frustration was further technological and bureaucratic escalation. Self-defeating escalation of power became the core-ritual practiced in highly industrialized nations. In this context the Vietnam war is both revealing and concealing. It makes this ritual visible for the entire world in a narrow theater of war, yet it also distracts attention from the same ritual being played out in many so-called peaceful arenas. The conduct of the war proves that a convivial army limited to bicycle speeds is served by the opponent’s escalation of anonymous power. And yet many Americans argue that the resources squandered on the war in the Far East could be used effectively to overwhelm poverty at home. Others are anxious to use the $20 billion the war now costs for increasing international development assistance from its present low of $2 billion. They fail to grasp the underlying institutional structure common to a peaceful war on poverty and a bloody war on dissidence. Both escalate what they are meant to eliminate. + +While evidence shows that more of the same leads to utter defeat, nothing less than more and more seems worthwhile in a society infected by the growth mania. The desperate plea is not only for more bombs and more police, more medical examinations and more teachers, but also for more information and research . The editor-in-chief of the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists claims that most of our present problems are the result of recently acquired knowledge badly applied, and concludes that the only remedy for the mess created by this information is more of it. It has become fashionable to say that where science and technology have created problems, it is only more scientific understanding and better technology that can carry us past them. The cure for bad management is more management. The cure for specialized research is more costly interdisciplinary research, just as the cure for polluted rivers is more costly nonpolluting detergents . The pooling of stores of information, the building up of a knowledge stock, the attempt to overwhelm present problems by the production of more science is the ultimate attempt to solve a crisis by escalation. + +## Convivial Reconstruction + +The symptoms of accelerated crisis are widely recognized. Multiple attempts have been made to explain them. I believe that this crisis is rooted in a major twofold experiment which has failed, and I claim that the resolution of the crisis begins with a recognition of the failure. For a hundred years we have tried to make machines work for men and to school men for life in their service. Now it turns out that machines do not “work” and that people cannot be schooled for a life at the service of machines. The hypothesis on which the experiment was built must now be discarded. The hypothesis was that machines can replace slaves. The evidence shows that, used for this purpose, machines enslave men. Neither a dictatorial proletariat nor a leisure mass can escape the dominion of constantly expanding industrial tools. + +The crisis can be solved only if we learn to invert the present deep structure of tools; if we give people tools that guarantee their right to work with high, independent efficiency, thus simultaneously eliminating the need for either slaves or masters and enhancing each person’s range of freedom. People need new tools to work with rather than tools that “work” for them. They need technology to make the most of the energy and imagination each has, rather than more well-programmed energy slaves. + +I believe that society must be reconstructed to enlarge the contribution of autonomous individuals and primary groups to the total effectiveness of a new system of production designed to satisfy the human needs which it also determines. In fact, the institutions of industrial society do just the opposite. As the power of machines increases, the role of persons more and more decreases to that of mere consumers. + +Individuals need tools to move and to dwell. They need remedies for their diseases and means to communicate with one another . People cannot make all these things for themselves. They depend on being supplied with objects and services which vary from culture to culture. Some people depend on the supply of food and others on the supply of ball bearings. + +People need not only to obtain things, they need above all the freedom to make things among which they can live, to give shape to them according to their own tastes, and to put them to use in caring for and about others. Prisoners in rich countries often have access to more things and services than members of their families, but they have no say in how things are to be made and cannot decide what to do with them. Their punishment consists in being deprived of what I shall call “conviviality.” They are degraded to the status of mere consumers. + +I choose the term “conviviality” to designate the opposite of industrial productivity. I intend it to mean autonomous and creative intercourse among persons, and the intercourse of persons with their environment; and this in contrast with the conditioned response of persons to the demands made upon them by others, and by a man-made environment. I consider conviviality to be individual freedom realized in personal interdependence and, as such, an intrinsic ethical value. I believe that, in any society, as conviviality is reduced below a certain level, no amount of industrial productivity can effectively satisfy the needs it creates among society’s members. + +Present institutional purposes, which hallow industrial productivity at the expense of convivial effectiveness, are a major factor in the amorphousness and meaninglessness that plague contemporary society. The increasing demand for products has come to define society’s process. I will suggest how this present trend can be reversed and how modern science and technology can be used to endow human activity with unprecedented effectiveness. This reversal would permit the evolution of a life style and of a political system which give priority to the protection, the maximum use, and the enjoyment of the one resource that is almost equally distributed among all people: personal energy under personal control. I will argue that we can no longer live and work effectively without public controls over tools and institutions that curtail or negate any person’s right to the creative use of his or her energy. For this purpose we need procedures to ensure that controls over the tools of society are established and governed by political process rather than by decisions by experts. + +The transition to socialism cannot be effected without an inversion of our present institutions and the substitution of convivial for industrial tools. At the same time, the retooling of society will remain a pious dream unless the ideals of socialist justice prevail. I believe that the present crisis of our major institutions ought to be welcomed as a crisis of revolutionary liberation because our present institutions abridge basic human freedom for the sake of providing people with more institutional outputs. This world-wide crisis of world-wide institutions can lead to a new consciousness about the nature of tools and to majority action for their control. If tools are not controlled politically , they will be managed in a belated technocratic response to disaster. Freedom and dignity will continue to dissolve into an unprecedented enslavement of man to his tools. + +As an alternative to technocratic disaster, I propose the vision of a convivial society. A convivial society would be the result of social arrangements that guarantee for each member the most ample and free access to the tools of the community and limit this freedom only in favor of another member’s equal freedom. + +At present people tend to relinquish the task of envisaging the future to a professional élite. They transfer power to politicians who promise to build up the machinery to deliver this future. They accept a growing range of power levels in society when inequality is needed to maintain high outputs. Political institutions themselves become draft mechanisms to press people into complicity with output goals. What is right comes to be subordinated to what is good for institutions. Justice is debased to mean the equal distribution of institutional wares. + +The individual’s autonomy is intolerably reduced by a society that defines the maximum satisfaction of the maximum number as the largest consumption of industrial goods. Alternate political arrangements would have the purpose of permitting all people to define the images of their own future. New politics would aim principally to exclude the design of artifacts and rules that are obstacles to the exercise of this personal freedom. Such politics would limit the scope of tools as demanded by the protection of three values: survival, justice, and self-defined work. I take these values to be fundamental to any convivial society, however different one such society might be from another in practice, institutions , or rationale. + +Each of these three values imposes its own limits on tools. The conditions for survival are necessary but not sufficient to ensure justice; people can survive in prison. The conditions for the just distribution of industrial outputs are necessary, but not sufficient to promote convivial production. People can be equally enslaved by their tools. The conditions for convivial work are structural arrangements that make possible the just distribution of unprecedented power. A postindustrial society must and can be so constructed that no one person’s ability to express him-or herself in work will require as a condition the enforced labor or the enforced learning or the enforced consumption of another. + +In an age of scientific technology, the convivial structure of tools is a necessity for survival in full justice which is both distributive and participatory. This is so because science has opened new energy sources. Competition for inputs must lead to destruction , while their central control in the hands of a Leviathan would sacrifice equal control over inputs to the semblance of an equal distribution of outputs. Rationally designed convivial tools have become the basis for participatory justice. + +But this does not mean that the transition from our present to a convivial mode of production can be accomplished without serious threats to the survival of many people. At present the relationship between people and their tools is suicidally distorted. The survival of Pakistanis depends on Canadian grain, and the survival of New Yorkers on world-wide exploitation of natural resources. The birth pangs of a convivial world society will inevitably be violently painful for hungry Indians and for helpless New Yorkers . I will later argue that the transition from the present mode of production, which is overwhelmingly industrial, toward conviviality may start suddenly. But for the sake of the survival of many people it will be desirable that the transition does not happen all at once. I argue that survival in justice is possible only at the cost of those sacrifices implicit in the adoption of a convivial mode of production and the universal renunciation of unlimited progeny, affluence, and power on the part of both individuals and groups. This price cannot be extorted by some despotic Leviathan, nor elicited by social engineering. People will rediscover the value of joyful sobriety and liberating austerity only if they relearn to depend on each other rather than on energy slaves. The price for a convivial society will be paid only as the result of a political process which reflects and promotes the society-wide inversion of present industrial consciousness. This political process will find its concrete expression not in some taboo, but in a series of temporary agreements on one or the other concrete limitation of means, constantly adjusted under the pressure of conflicting insights and interests. + +In this volume I want to offer a methodology by which to recognize means which have turned into ends. My subject is tools and not intentions. The choice of this subject makes it impossible to undertake several related, relevant, and tempting tasks because: + +1. It would not serve my purpose to describe in detail any fictional community of the future. I want to provide guidelines for action, not for fantasy. A modern society, bounded for convivial living, could generate a new flowering of surprises far beyond anyone’s imagination and hope. I am not proposing a Utopia, but a procedure that provides each community with the choice of its unique social arrangements. + +2. I do not want to contribute to an engineering manual for the design of convivial institutions or tools, nor do I want to engage in a sales campaign for what would be obviously a better technology. My purpose is to lay down criteria by which the manipulation of people for the sake of their tools can be immediately recognized, and thus to exclude those artifacts and institutions which inevitably extinguish a convivial life style. Paradoxically, a society of simple tools that allows men to achieve purposes with energy fully under their own control is now difficult to imagine. Our imaginations have been industrially deformed to conceive only what can be molded into an engineered system of social habits that fit the logic of large-scale production. We have almost lost the ability to frame in fancy a world in which sound and shared reasoning sets limits to everybody’s power to interfere with anybody’s equal power to shape the world. + +The present world is divided into those who do not have enough and those who have more than enough, those who are pushed off the road by cars and those who drive them. The have-nots are miserable and the rich anxious to get more. A society whose members know what is enough might be poor, but its members would be equally free. Men with industrially distorted minds cannot grasp the rich texture of personal accomplishments within the range of modern though limited tools. There is no room in their imaginations for the qualitative change that the acceptance of a stable-state industry would mean; a society in which members are free from most of the multiple restraints of schedules and therapies now imposed for the sake of growing tools. Much less do most of our contemporaries experience the sober joy of life in this voluntary though relative poverty which lies within our grasp. + +3. I will focus on the structure of tools, not on the character structure of their users. The use of industrial tools stamps in an identical way the landscape of cities each having its own history and culture. Highways, hospital wards, classrooms, office buildings , apartments, and stores look everywhere the same. Identical tools also promote the development of the same character types. Policemen in patrol cars or accountants at computers look and act alike all over the world, while their poor cousins using nightstick or pen are different from region to region. The progressive homogenization of personalities and personal relationships cannot be stemmed without a retooling of society. Research on the social character traits that make retooling difficult or doubtful is complementary to what I propose. But I am not postulating the creation of a new man as a condition for a new society, nor am I pretending to know how either social character or cultures will change. A pluralism of limited tools and of convivial commonweals would of necessity encourage a diversity of life styles. + +4. It would distract from the core of my argument if I were to deal with political strategies or tactics. With the possible exception of China under Mao, no present government could restructure society along convivial lines. The managers of our major tools–nations, corporations, parties, structured movements, professions–hold power. This power is vested in the maintenance of the growth-oriented structures which they manipulate. These managers have the power to make major decisions; they can generate new demands for the output of their tools and enforce the creation of new social labels to fit them. They can even go so far as to limit the output of tools in the interest of maximizing benefits. But they have no power to reverse the basic structure of the institutional arrangements which they manage. + +The major institutions now optimize the output of large tools for lifeless people. Their inversion implies institutions that would foster the use of individually accessible tools to support the meaningful and responsible deeds of fully awake people. Turning basic institutions upside down and inside out is what the adoption of a convivial mode of production would require. Such an inversion of society is beyond the managers of present institutions . + +Today’s managers form a new class of men, selected for their character, competence, and interest–which enable them to both expand the productive society and promote the further operant conditioning of their clients. They hold and manage power no matter who lives in the illusion that he owns the tools. This class of power-holders must be eliminated, but this cannot be done by mass slaughter or replacement. The new élite would only claim more legitimacy in the manipulation of the inherited structured power. Management can be done away with only by eliminating the machinery that makes it necessary and, therefore, the demands for output that give it sway. In a convivial society there is little need for replacing the chairman of the board. + +In a society in which power–both political and physical–is bounded and spread by political decision there is place not only for a new flowering of products and characters, but also for a variety in forms of governance. Certainly, new tools would provide new options. Convivial tools rule out certain levels of power, compulsion, and programming, which are precisely those features that now tend to make all governments look more or less alike. But the adoption of a convivial mode of production does not of itself mean that one specific form of government would be more fitting than another, nor does it rule out a world federation, or agreements between nation-states, or communes, or many of the most traditional forms of governance. I restrict myself to the description of basic structural criteria within which the retooling of society can be achieved. + +5. A methodology by which to recognize when corporate tools become destructive of society itself requires the recognition of the value of distributory and participatory justice. I believe that my succinct statement will be sufficient to identify necessary restraints on tools, but it will also preclude that in this essay I reach any conclusion about a desirable degree of subordination of means to ends. + +6. The economics applicable to a postindustrial and convivial society can neither be ignored nor taken for granted. In a society that accepts politically defined limits on all types of industrial growth, many accepted terms will have to be redefined, but it is certain that in such a society inequality will not be excluded. In fact, each individual’s power to make effective changes would be greater than in preindustrial or in industrial times. Though they would be bounded, common tools would be incomparably more efficient than primitive, and more widely distributed than industrial, devices. Their products would accrue more to some than to others. The task of keeping net transfer of power within bounds requires the use of traditional as well as new economic devices. It will be argued that the limitation of tools cannot be effected before a corresponding new economic theory has been elaborated and has become operational. This is correct. I do propose that we use a dimensional analysis to obtain information about the major variables which can upset the balance of life, and that we rely on political process to identify the significant dimensions which man can control. I therefore propose an approach to the relationship between man’s ends and his means in which the key units of economics come to signify a dimensionless set of factors. Economics useful for the inversion of our present institutional structure starts out from politically defined limiting criteria. It is on these negative design criteria for technological devices that I want to focus attention. + +A methodology, by which to recognize the public perversion of tools into purposes, encounters resistance on the part of people who are used to measuring what is good in terms of dollars. Plato knew that the bad statesman is he who believes that the art of measurement is universal, and who jumbles together what is greater or smaller and what is more fit to the purpose. Our present attitudes toward production have been formed over the centuries. Increasingly, institutions have not only shaped our demands but also in the most literal sense our logic, or sense of proportion. Having come to demand what institutions can produce, we soon believe that we cannot do without it. + +The invention of education is an example of what I mean. We often forget that education acquired its present sense only recently. It was unknown before the Reformation, except as that part of early upbringing which is common to piglets, ducks, and men. It was clearly distinguished from the instruction needed by the young, and from the study in which some engaged later on in life and for which a teacher was needed. Voltaire still called it a presumptuous neologism, used only by pretentious schoolmasters. + +The endeavor to put all men through successive stages of enlightenment is rooted deeply in alchemy, the Great Art of the waning Middle Ages. John Amos Comenius, a Moravian bishop of the seventeenth century, a self-styled pansophist and pedagogue , is rightly considered one of the founders of the modern school. He was among the first to propose seven or twelve grades of compulsory learning. In his Magna Didactica he described schools as devices to “teach everybody everything” and outlined a blueprint for the assembly-line production of knowledge, which according to his method would make education cheaper and better and make growth into full humanity possible for all. But Comenius was not only an early theoretician of mass production, he was an alchemist who adapted the technical language of his craft to describe the art of rearing children. The alchemist sought to refine base elements by graduating their spirits through twelve stages of successive enlightenment, so that for their own and all the world’s benefit they might be transformed into gold. Of course, alchemists failed no matter how often they tried, but each time their “science” yielded new reasons for their failure, and they tried again. + +The industrial mode of production was first fully rationalized in the manufacture of a new invisible commodity, called “ education .” Pedagogy opened a new chapter in the history of the Ars Magna. Education became the search for an alchemic process that would bring forth a new type of man who would fit into an environment created by scientific magic. But no matter how much each generation spent on its schools, it always turned out that the majority of people were certified as unfit for higher grades of enlightenment and had to be discarded as unprepared for the good life in a man-made world. + +Not only has the redefinition of learning as schooling made schools seem necessary, it has also compounded the poverty of the unschooled with discrimination against the uneducated. People who have climbed up the ladder of schooling know where they dropped out and how uneducated they are. Once they accept the authority of an agency to define and measure their level of knowledge, they easily go on to accept the authority of other agencies to define for them their level of appropriate health or mobility. It is difficult for them to identify the structural corruption of our major institutions. Just as they come to believe in the value of the “knowledge stock” they acquired in school, so they come to believe that higher speeds save time and that income levels define well-being or, as an alternative, that the production of more services rather than more goods increases the quality of life. + +The commodity called “education” and the institution called “school” make each other necessary. The circle can be broken only by a widely shared insight that the institution has come to define the purpose. Values abstractly stated are reduced to mechanical processes that enslave men. This serfdom can be broken only by the joyful self-recognition of the fool who assumes personal responsibility for his folly. + +The institutional definition of values has made it difficult to focus our attention on the deep structure of social means. It is hard to imagine that the division of sciences, of labor, and of professions has gone too far. It is difficult to conceive of higher social effectiveness with lower industrial efficiency. To recognize the nature of desirable limits to specialization and output, we must focus our attention on the industrially determined shape of our expectations. Only then can we recognize that the emergence of a convivial and pluralist mode of production will follow the limitation of industrial institutions. + +In the past, convivial life for some inevitably demanded the servitude of others. Labor efficiency was low before the steel ax, the pump, the bicycle, and the nylon fishing line. Between the High Middle Ages and the Enlightenment, the alchemic dream misled many otherwise authentic Western humanists. The illusion prevailed that the machine was a laboratory-made homunculus , and that it could do our labor instead of slaves. It is now time to correct this mistake and shake off the illusion that men are born to be slaveholders and that the only thing wrong in the past was that not all men could be equally so. By reducing our expectations of machines, however, we must guard against falling into the equally damaging rejection of all machines as if they were works of the devil. + +A convivial society should be designed to allow all its members the most autonomous action by means of tools least controlled by others. People feel joy, as opposed to mere pleasure, to the extent that their activities are creative; while the growth of tools beyond a certain point increases regimentation, dependence, exploitation , and impotence. I use the term “tool” broadly enough to include not only simple hardware such as drills, pots, syringes, brooms, building elements, or motors, and not just large machines like cars or power stations; I also include among tools productive institutions such as factories that produce tangible commodities like corn flakes or electric current, and productive systems for intangible commodities such as those which produce “education,” “health,” “knowledge,” or “decisions.” I use this term because it allows me to subsume into one category all rationally designed devices, be they artifacts or rules, codes or operators, and to distinguish all these planned and engineered instrumentalities from other things such as basic food or implements, which in a given culture are not deemed to be subject to rationalization. School curricula or marriage laws are no less purposely shaped social devices than road networks. + +Tools are intrinsic to social relationships. An individual relates himself in action to his society through the use of tools that he actively masters, or by which he is passively acted upon. To the degree that he masters his tools, he can invest the world with his meaning; to the degree that he is mastered by his tools, the shape of the tool determines his own self-image. Convivial tools are those which give each person who uses them the greatest opportunity to enrich the environment with the fruits of his or her vision. Industrial tools deny this possibility to those who use them and they allow their designers to determine the meaning and expectations of others. Most tools today cannot be used in a convivial fashion. + +Hand tools are those which adapt man’s metabolic energy to a specific task. They can be multipurpose, like some primitive hammers or good modern pocket knives, or again they can be highly specific in design such as spindles, looms, or pedal-driven sewing machines, and dentists’ drills. They can also be complex such as a transportation system built to get the most in mobility out of human energy–for instance, a bicycle system composed of a series of man-powered vehicles, such as pushcarts and three-wheel rickshas , with a corresponding road system equipped with repair stations and perhaps even covered roadways. Hand tools are mere transducers of the energy generated by man’s extremities and fed by the intake of air and of nourishment. + +Power tools are moved, at least partially, by energy converted outside the human body. Some of them act as amplifiers of human energy: the oxen pull the plow, but man works with the oxen–the result is obtained by pooling the powers of beast and man. Power saws and motor pulleys are used in the same fashion. On the other hand, the energy used to steer a jet plane has ceased to be a significant fraction of its power output. The pilot is reduced to a mere operator guided by data which a computer digests for him. The machine needs him for lack of a better computer; or he is in the cockpit because the social control of unions over airplanes imposes his presence. + +Tools foster conviviality to the extent to which they can be easily used, by anybody, as often or as seldom as desired, for the accomplishment of a purpose chosen by the user. The use of such tools by one person does not restrain another from using them equally. They do not require previous certification of the user. Their existence does not impose any obligation to use them. They allow the user to express his meaning in action. + +Some institutions are structurally convivial tools. The telephone is an example. Anybody can dial the person of his choice if he can afford a coin. If untiring computers keep the lines occupied and thereby restrict the number of personal conversations, this is a misuse by the company of a license given so that persons can speak. The telephone lets anybody say what he wants to the person of his choice; he can conduct business, express love, or pick a quarrel. It is impossible for bureaucrats to define what people say to each other on the phone, even though they can interfere with–or protect–the privacy of their exchange. + +Most hand tools lend themselves to convivial use unless they are artificially restricted through some institutional arrangements. They can be restricted by becoming the monopoly of one profession , as happens with dentist drills through the requirement of a license and with libraries or laboratories by placing them within schools. Also, tools can be purposely limited when simple pliers and screwdrivers are insufficient to repair modern cars. This institutional monopoly or manipulation usually constitutes an abuse and changes the nature of the tool as little as the nature of the knife is changed by its abuse for murder. + +In principle the distinction between convivial and manipulatory tools is independent of the level of technology of the tool. What has been said of the telephone could be repeated point by point for the mails or for a typical Mexican market. Each is an institutional arrangement that maximizes liberty, even though in a broader context it can be abused for purposes of manipulation and control. The telephone is the result of advanced engineering; the mails require in principle little technology and considerable organization and scheduling; the Mexican market runs with minimum planning along customary patterns. + +Any institution that moves toward its second watershed tends to become highly manipulative. For instance, it costs more to make teaching possible than to teach. The cost of roles exceeds the cost of production. Increasingly, components intended for the accomplishment of institutional purposes are redesigned so that they cannot be used independently. People without cars have no access to planes, and people without plane tickets have no access to convention hotels. Alternate tools which are fit to accomplish the same purposes with fewer claims are pushed off the market. For instance, civilized correspondence becomes a lost art. During the last several years this barring of alternatives has usually coincided with the increased power of the tool and the development of more complex tool systems. + +It is possible that not every means of desirable production in a postindustrial society would fit the criteria of conviviality. It is probable that even in an overwhelmingly convivial world some communities would choose greater affluence at the cost of some restrictions on creativity. It is almost certain that in a period of transition from the present to the future mode of production in certain countries electricity would not commonly be produced in the backyard. It is also true that trains must run on tracks and stop on schedule at a limited number of points. Oceangoing vessels are built for one purpose; if they were sailing clippers, they might be even more specialized for one route than are present tankers. Telephone systems are highly determined for the transmission of messages of a certain band width and must be centrally administered even if they are limited to the service of only one area. It is a mistake to believe that all large tools and all centralized production would have to be excluded from a convivial society . It would equally be a mistake to demand that for the sake of conviviality the distribution of industrial goods and services be reduced to the minimum consistent with survival in order to protect the maximum equal right to self-determined participation . Different balances between distributive justice and participatory justice can prevail in societies equally striving for postindustrial conviviality, depending on the history, political ideals, and physical resources of a community. + +What is fundamental to a convivial society is not the total absence of manipulative institutions and addictive goods and services, but the balance between those tools which create the specific demands they are specialized to satisfy and those complementary , enabling tools which foster self-realization. The first set of tools produces according to abstract plans for men in general ; the other set enhances the ability of people to pursue their own goals in their unique way. + +The criteria by which anticonvivial or manipulative tools are recognized cannot be used to exclude every tool that meets them. These criteria, however, can be applied as guidelines for structuring the totality of tools by which a society desires to define the style and level of its conviviality. A convivial society does not exclude all schools. It does exclude a school system which has been perverted into a compulsory tool, denying privileges to the dropout . A convivial society does not exclude some high-speed intercity transport, as long as its layout does not in fact impose equally high speeds on all other routes. Not even television must be ruled out–although it permits very few programmers and speakers to define what their viewers may see–as long as the over-all structure of society does not favor the degradation of everyone into a compulsory voyeur. The criteria of conviviality are to be considered as guidelines to the continuous process by which a society’s members defend their liberty, and not as a set of prescriptions which can be mechanically applied. + +At present the reverse guideline prevails, even in societies where the producer is told that he is in the saddle. The socialist planner competes with the free-market advocate in claiming that a society run on his principles is more productive. In 1931 Stalin translated “control over the means of production” to mean the increase of productivity by new methods used to control the producer. In the midst of the U.S. Depression he launched Russia on an industrial race. Since then a socialist policy has been considered one which serves the industrially organized productivity of a socialist country. Stalin’s reinterpretation of Marxism has since then served as a form of blackmail against socialists and the left. It remains to be seen if after Mao’s death China will also trade productive conviviality for institutional productivity. The Stalinist interpretation of socialism has made it possible for socialists and capitalists alike to agree on how to measure the level of development a society has achieved. Societies in which most people depend for most of their goods and services on the personal whim, kindness, or skill of another are called “ underdeveloped ,” while those in which living has been transformed into a process of ordering from an all-encompassing store catalogue are called “advanced.” Stalinism makes it possible to interpret as revolutionary whatever increases the amount of schooling, expands the road systems, or increases the productivity of extraction and manufacture. To be revolutionary has come to mean either to champion the nation that lags in production and to make its members keenly aware of the lag, or to inflame the frantic and frustrated attempts of underconsuming minorities in rich countries to catch up. + +Every aspect of industrial societies has become part of a larval system for escalating production and increasing the demand necessary to justify the total social cost. For this reason, criticism of bad management, official dishonesty, insufficient research, or technological lag distracts public attention from the one issue that counts: careful analysis of the basic structure of tools as means. It is equally distracting to suggest that the present frustration is primarily due to the private ownership of the means of production , and that the public ownership of these same factories under the tutelage of a planning board could protect the interest of the majority and lead society to an equally shared abundance. As long as Ford Motor Company can be condemned simply because it makes Ford rich, the illusion is bolstered that the same factory could make the public rich. As long as people believe that the public can profit from cars, they will not condemn Ford for making cars. The issue at hand is not the juridical ownership of tools, but rather the discovery of the characteristic of some tools which make it impossible for anybody to “own” them. The concept of ownership cannot be applied to a tool that cannot be controlled. The issue at hand, therefore, is what tools can be controlled in the public interest. Only secondarily does the question arise whether private control of a potentially useful tool is in the public interest. + +Certain tools are destructive no matter who owns them, whether it be the Mafia, stockholders, a foreign company, the state, or even a workers’ commune. Networks of multilane highways, long-range , wide-band-width transmitters, strip mines, or compulsory school systems are such tools. Destructive tools must inevitably increase regimentation, dependence, exploitation, or impotence, and rob not only the rich but also the poor of conviviality, which is the primary treasure in many so-called “underdeveloped” areas. + +It has become difficult for contemporary man to imagine development and modernization in terms of lower rather than higher energy use. High technology has been mistakenly identified with powerful intervention in physical, psychological, and social processes. The illusion that a high culture is one that uses the highest possible quantities of energy must be overcome if we are to get tools into focus. In classical societies power sources were very equally distributed. Each man was born with the potential to use most of the power he would need in a lifetime if his organism was properly maintained. Control over larger amounts of physical energy was the result of psychic manipulation or of political domination. + +Men did not need power tools to build the Mexican pyramids of Teotihuacán or the Philippine rice terraces of Ibagué. Their muscles provided the force to raise St. Peter’s and to dig the channels of Angkor Vat. Runners carried the messages between Caesar’s generals and between village chiefs and Inca planners. Hands and feet moved the spindle and the loom, the pottery wheel and the saw. Human metabolism provided the energy that powered classical agriculture, manufacture, and war. Individual skills were the controls that shaped animal energy into socially defined work. The energy that rulers could control was the sum of the performance their subjects voluntarily or involuntarily conceded. + +I do not claim that human metabolism provided all useful power, but I do claim that in most cultures it was the main source of power. Men knew how to harness some of the forces of the environment. They steered barges down the Nile; they gentled beasts to draw the plow; they caught the wind in their sails; they became experts in the construction of simple machines which combined the power of men and of rain and of gravity. They also tamed fire in the forge and the kitchen, but the total output of these sources remained secondary. Even Mongols who lived on their mounts provided more energy with their muscles than with their horsepower. All the energy tapped from the environment to build Athens and Florence did not contribute as much controlled power to these classical societies as did their men. Only when man lit fires to turn cities into ruins or jungles into swiddens did he release–but certainly not control–energies that overwhelmed the power of the people who used them. + +The amount of physical power available to old societies can be estimated. It can be expressed in multiples of the average man’s working time and metabolic energy. He can burn 2,500 calories a day, four-fifths of them just to stay alive. They go into making his heart beat and his brain pulse. The remainder can be externalized , but this does not mean that all of it can be transformed into work. A large portion of the lifetime capacity of a man to act on his physical and social environment is burnt running around while he grows up. More is spent for chores that lie beyond his personal choice–but also beyond other men’s reach. He consumes energy in getting up, in preparing food, in seeking protection from the cold, or in avoiding the slavedriver’s whip. If man is deprived of the use of this power, he becomes useless for work. Society can give shape to these personal activities, but it cannot appropriate the energy used on them for other tasks. Custom, language, and law can determine the form of the slave’s pottery, but the master cannot take the last pots or the roof away from his slaves, not if he wants them to go on slaving for him. A small energy parcel from each man was the major source of physical power with which temples were built, mountains were moved, cloth was woven, wars were waged, and kings were carried around or amused. + +Power was limited. It was proportional to the population. Its major source was the muscles of individual men. Its efficient use depended on the stage of development which hand tools had reached and the distribution of necessary tools throughout the population. Tools all matched the impedance of manpower to the task. Except by redirecting the forces of gravity and wind they did not and could not act as amplifiers of this power. To control more power than others in his society, a man had to lord it over his fellows. If a ruler could draw power from sources other than men, his control over this power still depended on his control over men. Each pair of oxen required a man to lead them. Even the forge needed a boy to blow into the fire. Political control coincided with the control over physical power, and the control of power depended entirely on authority. + +Equal power and equal direct control of power were both features of preindustrial societies, but this did not guarantee an equal autonomy in the exercise of this control. On a very primitive level the physical predominance of one person made him into the lord of others. A slight advantage in organization or weaponry made one people the master of another. The appropriation of resources and tools created the basis of class societies and fostered the rituals and myths that shaped men to fit into the class to which they were assigned. + +In a preindustrial society political control could extend only over the excess power that people could produce. As soon as a population became efficient enough to produce more power than was required to maintain it, people could be deprived of control over this energy. They could be compelled to cede their power to the decisions of others. They could be either taxed or enslaved. Part of what they produced on their own could be taken from them, or they could be put to work for the king or the village. Ideology, economic structure, and life style tended to favor this concentration of excess energy under the control of a few. + +The degree to which this concentration of control polarized social benefits varied from one culture to another. At best it improved the range within which most members of society could employ their remaining energies. High peasant cultures offer good examples. While all shared in the tasks of defending their land from enemies or floods, each was also better dressed, housed, and fed. At worst, the concentration of decisions over power led to the establishment of empires which were expanded by mercenaries and fed from plantations worked by slaves. + +The total energy available to society increased rapidly toward the end of the Iron Age, that is, between the time of Agrippa and the time of Watt. Most of the radical technical mutations that came into existence before the scientific discoveries in the field of electricity in fact came about early in the Middle Ages. Because they used windpower far more effectively than any previous invention , three-masted sailing ships made world-wide transportation possible. Speedy transportation with regular deliveries was made possible by the building of canals in Europe, a millennium after the same discovery was implemented in Southeast Asia. A vastly increased application of nonhuman energy to industries like brewing, dyeing, pottery-making, brick-making, sugar-refining, salt manufacture, and transportation went parallel with the construction of vastly improved water wheels and windmills . + +From the High Middle Ages to the late Renaissance, new social tools developed that ensured the protection of the worker’s self-image and dignity, although he was now sometimes dwarfed by the size of machines. The guild system did indeed give the worker a new claim to the monopoly over tools specific to his trade. But the mill had not yet grown out of proportion to the miller. His monopoly over grain-processing protected the guildsman, provided him with extra holidays, and still maximized the services that he could render to his town. Guilds were neither unions nor professional associations. + +Lewis Mumford in his The Myth of the Machine: The Penta gon of Power points out that one particular enterprise, namely mining, + +set the pattern for later modes of mechanization by its callous disregard for human factors, by its indifference to the pollution and destruction of the neighboring environment, by its concentration upon the physicochemical process for obtaining the desired metal or fuel, and above all by its topographic and mental isolation from the organic world of the farmer and the craftsman, and the spiritual world of the Church, the University and the City. In its destruction of the environment and its indifference to the risks to human life, mining closely resembles warfare –though likewise it often, through its confrontation of danger and death, brings into existence a tough, self-respecting personality … the soldier at his best. But the destructive animus of mining and its punishing routine of work, along with its environmental poverty and disorder were passed on to the new industries that used its products. These negative social results offset the mechanical gains. + +This new attitude toward gainful activity is well reflected in the introduction of a new term to designate it. Tripaliare meant to torture on the trepalium , which was first mentioned in the sixth century as an instrument of impalement made out of three wooden sticks. By the twelfth century the word in both French and Spanish expressed a painful experience to which man is subjected ; only in the sixteenth century did it become possible to use the verb trabajar interchangeably with laborar and sudar on the job. Equally significant is what happened in the English language. Things began to work –first medicines (1600) and then physical tools (1650), even though these were not yet tools driven by any outside power. The alchemist’s dream of making a homunculus in the test tube slowly took the shape of creating robots to work for man, and to educate men to work alongside them. The ideology of an industrial organization of tools and a capitalist organization of the economy preceded by many centuries what is usually called the Industrial Revolution. On Baconian premises Europeans began, according to Mumford, to save time, shrink space, augment power, multiply goods, overthrow organic norms and displace real organisms with mechanisms that stimulated them or vastly magnified some single function they performed. All these imperatives, which have become the groundwork of science as technology in our present society, seem axiomatic and absolute only because they remain unexamined . The same change of mind appears also in a transfer from ritual regularity to mechanical regularity with an emphasis on time-keeping, space-measuring, account-keeping, thus translating concrete objects and complex events into abstract quantities. According to Mumford, it was this capitalistic devotion to repetitive order that helped undermine the unmeasurable personal balance between the workman and his tools. + +New power meant a new relation to time. The lending of money against interest was considered “against nature” by the Church: money naturally was a means of exchange to buy necessities , not a capital that could work or bear fruits. During the seventeenth century even the Church abandoned this view–though reluctantly–to accept the fact that Christians had become capitalist merchants. Time became like money: I now can have a few hours before lunch; how shall I spend time? … I am short of time so I can’t afford to spend that much time on a committee; it’s not worth the time! … It would be a waste of time; I’d rather save an hour. + +Scientists began to consider man as a power source. They sought to measure the maximum daily exertion that might be expected from a man and compare both his maintenance and his power to those of a horse. Man was reinvented as a source of mechanical power. Prisoners condemned to the galleys were not much use most of the time, since galleys were most of the time in port. Prisoners condemned to the treadmills produced rotary power to which any of the new machines could be hooked. Up to the early nineteenth century men in English prisons actually labored on the treadmills to make machines work. + +The new attitude of man to his tools during the Industrial Revolution, which began as capitalism did in the fifteenth century , finally called for the invention of new sources of power. The steam engine was a product of the Industrial Revolution rather than the cause of it. Power plants soon became mobile, and with the railroad the Iron Age and the Industrial Revolution came to an end. Industrial ways became the status quo. + +Immense new sources of power were tapped during the twentieth century, and much of this power became self-governing. Man has now been almost replaced by machines and reduced to being their operator. Fewer men are needed as gang workers in the fields: slavery has become uneconomical. But also fewer men are needed on the assembly line, as engineers have designed machines to perform the tasks that mass production and industrialization had created in the centuries before the steam engine. More power has become available, so more power is used. The human slaveowner is replaced by the operant conditioning of men in the mega-machine. + +We have all grown up as children of our time, and therefore it is extremely difficult to envisage a postindustrial yet human type of “work.” To reduce industrial tools seems equivalent to a return to the tortured labor of the mine and the factory, or to the labor of the U.S. farm hand who has to compete with his mechanical neighbor. The worker who had to dip a heavy tire into a solution of hot sulfur each time the machine asked for it was literally hooked onto his apparatus. Agricultural labor also ceased to be what it was for a slave or a farmer. For the slave it was labor at the service and behest of a master; for the peasant it was his own work which he could organize and shape in accordance with the demands of growing plants, hungry animals, and unpredictable weather. The modern farmhand in the United States today who is deprived of power tools is under a double pressure quite different from that of the classical slave: he must measure up to performance standards set by farm hands elsewhere who use machines, and he is constantly aware that he is underprivileged , exploited, and abused because in an age of the mega-machine he feels that he is used like a component. The prospect that moving toward a convivial society might imply a society with low power tools would seem to him like a return to the exploitation of manpower by inefficient industrial machines in the early periods of steam. + +I have described three types of institutional arrangements within which tools can be used. Certain tools can be used effectively within only one of these arrangements. There are tools which can be used normally for fully satisfying, imaginative, and independent work ; others tend to be used primarily in activities best labeled as labor ; and, finally, certain machines can only be operated. The same can be said about physical artifacts and about the set of rules that define formal institutional arrangements . Cars are machines that call for highways, and highways pretend to be public utilities while in fact they are discriminatory devices. Compulsory schools constitute a huge bureaucratic system ; no matter how convivially a teacher tries to conduct his class, his pupils learn through him to which class they belong. Cars operate on highways as teachers operate in schools. Only in a very limited sense can what the truck driver and the teacher do be called labor. Only exceptionally will a teacher feel that his operations within the school system do not directly interfere with his work. + +The market characteristics of these three types of human activity help to clarify the distinction among them. Labor can be purchased or sold in the marketplace. Not work as an activity, but only the result of convivial work can be marketed. Finally, the right to operate machines and to obtain the scarce privileges that go with employment must be earned through the previous consumption of certified treatments, which take the form of a curriculum of schooling and testing along with successive jobs. + +Tools for a convivial and yet efficient society could not have been designed at an earlier stage of history. We now can design the machinery for eliminating slavery without enslaving man to the machine. Science and technology are not bound to the peculiar notion, seemingly characteristic of the last 150 years of their application to production, that new knowledge of nature’s laws has to be locked into increasingly more specialized and highly capitalized preparation of men to use them. The sciences, which specialized out of philosophy, have become the rationale for an increasing division of operations. The division of labor has finally led to the labor- saving division of tools. New technology is now used to amplify supply funnels for commodities. Public utilities are turned from facilities for persons into arenas for the owners of expensive tools. The use of science and technology constantly supports the industrial mode of production, and thereby crowds off the scene all tool shops for independent enterprise . But this is not the necessary result of new scientific discoveries or of their useful application. It is rather the result of a total prejudice in favor of the future expansion of an industrial mode of production. Research teams are organized to remedy minor inefficiencies that hold up the further growth of a specific production process. These planned discoveries are then heralded as costly breakthroughs in the interest of further public service. Research is now mostly oriented toward industrial development. + +This unqualified identification of scientific advance with the replacement of human initiative by programmed tools springs from an ideological prejudice and is not the result of scientific analysis. Science could be applied for precisely the opposite purpose . Advanced or “high” technology could become identified with labor-sparing, work-intensive decentralized productivity. Natural and social science can be used for the creation of tools, utilities, and rules available to everyone, permitting individuals and transient associations to constantly recreate their mutual relationships and their environment with unenvisaged freedom and self-expression. + +New understanding of nature can now be applied to our tools either for the purpose of propelling us into a hyperindustrial age of electronic cybernetics or to help us develop a wide range of truly modern and yet convivial tools. Limited resources can be used to provide millions of viewers with the color image of one performer or to provide many people with free access to the records of their choice. In the first case, technology will be used for the further promotion of the specialized worker, be he a plumber, surgeon, or TV performer. More and more bureaucrats will study the market, consult their balance sheets, and decide for more people on more occasions about the range of products among which they may choose. There will be a further increase of useful things for useless people. But science can also be used to simplify tools and to enable the layman to shape his immediate environment to his taste. The time has come to take the syringe out of the hand of the doctor, as the pen was taken out of the hand of the scribe during the Reformation in Europe. + +Most curable sickness can now be diagnosed and treated by laymen. People find it so difficult to accept this statement because the complexity of medical ritual has hidden from them the simplicity of its basic procedures. It took the example of the barefoot doctor in China to show how modern practice by simple workers in their spare time could, in three years, catapult health care in China to levels unparalleled elsewhere. In most other countries health care by laymen is considered a crime. A seventeen-year-old friend of mine was recently tried for having treated some 130 of her high-school colleagues for VD. She was acquitted on a technicality by the judge when expert counsel compared her performance with that of the U.S. Health Service. Nowhere in the U.S.A. can her achievement be considered “standard,” because she succeeded in making retests on all her patients six weeks after their first treatment. Progress should mean growing competence in self-care rather than growing dependence. + +The possibilities of lay therapy also run up against our commitment to “better” health, and have blinded us to the distinction between curable and incurable sickness. This is a crucial distinction because as soon as a doctor treats incurable sickness, he perverts his craft from a means to an end. He becomes a charlatan set on providing scientific consolation in a ceremony in which the doctor takes on the patient’s struggle against death. The patient becomes the object of his ministrations instead of a sick subject who can be helped in the process of healing or dying. Medicine ceases to be a legitimate profession when it cannot provide each man or his next of kin with the tool to make this one crucial differential diagnosis for himself. + +New opportunities for the progressive expansion of lay therapy and the parallel progressive reduction of professional medicine are rejected because life in an industrial society has made us place such exaggerated value on standard products, uniformity, and certified quality. Industrialized expectations have blurred the distinction between personal vocation and standard profession. Of course, any layman can grow up to become a general healer, but this does not mean that every layman must be taught how to heal. It simply means that in a society in which people can and must take care of their neighbors and do so on their own, some people will excel at using the best available tools. In a society in which people can once again be born in their homes and die in their homes and in which there is a place for cripples and idiots in the street, and where a distinction is made between plumbing and healing, quite a few people would grow up capable of assisting others to heal, to suffer, or to die. + +Just as with proper social arrangements most people would grow up as readers without having to be schooled and without having to recreate the pre-Gutenberg profession of the scribe, so a sufficient number would grow up competent with medical tools. This would make healing so plentiful that it would be difficult to turn this competence into a monopoly or to sell it as a commodity . Deprofessionalization means a renewed distinction between the freedom of vocation and the occasional boost sick people derive from the quasi-religious authority of the certified doctor. + +Of course the deprofessionalization of most ordinary medicine could sometimes substitute a quack for today’s impostor, but the threat of quackery becomes less convincing as professionally caused damage grows. There just is no substitute for the self- correcting judgment of the layman in socializing the tools invented or used by the professional. Lifelong familiarity with the specific dangers of a specific remedy is the best preparation for accepting or rejecting it in time of crisis. + +Take another tool–transportation–as an example. Under President Cárdenas in the early thirties, Mexico developed a modern system of transportation. Within a few years about 80 percent of the population had gained access to the advantages of the automobile. Most important, villages had been connected by dirt roads or tracks. Heavy, simple, and tough trucks traveled over them every now and then, moving at speeds far below twenty miles per hour. People were crowded together on rows of wooden benches nailed to the floor to make place for merchandise loaded in the back and on the roof. Over short distances the vehicle could not compete with people, who had been used to walking and to carrying their merchandise, but long-distance travel had become possible for all. Instead of a man driving his pig to market , man and pig could go together in a truck. Any Mexican could now reach any point in his country in a few days. + +Since 1945 the money spent on roads has increased every year. It has been used to build highways between a few major centers. Fragile cars now move at high speeds over smooth roads. Large, specialized trucks connect factories. The old, all-purpose tramp truck has been pushed back into the mountains or swamps. In most areas either the peasant must take a bus to go to the market to buy industrially packaged commodities, or he sells his pig to the trucker in the employ of the meat merchant. He can no longer go to town with his pig. He pays taxes for the roads which serve the owners of various specialized monopolies and does so under the illusion that the benefits will ultimately spread to him. + +In exchange for an occasional ride on an upholstered seat in an air-conditioned bus, the common man has lost much of the mobility the old system gave him, without gaining any new freedom. Research done in two typical large states of Mexico–one dominated by deserts, the other by mountains and lush growth– confirms this conclusion. Less than one percent of the population in either state traveled a distance of over fifteen miles in any one hour during 1970. More appropriate pushcarts and bicycles, both motorized when needed, would have presented a technologically much more efficient solution for 99 percent of the population than the vaunted highway development. Such pushcarts could have been built and maintained by people trained on the job, and operated on roadbeds built to Inca standards, yet covered to diminish drag. The usual rationale given for the investment in standard roads and cars is that it is a condition for development and that without it a region cannot be integrated into the world market. Both claims are true, but can be considered as desirable only if monetary integration is the goal of development. + +During the last few years the promoters of development have come to admit that cars, as operated now, are inefficient. This inefficiency is blamed on the fact that modern vehicles are designed for private ownership, not for the public good. In fact, modern personnel transport is inefficient not because an individual capsule rather than a cabin is the model for the largest number of vehicles, or because these vehicles are now owned by their drivers. It is inefficient because of the obsessive identification of higher speed with better transport. Just as the demand for better health at all costs is a form of mental sickness, so is the pretense of higher speed. + +The railroads reflected the class societies they served simply by putting different fares on the same speed. But when a society commits itself to higher speeds, the speedometer becomes an indicator of social class. Any peasant could accompany Lázaro Cárdenas on horseback. Today only his personal staff can accompany a modern governor in his private helicopter. In capitalist countries how often you can cover great distances is determined by what you can pay. In socialist countries your velocity depends on the social importance the bureaucracy attaches to you. In both cases the particular speed at which you travel puts you into your class and company. Speed is one of the means by which an efficiency-oriented society is stratified. + +Fostered addiction to speed is also a means of social control. Transportation in its various forms now swallows 23 percent of the U.S. gross expenditures. The United States may be rich enough to allocate one-fourth of its energy resources and human time to the enterprise of getting somewhere. Under Khufu, Egyptians might have spent that much during a few years to build the Great Pyramid and to get their ruler to the underworld. Unfortunately , however, transportation exacts an ever higher percentage of the cash spent in a given year within many a Latin-American municipality. The road degrades the subsistence farmer and artisan, integrates the village into the money economy, and swallows much of the available cash. It is true that modern transportation does incorporate a region into the world market. It also trains the inhabitants for the consumption of foreign goods and the acceptance of foreign values. For example, throughout history Thailand was known for its klongs. These canals crisscrossed the country; people, rice, and tax collectors all moved easily along them. Some villages were cut off during the dry season, but their seasonal rhythm of life turned this periodic isolation into an occasion for meditation and festivities. A society that can afford long holidays and fill them with activities is certainly not poor. During the last half-decade major klongs were filled in to build roads. Since bus drivers are paid by the number of miles they can cover in a day, and since cars are still few, the Thais for a short while will be able to circulate in their country at world-record bus speeds. They will pay with the destruction of waterways that took millennia to build. The economists argue that buses and trucks pump more money per year through the economy. They do, but at the cost of depriving most Thais of the independence which their sleek rice boats once granted each family. Of course, car owners could never have competed with rice boats unless the World Bank had financed roads for them and the Thai government had made new laws that permitted them to profane the klongs. + +The building trades are another example of an industry that modern nation-states impose on their societies, thereby modernizing the poverty of their citizens. The legal protection and financial support granted the industry reduces and cancels opportunities for the otherwise much more efficient self-builder. Quite recently Mexico launched a major program with the aim of providing all workers with proper housing. As a first step, new standards were set for the construction of dwelling units. These standards were intended to protect the little man who purchases a house from exploitation by the industry producing it. Paradoxically , these same standards deprived many more people of the traditional opportunity to house themselves. The code specifies minimum requirements that a man who builds his own house in his spare time cannot meet. Besides that, the real rent for industrially built quarters is more than the total income of 80 percent of the people. “Better housing,” then, can be occupied only by those who are well-off or by those on whom the law bestows direct rent subsidies. + +Once dwellings that fall below industrial standards are defined as improper, public funds are denied to the overwhelming majority of people who cannot buy housing but could “house” themselves. The tax funds meant to improve the living quarters of the poor are monopolized for the building of new towns next to the provincial and regional capitals where government employees , unionized workers, and people with good connections can live. These are all people who are employed in the modern sector of the economy, that is, people who hold jobs. They can be easily distinguished from other Mexicans because they have learned to speak about their trabajo as a noun, while the unemployed or the occasionally employed or those who live near the subsistence level do not use the noun form when they go to work. + +These people, who have work, not only get subsidies for the building of their homes; the entire public-service sector is rearranged and developed to serve them. In Mexico City it has been estimated that 10 percent of the people use 50 percent of the household water, and on the high plain water is very scarce indeed . The building code has standards far below those of rich countries, but by prescribing certain ways in which houses must be built, it creates a rising scarcity of housing. The pretense of a society to provide ever better housing is the same kind of abberation we have met in the pretense of doctors to provide better health and of engineers to provide higher speeds. The setting of abstract impossible goals turns the means by which these are to be achieved into ends. + +What happened in Mexico happened all over Latin America during the decade of the Alliance for Progress, including Cuba under Castro. It also happened in Massachusetts. In 1945, 32 percent of all one-family housing units in Massachusetts were still self-built: either built by their owners from foundation to roof or constructed under the full responsibility of the owner. By 1970 the proportion had gone down to 11 percent. Meanwhile, hous ing had been discovered as a major problem. The technological capability to produce tools and materials that favor self-building had increased in the intervening decades, but social arrangements–like unions, codes, mortgage rules, and markets–had turned against this choice. + +Most people do not feel at home unless a significant proportion of the value of their houses is the result of the input of their own labor. Convivial policies would define what people who want to house themselves cannot get, and thereby make sure that all can get access to some minimum of physical space, to water, some basic building elements, some convivial tools ranging from power drills to mechanized pushcarts, and, probably, to some limited credit. Such an inversion of the present policy could give a postindustrial society modern homes almost as desirable for its members as those which were standard for the old Mayas and are still the rule in Yucatán. + +Our present tools are engineered to deliver professional energies . Such energies come in quanta. Less than a quantum cannot be delivered. Less than four years of schooling is worse than none. It only defines the former pupil as a dropout. This is equally true in medicine, transportation, and housing, as in agriculture and in the administration of justice. Mechanical transportation is worthwhile only at certain speeds. Conflict resolution is effective only when the issue is of sufficient weight to justify the costs of court action. The planting of new grains is productive only if the acreage and capital of the farmer are beyond a certain size. Powerful tools created to achieve abstractly conceived social goals inevitably deliver their output in quanta that are beyond the reach of a majority. What is more, these tools are integrated. Access to key positions in government or industry is reserved to those who are certified consumers of high quanta of schooling. They are the individuals chosen to run the plantation of mutant rubber trees, and they need a car to rush from meeting to meeting. Productivity demands the output of packaged quanta of institutionally defined values, and productive management demands the access of an individual to all these packages at once. + +Professional goal-setting produces goods for an environment produced by other professions. Life that depends on high speed and apartment houses makes hospitals inevitable. By definition all these are scarce, and get even scarcer as they approach the standards set more recently by an ever-evolving profession; thereby each unit or quantum appearing on the market frustrates more people than it satisfies. + +A just society would be one in which liberty for one person is constrained only by the demands created by equal liberty for another . Such a society requires as a precondition an agreement excluding tools that by their very nature prevent such liberty. This is true for tools that are fundamentally purely social arrangements , such as the school system, as well as for tools that are physical machines. In a convivial society compulsory and open-ended schooling would have to be excluded for the sake of justice. Age-specific, compulsory competition on an unending ladder for lifelong privileges cannot increase equality but must favor those who start earlier, or who are healthier, or who are better equipped outside the classroom. Inevitably, it organizes society into many layers of failure, with each layer inhabited by dropouts schooled to believe that those who have consumed more education deserve more privilege because they are more valuable assets to society as a whole. A society constructed so that education by means of schools is a necessity for its functioning cannot be a just society. Power tools having certain structural characteristics are inevitably manipulative and must also be eliminated for the sake of justice. In a modern society, energy inputs represent one of the major new liberties. Each man’s ability to produce change depends on his ability to control low-entropy energy. On this control of energy depends his right to give his meaning to the physical environment . His ability to act toward the future he chooses depends on his control of the energy that gives shape to that future. Equal freedom in a society that uses large amounts of environmental energy means equal control over the transformation of that energy and not just an equal claim to what has been done with it. + +Most of the power tools now in use favor centralization of control. Industrial plants with their highly specialized tools give neither the worker nor most engineers a choice over what use will be made of the energy they manage. This is equally true, though less evident, of the high-powered consumer tools that dominate our society. Most of them, such as cars and air conditioners , are too costly to be available on an equal basis outside a few superrich societies. Others, such as mechanical household devices , are so specialized in nature that they in no way offer more freedom than much simpler hand tools. The monopoly of industrial production deprives even privileged clients of control over what they may get. Few people get the cars that most people want, and GM designers can only build vehicles to fit the existing roads. + +Nations and multinational corporations have become means for the spreading empire of international professions. Professional imperialism triumphs even where political and economic domination has been broken. Schools everywhere are governed by pedagogues who read the same books on learning theory and curriculum -planning. In a given year, schools produce more or less the same model of pupils in every nation. Nineteen-fifty graduates are as obsolete in Dakar as they are in Paris. The same iatrogenic sicknesses are produced all over the world by doctors who administer chloromycin or steroid pills. Every country tends to select those productive processes which are more capital-intensive and promise greater cost-benefit ratios, so that the same kind of technological unemployment is produced everywhere. Basic needs are defined as those that international professions can meet. Since the local production of these wares is to the advantage of highly schooled national élites, a country’s doctors, teachers, and engineers will defend it as an antidote to foreign domination. The knowledge-capitalism of professional imperialism subjugates people more imperceptibly than and as effectively as international finance or weaponry. + +The principal source of injustice in our epoch is political approval for the existence of tools that by their very nature restrict to a very few the liberty to use them in an autonomous way. The pompous rituals by which each man is given a vote to choose between factions only cover up the fact that the imperialism of industrial tools is both arbitrary and growing. Statistics which prove increased outputs and high per capita consumption of professionally defined quanta only veil the enormously high invisible costs. People get better education, better health, better transportation, better entertainment, and often even better nourishment only if the experts’ goals are taken as the measurement of what “better” means. The possibility of a convivial society depends therefore on a new consensus about the destructiveness of imperialism on three levels: the pernicious spread of one nation beyond its boundaries; the omnipresent influence of multinational corporations; and the mushrooming of professional monopolies over production. Politics for convivial reconstruction of society must especially face imperialism on this third level, where it takes the form of professionalism. The public ownership of resources and of the means of production, and public control over the market and over net transfers of power, must be complemented by a public determination of the tolerable basic structure of modern tools. This means that politics in a postindustrial society must be mainly concerned with the development of design criteria for tools rather than as now with the choice of production goals. These politics would mean a structural inversion of the institutions now providing and defining new man-made essentials. + +To invert politics, it will not be enough to show that a convivial life style is possible, or even to demonstrate that it is more attractive than life in a society ruled by industrial productivity. We cannot rest with the claim that this inversion would bring society closer to meeting the goals now stated as those of our major institutions . It is not even enough to show that a just or socially equal order can become a reality only through a convivial reconstruction of tools and the consequent redefinition of ownership and power. We need a way to recognize that the inversion of present political purpose is necessary for the survival of all people. + +Most people have staked their self-images in the present structure and are unwilling to lose their ground. They have found security in one of the several ideologies that support further industrialization . They feel compelled to push the illusion of progress on which they are hooked. They long for and expect increased satisfaction, with less input of human energy and with more division of competence. They value handicraft and personal care as luxuries, but the ideal of a more labor-intensive, yet modern, production process seems to them quixotic and anachronistic . + +It seems absurd to prepare politicians who have pledged themselves to increased outputs and better distribution of goods and services among their constituents for the day when a majority of voters will choose limits for all rather than promises of equal consumption. It appears equally hopeless to expect inverse insight from humanitarian liberals who have come to feel that feeding the starving millions is their vocation. They forget that people eat , and that people die when they are fed. These self- appointed keepers of their brothers make other people’s survival depend on their own growing efficiency. By shifting from the production of guns to the production of grains they reduce their sense of guilt and increase their sense of power. They are blind to the convergence of population growth and the failure of the green revolution, which guarantees that feeding people now will escalate starvation by 1985. Their hubris distracts them from understanding that only the renunciation of industrial expansion can bring food and population into a balance in the so-called backward countries. The attempt to feed people and to control their increase are two mutually reinforcing, and very dangerous, illusions. Nor can economists foresee institutional inversion when for them all institutions must be evaluated according to the increase in their planned output and their ability to externalize internal diseconomies in an unobtrusive way. The terms and frameworks of economics have been shaped by the ideology of an irresistible institutionalization of values that overarches otherwise opposed economic creeds. + +To translate the theoretical possibility of a postindustrial convivial life style into a political program for new tools, it must soon be shown that the prevailing fundamental structure of our present tools menaces the survival of mankind. It must be shown that this menace is imminent and that the effects of compulsive efficiency do more damage than good to most people in our generation . For this purpose we must identify the range within which our present institutions have become frustrating, and we must recognize another range within which our tools become destructive of society as a whole. + + + +## The Multiple Balance + +The human equilibrium is open. It is capable of shifting within flexible but finite parameters. People can change, but only within bounds. In contrast, the present industrial system is dynamically unstable. It is organized for indefinite expansion and the concurrent unlimited creation of new needs, which in an industrial environment soon become basic necessities. + +Once the industrial mode of production has become dominant in a society, it may still admit shifts from one type of output to another, but it does not admit limits to the further institutionalization of values. Such growth makes the incongruous demand that man seek his satisfaction by submitting to the logic of his tools. + +The demands made by tools on people become increasingly costly. This rising cost of fitting man to the service of his tools is reflected in the ongoing shift from goods to services in over-all production. Increasing manipulation of man becomes necessary to overcome the resistance of his vital equilibrium to the dynamic of growing industries; it takes the form of educational, medical, and administrative therapies. Education turns out competitive consumers; medicine keeps them alive in the engineered environment they have come to require; bureaucracy reflects the necessity of exercising social control over people to do meaningless work. The parallel increase in the cost of the defense of new levels of privilege through: military, police, and insurance measures reflects the fact that in a consumer society there are inevitably two kinds of slaves: the prisoners of addiction and the prisoners of envy. + +Political debate must now be focused on the various ways in which unlimited production threatens human life. This political debate will be misled by those who insist on prescribing palliatives which only disguise the deep reasons why the systems of health, transport, education, housing, and even politics and law are not working. The environmental crisis, for example, is rendered superficial if it is not pointed out that antipollution devices can only be effective if the total output of production decreases. Otherwise they tend to shift garbage out of sight, push it into the future, or dump it onto the poor. The total removal of the pollution created locally by a large-scale industry requires equipment, material, and energy that can create several times the damage elsewhere. Making antipollution devices compulsory only increases the unit cost of the product. This may conserve some fresh air for all, because fewer people can afford to drive cars or sleep in air-conditioned homes or fly to a fishing ground on the weekend, but it replaces damage to the physical environment with further social disintegration. To shift from coal to atomic power replaces smog now with higher radiation levels tomorrow. To relocate refineries overseas, where pollution controls are less stringent, preserves Americans–not Venezuelans–from unpleasant odors at the cost of higher levels of world-wide poisoning. + +The overgrowth of tools threatens persons in ways which are profoundly new, though they are also analogous to traditional forms of nuisance and tort. These threats are of a new kind, because their perpetrators and victims are the same people: both operators and clients of inexorably destructive tools. Though some people may cash in on the game at first, ultimately all lose everything they have. + +I will identify six ways in which all people of the world are threatened by industrial development after passage through the second watershed: (1) Overgrowth threatens the right to the fundamental physical structure of the environment with which man has evolved. (2) Industrialization threatens the right to convivial work. (3) The overprogramming of man for the new environment deadens his creative imagination. (4) New levels of productivity threaten the right to participatory politics. (5) Enforced obsolescence threatens the right to tradition: the recourse to precedent in language, myth, morals, and judgment. I will describe these five threats as distinct though interrelated categories all having in common a destructive inversion of means into ends. (6) Pervasive frustration by means of compulsory though engineered satisfaction constitutes a sixth and more subtle threat. + +I am typifying the hazards created by the overgrowth of tools in six categories chosen so the damages can be recognized in traditional terms. That impersonal tools placed at the service of the injured party should inevitably inflict the injury is new, but the damage which threatens each person is not. These six categories can serve in the recovery of procedural principles by which people can expose and redress the present imbalance in the functioning of tools. These underlying principles of moral, political, and juridical procedure I assume to be three: recognition of the legitimacy of personal conflict, the dialectic authority of history over present procedures, and the recourse to laymen or peers for binding policy decisions. The radical functional inversion of our major institutions constitutes a revolution much more profound than the shifts in ownership or power usually proposed. It can be neither envisaged nor enacted unless a basic structure of procedure is recovered and clearly agreed upon. This structure can even now be discussed in concrete terms. I will therefore refer to formal juristic concepts in illustrating my argument. + +### Biological Degradation + +The precarious balance between man and the biosphere has been recognized and has suddenly begun to worry many people. The degradation of the environment is dramatic and highly visible . For years car traffic in Mexico City increased steadily under a sparkling sky. Then, within a couple of years, smog descended and soon became worse than in Los Angeles. This phenomenon can be easily discussed and appreciated by people who have never studied science. Poisons of unknown potency are discharged into the biotic system of the earth. There is no way to retrieve some of them, nor any means to predict how some of them may suddenly combine their action so that the whole earth, like Lake Erie or Baikal, will die. Man has evolved to fit into one niche in the universe. The earth is his home. This home is now threatened by the impact of man. + +Overpopulation, excessive affluence, and faulty technology are usually identified as the three trends which combine and threaten to break the environmental balance. Paul Ehrlich points out that to face honestly the need for population control and stabilized consumption may “expose one to the painful criticism of being both anti-people and anti-poor,” but he also emphasizes that “these unpopular measures offer mankind’s only hope for averting unprecedented misery.” Ehrlich wants to implement birth control with industrial efficiency. Barry Commoner insists that faulty technology, the third element in the equation, accounts for most of the recent deterioration in the quality of the environment. He exposes himself to the criticism of being an antitechnological demagogue. Commoner wants to retool industry rather than invert the basic structure of our tools. + +Fascination with the environmental crisis has forced the debate about survival to focus on only one balance threatened by tools. A one-dimensional dispute is futile. Three trends have indeed been identified, each of them tending to upset the balance between man and the physical environment. Overpopulation makes more people dependent on limited resources. Affluence compels each person to use more energy. Faulty technology degrades energy in an inefficient way. + +If these three trends are considered to be the only significant threats, and the physical environment is considered as the only fundamental milieu that is threatened, only two central issues must be discussed: (1) To decide which factor or trend has degraded the environment most, and which factor will impose the greatest burden on the environment during the next few years. (2) To decide which factor merits most attention because we can in some way reduce or invert it. One party claims it is easier to do away with people, the other that it is more feasible to reduce entropy-producing production. + +Honesty requires that we each recognize the need to limit procreation, consumption, and waste, but equally we must radically reduce our expectations that machines will do our work for us or that therapists can make us learned or healthy. The only solution to the environmental crisis is the shared insight of people that they would be happier if they could work together and care for each other. Such an inversion of the current world view requires intellectual courage for it exposes us to the unenlightened yet painful criticism of being not only antipeople and against economic progress, but equally against liberal education and scientific and technological advance. We must face the fact that the imbalance between man and the environment is just one of several mutually reinforcing stresses, each distorting the balance of life in a different dimension. In this view, overpopulation is the result of a distortion in the balance of learning, dependence on affluence is the result of a radical monopoly of institutional over personal values, and faulty technology is inexorably consequent upon a transformation of means into ends. + +The one-dimensional debate among proponents of various panaceas for the ecological imbalance will only inspire the false expectation that somehow human action can be engineered to fit into the requirements of the world conceived as a technological totality. Bureaucratically guaranteed survival under such circumstances means the expansion of industrial economics to the point where a centrally planned system of production and reproduction is identified with the guided evolution of the Earth. If such an industrially minded solution becomes generally accepted as the only way of preserving a viable environment, the preservation of the physical milieu can become the rationale for a bureaucratic Leviathan at the levers which regulate levels of human reproduction , expectation, production, and consumption. Such a technological response to growing population, pollution, and affluence can be founded only on a further development of the presently prevailing institutionalization of values. The belief in the possibility of this development is founded on an erroneous supposition , namely, that “The historical achievement of science and technology has rendered possible the translation of values into technical tasks –the materialization of values. Consequently, what is at stake is the redefinition of values in technical terms , as elements in technological process. The new ends, as technical ends, would then operate in the project and in the construction of the machinery, and not only in its utilization.”[^n02] + +The re-establishment of an ecological balance depends on the ability of society to counteract the progressive materialization of values. Otherwise man will find himself totally enclosed within his artificial creation, with no exit. Enveloped in a physical, social , and psychological milieu of his own making, he will be a prisoner in the shell of technology, unable to find again the ancient milieu to which he was adapted for hundreds of thousands of years. The ecological balance cannot be re-established unless we recognize again that only persons have ends and that only persons can work toward them. Machines only operate ruthlessly to reduce people to the role of impotent allies in their destructive progress. + +### Radical Monopoly + +When overefficient tools are applied to facilitate man’s relations with the physical environment, they can destroy the balance between man and nature. Overefficient tools corrupt the environment . But tools can also be made overefficient in quite a different way. They can upset the relationship between what people need to do by themselves and what they need to obtain ready-made. In this second dimension overefficient production results in radical monopoly. + +By radical monopoly I mean a kind of dominance by one product that goes far beyond what the concept of monopoly usually implies. Generally we mean by “monopoly” the exclusive control by one corporation over the means of producing (or selling) a commodity or service. Coca-Cola can create a monopoly over the soft-drink market in Nicaragua by being the only maker of soft drinks which advertises with modern means. Nestlé might impose its brand of cocoa by controlling the raw material, some car maker by restricting imports of other makes, a television channel by licensing. Monopolies of this kind have been recognized for a century as dangerous by-products of industrial expansion , and legal devices have been developed in a largely futile attempt to control them. Monopolies of this kind restrict the choices open to the consumer. They might even compel him to buy one product on the market, but they seldom simultaneously abridge his liberties in other domains. A thirsty man might desire a cold, gaseous, and sweet drink and find himself restricted to the choice of just one brand. He still remains free to quench his thirst with beer or water. Only if and when his thirst is translated without meaningful alternatives into the need for a Coke would the monopoly become radical. By “radical monopoly” I mean the dominance of one type of product rather than the dominance of one brand. I speak about radical monopoly when one industrial production process exercises an exclusive control over the satisfaction of a pressing need, and excludes nonindustrial activities from competition. + +Cars can thus monopolize traffic. They can shape a city into their image–practically ruling out locomotion on foot or by bicycle in Los Angeles. They can eliminate river traffic in Thailand . That motor traffic curtails the right to walk, not that more people drive Chevies than Fords, constitutes radical monopoly. What cars do to people by virtue of this radical monopoly is quite distinct from and independent of what they do by burning gasoline that could be transformed into food in a crowded world. It is also distinct from automotive manslaughter. Of course cars burn gasoline that could be used to make food. Of course they are dangerous and costly. But the radical monopoly cars establish is destructive in a special way. Cars create distance. Speedy vehicles of all kinds render space scarce. They drive wedges of highways into populated areas, and then extort tolls on the bridge over the remoteness between people that was manufactured for their sake. This monopoly over land turns space into car fodder. It destroys the environment for feet and bicycles. Even if planes and buses could run as nonpolluting, nondepleting public services, their inhuman velocities would degrade man’s innate mobility and force him to spend more time for the sake of travel. + +Schools tried to extend a radical monopoly on learning by redefining it as education. As long as people accepted the teacher’s definition of reality, those who learned outside school were officially stamped “uneducated.” Modern medicine deprives the ailing of care not prescribed by doctors. Radical monopoly exists where a major tool rules out natural competence. Radical monopoly imposes compulsory consumption and thereby restricts personal autonomy. It constitutes a special kind of social control because it is enforced by means of the imposed consumption of a standard product that only large institutions can provide. + +The control of undertakers over burial shows how radical monopoly functions and how it differs from other forms of culturally defined behavior. A generation ago, in Mexico, only the opening of the grave and the blessing of the dead body were performed by professionals: the gravedigger and the priest. A death in the family created various demands, all of which could be taken care of within the family. The wake, the funeral, and the dinner served to compose quarrels, to vent grief, and to remind each participant of the fatality of death and the value of life. Most of these were of a ritual nature and carefully prescribed–different from region to region. Recently, funeral homes were established in the major cities. At first undertakers had difficulty finding clients because even in large cities people still knew how to bury their dead. During the sixties the funeral homes obtained control over new cemeteries and began offering package deals, including the casket, church service, and embalming. Now legislation is being passed to make the mortician’s ministrations compulsory. Once he gets hold of the body, the funeral director will have established a radical monopoly over burial, as medicine is at the point of establishing one over dying. + +The current debate over health-care delivery in the United States clearly illustrates the entrenchment of a radical monopoly. Each political party in the debate makes sick-care a burning public issue and thereby relegates health care to an area about which politics has nothing important to say. Each party promises more funds to doctors, hospitals, and drugstores. Such promises are not in the interest of the majority. They only serve to increase the power of a minority of professionals to prescribe the tools men are to use in maintaining health, healing sickness, and repressing death. More funds will strengthen the hold of the health industry over public resources and heighten its prestige and arbitrary power. Such power in the hands of a minority will produce only an increase in suffering and a decrease in personal self- reliance . More money will be invested in tools that only postpone unavoidable death and in services that abridge even further the civil rights of those who want to heal each other. More money spent under the control of the health profession means that more people are operationally conditioned into playing the role of the sick, a role they are not allowed to interpret for themselves. Once they accept this role, their most trivial needs can be satisfied only through commodities that are scarce by professional definition . + +People have a native capacity for healing, consoling, moving, learning, building their houses, and burying their dead. Each of these capacities meets a need. The means for the satisfaction of these needs are abundant so long as they depend primarily on what people can do for themselves, with only marginal dependence on commodities. These activities have use-value without having been given exchange-value. Their exercise at the service of man is not considered labor. + +These basic satisfactions become scarce when the social environment is transformed in such a manner that basic needs can no longer be met by abundant competence. The establishment of radical monopoly happens when people give up their native ability to do what they can do for themselves and for each other, in exchange for something “better” that can be done for them only by a major tool. Radical monopoly reflects the industrial institutionalization of values. It substitutes the standard package for the personal response. It introduces new classes of scarcity and a new device to classify people according to the level of their consumption . This redefinition raises the unit cost of valuable service, differentially rations privilege, restricts access to resources, and makes people dependent. Above all, by depriving people of the ability to satisfy personal needs in a personal manner, radical monopoly creates radical scarcity of personal–as opposed to institutional–service. + +Against this radical monopoly people need protection. They need this protection whether consumption is imposed by the private interests of undertakers, by the government for the sake of hygiene, or by the self-destructive collusion between the mortician and the survivors, who want to do the best thing for their dear departed. They need this protection even if the majority is now sold on the professional’s services. Unless the need for protection from radical monopoly is recognized, its multiple implementation can break the tolerance of man for enforced inactivity and passivity. + +It is not always easy to determine what constitutes compulsory consumption. The monopoly held by schools is not established primarily by a law that threatens punishment to parent or child for truancy. Such laws exist, but school is established by other tactics: by discrimination against the unschooled, by centralizing learning tools under the control of teachers, by restricting public funds earmarked for baby-sitting to salaries for graduates from normal schools. Protection against laws that impose education, vaccination, or life prolongation is important, but it is not sufficient. Procedures must be used that permit any party who feels threatened by compulsory consumption to claim protection, whatever form the imposition takes. Like intolerable pollution, intolerable monopoly cannot be defined in advance. The threat can be anticipated, but the definition of its precise nature can result only from people’s participation in deciding what may not be produced. + +Protection against this general monopoly is as difficult as protection against pollution. People will face a danger that threatens their own self-interest but not one that threatens society as a whole. Many more people are against cars than are against driving them. They are against cars because they pollute and because they monopolize traffic. They drive cars because they consider the pollution created by one car insignificant, and because they do not feel personally deprived of freedom when they drive. It is also difficult to be protected against monopoly when a society is already littered with roads, schools, or hospitals, when independent action has been paralyzed for so long that the ability for it seems to have atrophied, and when simple alternatives seem beyond the reach of the imagination. Monopoly is hard to get rid of when it has frozen not only the shape of the physical world but also the range of behavior and of imagination. Radical monopoly is generally discovered only when it is too late. + +Commercial monopoly is broken at the cost of the few who profit from it. Usually, these few manage to evade controls. The cost of radical monopoly is already borne by the public and will be broken only if the public realizes that it would be better off paying the costs of ending the monopoly than by continuing to pay for its maintenance. But the price will not be paid unless the public learns to value the potential of a convivial society over the illusion of progress. It will not be paid voluntarily by those who confuse conviviality with intolerable poverty. + +Some of the symptoms of radical monopoly are reaching public awareness, above all the degree to which frustration grows faster than output in even the most highly developed countries and under whatever political regime. Policies aimed to ease this frustration may easily distract attention from the general nature of the monopoly at its roots, however. The more these reforms succeed in correcting superficial abuses, the better they serve to bolster the monopoly I am trying to describe. + +The first palliative is consumer protection. Consumers cannot do without cars. They buy different makes. They discover that most cars are unsafe at any speed. So they organize to get safer, better, and more durable cars and to get more as well as wider and safer roads. Yet when consumers gain more confidence in cars, the victory only increases society’s dependence on high-powered vehicles–public or private–and frustrates even more those who have to, or would prefer to, walk. + +While the organized self-protection of the addict-consumer immediately raises the quality of the dope and the power of the peddler, it also may lead ultimately to limits on growth. Cars may finally become too expensive to purchase and medicines too expensive to test. By exacerbating the contradictions inherent in this institutionalization of values, majorities can more easily become aware of them. Discerning consumers who are discriminatory in their purchasing habits may finally discover that they can do better by doing things for themselves. + +The second palliative proposed to cure growing frustration with growing output is planning. The illusion is common that planners with socialist ideals might somehow create a socialist society in which industrial workers constitute a majority. The proponents of this idea overlook the fact that anticonvivial and manipulative tools can fit into a socialist society in only a very limited measure. Once transportation, education, or medicine is offered by a government free of cost, its use can be enforced by moral guardians. The underconsumer can be blamed for sabotage of the national effort. In a market economy, someone who wants to cure his flu by staying in bed will be penalized only through loss of income. In a society that appeals to the “people” to meet centrally determined production goals, resistance to the consumption of medicine becomes an act of public immorality. Protection against radical monopoly depends on a political consensus opposed to growth. Such a consensus is diametrically opposed to the issues now raised by political oppositions, since these converge in the demand to increase growth and to provide more and better things for more completely disabled people. + +Both the balance that defines man’s need for a hospitable environment and the balance that defines everyone’s need for authentic activity are now close to the breaking point. And still this danger does not concern most people. It must now be explained why most people are either blind to this threat or feel helpless to correct it. I believe that the blindness is due to the decline in a third balance–the balance of learning–and that the impotence people experience is the result of yet a fourth upset in what I call the balance of power. + +### Overprogramming + +The balance of learning is determined by the ratio of two kinds of knowledge in a society. The first is a result of the creative action of people on their environment, and the second represents the result of man’s “trivialization” by his manufactured milieu. Their first kind of knowledge is derived from the primary involvement of people with each other and from their use of convivial tools; the second accrues to them as a result of purposeful and programmed training to which they are subjected. Speaking the mother tongue is learned in the first way, while some pupils learn mathematics in the second. No sane person would say that speaking or walking or nursing a child is primarily the result of education, while competence in mathematics, ballet dancing, or painting usually is. + +The relation between what can be learned from ordinary living and what must be learned as a result of intentional teaching differs widely with place and time. It depends very much on rituals. All Muslims learn some Arabic as the result of prayer. This learning evolves from interaction in a context bounded by tradition. In much the same manner, peasants pick up the folklore of their region. Class and caste also generate opportunities to learn. The rich acquire “proper” table manners or accents and insist that these cannot be taught. The poor learn to fend in dignity where no education could teach the rich to survive. + +Crucial to how much anyone can learn on his own is the structure of his tools: the less they are convivial, the more they foster teaching. In limited and well-integrated tribes, knowledge is shared quite equally among most members. All people know most of what everybody knows. On a higher level of civilization, new tools are introduced; more people know more things, but not all know how to execute them equally well. Mastery of skill does not yet imply a monopoly of understanding. One can understand fully what a goldsmith does without being one oneself. Men do not have to be cooks to know how to prepare food. This combination of widely shared information and competence for using it is characteristic of a society in which convivial tools prevail. The techniques used are easily understood by observing the artisan at work, but the skills employed are complex and usually can be acquired only through lengthy and programmed apprenticeship. Total learning expands when the range of spontaneous learning widens along with access to an increasing number of taught skills and both liberty and discipline flower. This expansion of the balance of learning cannot go on forever; it is self-limiting. It can be optimized, but it cannot be forcibly extended. One reason is that man’s life span is limited. Another–just as inexorable–is that the specialization of tools and the division of labor reinforce each other. When centralization and specialization grow beyond a certain point, they require highly programmed operators and clients. More of what each man must know is due to what another man has designed and has the power to force on him. + +The city child is born into an environment made up of systems that have a different meaning for their designers than for their clients. The inhabitant of the city is in touch with thousands of systems, but only peripherally with each. He knows how to operate the TV or the telephone, but their workings are hidden from him. Learning by primary experience is restricted to self-adjustment in the midst of packaged commodities. He feels less and less secure in doing his own thing. Cooking, courtesy, and sex become subject matters in which instruction is required. The balance of learning deteriorates: it is skewed in favor of “ education .” People know what they have been taught, but learn little from their own doing. People come to feel that they need “ education .” + +Learning thus becomes a commodity, and, like any commodity that is marketed, it becomes scarce. The nature of this scarcity is hidden–at a high cost–by the many forms education takes. Education can be programmed preparation for life in the future in the form of packaged, serial instructions produced by schools, or it can be constant communication about ongoing life through the output of the media and through the instructions built into consumer goods. Sometimes these instructions are attached to the item and must be read. In more thoroughly designed goods, the shape, color, and provoked associations speak to the user about the way the item must be handled. Education can also become a periodic remedy for workers whose original training gets left behind by industrial innovation. When people become obsolete and need constantly to renew their educational security, when the accountant must be reprogrammed for each new generation of computers, then learning has indeed become scarce. Educator becomes the most vulnerable and confusing issue in the society. + +Everywhere the direct cost of training rises faster than the total output. This has been interpreted in either of two ways. One interpretation assumes that education is a means to a social end. From this perspective the capitalization of man through knowledge inputs is a necessary requirement for higher productivity. The disproportionate growth rate of the educational sector means total production is nearing an asymptote. To avoid this, ways must be found to increase the cost-benefit ratio in education. Schools will be the first victims of a drive for rationalization in the production of knowledge capital. In my opinion, this is unfortunate. Although the school is destructive and quite inefficient, its traditional character protects at least some rights of the pupil. Educators freed from the restraint of schools could be much more effective and deadly conditioners. + +The second interpretation starts from the opposite assumption. According to this view, education is the most valuable output of institutional growth. The transition to a stationary state in the production of goods and perhaps even of energy will usher in an explosive growth in the production of invisible commodities such as information, education, and fun. In this argument the marginal utility of education also decreases, but this is no reason to limit its production. Some economists go even further. In the name of a misnamed quality of life they want to put the breaks on the manufacturing sector when it interferes with the growth of the service sector, seemingly unaware of the stultifying effects of escalating treatments. In neither of these two views is a distinction made between learning by the use of convivial tools and learning through manipulation. Both views skew the balance of learning by increasing manipulative teaching and crushing autonomous questions. Those who treat education as a means for production and those who treat education as the supreme luxury product agree on the need for more education. They upset the balance of learning in favor of more teaching. They assume that a modern world is inevitably so alien that it has passed beyond the reach of people and can be known only by mystagogues and disciples. + +The transformation of learning into education paralyzes man’s poetic ability, his power to endow the world with his personal meaning. Man will wither away just as much if he is deprived of nature, of his own work, or of his deep need to learn what he wants and not what others have planned that he should learn. The overdetermination of the physical environment renders it hostile. Radical monopoly makes people prisoners of welfare. Men overwhelmed by commodities are rendered impotent and in their rage either kill or die. The corruption of the balance of learning makes people into puppets of their tools. + +Poets and clowns have always risen up against the oppression of creative thought by dogma. They expose literal-mindedness with metaphor. They demonstrate the follies of seriousness in a framework of humor. Their intimate wonder dissolves certainties, banishes fears, and undoes paralysis. The prophet can denounce creeds and expose superstitions and mobilize persons to use their lights and wits. Poetry, intuition, and theory can offer intimations of the advance of dogma against wit that may lead to a revolution in awareness. Only the separation of Church and State, of compulsory knowledge from political action, can redress the balance of learning. The law has been used, and can be used again, to this purpose. The law has protected societies against the exaggerated claims of its priests, and can protect it against the claims of educators. Compulsory school attendance or other compulsory treatment is analogous to compulsory attendance at a religious ritual. The law can disestablish it. The law can be used against the rising cost of education, and against the use of education in the reproduction of a class society. + +To understand the rising cost of education, we must recognize two facts: first, that nonconvivial tools create educational side effects which at some point become intolerable and, second, that education which employs nonconvivial tools is economically unfeasible . The first recognition opens our eyes to the possibility of a society where work and leisure and politics would favor learning and that could function with less formal education; the second recognition permits us to set up educational arrangements that favor self-initiated, self-chosen learning, and that relegate programmed teaching to limited, clearly specified occasions. + +Throughout the world, highly capitalized tools require highly capitalized men. Following the Second World War, economic development penetrated even “backward” areas. Spot industrialization created an intense demand for schools to program people not only to operate but also to live with their new tools. The establishment of more schools in Malaysia or Brazil teaches people the accountant’s view of the value of time, the bureaucrat’s view of the value of promotion, the salesman’s view of the value of increased consumption, and the union leader’s view of the purpose of work. People are taught all this not by the teacher but by the curriculum hidden in the structure of school. It does not matter what the teacher teaches so long as the pupil has to attend hundreds of hours of age-specific assemblies to engage in a routine decreed by the curriculum and is graded according to his ability to submit to it. People learn that they acquire more value in the market if they spend more hours in class. They learn to value progressive consumption of curricula. They learn that whatever a major institution produces has value, even invisible things such as education or health. They learn to value grade advancement, passive submission, and even the standard misbehavior that teachers like to interpret as a sign of creativity. They learn disciplined competition for the favor of the bureaucrat who presides over their daily sessions, who is called their teacher as long as they are in class and their boss when they go to work. They learn to define themselves as holders of knowledge stock in the specialty in which they have made investments of their time. They learn to accept their place in society precisely in the class and career corresponding to the level at which they leave school and to the field of their academic specialization. + +Industrial jobs are arranged so that the better-schooled fit into the scarcer slots. Scarce jobs are defined as more productive, so people with less schooling are barred from access to the more desirable goods produced in the new industries. Industrially produced shoes, bags, clothes, frozen foods, and soft drinks drive off the market equivalent goods that had been convivially produced . As production becomes more centralized and more capital-intensive , the screening process performed by tax-supported schools not only costs more for those who get through it, but double-charges those who do not. + +Education becomes necessary not only to grade people for jobs but to upgrade them for consumption. As industrial output rises, it pushes the education system to exercise the social control necessary for its efficient use. The housing industry in Latin-American countries is a good example of the educational diseconomies produced by architects. All the major cities in such countries are surrounded by vast tracts of self-built favelas, barriadas, or pobla ciones . Components for new houses and utilities could be made very cheaply and designed for self-assembly. People could build more durable, more comfortable, and more sanitary dwellings, as well as learn about new materials and systems. But instead of supporting the ability of people to shape their own environment , the government deposits in these shantytowns public utilities designed for people who live in standard modern houses. The presence of a new school, a paved road, and a glass-and-steel police station defines the professionally built house as the functional unit, and stamps the self-built home a shanty. The law establishes this definition by refusing a building permit to people who cannot submit a plan signed by an architect. People are deprived of their ability to invest their own time with the power to produce use-value, and are compelled to work for wages and to exchange their earnings for industrially defined rented space. They are deprived also of the opportunity to learn while building . + +Industrial society demands that some people be taught before they can drive a truck and that other people be taught before they can build a house. Others must be taught how to live in apartment buildings. Teachers, social workers, and policemen cooperate to keep people who have low-paying or occasional jobs in houses they may not build or change. To accommodate more people on less land, Venezuela and Brazil experimented with high-rise tenements. First, the police had to dislodge people from their “slums” and resettle them in apartments. Then the social workers had to socialize tenants who lacked sufficient schooling to understand that pigs may not be raised on eleventh-floor balconies nor beans cultivated in their bathtubs. + +In New York people with less than twelve years of schooling are treated like cripples: they tend to be unemployable, and are controlled by social workers who decide for them how to live. The radical monopoly of overefficient tools exacts from society the increasing and costly conditioning of clients. Ford produces cars that can be repaired only by trained mechanics. Agriculture departments turn out high-yield crops that can be used only with the assistance of farm managers who have survived an expensive school race. The production of better health, higher speeds, or greater yields depends on more disciplined recipients. The real cost of these doubtful benefits is hidden by unloading much of them on the schools that produce social control. + +Pressure for more and better conditioning of people in the name of education has led schools over their second watershed. Planners make programs more varied and complex, but their marginal utility thereby declines. Compulsory attendance has been extended to the point that it now can be defined by teachers as independent study on the city streets, or as a field project supervised by the weavers of Teotitlán del Valle. + +Parallel with the growing pretensions of school, other agencies discovered their educational mission. Newspapers, television, and radio were no longer just media of communication. They were pressed into the service of socialization. Periodicals expanded to accommodate all fit news, which meant that a few professional journalists got vast readerships, while the majority was reduced to token representation in the “Letters to the Editor” section. + +The industrial manufacture and marketing of knowledge reduce the access of people to convivial tools for self-initiated learning . Witness the fate of the book. The book is the result of two major inventions that enormously extended the balance of learning : the alphabet and the printing press. Both techniques are almost ideally convivial. Almost anybody can learn to use them, and for his own purpose. They use cheap materials. People can take them or leave them as they wish. They are not easily controlled by third parties. Even the Soviet government cannot stop the samizdat circulation of subversive typescripts. + +The alphabet and the printing press have in principle deprofessionalized the recorded word. With the alphabet the merchant broke the monopoly of the priest over hieroglyphs. With cheap paper and pencil, and later with the typewriter and modern copying devices, a set of new techniques had in principle opened the era of nonprofessional, truly convivial, communication by record. The tape recorder and camera added new media to fully interactive communication. Yet the manipulative nature of institutions and schooling for the acceptance of manipulation have put these ideally convivial tools at the service of more one-way teaching. Schools train people in the use of constantly revised textbooks. They produce readers of instructions and of news. The per capita purchase of nontechnical books by high-school graduates declines with the increased percentage of people who finish high school. More books are written for the school-trained specialist , and the self-initiated reading of books declines. More people spend more time hooked on the curriculum defined by new principals: the publisher, the producer, and the program director. Every week they wait for Time. + +Even the library has become a component of a schooled world. As the library got “better,” the book was further withdrawn from the handy bookshelf. The reference librarian placed himself between people and shelves; now he is being replaced by the computer . Putting the book into huge deposits and into the hands of computers, the New York Public Library has become so expensive to operate that it now opens only from ten to six weekdays and is open only partially on Saturdays. This means that its books have become the specialized tool of readers who live on a grant to stay away from work and school. + +At its best the library is the prototype of a convivial tool. Repositories for other learning tools can be organized on its model, expanding access to tapes, pictures, records, and very simple labs filled with the same scientific instruments with which most of the major breakthroughs of the last century were made. + +Manipulative teaching tools raise the cost of learning. Now we only ask what people have to learn and then invest in a means to teach them. We should learn to ask first what people need if they want to learn and provide these tools for them. Professional teachers laugh at the idea that people would learn more from random access to learning resources than they can be taught. In fact, they frequently cite as proof for their skepticism the declining use of libraries. They overlook the fact that libraries are little used because they have been organized as formidable teaching devices. Libraries are not used because people have been trained to demand that they be taught. Neither are contraceptives, and for analogous reasons we have to explore. + +People must learn to live within bounds. This cannot be taught. Survival depends on people learning fast what they can not do. They must learn to abstain from unlimited progeny, consumption , and use. It is impossible to educate people for voluntary poverty or to manipulate them into self-control. It is impossible to teach joyful renunciation in a world totally structured for higher output and the illusion of declining costs. + +People must learn why and how to practice contraception. The reason is clear. Man has evolved in a small corner of the universe. His world is bounded by the resources of the ecosphere, and can accommodate only a limited number of people. Technology has transformed the characteristics of this niche. The ecosphere now accommodates a larger number of people, each less vitally adapted to the environment–each on the average having less space, less freedom to survive with simple means, fewer roots in tradition. The attempt to make a better environment has turned out to be as presumptuous as the attempt to create better health, education, or communication. As a result there are now more people, most of them less at home in the world. This large population can survive because of new tools. In turn, it spurs the search for even more powerful tools, and thereby demands more radical monopoly; this monopoly, in its turn, calls for more and more education. But, paradoxically, what people most need to learn, they cannot be taught or educated to do. If they are voluntarily to keep their numbers and consumption within bounds, they must learn to do so by living active and responsible lives, or they will perish–passive though well informed, frustrated yet resigned. Voluntary and therefore effective population control is impossible under conditions of radical monopoly and overprogramming. An efficient, specialized birth control program must fail in the same way that schools and hospitals fail. It can start with a futile attempt at effective seduction. It will logically escalate to enforced sterilization and abortion. Finally, it will provide a rationale for mega-deaths. + +Voluntary and effective contraception is now absolutely necessary . If such contraception is not practiced in the very near future , humanity is in danger of being crushed by its own size rather than by the power of its tools. But this universal practice cannot possibly be the result of some miracle tool. A new practice, inverse to the present, can only be the result of a new relationship between people and their tools. The universal practice of effective contraception is a necessary premise for the limitation of tools which I advocate. But equally, the psychological inversion that will accompany a limitation of tools is a premise for the convivial psychological pressure necessary for effective contraception. + +The devices needed for birth control are a paradigm for modern convivial tools. They incorporate science in instruments that can be handled by any reasonably prudent and well-apprenticed person. They provide new ways to engage in the millenary practice of contraception, sterilization, and abortion. They are cheap enough to be made universally available. They are made to fit alternate tasks, beliefs, and situations. They are obviously tools that structure the bodily relationship of each individual to himself and to others. To be effective, some must be used by every adult, and many of them must be used every day. Birth control is an immense task. It must be accomplished within one decade. It can be accomplished only in a convivial manner. It is ridiculous to try to control populations with tools which by their nature are convivial while conditioning the population by formal education to fit more effectively into an industrial and professional world. It is absurd to expect that Brazilian peasants can be taught to depend on doctors for injections and prescriptions, on lawyers for conflict resolution, and on teachers for learning to read, while asking them to use the condom on their own. But it is equally fanciful to expect that Indian doctors will allow illiterate but well-trained hospital assistants to compete with them in the performance of sterilizations. If the public realized that this delicate intervention could be equally or even more carefully performed by a layman whose attention, dexterity, and programming skills were refined in the weaving of saris, doctors would lose their monopoly on all interventions which are economically feasible for any majority of people. Professional taboos and industrial tools stand and fall together once truly rational, postindustrial tools are available. Only the convergent use of convivial tools in all significant areas of need-satisfaction can render their use in each sector truly effective. Only among convivially structured tools can people learn to use the new levels of power that modern technology can incorporate in them. + +### Polarization + +The present organization of tools impels societies to grow both in population and in levels of affluence. This growth takes place at the opposite ends of the privilege spectrum. The underprivileged grow in number, while the already privileged grow in affluence. The underprivileged thus strengthen their frustrating claims, while the rich defend their presumed rights and needs. Hunger and impotence lead the poor to demand rapid industrialization , and the defense of growing luxuries pushes the rich into more frantic production. Power is polarized, frustration is generalized, and the alternative of greater happiness at lower affluence is pushed into the blind spot of social vision. + +This blindness is a result of the broken balance of learning. People who are hooked on teaching are conditioned to be customers for everything else. They see their own personal growth as an accumulation of institutional outputs, and prefer what institutions make over what they themselves can do. They repress the ability to discover reality by their own lights. The skewed balance of learning explains why the radical monopoly of commodities has become imperceptible. It does not explain why people feel impotent to correct those profound disorders which they do perceive. + +This helplessness is the result of a fourth disruption: the growing polarization of power. Under the pressure of an expanding mega-machine, power is concentrated in a few hands, and the majority becomes dependent on handouts. New levels of luxuriant overproduction grow faster than the output of commodities which this wanton production imposes. + +A 3 percent increase in the standard of living of the U.S. population costs twenty-five times as much as a similar increase in the living standard of India, despite the greater size and more rapid growth of the Indian population. Significant benefits for the poor demand a reduction of the resources used by the rich, while significant benefits for the rich make murderous demands on the resources of the poor. Yet the rich pretend that by exploiting the poor nations they will become rich enough to create a hyperindustrial abundance for all. The élites of poor countries share this fantasy. + +The rich will get richer and many more of the poor will become destitute during the next ten years. But anguish about the hungry should not prevent us from understanding the structural problem of power distribution that constitutes the fourth dimension of destructive overgrowth. Unchecked industrialization modernizes poverty. Poverty levels rise and the gap between rich and poor widens. These two aspects must be seen together or the nature of destructive polarization will be missed. + +Poverty levels rise because industrial staples are turned into basic necessities and have a unit cost beyond what a majority could ever pay. The radical monopoly of industries has created new types of demeaning poverty in societies of sometimes profligate affluence. The former subsistence farmer is put out of business by the green revolution. He earns more as a laborer, but he cannot give his children their former diet. More importantly, the U.S. citizen with ten times his income is also desperately poor. Both get increasingly less at greater cost. + +The other side of modernized poverty is related but distinct. The power gap widens because control over production is centralized to make the most goods for the greatest number. Whereas rising poverty levels are due to the structure of industrial outputs, the gaping power lag is due to the structure of inputs. To seek remedies for the former without simultaneously dealing with the latter would only postpone and aggravate the world-wide modernization of poverty. + +The surface effects of industrially concentrated power can be obviated by income equalization. Progressive taxes without loopholes can be supplemented by social security, income supports, and equal welfare benefits for all. Confiscation of private capital beyond a certain limit can be attempted. Keeping maximum close to minimum income is an even tougher way to stem personal enrichment through the management of corporate power. But such curbs on personal income will be effective only in regulating private consumption. It has no effect on equalizing the privileges that really count in a society where the job has become more important than the home. As long as workers are graded by the amount of manpower capital they represent, those who hold high denominations of knowledge stock will be certified for the use of all kinds of timesaving privileges. The concentration of privileges on a few is in the nature of industrial dominance. + +With the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry, patriarchal government and some centralization of power became feasible . At this stage political means could be used to get the power of many slaves under one man’s control. One man could transform a multitude into a tool for the realization of his design. Religion, ideology, and the whip were the principal means of control. But the amount of power controlled was small. The centralization of power which now seems normal could not have been imagined even a century ago. + +In modern society, energy conversion enormously exceeds the body power of all men. Manpower stands to mechanical power in a ratio of 1:15 in China and 1:300 in the U.S.A. Switches concentrate the control over this power more effectively than whips ever could. The social distribution of control over power inputs has been radically changed. If capital means the power to make effective change, power inflation has reduced most people to paupers. + +As tools get bigger, the number of potential operators declines. There are always fewer operators of cranes than of wheelbarrows. As tools become more efficient, more scarce resources are put at the service of the operator. On a Guatemalan construction site, only the engineer gets air conditioning in his trailer. He is also the only one whose time is deemed so precious that he must be flown to the capital, and whose decisions seem so important that they are transmitted by shortwave radio. He has of course earned his privileges by cornering the largest amount of tax money and using it to acquire a university degree. The Indio who works on the gang does not notice the relative increase in privilege between him and his Ladino gang boss, but the geometricians and draftsmen who also went to school, but did not graduate, feel the heat and the distance from their families in a new and acute way. Their relative poverty has been aggravated by their bosses’ claim to greater efficiency. + +Never before have tools approached present power. Never before have they been so integrated at the service of a small élite. Kings could not claim divine right with as little challenge as executives claim services for the sake of greater production. The Russians justify supersonic transport by saying it will economize the time of their scientists. High-speed transportation, broad band-width communication, special health maintenance, and unlimited bureaucratic assistance are all explained as requirements to get the most out of the most highly capitalized people. + +A society with very large tools must rely on multiple devices to keep the majority from claiming the most expensive packages of privilege. These must be reserved for the most productive individuals . The most prestigious way to measure a person’s productivity is by the price tag on his education consumption. The higher a person’s knowledge capital, the greater the social value placed on the decisions he “makes” and the more legitimate is his claim to high-level packages of industrial outputs. + +When the legitimacy of educational certification breaks down, other more primitive forms of discrimination are bound to assume renewed importance. People are judged to be less valuable manpower because they are born in the Third World, because they are black, because they are women, because they belong to the wrong group or party, or because they cannot pass the right battery of tests. The scene is set for the multiplication of minority movements, each one claiming its share, and each one destined to be foiled by its own intent. + +Hierarchies must rise and conglomerate as they extend over fewer and larger corporations. A seat in a high-rise job is the most coveted and contested product of expanding industry. The lack of schooling, compounded with sex, color, and peculiar persuasions , now keeps most people down. Minorities organized by women, or blacks, or the unorthodox succeed at best in getting some of their members through school and into an expensive job. They claim victory when they get equal pay for equal rank. Paradoxically, these movements strengthen the idea that unequal graded work is necessary and that high-rise hierarchies are necessary to produce what an egalitarian society needs. If properly schooled, the black porter will blame himself for not being a black lawyer. At the same time, schooling generates a new intensity of frustration which ultimately can act as social dynamite. + +It does not matter for what specific purpose minorities now organize if they seek an equal share in consumption, an equal place on the pyramid of production, or equal nominal power in the government of ungovernable tools. As long as a minority acts to increase its share within a growth-oriented society, the final result will be a keener sense of inferiority for most of its members. + +Movements that seek control over existing institutions give them a new legitimacy, and also render their contradictions more acute. Changes in management are not revolutions. The shared control of workers and women, or blacks and the young, does not constitute a social reconstruction if what they claim to control are industrial corporations. Such changes are at best new ways to administer an industrial mode of production which, thanks to these shifts, continues unchallenged. More commonly, these changes are professional insurgencies against the status quo. They expand management, and, at an even faster rate, they degrade labor. A new desk usually means more capital-intensive production in one firm and a new guarantee of so-called underemployment somewhere else in society. A majority loses further productive ability, and a minority is forced to seek new reasons and weapons to protect its privilege. + +New classes of underconsumers and of underemployed are one of the inevitable by-products of industrial progress. Organization makes them aware of their common plight. At present articulate minorities–often claiming the leadership of majorities–seek equal treatment. If one day they were to seek equal work rather than equal pay–equal inputs rather than equal outputs–they could be the pivot of social reconstruction. Industrial society could not possibly resist a strong women’s movement, for example, which would lead to the demand that all people, without distinction, do equal work. Women are integrated into all classes and races. Most of their daily activities are performed in nonindustrial ways. Industrial societies remain viable precisely because women are there to perform those daily tasks which resist industrialization. It is easier to imagine that the North American continent would cease to exploit the underindustrialization of South America than that it would cease to use its women for industry-resistant chores. In a society ruled by the standards of industrial efficiency, housework is rendered inhuman and devalued. It would be rendered even less tolerable if it were given pro-forma industrial status. The further expansion of industry would be brought to a halt if women forced upon us the recognition that society is no longer viable if a single mode of production prevails. The effective recognition that not two but several equally valuable, dignified , and important modes of production must coexist within any viable society would bring industrial expansion under control . Growth would stop if women obtained equally creative work for all, instead of demanding equal rights over the gigantic and expanding tools now appropriated by men. + +### Obsolescence + +Convivial reconstruction demands the disruption of the present monopoly of industry, but not the abolition of all industrial production. It does imply the adoption of labor-intensive tools, but not the regression to inefficient tools. It requires a considerable reduction of all kinds of now compulsory therapy, but not the elimination of teaching, guidance, or healing for which individuals take personal responsibility. Neither must a convivial society be stagnant. Its dynamics depend on wide distribution of the power to make effective change. In the present scheme of large-scale obsolescence a few corporate centers of decision- making impose compulsory innovation on the entire society. Continued convivial reconstruction depends on the degree to which society protects the power of individuals and of communities to choose their own styles of life through effective, small-scale renewal . + +I have shown that social polarization is the result of two complementary factors: the excessive cost of industrially produced and advertised products, and the excessive rarity of jobs that are considered highly productive. Obsolescence, on the other hand, produces devaluation–which is the result not of a certain general rate of change but of change in those products which exercise a radical monopoly. Social polarization depends on the fact that industrial inputs and outputs come in units so large that most people are excluded from them. Obsolescence, on the other hand, can become intolerable even when people are not directly priced out of the market. Product elaboration and obsolescence are two distinct dimensions of overefficiency, both of which underpin a society of hierarchically layered privilege. + +It does not really matter if forced obsolescence becomes destructive of old models or of old functions, if Ford discontinues the distribution of spare parts for its 1955 model, or if the police rule old cars off the road because they lack features that safety lobbyists have made standard. Renewal is intrinsic to the industrial mode of production coupled to the ideology of progress. Products cannot be improved unless huge machines are retooled –and in the technical sense engineers have given this word. To make this pay, huge markets must be created for the new model. The most effective way to open a market is to identify the use of what is new as an important privilege. If this identification succeeds, the old model is devalued and the self-interest of the consumer is wedded to the ideology of never-ending and progressive consumption . Individuals are socially graded according to the number of years their bill of goods is out of date. Some people can afford to keep up with the Joneses who buy the latest model, while others still use cars, stoves, and radios that are five to ten years old–and probably spend their vacations in places that are just as many years out of style. They know where they fit on the social ladder. + +The social grading of individuals by the age of the things they use is not just a capitalist practice. Wherever the economy is built around the large-scale production of elaborate and obsolescent packages of staples, it is only the privileged who have access to the newest model of services and goods. Only a few nurses get the most recent course in anesthesiological nursing, and only a few functionaries get the new model of a “people’s car.” The members of this minority within a minority recognize each other by the recent date at which the products they use came onto the market, and it makes little difference whether they use them at home or at work. + +Industrial innovations are costly, and managers must justify their high cost by producing measurable proof of their superiority . Under the rule of industrial socialism, pseudo science will have to provide the alibi, while in market economies, appeal can be made to a survey of consumer opinion. In any case, periodic innovations in goods or tools foster the belief that anything new will be proven better. This belief has become an integral part of the modern world view. It is forgotten that whenever a society lives by this delusion, each marketed unit generates more wants than it satisfies. If new things are made because they are better, then the things most people use are not quite good. New models constantly renovate poverty. The consumer feels the lag between what he has and what he ought to get. He believes that products can be made measurably more valuable and allows himself to be constantly re-educated for their consumption. The “better” replaces the “good” as the fundamental normative concept. + +In a society caught up in the race for the better, limits on change are experienced as a threat. The commitment to the better at any cost makes the good impossible at all costs. Failure to renew the bill of goods frustrates the expectation of what is possible , while renewal of the bill of goods intensifies the expectations of unattainable progress. What people have and what they are about to get are equally exasperating to them. Accelerating change has become both addictive and intolerable. At this point the balance among stability, change, and tradition has been upset; society has lost both its roots in shared memories and its bearings for innovation. Judgment on precedents has lost its value. + +One of the major objections against a stationary-state economy is the fear that the production of a limited and durable number of goods would set intolerable limits on the freedom of innovation and of scientific exploration. This would be justified if I were discussing the transition from the present industrial society to its next model: clean and limited production of goods and unlimited growth in the service sector. I am not, however, discussing the evolution of industrial society, but the transition to a new mixed mode of production. + +Industrial innovations are planned, trivial, and conservative. The renewal of convivial tools would be as unpredictable, creative , and lively as the people who use them. Scientific progress is also dulled by the present identification of research with industrial development. Most of the cost of research derives from its competitive nature and pressure; most of its tools are restricted to people who have been carefully programmed to look at the world through the prisms of profit and power; most of its goals are set by the need for more power and efficiency. Leisurely scientific research does not exclude a bevatron or some ultracentrifuges ; removal of access restrictions now created by schools would again admit the curious, rather than the orthodox, to the alchemist’s vault; and study for its own sake would produce more surprises than team research on how to eliminate production snags. + +A changeless society would be as intolerable for people as the present society of constant change. Convivial reconstruction requires limits on the rate of compulsory change. An unlimited rate of change makes lawful community meaningless. Law is based on the retrospective judgment of peers about circumstances that occur ordinarily and are likely to occur again. If the rate of change which affects all circumstances accelerates beyond some point, such judgments cease to be valid. Lawful society breaks down. Social control does not accommodate community participation and becomes the function of experts. Educators define how people are to be trained and retrained throughout their lives–shaped and reshaped until they fit the demands of industry and are attracted by its profits. Ideologues define what is right or wrong. The tooling of man for the milieu becomes the major industry when this milieu changes beyond a certain rate; then man’s need for language and law, for memories and myths, imposes limits to the change of tools. + +### Frustration + +I have identified five realms in each of which the efficiency of tools can upset the balance of life. Faulty technology can render the environment uninhabitable. Radical monopoly can force the demand for affluence to the point of paralyzing the ability to work. Overprogramming can transform the world into a treatment ward in which people are constantly taught, socialized, normalized, tested, and reformed. Centralization and packaging of institutionally produced values can polarize society into irreversible structural despotism. And, finally, engineered obsolescence can break all bridges to a normative past. In each or several of these dimensions a tool can threaten survival by making it unfeasible for most people to relate themselves in action to one of the great dimensions of their environment. + +In the assessment of society it is not sufficient to select just one of these realms. Each one of these balances must be preserved. Even clean and equally distributed electricity could lead to intolerable radical monopoly of power tools over man’s personal energy. Not only compulsory schools but pervasive teaching media can be used to upset the balance of learning or to polarize society into an oppressive meritocracy. Any form of engineering can lead to unendurable obsolescence. It is true that man’s physical niche is threatened; but just as he evolved within one particular physiological environment, so he also evolved within a social, political and psychological environment which can also be irreversibly destroyed. Mankind may wither and disappear because he is deprived of basic structures of language, law, and myth, just as much as he can be smothered by smog. Future shock can destroy what is human just as much as radical monopoly or social polarization . + +I have argued that in each of five realms conceptual criteria can be used to recognize escalating imbalance. These criteria serve as guidelines for political processes by which the members of a technological society can develop constitutive boundaries within which tools must be kept. Such boundaries circumscribe the kind of power structures that can be kept under the control of people. By growing beyond this range, tools escape political control. Man’s ability to claim his rights is extinguished by his bondage to processes over which he has no say. Biological functions, work, meaning, freedom, and roots–insofar as he can still enjoy them–are reduced to concessions, which optimize the logic of tools. Man is reduced to an indefinitely malleable resource of a corporate state. Without constitutive limits translated into constitutional provisions survival in dignity and freedom is squelched. + +Present research is overwhelmingly concentrated in two directions : research and development for breakthroughs to the better production of better wares and general systems analysis concerned with protecting man for further consumption. Future research ought to lead in the opposite direction; let us call it counterfoil research. Counterfoil research also has two major tasks: to provide guidelines for detecting the incipient stages of murderous logic in a tool; and to devise tools and tool systems that optimize the balance of life, thereby maximizing liberty for all. + +Counterfoil research is not a new branch of science, nor is it some interdisciplinary project. It is the dimensional analysis of the relationship of man to his tools. It seems obvious that each person lives in several concentric social environments. To each social environment there corresponds a set of natural scales. This is true for the primary group, for the production unit, for the city, the state, and the organization of men on the globe. To each of these social environments there correspond certain characteristic distances, periods, populations, energy sources, and energy sinks. In each of these dimensions tools that require time periods or spaces or energies much beyond the order of corresponding natural scales are dysfunctional. They upset the homeostasis which renders the particular environment viable. At present we tend to define human needs in terms of abstract goals and treat these as problems to which technocrats can apply escalating solutions. What we need is rational research on the dimensions within which technology can be used by concrete communities to implement their aspirations without frustrating equivalent aspirations by others. + +The barriers beyond which destruction looms are of a different nature from the boundaries within which a society freely constrains its tools. The former establish the realm of possible survival ; the latter determine the shape of a culturally preferred environment . The former define the conditions for uniform regimentation ; the latter set the conditions of convivial justice. The boundaries of doom are constitutive requirements common to all postindustrial societies. Statutory characteristics setting more narrow bounds than those absolutely necessary are the result of joint options made in a commonweal, as a result of its members’ defining their life style and their level of liberty. + +Supersonic transports could be easily ruled out to protect the environment, air transport to avoid social polarization, cars to protect against radical monopoly. The balance of purpose I want to highlight at this point provides a further criterion by which to select desirable tools. In view of this balance it might even be possible to exclude public transportation moving at high velocity. + +There is a form of malfunction in which growth does not yet tend toward the destruction of life, yet renders a tool antagonistic to its specific aims. Tools, in other words, have an optimal, a tolerable, and a negative range. Tolerable overefficiency also disturbs a balance, but a balance of a subtler and more subjective kind than those discussed before. The balance here threatened is that between personal cost and return. It can be expressed more generally as the perception of the balance between means and ends. When ends become subservient to the tools choosen for their sake, the user first feels frustration and finally either abstains from their use or goes mad. Compulsory maddening behavior in Hades was considered the ultimate punishment reserved for blasphemy . Sisyphus was forced to keep rolling a stone uphill, only to see it roll back down. When maddening behavior becomes the standard of a society, people learn to compete for the right to engage in it. Envy blinds people and makes them compete for addiction. + +Wherever the maximum velocity of any one type of commuter vehicle grows beyond a certain mph, the travel time and the cost of transportation for the median commuter is increased. If the maximum velocity at any one point of a commuter system goes beyond a certain mph, most people are obliged to spend more time in traffic jams, or waiting for connections, or recovering from accidents. They will also have to spend more time paying for the transportation system they are compelled to use. + +The critical velocity depends to a certain extent on a variety of factors: geography, culture, market controls, level of technology, and money flow. With so many variables affecting a quantity, it would seem that its value could fluctuate over a very wide range. Just the contrary is true. Once it is understood that we refer to any vehicular velocity in the transportation of people within a community, we find that the range within which the critical velocity can vary is very narrow. It is, in fact, so narrow and so low that it seems improbable and not worth the time of most traffic engineers to worry about. + +Commuter transportation leads to negative returns when it admits, anywhere in the system, speeds much above those reached on a bicycle. Once the barrier of bicycle velocity is broken at any point in the system, the total per capita monthly time spent at the service of the travel industry increases. + +High output leads to time lack. Time becomes scarce, partly because it takes time to consume goods and to undergo therapies, and partly because dependence on production makes abstention from it more costly. The richer we get in a consumer society, the more acutely we become aware of how many grades of value–of both leisure and labor–we have climbed. The higher we are on the pyramid, the less likely we are to give up time to simple idleness and to apparently nonproductive pursuits. The joy of listening to the neighborhood finch is easily overshadowed by stereophonic recordings of “Bird Songs of the World,” the walk through the park downgraded by preparations for a packaged bird-watching tour into the jungle. It becomes difficult to economize time when all commitments are for the long run. Staffan Linder points out that there is a strong tendency for us to overcommit the future, so that when the future becomes present, we seem to be conscious all the time of having an acute scarcity, simply because we have committed ourselves to about thirty hours a day instead of twenty-four. In addition to the mere fact that time has competitive uses and high marginal utility in an affluent society, this overcommitment creates a sense of pressure and harriedness. + +Life in a society where speedy transportation is taken for granted renders time scarce in both of these ways. Activities related to the use of speedy vehicles by many people in a society occupy an increasing percentage of the time budget of most members of that society, as the speed of the vehicles increases beyond a certain point. Beyond this point the competition of transportation activities with stationary activities becomes fierce, especially competition for the allocation of limited real estate and available energy. This competition seems to grow exponentially with the rise of speed. The time reserved for commuting displaces both work and leisure time. Hence, the speedier vehicles are, the more it becomes important to keep them filled at all times. If they are individual capsules, they tend to become disproportionately costly and scarce. If they are public vehicles, they tend to be large, and run at infrequent intervals or along only a few routes. + +As speed increases, the adaptation of life patterns to vehicles becomes more tyrannical. It becomes necessary to make constant corrections and amendments to the allocation of shorter periods. It becomes necessary to make appointments and commitments months or even years ahead. Since some of these commitments, which have been made at great cost, cannot be kept, there is a sense of constant failure which produces a sense of constant tension . Man has only a limited ability to submit to programming. When speed increases beyond a certain point, the transportation system vies with other systems in exhausting human tolerance for social controls. + +Machines turn against men at a much lower level of power than would be ruled out by the first five criteria. But while these criteria identify necessary safeguards for life and liberty, the balance of purpose depends on a different kind of value. Conceptual rather than empirical criteria can be set for the constitutional limitation of power. It ought to be relatively easy for a majority to rule what abuse it will take from any minority, or what damage it will not expose its offspring to. The recognition of the most socially desirable power of a tool is of a different nature; it can only be the outcome of political procedure. The value obtained for time wasted on speed transportation is conditioned by the consensus in a community about the level of its freedom as a concrete option of its civilization. + +Transportation beyond bicycle speeds demands power inputs from the environment. Velocity translates directly into power, and soon power needs increase exponentially. In the United States, 22 percent of the energy converted drives vehicles, and another 10 percent keeps roads open for them. The amount of energy is comparable to the total energy–except for domestic heating–required for the combined economies of India and China. The energy used up in the United States for the sole purpose of driving vehicles built to accelerate beyond bicycle speed would suffice to add auxiliary motors to about twenty times that many vehicles for people all over the world who want to move at bicycle speeds and do not or cannot push the pedals because they are sick or old, or because they want to transport a heavy load or move over a great distance, or because they just want to relax. Simply on the basis of equal distribution on a world-wide scale, speeds above those attained by bicycles could be ruled out. It is of course mere fantasy to assume an egalitarian consensus sufficiently strong to accept such a proposal. At closer inspection though, many communities will find that the very same speed limit necessary for equal distribution of mobility is also very close to the optimum velocity giving maximum value to community life. At 20 mph constant speed Phileas Fogg could have made his trip around the world in half of eighty days. Simulation studies would be useful for exploring imaginative policies that seek optimal liberty with convivial power tools. To whose advantage would Calcutta’s traffic flow stabilize if speeds were limited to 10 mph? What price would Peru’s military pay for limiting the nation’s speed to 20 mph? What gains in equality, activity, health, and freedom would result from limiting all other vehicles to the speed of bicycles and sailing ships? + +Negative returns are not unique to transportation. Ninety percent of all medical care for patients with terminal diseases is unrelated to their health; such treatment tends to increase suffering and disability without demonstrably lengthening life. The maximum feasibility of service for the optimum care of an individual patient lies within a certain range. Beyond this range medical bills measure the health of a patient in the same way that GNP measures the wealth of a nation. Both add on the same scale the market value of benefits and the defensive expenditures which become necessary to offset the unwanted side effects of their production . The technological escalation of medicine first ceases to serve healing and then ceases to prolong life. It turns into a death-denying ritual of terminal care: a final race in which the personality best fitted to machines turns in the most spectacular performance . + +Counterfoil research is concerned first with an analysis of increasing marginal disutility and the menace of growth. It is then concerned with the discovery of general systems of institutional structure which optimize convivial production. This kind of research meets psychological resistance. Growth has become addictive . Like heroin addiction, the habit distorts basic value judgments . Addicts of any kind are willing to pay increasing amounts for declining satisfactions. They have become tolerant to escalating marginal disutility. They are blind to deeper frustration because they are absorbed in playing for always mounting stakes. Minds accustomed to thinking that transportation ought to provide speedy motion rather than reduction of the time and effort spent moving are boggled by this contrary hypothesis. Man is inherently mobile, and speeds higher than those he can achieve by the use of his limbs must be proven to be of great social value to warrant support by public sacrifice. + +Counterfoil research must clarify and dramatize the relationship of people to their tools. It ought to hold constantly before the public the resources that are available and the consequences of their use in various ways. It should impress on people the existence of any trend that threatens one of the major balances on which life depends. Counterfoil research leads to the identification of those classes of people most immediately hurt by such trends and helps people to identify themselves as members of such classes. It points out how a particular freedom can be jeopardized for the members of various groups which have otherwise conflicting interests. Counterfoil research involves the public by showing that the demands for freedom of any group or alliance can be identified with the implicit interest of all. + +Withdrawal from growth mania will be painful, but mostly for members of the generation which has to experience the transition and above all for those most disabled by consumption. If their plight could be vividly remembered, it might help the next generation avoid what they know would enslave them. + + +## Recovery + +I have discussed five dimensions on which the balance of life depends. In each I have indicated tendencies that must be kept in equilibrium to maintain the homeostasis which constitutes human life. I have argued that the control of natural forces is functional only if the use of nature does not make nature useless for man. I have argued that institutions are functional when they promote a delicate balance between what people can do for themselves and what tools at the service of anonymous institutions can do for them. Formal instruction also depends on a balance. Special arrangements must never outweigh opportunities for independent learning. An increase in social mobility can render society more human, but only if at the same time there is a narrowing of the difference in power which separates the few from the many. Finally , an increase in the rate of innovation is of value only when with it rootedness in tradition, fullness of meaning, and security are also strengthened. + +A tool can grow out of man’s control, first to become his master and finally to become his executioner. Tools can rule men sooner than they expect: the plow makes man the lord of a garden but also the refugee from a dust bowl. Nature’s revenge can produce children less fit for life than their fathers, and born into a world less fit for them. Homo faber can be turned into a sorcerer’s apprentice . Specialization can make his every day so complicated that it becomes estranged from his activity. Addiction to progress can enslave all men to a race in which none ever reaches the goal. + +There are two ranges in the growth of tools: the range within which machines are used to extend human capability and the range in which they are used to contract, eliminate, or replace human functions. In the first, man as an individual can exercise authority on his own behalf and therefore assume responsibility. In the second, the machine takes over–first reducing the range of choice and motivation in both the operator and the client, and second imposing its own logic and demand on both. Survival depends on establishing procedures which permit ordinary people to recognize these ranges and to opt for survival in freedom, to evaluate the structure built into tools and institutions so they can exclude those which by their structure are destructive, and control those which are useful. Exclusion of the malignant tool and control of the expedient tool are the two major priorities for politics today. Multiple limits to overefficiency must be expressed in language that is simple and politically effective. This urgent task is faced, however, with three formidable obstacles: the idolatry of science, the corruption of ordinary language, and loss of respect for the formal process by which social decisions are made. + +### The Demythologization of Science + +Above all, political discussion is stunned by a delusion about science. This term has come to mean an institutional enterprise rather than a personal activity, the solving of puzzles rather than the unpredictably creative activity of individual people. Science is now used to label a spectral production agency which turns out better knowledge just as medicine produces better health. The damage done by this misunderstanding about the nature of knowledge is even more fundamental than the damage done to the conceptions of health, education, or mobility by their identification with institutional outputs. False expectations of better health corrupt society, but they do so in only one particular sense. They foster a declining concern with healthful environments, healthy life styles, and competence in the personal care of one’s neighbor. Deceptions about health are circumstantial. The institutionalization of knowledge leads to a more general and degrading delusion. It makes people dependent on having their knowledge produced for them. It leads to a paralysis of the moral and political imagination. + +This cognitive disorder rests on the illusion that the knowledge of the individual citizen is of less value than the “knowledge” of science. The former is the opinion of individuals. It is merely subjective and is excluded from policies. The latter is “objective”–defined by science and promulgated by expert spokesmen. This objective knowledge is viewed as a commodity which can be refined , constantly improved, accumulated and fed into a process, now called “decision-making.” This new mythology of governance by the manipulation of knowledge-stock inevitably erodes reliance on government by people. + +The world does not contain any information. It is as it is. Information about it is created in the organism through its interaction with the world. To speak about storage of information outside the human body is to fall into a semantic trap. Books or computers are part of the world. They can yield information when they are looked upon. We move the problem of learning and of cognition nicely into the blind spot of our intellectual vision if we confuse vehicles for potential information with information itself. We do the same when we confuse data for potential decision with decision itself. + +Overconfidence in “better knowledge” becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. People first cease to trust their own judgment and then want to be told the truth about what they know. Overconfidence in “better decision-making” first hampers people’s ability to decide for themselves and then undermines their belief that they can decide. + +The growing impotence of people to decide for themselves affects the structure of their expectations. People are transformed from contenders for scarce resources into competitors for abundant promises. Adjudication by ordeal is replaced by recourse to secular rituals. These rituals are organized as frenzied consumption of the offerings of some menu: a curriculum, a therapy, or a court case. The promise that science will provide affluence for all and for each according to his objectively verified merits deprives personal conflict of its creative legitimacy. People who have unlearned how to decide about their own rights on their own evidence become pawns in a world game operated by mega-machines . No longer can each person make his or her own contribution to the constant renewal of society. Recourse to better knowledge produced by science not only voids personal decisions of the power to contribute to an ongoing historical and social process, it also destroys the rules of evidence by which experience is traditionally shared. The knowledge-consumer depends on getting packaged programs funneled into him. He finds security in the expectation that his neighbor and his boss have seen the same programs and read the same columns. The procedure by which personal certainties are honestly exchanged is eroded by the increasing recourse to exceptionally qualified knowledge produced by a science, profession, or political party. Mothers poison their children on the adman’s or the M.D.’s advice. Even in the courtroom and in parliament, scientific hearsay–well hidden under the veil of expert testimony–biases juridical and political decisions. Judges, governments, and voters abdicate their own evidence about the necessity of resolving conflicts in a situation of defined and permanent scarcity and opt for further growth on the basis of data which they admittedly cannot fully understand . + +When communities have grown overconfident in science, they leave it to experts to set the upper limits on growth. This man-date rests on a fallacy. Experts can define standards at levels slightly below those at which people complain with too much force. They can keep the public sullen and forestall mutiny. But closed peer groups cannot be entrusted with self-restraint in furthering their expert knowledge. Nor can we expect them to be representative of the common man. Scientific expertise cannot define what people will tolerate. No person can abdicate the right to decide on this for himself. It is, of course, possible to experiment on humans. Nazi doctors explored what the organism can endure. They found out how long the average person can survive torture, but this did not tell them anything about what someone can tolerate. These doctors were condemned under a statute signed in Nuremberg two days after Hiroshima and the day before the bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. + +What a population will endure remains beyond experiment. We can tell what happens to particular groups of people under extreme circumstances–in prison, on an expedition, or in an experiment. Such precedents cannot serve as measures for the privations which a society will tolerate as a result of tools or rules made for its service. Scientific measurements may suggest that a certain endeavor threatens a major balance of life. Only the informed judgment of a majority of prudent men who act on the much more complex basis of everyday evidence can determine how to limit individual and social goals. Science can clarify the dimensions of man’s realm in the universe. Only a political community can dialectically choose the dimensions of the roof under which its members will live. + +### The Rediscovery of Language + +Between 1830 and 1850 a dozen inventors formulated the law of the conservation of energy. Most of them were engineers, and independently from each other they redefined the floating life force of the universe in terms of work machines could perform. Measurements that could be taken in the laboratory became the scale by which the mysterious cosmic nexus–called vis viva for centuries–could henceforth be defined. + +During the same period industry successfully competed with other modes of production for the first time. Industrial performance became the scale according to which human effectiveness in the entire economy was now measured. Housework, farming , handicraft, and subsistence activities ranging from the making of preserves to the self-building of a home began to be viewed as subsidiary or second-rate forms of production. The industrial mode first degraded and later paralyzed the nexus of productive relationships which coexisted in society. + +This monopoly of one mode of production over all social relations is much more profound than the competition of firms which overshadows it. In the surface competition the winner is easily recognized as the more capital-intensive factory, the better- organized business, the more exploitative and better-protected branch of industry, the corporation that sheds diseconomies the most unobtrusively or produces for war. On a broad scale this race takes the form of a competition among multinational corporations and industrializing nation-states. But this deadly game among giants diverts attention from the ritual service which the game itself renders to the contestants. As the arena of the contest expands, an industrial structure is imposed on world society. The mode of corporate production establishes a radical monopoly not only over resources and tools but also over the imagination and motivational structure of people. Political systems compete to baptize the same expanding industrial structure into opposing creeds, without recognizing that it is beyond their control. The convergence of corporate monopolies on the deep structural level of society can be called the industrialization of man. This trend must be inverted if people are to be free. But the industrial corruption of language itself makes this issue terribly difficult to formulate. + +Language reflects the monopoly of the industrial mode of production over perception and motivation. The tongues of industrial nations identify the fruits of creative work and of human labor with the outputs of industry. The materialization of consciousness is reflected in Western languages. Schools operate by the slogan “education!” while ordinary language asks what children “learn.” The functional shift from verb to noun highlights the corresponding impoverishment of the social imagination. People who speak a nominalist language habitually express proprietary relationships to work which they have. All over Latin America only the salaried employees, whether workers or bureaucrats, say that they have work; peasants say that they do it: “ Van a trabajar, pero no tienen trabajo .” Those who have been modernized and unionized expect industries to produce not only more goods but also more work for more people. Not only what men do but also what men want is designated by a noun. “Housing” designates a commodity rather than an activity. People acquire knowledge, mobility, even sensitivity or health. They have not only work or fun but even sex. + +This shift from verb to noun reflects a transformation in the idea of ownership. “Possessing,” “holding,” and “seizing” no longer describe the relationships people can have to corporations, such as systems of schools or highways. Possessive statements made about tools come to mean the ability to command their outputs, interest from capital, or merchandise, or some kind of prestige connected with their operation. Fully industrialized man calls his own principally what has been made for him. He says “my education ,” “my transportation,” “my entertainment,” “my health” about the commodities he gets from school, car, show business, or doctor. Western languages, and above all English, become almost inseparable from industrial production. Western men might have to learn from other languages that ownership relations can be restructured in a convivial way. For instance, in Micronesian tongues there exist entirely distinct devices to express the relationship I have to my acts (which can no longer be separated from me), to my nose (which can be cut off), to my relatives (who were inflicted on me), to my canoe (without which I could not be a full man), to a drink (which I serve you), or to the same drink (which I intend to swallow). + +In a society whose language has undergone this shift, predicates come to be stated in terms of a commodity and claims in terms of competition for a scarce resource. “I want to learn” is translated into “I want to get an education.” The decision to do something is turned into the demand for a stake in the gamble of schooling. “I want to walk” is restated as “I need transportation.” The subject in the first case designates himself as an actor, and in the second as a consumer. Linguistic change supports the expansion of the industrial arena: competition for institutionalized values is reflected in the use of nominal language. This competition for shares inevitably takes the form of a game. People gamble for what they perceive as nouns. Of course, that competition can be organized either as a zero-sum game, in which one wins when another loses, or as a non-zero-sum game, in which both competitors get more than if either had lost. Compulsory school could be construed as an example of a zero-sum game: there are only winners and losers; by definition school bestows privilege on fewer people than it degrades. An example of the second would be the transition from private to public transport: at least for the time being, more commuters could get faster wherever they want to go. + +Conflict does not have to be a competition for scarce commodities. It could also manifest disagreement about which conditions would best remove restraints on autonomous action. Conflict can lead to the creation of new freedom; but this possibility has been obscured by nominalist language. It can create for both parties the right to do, and to do things which by definition are neither commodities nor scarce. Conflict which leads to the right to walk, to participate in shaping society, to speak and communicate equally, to live in clean air or to use convivial tools deprives both adversaries of some affluence for the sake of an incommensurable gain–new liberty. + +In some societies the corruption of language has crippled the political fantasy to the point where the difference between a claim to commodities and a right to convivial tools cannot be understood . Limits on tools cannot be publicly discussed. Public blindness to urgent issues is not a new phenomenon. People for decades refused to open their eyes to the urgency of population control, for example. Limiting tools for the sake of freedom and conviviality is now such an issue that cannot be raised. A limit on vehicular velocity as a major election issue seems an implausible idea to the rich and an irrelevant idea to the poor. People who are born next to highways cannot imagine a world without speed, and the peasant in the Andes cannot grasp why anyone should travel that fast. A slowdown as the condition for good transportation sounds shocking. To recommend limits on tools sounds as deeply obscene today as the recommendation for greater sexual frankness and freedom as a condition for a good marriage law would have sounded a generation ago. + +The operating code of industrial tools encroaches on everyday language and reduces the poetic self-affirmation of men to a barely tolerated and marginal protest. The consequent industrialization of man can be inverted only if the convivial function of language is recuperated, but with a new level of consciousness. Language which is used by a people jointly claiming and asserting each person’s right to share in the shaping of the community becomes , so to speak, a second-order tool to clarify the relationships of a people to engineered instrumentalities. + +### The Recovery of Legal Procedure + +Support of an ever-expanding productive society has become the overwhelmingly dominant purpose of the existing structure of politics and law. The procedure by which people decide what ought to be done has become subservient to the ideology that corporations ought to produce more: more knowledge and decisions, more goods and services. This perversion constitutes the third obstacle to the translation of the need for a bounded society into actual social process. + +Political parties, legislatures, and the juridical system have been consistently used to foster and protect the growth of schools, unions, hospitals, and road systems, not to speak of industries. Gradually, not only the police but even the courts and the legal system itself have come to be thought of as tools made for the service of an industrial state. That they sometimes protect individuals against industrial claims has become an alibi for their habitual service of legitimizing the further concentration of power. Along with the idolatry of scientific method and the corruption of language, this progressive loss of confidence in political and legal processes is a major obstacle to retooling society. + +People come to understand that an alternative society is possible by using clear language. They can bring it about by recovering consciousness of the deep structure by which, in their society, decisions are made. Such a structure exists wherever people form a community. Contradictory decisions can be the outcome of the same process because the structure can be used to define personal values and also to shore up institutional behavior. But the existence of such conflicting results does not contradict the existence of a consistent structure which generates them. People can decide to get an education in school even though they have decided that it would be better to learn something on their own. They can let themselves be taken to a hospital, though they have decided to die at home. Just as cognitive dissonance is a foundation for dialectics, so the simultaneous acceptance of contradictory norms proves the existence of normative procedures. + +Public confidence in the existence of shared procedures has been shaken because these procedures are constantly misused. They have become tools to support unlimited production through converging arguments that alternately take a moral, a political, or a legal character. Christian churches preach meekness, charity, and austerity but finance industrial programs; socialists enforce a Stalinist mode of production, and the common law has come to favor the firm over the individual. Soon the computer will be used to define at every juncture what should be done for the growth of tools, unless people rediscover that they share a deep commitment to formal procedures by which they can decide how their present major institutions ought to be turned around. + +Unless people agree on a process that can be continuously, convivially , and effectively used to control society’s tools, the inversion of the present institutional structure cannot be either enacted or, what is more important, precariously maintained. Managers will always re-emerge to increase institutional productivity and capture public support for the better service they promise. + +Three objections are usually made whenever law is proposed as a tool for the inversion of society. One of them is rather superficial: not everybody can be a lawyer, and so not everybody can operate the law on his own. This, of course, is true only to some degree. Parajuridical systems could be set up in particular communities and incorporated into the over-all structure. Much wider scope could be given to alternative mechanisms to allow for greater participation by the nonprofessional, such as mediation , conciliation, and arbitration. But insofar as this objection is valid, it is also irrelevant to my point. The law, as it deals with the regulation of large-scale production agencies, can surely be decentralized , demystified and debureaucratized. But even then some social concerns are, and could for a long time remain, complex and of vast range, demanding corresponding legal tools. Precisely if it is to be used for the negotiating of world-wide proscriptions among large communities, each with its own centuries-old traditions, the law as the process enabling us to regulate these concerns is and will remain a tool requiring some experts to operate it. But this does not mean that such experts have to be graduates of a law school, or that they must be members of a closed profession. + +The second objection is completely relevant and much more profound: persons who now operate the law as a social tool are deeply infected with the myths that pervade a growth society. Their imagination of the possible and of the feasible is determined by the lore of industry. It would be folly to expect the present corporations of social enigneers of a utilitarian society to turn into the guardians of a convivial one. The critical importance of this observation is complemented and underlined by a third objection. The juristic system is not simply a set of written laws; it is a continuing process by which those laws are made and then applied to actual situations. The law is used to impose a given mind-set on all participants. The resulting content of the law embodies the ideologies of lawmakers and judges. How they experience the ideology inherent in a culture becomes established mythology in the laws they make and apply. The body of laws that regulates an industrial society inevitably reflects and reinforces its ideology, social character, and class structure. “More” is always in the common good–more power to firms, professions, and parties. + +While this objection does indicate a fundamental difficulty against the use of law in an inversion of society, it also misses the point. I carefully distinguish between a body of laws and the purely formal structure by which it is made, just as I have distinguished the use of slogans by which our institutions operate from the use of ordinary language, and as I will later distinguish between policies and formal political process. It is the latter and not the former which are the second order of tools we need, can share, and have to use. + +It is almost impossible to insist strongly enough on the distinction between means and ends in an epoch in which purposes have been reduced to operations, in an epoch in which people “raise” consciousness, movements pretend to provide “liberation,” languages rather than persons are said to “speak,” and politicians “make” revolutions. The law can again serve to highlight the general difference between substance and what might be called not “due process” but rather “due procedure.” + +Two major complementary features of the common law make its formal structure particularly applicable to the needs which arise in a profound crisis. One is the inherent continuity of the system, and the other is its adversary nature. Analogous features can be found in other law systems; I here choose the Anglo- American system of law as an illustration of my more general point. + +The continuity built into the lawmaking process does in one sense conserve the substance of a body of laws. This is less obvious in the legislative stage. Legislators are free to innovate at their own discretion, as long as they stay within a constitutional framework . But they do also have to fit any new law into the context of existing legislation, and this tends to ensure that new legislation will not vary too widely from the over-all tradition of existing law. + +The function of the courts in providing continuity to the substance of the law is more obvious. A court applies existing law to actual situations. Like cases are decided alike, or the facts are found to be of a different significance today. The law represents the sovereign authority of the past over the present controversy, the continuity of a dialectic process. The court recognizes the controversy as a social concern and incorporates its resolutions into the body of the law. In the process the social experience of the past is readapted to present needs. The present decision will in turn serve as reference in future cases. + +The continuity of the formal structure used in this process is of a different order from the continuous embodiment of one set of prejudices in a set of laws. Considered in this formal sense, the system of continuity is not designed to preserve the content of any existing set of laws. It could even be used to preserve the continuous development of a set of laws that fit an inverted society . There is nothing in most constitutions that prevents the passage of laws setting upper limits to productivity, privilege, professional monopoly, or efficiency. In principle, the existing process of legislatures and courts can, with a reversal of its focus, make and apply such law. + +The adversary nature of the common law is equally important. The common law is not formally concerned with what is ethically or technically good. It is a tool for the understanding of mutualities that surface as actual conflicts. It leaves to those directly concerned with a social interest the task of insisting on the protection of their rights or the pursuit of their claims to what they consider to be good. This works in both legislation and jurisprudence; the decision is an act of balancing conflicting interests in a way that is theoretically best for all. + +It is obvious that during the last few generations this balance has been wholly distorted in favor of a production-oriented society . But the current misuse of the juristic structure is not a valid argument against its use for precisely the opposite purpose. Interests wholly opposed to such a society, free from the illusion that growth can overcome injustice, and concerned with limits, can in principle use the same tool. It is not, of course, sufficient that new types of plaintiffs appear; it is equally true that the growth illusions of legislators must fade, and that parties must be brought forward to represent their interest in a reassessment of what are now taken as facts. + +Not only the legislative but also the juridical process depends on the presentation of conflicting social interests by interested parties for settlement by disinterested tribunals. These tribunals operate in a continuous way. Ideally, judges are ordinary, prudent men or women indifferent to the substance of the issue they are expected to reconcile, and experts in the application of process. In practice, however, tribunals have also come to serve the concentration of power and the increase of industrial production. Not only do judges, like legislators, perceive that a conflict is best balanced when the balance is tipped in favor of the over-all interest of corporations, but society has also conditioned the plaintiffs always to demand more. A larger share of institutional output constitutes the substance of a claim much more frequently than protection against an institution which limits a person’s freedom to do something on his own. But this abuse of the formal structure of common law does not corrupt the structure itself. + +An objection is frequently raised when adversary procedures are presented as a major tool to oppose industrial growth. Society already heavily relies on such proceedings. Their extension to new areas is continually recommended. Legal reformers tend to provide new weapons to all classes of disadvantaged: blacks, Indians, women, employees, cripples. As a result proceedings have become cumbersome, costly, and only a few of the interested parties can come forward. Decisions are often delayed until they have lost their relevance. Role-playing is encouraged, and this often creates new tensions between artificial groups. In going out of the way to create structures so that adversary processes may be used, decisions are made scarce. + +This objection is very relevant if it opposes the proliferation of adversary proceedings in the resolution of conflicts between people . But neither the conflict between individuals nor the competition between groups is the substance of our issue. The fundamental conflict in society is about acts, facts, and things on which people are opposed to corporations. Formal adversary procedure is the paradigmatic tool for citizens to oppose the threat of industry to their basic liberties. This is the process suited to the opposition of two partners whom the law has rendered equal, in which the aggrieved party is interested in disputing one fact or a relevant law or principle, and considers this issue the only continuing interest he has in common with the other. A group of citizens interested in retooling society is not concerned with negotiations or mediation but with direct opposition to the industrial mode of production and its undue expansion in a specific instance. + +Like ordinary English, formal process is a convivial tool. Undoubtedly , industrial institutions have entrenched themselves by corrupting the habitual use of these tools by individuals and communities . Yet language and formal process remain intrinsically distinct from the purposes for which they are used. People can defend language and legal procedure as inherently theirs; they can find in their inalienable natures the confidence to use their unchanged formal structures to express contents entirely opposed to those for which they were taught to use them in their childhood . The formal structure of law still offers a process by which the ordinary citizen can present to society his own practical interest in conflict with the interest of a corporation, even when this corporation is an agency of the state, and even if this interest favors or opposes any functioning or proposed program. + +It would be absurd to expect that professionals who are experts in the corrupt use of language or of law could suddenly think clearly and proceed rightly. Educators who are aware of the breakdown of schools usually engage in a frantic search for advice that permits them to teach more people about more things. Doctors tend to believe that at least some of the generally useful knowledge they hold cannot be expressed outside their hieratic code. It is useless to expect the American Medical Association, the National Education Association, or the association of traffic engineers to explain in ordinary language the professional gangsterism of their colleagues. It would be equally fruitless to count on present legislators, lawyers, and judges to recognize the independence of what is right from the preconceived good, which for them is identical with the higher output of goods by corporations . They are trained to adjust any conflict in favor of over-all industrial growth. But just as an exceptional doctor here and there helps people live responsibly, to suffer as a matter of fact, and to face death, so an exceptional lawyer can help people use the formal structure of the law to represent their interest in a convivial society. Even though he will probably be frustrated in his claims, he can use the courtroom drama to make his point. + +Legal procedure applied to a society filled by optimism about its expanding tools has turned into the most effective instrument for the social control of people at the service of these tools. To advance an industrial society, the law is systematically used for social engineering and the continually more complete and effective elimination of waste and friction in the mega-machine. Anglo-American industry has consistently been more successful, in the long run, than the industry of socialist countries. Law is more effective than centralized planning in bringing and keeping people under the rule of machines. Yet the current misuse of the juristic structure is not a valid argument against its use for precisely the opposite purpose, though it suggests caution against overly optimistic hopes for such an inverted use. + +Most of the present laws and present legislators, most of the present courts and their decisions, most of the claimants and their demands are deeply corrupted by an overarching industrial consensus: that more is better, and that corporations serve the public interest better than men. But this entrenched consensus does not invalidate my thesis that any revolution which neglects the use of formal legal and political procedures will fail. Only an active majority in which all individuals and groups insist for their own reasons on their own rights, and whose members share the same convivial procedure, can recover the rights of men against corporations. + +The use of procedure for the purpose of hampering, stopping, and inverting our major institutions will appear to their managers and addicts as a misuse of the law and as subversion of the only order which they recognize. The use of due convivial procedure appears corrupt and criminal to the bureaucrat, even one who calls himself a judge. + + + +## Political Inversion + +If within the very near future man cannot set limits to the interference of his tools with the environment and practice effective birth control, the next generations will experience the gruesome apocalypse predicted by many ecologists. Faced with these impending disasters, society can stand in wait of survival within limits set and enforced by bureaucratic dictatorship. Or it can engage in a political process by the use of legal and political procedures. Ideologically biased interpretations of the past have made the recognition of political process increasingly difficult. Liberty has been interpreted as a right to power tools, a right claimed without reasonable limitation by individuals and private associations in capitalist countries and by the state in socialist societies. Recovery becomes feasible only if the fundamental structure of Western societies is clearly recognized and reclaimed. Analogous efforts to recover entirely different formal structures will become necessary when former political or cultural colonies shake off the Western mode of production. + +The bureaucratic management of human survival is unacceptable on both ethical and political grounds. It would also be as futile as former attempts at mass therapy. This does not, of course, mean that a majority might not at first submit to it. People could be so frightened by the increasing evidence of growing population and dwindling resources that they would voluntarily put their destiny into the hands of Big Brothers. Technocratic caretakers could be mandated to set limits on growth in every dimension , and to set them just at the point beyond which further production would mean utter destruction. Such a kakotopia could maintain the industrial age at the highest endurable level of output. + +Man would live in a plastic bubble that would protect his survival and make it increasingly worthless. Since man’s tolerance would become the most serious limitation to growth, the alchemist ’s endeavor would be renewed in the attempt to produce a monstrous type of man fit to live among reason’s dreams. A major function of engineering would become the psychogenetic tooling of man himself as a condition for further growth. People would be confined from birth to death in a world-wide schoolhouse , treated in a world-wide hospital, surrounded by television screens, and the man-made environment would be distinguishable in name only from a world-wide prison. + +The alternative to managerial fascism is a political process by which people decide how much of any scarce resource is the most any member of society can claim; a process in which they agree to keep limits relatively stationary over a long time, and by which they set a premium on the constant search for new ways to have an ever larger percentage of the population join in doing ever more with ever less. Such a political choice of a frugal society remains a pious dream unless it can be shown that it is not only necessary but also possible: (1) to define concrete procedures by which more people are enlightened about the nature of our present crisis and will come to understand that limits are necessary and a convivial life style desirable; (2) to bring the largest number of people into now suppressed organizations which claim their right to a frugal life style and keep them satisfied and therefore committed to convivial life; and (3) to discover and revalue the political or legal tools that are accepted within a society and learn how to use them to establish and protect convivial life where it emerges. Such procedures may sound idealistic at the present moment. This is not proof that they cannot become effective as the present crisis deepens. + +### Myths and Majorities + +The ultimate obstacle to the restructuring of society is not the lack of information about which limits are needed, nor the lack of people who would accept them if they became inevitable, but the power of political myths. + +Almost everyone in rich societies is a destructive consumer. Almost everyone is, in some way, engaged in aggression against the milieu. Destructive consumers constitute a numerical majority. Myth transforms them into a political one. Numerical majorities come to form a mythical voting bloc on a nonexistent issue; “they” are invoked as the unbeatable guardians of vested interest in growth. This mythical majority paralyzes political action. At closer inspection, “they” are a number of reasonable individuals. One is an ecologist who takes a jet plane to a conference on protecting the environment from further pollution. Another is an economist who knows that growing efficiency renders work increasingly scarce; he tries to create new sources of employment. Neither of them has the same interests as the slum-dweller in Detroit who purchases his color TV on time. The three belong no more to a voting bloc that will defend growth than clerks, repairmen, and salesmen are somehow politically homogenized because each fears for his job, needs a car, and wants medicine for his children. + +There can be no such thing as a majority opposed to an issue that has not arisen. A majority agitating for limits to growth is as ludicrous a concept as one demanding growth at all cost. Majorities are not created by shared ideologies. They develop out of enlightened self-interest. The most that even the best of ideologies can do is interpret this interest. The stance each man or woman takes when a social problem becomes an overwhelming threat depends on two factors: the first is how a smoldering conflict erupts into a political issue demanding attention and partisan action; the second is the existence of new élites which can provide an interpretative framework for new–and hitherto unexpected–alignments of interest. + +### From Breakdown to Chaos + +I can only conjecture on how the breakdown of industrial society will ultimately become a critical issue. But I can make rather firm statements about the qualifications for providing guidance within the coming crisis. I believe that growth will grind to a halt. The total collapse of the industrial monopoly on production will be the result of synergy in the failure of the multiple systems that fed its expansion. This expansion is maintained by the illusion that careful systems engineering can stabilize and harmonize present growth, while in fact it pushes all institutions simultaneously toward their second watershed. Almost overnight people will lose confidence not only in the major institutions but also in the miracle prescriptions of the would-be crisis managers. The ability of present institutions to define values such as education, health, welfare, transportation, or news will suddenly be extinguished because it will be recognized as an illusion . + +This crisis may be triggered by an unforeseen event, as the Great Depression was touched off by the Wall Street Crash. Some fortuitous coincidence will render publicly obvious the structural contradictions between stated purposes and effective results in our major institutions. People will suddenly find obvious what is now evident to only a few: that the organization of the entire economy toward the “better” life has become the major enemy of the good life. Like other widely shared insights, this one will have the potential of turning public imagination inside out. Large institutions can quite suddenly lose their respectability, their legitimacy, and their reputation for serving the public good. It happened to the Roman Church in the Reformation, to Royalty in the Revolution. The unthinkable became obvious overnight: that people could and would behead their rulers. + +Sudden change is of a different order than feedback or evolution . Observe the whirlpools below a waterfall. For many seasons the eddies stay in the same place no matter whether the water is high or low. Then, suddenly, one more stone falls into the basin, the entire array changes, and the old can never be reconstructed. People who invoke the specter of a hopelessly growth-oriented majority seem incapable of envisaging political behavior in a crash. Business ceases to be as usual when the populace loses confidence in industrial productivity, and not just in paper currency . + +It is still possible to face the breakdown of each of our various systems in a separate perspective. No remedy seems to work, but we can still find resources to support every remedy proposed. Governments think they can deal with the breakdown of utilities, the disruption of the educational system, intolerable transportation , the chaos of the judicial process, the violent disaffection of the young. Each is dealt with as a separate phenomenon, each is explained by a different report, each calls for a new tax and a new program. Squabbles about alternative remedies give credibility to both: free schools vs. public schools double the demand for education; satellite cities vs. monorails for commuters make the growth of cities seem inexorable; higher professional standards in medicine vs. more paramedical professions further aggrandize the health professions. Since each of the proposed remedies appeals to some, the usual solution is an attempt to try both. The result is a further effort to make the pie grow, and to forget that it is pie in the sky. + +The Coolidge approach to the warnings of the Depression is now applied to the signs of a much more radical crisis. General systems analysis is trusted to relate the institutional breakdowns to each other, which only leads to more planning, centralization, and bureaucracy in order to achieve control over population, affluence, and inefficient industry. Unemployment in the manufacturing sector is supposed to be compensated for by growth in the output of decisions, controls, and therapies. Fascination with industry and mechanical production still blinds people to the possibility of a postindustrial society in which several distinct modes of production would complement each other. Trying to bring about an era which is both hyperindustrial and ecologically feasible, they accelerate the breakdown of several other non-physical and equally fundamental dimensions of the balance of life. + +It would be a mere exercise in geomancy to predict which series of events will play the role of the Wall Street Crash as catalyst of the first crisis of, not just in, industrial society. But it would be folly not to expect in the very near future an event whose effects will jam the growth of tools. When this happens, the noise that accompanies the crash will distract attention from seeing it in proper perspective. + +We still have a chance to understand the causes of the coming crisis, and to prepare for it. If we are to anticipate its effects, we must investigate how sudden change can bring about the emergence into power of previously submerged social groups. It is not calamity as such that creates these groups; it is much less calamity that brings about their emergence; but calamity weakens the prevailing powers which have excluded the submerged from participation in the social process. It is the power of surprise that weakens control, that shakes up the established controllers, and brings to the top those people who have not lost their bearings . + +When controls are weakened, those accustomed to control must seek new allies. In the weakened economic-industrial state of the Great Depression, the establishment could not do without organized labor, so organized labor got its share of power within the structure. In the weakened labor market during the Second World War, industry could not do without black labor. The blacks began to assert their power. + +### Insight into Crisis + +Forces tending to limit production are already at work within society. Public, counterfoil research can significantly help these individuals become more cohesive and self-conscious in their indictment of growth they consider destructive. We can anticipate that their voices will acquire new resonance when the crisis of overproductive society becomes acute. They form no constituency, but they are spokesmen for a majority of which everyone is a potential member. The more unexpectedly the crisis comes, the more suddenly their velleities can turn into a program. But the ability to direct events at that moment depends on how well these minorities grasp the profound nature of the crisis, and know how to state it in effective language: to declare what they want, what they can do, and what they do not need. The critical use of ordinary language is the first pivot in a political inversion. A second pivot is needed. + +Further growth must lead to a multiple catastrophe. That people would accept multiple limits to growth without catastrophe seems highly improbable. The inevitable catastrophic event could be either a crisis in civilization or its end: end by annihilation or end in B. F. Skinner’s world-wide concentration camp run by a T. E. Frazier. The foreseeable catastrophe will be a true crisis–that is, the occasion for a choice–only if at the moment it strikes the necessary social demands can be effectively expressed. They must be represented by people who can demonstrate that the breakdown of the current industrial illusion is for them a condition for choosing an effective and convivial mode of production . The preparation of such groups is the key task of new politics at the present moment. + +I have already argued that these groups must be prepared to provide a logically coherent analysis of the catastrophic event and to communicate it in ordinary language. I have argued that they must be prepared to propose the necessity for a bounded society in practical terms that have general appeal. Sacrifice must be shown as the inevitable price for different groups of people to get what they want–or at least to be liberated from what has become intolerable. But beyond using words to describe the limits as both necessary and appealing, the leadership of these groups must be prepared to use a social tool that is fit to ordain what is good enough for all. It must be a tool which, like language, is respected by all; a tool which, like language, does not lose its power because of the purpose to which it has been put in recent history; a tool which, like language, possesses a fundamental structure that misuse cannot totally corrupt. + +I have already argued that such a tool can only be the formal structure of politics and law. At the moment of the crash which is industrial rather than simply financial, the transformation of catastrophe into crisis depends on the confidence an emerging group of clear-thinking and feeling people can inspire in their peers. They must then argue that the transition to a convivial society can be, and must be, the result of conscious use of disciplined procedure that recognizes the legitimacy of conflicting interests , the historical precedent out of which the conflict arose, and the necessity of abiding by the decision of peers. Convivially used procedure guarantees that an institutional revolution will remain a tool whose goals emerge as they are enacted; the conscious use of procedure in a continually antibureaucratic sense is the only possible protection against the revolution itself becoming an institution. Whether the application of this procedure to the inversion of all major institutions of society is then called a cultural revolution, or the recuperation of the formal structure of law, or participatory socialism or a return to the spirit of the Fueros de España, is merely a matter of labeling. + +### Sudden Change + +When I speak about emerging interest groups and their preparation , I am not speaking of action groups, or of a church, or of new kinds of experts. I am above all not speaking about one political party which could assume power at a moment of crisis. Management of the crisis would make catastrophe irreversible. A well-knit, well-trained party can establish its power at the moment of a crisis in which the choice to be made is one within an over-all system. Such was the Great Depression. What was at issue was control over the tools of production. Such were the events which brought the Marxists to power in Eastern Europe. But the crisis I have described as imminent is not a crisis within industrial society, but a crisis of the industrial mode of production itself. The crisis I have described confronts people with a choice between convivial tools and being crushed by machines. The only response to this crisis is a full recognition of its depth and an acceptance of inevitable self-limitations. The more varied the perspectives from which this insight is shared by interest groups and the more disparate the interests that may be protected only by a reduction of power within society, the greater the probability that the inevitable will be recognized as such. + +I am also not speaking about a majority opposed to growth on some abstract principles. Such a majority is unfeasible. A well-organized élite, vocally promulgating an antigrowth orthodoxy, is indeed conceivable. It is probably now forming. But such a programmatic antigrowth élite would be highly undesirable. By pushing people to accept limits to industrial output without questioning the basic industrial structure of modern society, it would inevitably provide more power to the growth-optimizing bureaucrats and become their pawn. One of the first results of transition toward a stable-state industrial economy would be the development of a labor-intensive, highly disciplined, and growing subsector of production that would control people by giving them jobs. Such a stabilized production of highly rationalized and standardized goods and services would be–if this were possible–even further away from convivial production than the industrial-growth society we have now. + +The proponents of a bounded society have no need to put together some kind of majority. A voting majority in a democracy is not motivated by the explicit commitment of all its members to some specific ideology or to some particular value. A voting majority in favor of a specific institutional limitation would have to be composed of very disparate elements: those seriously aggrieved by some aspect of overproduction, those who do not profit from it, and those who may have objections to the over-all organization of society–but not directly to the specific limit being set. How this functions in times of normal politics can be well illustrated by the example of school. Some people are childless and resent the school tax. Others feel they are taxed more heavily and served less well than their peers in another district. Others object to tax support of schools since they want to send their children to parochial schools. Others object to compulsory schooling as such: some because it does harm to the young and others because it fosters discrimination. All these people could form a voting majority, but not a party or a sect. Under present circumstances they might succeed in cutting school down to size, but thereby they would merely assure its more legitimate survival. A majority vote to limit one major institution tends to be conservative when business is as usual. + +But a majority can have the contrary effect in a crisis which affects society on a deeper level. The joint arrival of several institutions at their second watershed is the beginning of such a crisis. The crash that will follow must make it clear that industrial society as such–and not just its separate institutions–has outgrown the range of its effectiveness. + +The nation-state has become so powerful that it cannot perform its stated functions. Just as General Vo Nguyen Giap could use the U.S. military machine to win his war, so the multinational corporations and professions can now use the law and the two-party system to establish their empire. But while democracy in the United States can survive a victory by Giap, it cannot survive one by ITT and its like. As a total crisis approaches, it becomes more obvious that the nation-state has grown into the holding corporation for a multiplicity of self-serving tools, and the political party into an instrument to organize stockholders for the occasional election of boards and presidents. In this situation, parties support each voter’s right to claim higher levels of individual consumption and to enforce thereby higher levels of industrial consumption. People can claim cars, but the appropriation of society’s over-all resources by a transportation system which determines that cars are useful is left to the decision of experts. Such parties support a state whose only purpose is the support of an increasing GNP, and they are obviously useless at the moment of a general crash. + +When business is normal, the procedural opposition between corporations and clients usually heightens the legitimacy of the latter’s dependence. But at the moment of a structural crisis not even the voluntary reduction of overefficiency on the part of major institutions will keep any of them functioning. A general crisis opens the way to social reconstruction. The loss of legitimacy of the state as a holding corporation does not destroy, but reasserts, the need for constitutional procedure. The loss of confidence in parties that have become stockholders’ factions brings out the importance of adversary procedures in politics. A loss of credibility of opposing claims for more individual consumption only highlights the importance of the use of adversary procedures when the issue to be decided upon is the reconciliation of opposing sets of society-wide limitations. The same general crisis that could easily lead to one-man rule, expert government, and ideological orthodoxy is also the great opportunity to reconstruct a political process in which all participate. + +The structures of political and legal procedures are integral to one another. Both shape and express the structure of freedom in history. If this is recognized, the framework of due procedure can be used as the most dramatic, symbolic, and convivial tool in the political area. The appeal to law remains powerful even where society makes access to legal machinery a privilege, or where it systematically denies justice, or where it cloaks despotism in the mantle of show tribunals. Even when he who upholds the formal structure of ordinary language and procedure earns the scorn, ridicule , and persecution of his fellow revolutionaries, the appeal of an individual to the formal structure embedded in a people’s history remains the most powerful instrument to say the truth and denounce the cancerous domination of the industrial dominance over production as the ultimate form of idolatry. I feel almost unbearable anguish when faced by the fact that only the word recovered from history should be left to us as the power for stemming disaster. Yet only the word in its weakness can associate the majority of people in the revolutionary inversion of inevitable violence into convivial reconstruction. + +Reconstruction for poor countries means adopting a set of negative design criteria within which their tools are kept, in order to advance directly into a postindustrial era of conviviality. The limits to choose are of the same order as those which hyperindustrialized countries will have to adopt for the sake of survival and at the cost of their vested interest. Such social reconstruction cannot be supported by a high-powered army, both because the maintenance of such an army would foil reconstruction and because no such army would be powerful enough. Defense of conviviality is possible only if undertaken by the people with tools they control. Imperalist mercenaries can poison or maim but never conquer a people who have chosen to set boundaries to their tools for the sake of conviviality. + +[^n01:]Hugo v. Rahner, Man at Play , New York, 1972.] + +[^n02:]Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man , Boston, 1970.] diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/es.txt b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/es.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..61e2428 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../es/book/conviviality/es.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/fr.txt b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/fr.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..43441b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/fr.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../fr/book/conviviality/fr.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/index.txt b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f2cf999 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/conviviality/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# Tools for Conviviality + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Tools for Conviviality_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1973 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** ... + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/en.txt b/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/en.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0dbddf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1,835 @@ +# Deschooling Society + +## Introduction + +I owe my interest in public education to Everett Reimer. Until we first met in Puerto Rico in 1958, I had never questioned the value of extending obligatory schooling to all people. Together we have come to realize that for most men the right to learn is curtailed by the obligation to attend school. The essays given at CIDOC and gathered in this book grew out of memoranda which I submitted to him, and which we discussed during 1970, the thirteenth year of our dialogue. The last chapter contains my afterthoughts on a conversation with Erich Fromm on Bachofen's Mutterrecht. + +Since 1967 Reimer and I have met regularly at the Center for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) in Cuernavaca, Mexico. Valentine Borremans, the director of the Center, also joined our dialogue, and constantly urged me to test our thinking against the realities of Latin America and Africa. This book reflects her conviction that the ethos, not just the institutions, of society ought to be "deschooled". + +Universal education through schooling is not feasible. It would be no more feasible if it were attempted by means of alternative institutions built on the style of present schools. Neither new attitudes of teachers toward their pupils nor the proliferation of educational hardware or software (in classroom or bedroom), nor finally the attempt to expand the pedagogue's responsibility until it engulfs his pupils' lifetimes will deliver universal education. The current search for new educational funnels must be reversed into the search for their institutional inverse: educational webs which heighten the opportunity for each one to transform each moment of his living into one of learning, sharing, and caring. We hope to contribute concepts needed by those who conduct such counterfoil research on education--and also to those who seek alternatives to other established service industries. + +On Wednesday mornings, during the spring and summer of 1970, I submitted the various parts of this book to the participants in our CIDOC programs in Cuernavaca. Dozens of them made suggestions or provided criticisms. Many will recognize their ideas in these pages, especially Paulo Freire, Peter Berger, and Jos? Maria Bulnes, as well as Joseph Fitzpatrick, John Holt, Angel Quintero, Layman Allen, Fred Goodman, Gerhard Ladner, Didier Piveteau, Joel Spring, Augusto Salazar Bondy, and Dennis Sullivan. Among my critics, Paul Goodman most radically obliged me to revise my thinking. Robert Silvers provided me with brilliant editorial assistance on Chapters 1, 3, and 6, which have appeared in The New York Review of Books. + +Reimer and I have decided to publish separate views of our joint research. He is working on a comprehensive and documented exposition, which will be subjected to several months of further critical appraisal and be published late in 1971 by Doubleday & Company. Dennis Sullivan, who acted as secretary at the meetings between Reimer and myself, is preparing a book for publication in the spring of 1972 which will place my argument in the context of current debate about public schooling in the United States. I offer this volume of essays now in the hope that it will provoke additional critical contributions to the sessions of a seminar on "Alternatives in Education" planned at CIDOC in Cuernavaca for 1972 and 1973. + +I intend to discuss some perplexing issues which are raised once we embrace the hypothesis that society can be deschooled; to search for criteria which may help us distinguish institutions which merit development because they support learning in a deschooled milieu; and to clarify those personal goals which would foster the advent of an Age of Leisure (schole) as opposed to an economy dominated by service industries. + +IVAN ILLICH + +CIDOC Cuernavaca, Mexico November, 1970 + +## Why We Must Disestablish School + +Many students, especially those who are poor, intuitively know what the schools do for them. They school them to confuse process and substance. Once these become blurred, a new logic is assumed: the more treatment there is, the better are the results; or, escalation leads to success. The pupil is thereby "schooled" to confuse teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence, and fluency with the ability to say something new. His imagination is "schooled" to accept service in place of value. Medical treatment is mistaken for health care, social work for the improvement of community life, police protection for safety, military poise for national security, the rat race for productive work. Health, learning, dignity, independence, and creative endeavor are defined as little more than the performance of the institutions which claim to serve these ends, and their improvement is made to depend on allocating more resources to the management of hospitals, schools, and other agencies in question. + +In these essays, I will show that the institutionalization of values leads inevitably to physical pollution, social polarization, and psychological impotence: three dimensions in a process of global degradation and modernized misery. I will explain how this process of degradation is accelerated when nonmaterial needs are transformed into demands for commodities; when health, education, personal mobility, welfare, or psychological healing are defined as the result of services or "treatments". I do this because I believe that most of the research now going on about the future tends to advocate further increases in the institutionalization of values and that we must define conditions which would permit precisely the contrary to happen. We need research on the possible use of technology to create institutions which serve personal, creative, and autonomous interaction and the emergence of values which cannot be substantially controlled by technocrats. We need counterfoil research to current futurology. + +I want to raise the general question of the mutual definition of man's nature and the nature of modern institutions which characterizes our world view and language. To do so, I have chosen the school as my paradigm, and I therefore deal only indirectly with other bureaucratic agencies of the corporate state: the consumer-family, the party, the army, the church, the media. My analysis of the hidden curriculum of school should make it evident that public education would profit from the deschooling of society, just as family life, politics, security, faith, and communication would profit from an analogous process. + +I begin my analysis, in this first essay, by trying to convey what the deschooling of a schooled society might mean. In this context, it should be easier to understand my choice of the five specific aspects relevant to this process with which I deal in the subsequent chapters. + +Not only education but social reality itself has become schooled. It costs roughly the same to school both rich and poor in the same dependency. The yearly expenditure per pupil in the slums and in the rich suburbs of any one of twenty U.S. cities lies in the same range-and sometimes is favorable to the poor[^n00]. Rich and poor alike depend on schools and hospitals which guide their lives, form their world view, and define for them what is legitimate and what is not. Both view doctoring oneself as irresponsible, learning on one's own as unreliable, and community organization, when not paid for by those in authority, as a form of aggression or subversion. For both groups the reliance on institutional treatment renders independent accomplishment suspect. The progressive underdevelopment of self- and community-reliance is even more typical in Westchester than it is in the northeast of Brazil. Everywhere not only education but society as a whole needs "deschooling". + +Welfare bureaucracies claim a professional, political, and financial monopoly over the social imagination, setting standards of what is valuable and what is feasible. This monopoly is at the root of the modernization of poverty. Every simple need to which an institutional answer is found permits the invention of a new class of poor and a new definition of poverty. Ten years ago in Mexico it was the normal thing to be born and to die in one's own home and to be buried by one's friends. Only the soul's needs were taken care of by the institutional church. Now to begin and end life at home become signs either of poverty or of special privilege. Dying and death have come under the institutional management of doctors and undertakers. + +Once basic needs have been translated by a society into demands for scientifically produced commodities, poverty is defined by standards which the technocrats can change at will. Poverty then refers to those who have fallen behind an advertised ideal of consumption in some important respect. In Mexico the poor are those who lack three years of schooling, and in New York they are those who lack twelve. + +The poor have always been socially powerless. The increasing reliance on institutional care adds a new dimension to their helplessness: psychological impotence, the inability to fend for themselves. Peasants on the high plateau of the Andes are exploited by the landlord and the merchant-once they settle in Lima they are, in addition, dependent on political bosses, and disabled by their lack of schooling. Modernized poverty combines the lack of power over circumstances with a loss of personal potency. This modernization of poverty is a world-wide phenomenon, and lies at the root of contemporary underdevelopment. Of course it appears under different guises in rich and in poor countries. + +It is probably most intensely felt in U.S. cities. Nowhere else is poverty treated at greater cost. Nowhere else does the treatment of poverty produce so much dependence, anger, frustration, and further demands. And nowhere else should it be so evident that poverty-once it has become modernized-has become resistant to treatment with dollars alone and requires an institutional revolution. + +Today in the United States the black and even the migrant can aspire to a level of professional treatment which would have been unthinkable two generations ago, and which seems grotesque to most people in the Third World. For instance, the U.S. poor can count on a truant officer to return their children to school until they reach seventeen, or on a doctor to assign them to a hospital bed which costs sixty dollars per day-the equivalent of three months' income for a majority of the people in the world. But such care only makes them dependent on more treatment, and renders them increasingly incapable of organizing their own lives around their own experiences and resources within their own communities. + +The poor in the United States are in a unique position to speak about the predicament which threatens all the poor in a modernizing world. They are making the discovery that no amount of dollars can remove the inherent destructiveness of welfare institutions, once the professional hierarchies of these institutions have convinced society that their ministrations are morally necessary. The poor in the U.S. inner city can demonstrate from their own experience the fallacy on which social legislation in a "schooled" society is built. + +Supreme Court Justice William 0. Douglas observed that "the only way to establish an institution is to finance it". The corollary is also true. Only by channeling dollars away from the institutions which now treat health, education, and welfare can the further impoverishment resulting from their disabling side effects be stopped. + +This must be kept in mind when we evaluate federal aid pro-grams. As a case in point, between 1965 and 1968 over three billion dollars were spent in U.S. schools to offset the disadvantages of about six million children. The program is known as Title One. It is the most expensive compensatory program ever attempted anywhere in education, yet no significant improvement can be detected in the learning of these "disadvantaged" children. Compared with their classmates from middle income homes, they have fallen further behind. Moreover, in the course of this program, professionals discovered an additional ten million children laboring under economic and educational handicaps. More reasons for claiming more federal funds are now at hand. + +This total failure to improve the education of the poor despite more costly treatment can be explained in three ways: + +_1._ Three billion dollars are insufficient to improve the performance of six million children by a measurable amount; or + +_2._ The money was incompetently spent: different curricula, better administration, further concentration of the funds on the poor child, and more research are needed and would do the trick; or + +_3._ Educational disadvantage cannot be cured by relying on education within the school. + +The first is certainly true so long as the money has been spent through the school budget. The money indeed went to the schools which contained most of the disadvantaged children, but it was not spent on the poor children themselves. These children for whom the money was intended comprised only about half of those who were attending the schools that added the federal subsidies to their budgets. Thus the money was spent for custodial care, indoctrination and the selection of social roles, as well as education, all of which functions are inextricably mingled in the physical plants, curricula, teachers, administrators, and other key components of these schools, and, therefore, in their budgets. + +The added funds enabled schools to cater disproportionately to the satisfaction of the relatively richer children who were "disadvantaged" by having to attend school in the company of the poor. At best a small fraction of each dollar intended to remedy a poor child's disadvantages in learning could reach the child through the school budget. + +It might be equally true that the money was incompetently spent. But even unusual incompetence cannot beat that of the school system. Schools by their very structure resist the concentration of privilege on those otherwise disadvantaged. Special curricula, separate classes, or longer hours only constitute more discrimination at a higher cost. + +Taxpayers are not yet accustomed to permitting three billion dollars to vanish from HEW as if it were the Pentagon. The present Administration may believe that it can afford the wrath of educators. Middle-class Americans have nothing to lose if the program is cut. Poor parents think they do, but, even more, they are demanding control of the funds meant for their children. A logical way of cutting the budget and, one hopes, of increasing benefits is a system of tuition grants such as that proposed by Milton Friedman and others. Funds would be channeled to the beneficiary, enabling him to buy his share of the schooling of his choice. If such credit were limited to purchases which fit into a school curriculum, it would tend to provide greater equality of treatment, but would not thereby increase the equality of social claims. + +It should be obvious that even with schools of equal quality a poor child can seldom catch up with a rich one. Even if they attend equal schools and begin at the same age, poor children lack most of the educational opportunities which are casually available to the middle-class child. These advantages range from conversation and books in the home to vacation travel and a different sense of oneself, and apply, for the child who enjoys them, both in and out of school. So the poorer student will generally fall behind so long as he depends on school for advancement or learning. The poor need funds to enable them to learn, not to get certified for the treatment of their alleged disproportionate deficiencies. + +All this is true in poor nations as well as in rich ones, but there it appears under a different guise. Modernized poverty in poor nations affects more people more visibly but also-for the moment-more superficially. Two-thirds of all children in Latin America leave school before finishing the fifth grade, but these "desertores" are not therefore as badly off as they would be in the United States. + +Few countries today remain victims of classical poverty, which was stable and less disabling. Most countries in Latin America have reached the "take-off" point toward economic development and competitive consumption, and thereby toward modernized poverty: their citizens have learned to think rich and live poor. Their laws make six to ten years of school obligatory. Not only in Argentina but also in Mexico or Brazil the average citizen defines an adequate education by North American standards, even though the chance of getting such prolonged schooling is limited to a tiny minority. In these countries the majority is already hooked on school, that is, they are schooled in a sense of inferiority toward the better-schooled. Their fanaticism in favor of school makes it possible to exploit them doubly: it permits increasing allocation of public funds for the education of a few and increasing acceptance of social control by the many. + +Paradoxically, the belief that universal schooling is absolutely necessary is most firmly held in those countries where the fewest people have been-and will be-served by schools. Yet in Latin America different paths toward education could still be taken by the majority of parents and children. Proportionately, national savings invested in schools and teachers might be higher than in rich countries, but these investments are totally insufficient to serve the majority by making even four years of school attendance possible. Fidel Castro talks as if he wanted to go in the direction of deschooling when he promises that by 1980 Cuba will be able to dissolve its university since all of life in Cuba will be an educational experience. At the grammarschool and high-school level, however, Cuba, like all other Latin-American countries, acts as though passage through a period defined as the "school age" were an unquestionable goal for all, delayed merely by a temporary shortage of resources. + +The twin deceptions of increased treatment, as actually provided in the United States and as merely promised in Latin America complement each other. The Northern poor are being disabled by the same twelve-year treatment whose lack brands the Southern poor as hopelessly backward. Neither in North America nor in Latin America do the poor get equality from obligatory schools. But in both places the mere existence of school discourages and disables the poor from taking control of their own learning. All over the world the school has an anti-educational effect on society: school is recognized as the institution which specializes in education. The failures of school are taken by most people as a proof that education is a very costly, very complex, always arcane, and frequently almost impossible task. + +School appropriates the money, men, and good will available for education and in addition discourages other institutions from assuming educational tasks. Work, leisure, politics, city living, and even family life depend on schools for the habits and knowledge they presuppose, instead of becoming themselves the means of education. Simultaneously both schools and the other institutions which depend on them are priced out of the market. + +In the United States the per capita costs of schooling have risen almost as fast as the cost of medical treatment. But increased treatment by both doctors and teachers has shown steadily declining results. Medical expenses concentrated on those above forty-five have doubled several times over a period of forty years with a resulting 3 percent increase in life expectancy in men. The increase in educational expenditures has produced even stranger results; otherwise President Nixon could not have been moved this spring to promise that every child shall soon have the "Right to Read" before leaving school. + +In the United States it would take eighty billion dollars per year to provide what educators regard as equal treatment for all in grammar and high school. This is well over twice the $36 billion now being spent. Independent cost projections prepared at HEW and the University of Florida indicate that by 1974 the comparable figures will be $107 billion as against the $45 billion now projected, and these figures wholly omit the enormous costs of what is called "higher education," for which demand is growing even faster. The United States, which spent nearly eighty billion dollars in 1969 for "defense" including its deployment in Vietnam, is obviously too poor to provide equal schooling. The President's committee for the study of school finance should ask not how to support or how to trim such increasing costs, but how they can be avoided. + +Equal obligatory schooling must be recognized as at least economically unfeasible. In Latin America the amount of public money spent on each graduate student is between 350 and 1,500 times the amount spent on the median citizen (that is, the citizen who holds the middle ground between the poorest and the richest). In the United States the discrepancy is smaller, but the discrimination is keener. The richest parents, some 10 percent, can afford private education for their children and help them to benefit from foundation grants. But in addition they obtain ten times the per capita amount of public funds if this is compared with the per capita expenditure made on the children of the 10 percent who are poorest. The principal reasons for this are that rich children stay longer in school, that a year in a university is disproportionately more expensive than a year in high school, and that most private universities depend-at least indirectly-on tax-derived finances. + +Obligatory schooling inevitably polarizes a society; it also grades the nations of the world according to an international caste system. Countries are rated like castes whose educational dignity is determined by the average years of schooling of its citizens, a rating which is closely related to per capita gross national product, and much more painful. + +The paradox of the schools is evident: increased expenditure escalates their destructiveness at home and abroad. This paradox must be made a public issue. It is now generally accepted that the physical environment will soon be destroyed by biochemical pollution unless we reverse current trends in the production of physical goods. It should also be recognized that social and personal life is threatened equally by HEW pollution, the inevitable byproduct of obligatory and competitive consumption of welfare. + +The escalation of the schools is as destructive as the escalation of weapons but less visibly so. Everywhere in the world school costs have risen faster than enrollments and faster than the GNP; everywhere expenditures on school fall even further behind the expectations of parents, teachers, and pupils. Everywhere this situation discourages both the motivation and the financing for large-scale planning for non-schooled learning. The United States is proving to the world that no country can be rich enough to afford a school system that meets the demands this same system creates simply by existing, because a successful school system schools parents and pupils to the supreme value of a larger school system, the cost of which increases disproportionately as higher grades are in demand and become scarce. + +Rather than calling equal schooling temporarily unfeasible, we must recognize that it is, in principle, economically absurd, and that to attempt it is intellectually emasculating, socially polarizing, and destructive of the credibility of the political system which promotes it. The ideology of obligatory schooling admits of no logical limits. The White House recently provided a good example. Dr. Hutschnecker, the "psychiatrist" who treated Mr. Nixon before he was qualified as a candidate, recommended to the President that all children between six and eight be professionally examined to ferret out those who have destructive tendencies, and that obligatory treatment be provided for them. If necessary, their re-education in special institutions should be required. This memorandum from his doctor the President sent for evaluation to HEW. Indeed, preventive concentration camps for predelinquents would be a logical improvement over the school system. + +Equal educational opportunity is, indeed, both a desirable and a feasible goal, but to equate this with obligator;' schooling is to confuse salvation with the Church. School has become the world religion of a modernized proletariat, and makes futile promises of salvation to the poor of the technological age. The nation-state has adopted it, drafting all citizens into a graded curriculum leading to sequential diplomas not unlike the initiation rituals and hieratic promotions of former times. The modern state has assumed the duty of enforcing the judgment of its educators through well-meant truant officers and job requirements, much as did the Spanish kings who enforced the judgments of their theologians through the conquistadors and the Inquisition. + +Two centuries ago the United States led the world in a movement to disestablish the monopoly of a single church. Now we need the constitutional disestablishment of the monopoly of the school, and thereby of a system which legally combines prejudice with discrimination. The first article of a bill of rights for a modern, humanist society would correspond to the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: "The State shall make no law with respect to the establishment of education". There shall be no ritual obligatory for all. + +To make this disestablishment effective, we need a law forbidding discrimination in hiring, voting, or admission to centers of learning based on previous attendance at some curriculum. This guarantee would not exclude performance tests of competence for a function or role, but would remove the present absurd discrimination in favor of the person who learns a given skill with the largest expenditure of public funds or what is equally likely has been able to obtain a diploma which has no relation to any useful skill or job. Only by protecting the citizen from being disqualified by anything in his career in school can a constitutional disestablishment of school become psychologically effective. + +Neither learning nor justice is promoted by schooling because educators insist on packaging instruction with certification. Learning and the assignment of social roles are melted into schooling. Yet to learn means to acquire a new skill or insight, while promotion depends on an opinion which others have formed. Learning frequently is the result of instruction, but selection for a role or category in the job market increasingly depends on mere length of attendance. + +Instruction is the choice of circumstances which facilitate learning. Roles are assigned by setting a curriculum of conditions which the candidate must meet if he is to make the grade. School links instruction but not learning to these roles. This is neither reasonable nor liberating. It is not reasonable because it does not link relevant qualities or competences to roles, but rather the process by which such qualities are supposed to be acquired. It is not liberating or educational because school reserves instruction to those whose every step in learning fits previously approved measures of social control. Curriculum has always been used to assign social rank. At times it could be prenatal: karma ascribes you to a caste and lineage to the aristocracy. + +Curriculum could take the form of a ritual, of sequential sacred ordinations, or it could consist of a succession of feats in war or hunting, or further advancement could be made to depend on a series of previous princely favors. Universal schooling was meant to detach role assignment from personal life history: it was meant to give everybody an equal chance to any office. Even now many people wrongly believe that school ensures the dependence of public trust on relevant learning achievements. However, instead of equalizing chances, the school system has monopolized their distribution. + +To detach competence from curriculum, inquiries into a man's learning history must be made taboo, like inquiries into his political affiliation, church attendance, lineage, sex habits, or racial background. Laws forbidding discrimination on the basis of prior schooling must be enacted. Laws, of course, cannot stop prejudice against the unschooled-nor are they meant to force anyone to intermarry with an autodidact but they can discourage unjustified discrimination. + +A second major illusion on which the school system rests is that most learning is the result of teaching. Teaching, it is true, may contribute to certain kinds of learning under certain circumstances. But most people acquire most of their knowledge outside school, and in school only insofar as school, in a few rich countries, has become their place of confinement during an increasing part of their lives. + +Most learning happens casually, and even most intentional learning is not the result of programmed instruction. Normal children learn their first language casually, although faster if their parents pay attention to them. Most people who learn a second language well do so as a result of odd circumstances and not of sequential teaching. They go to live with their grandparents, they travel, or they fall in love with a foreigner. Fluency in reading is also more often than not a result of such extracurricular activities. Most people who read widely, and with pleasure, merely believe that they learned to do so in school; when challenged, they easily discard this illusion. + +But the fact that a great deal of learning even now seems to happen casually and as a by-product of some other activity defined as work or leisure does not mean that planned learning does not benefit from planned instruction and that both do not stand in need of improvement. The strongly motivated student who is faced with the task of acquiring a new and complex skill may benefit greatly from the discipline now associated with the old-fashioned schoolmaster who taught reading, Hebrew, catechism, or multiplication by rote. School has now made this kind of drill teaching rare and disreputable, yet there are many skills which a motivated student with normal aptitude can master in a matter of a few months if taught in this traditional way. This is as true of codes as of their encipherment; of second and third languages as of reading and writing; and equally of special languages such as algebra, computer programming, chemical analysis, or of manual skills like typing, watchmaking, plumbing, wiring, TV repair; or for that matter dancing, driving, and diving. + +In certain cases acceptance into a learning program aimed at a specific skill might presuppose competence in some other skill, but it should certainly not be made to depend upon the process by which such prerequisite skills were acquired. TV repair presupposes literacy and some math; diving, good swimming; and driving, very little of either. + +Progress in learning skills is measurable. The optimum resources in time and materials needed by an average motivated adult can be easily estimated. The cost of teaching a second Western European language to a high level of fluency ranges between four and six hundred dollars in the United States, and for an Oriental tongue the time needed for instruction might be doubled. This would still be very little compared with the cost of twelve years of schooling in New York City (a condition for acceptance of a worker into the Sanitation Department) almost fifteen thousand dollars. No doubt not only the teacher but also the printer and the pharmacist protect their trades through the public illusion that training for them is very expensive. + +At present schools preempt most educational funds. Drill instruction which costs less than comparable schooling is now a privilege of those rich enough to bypass the schools, and those whom either the army or big business sends through in-service training. In a program of progressive deschooling of U.S. education, at first the resources available for drill training would be limited. But ultimately there should be no obstacle for anyone at any time of his life to be able to choose instruction among hundreds of definable skills at public expense. + +Right now educational credit good at any skill center could be provided in limited amounts for people of all ages, and not just to the poor. I envisage such credit in the form of an educational passport or an "edu-credit card" provided to each citizen at birth. In order to favor the poor, who probably would not use their yearly grants early in life, a provision could be made that interest accrued to later users of cumulated "entitlements". Such credits would permit most people to acquire the skills most in demand, at their convenience, better, faster, cheaper, and with fewer undesirable side effects than in school. + +Potential skill teachers are never scarce for long because, on the one hand, demand for a skill grows only with its performance within a community and, on the other, a man exercising a skill could also teach it. But, at present, those using skills which are in demand and do require a human teacher are discouraged from sharing these skills with others. This is done either by teachers who monopolize the licenses or by unions which protect their trade interests. Skill centers which would be judged by customers on their results, and not on the personnel they employ or the process they use, would open unsuspected working opportunities, frequently even for those who are now considered unemployable. Indeed, there is no reason why such skill centers should not be at the work place itself, with the employer and his work force supplying instruction as well as jobs to those who choose to use their educational credits in this way. + +In 1956 there arose a need to teach Spanish quickly to several hundred teachers, social workers, and ministers from the New York Archdiocese so that they could communicate with Puerto Ricans. My friend Gerry Morris announced over a Spanish radio station that he needed native speakers from Harlem. Next day some two hundred teenagers lined up in front of his office, and he selected four dozen of them-many of them school dropouts. He trained them in the use of the U.S. Foreign Service Institute (FSI) Spanish manual, designed for use by linguists with graduate training, and within a week his teachers were on their own-each in charge of four New Yorkers who wanted to speak the language. Within six months the mission was accomplished. Cardinal Spellman could claim that he had 127 parishes in which at least three staff members could communicate in Spanish. No school program could have matched these results. + +Skill teachers are made scarce by the belief in the value of licenses. Certification constitutes a form of market manipulation and is plausible only to a schooled mind. Most teachers of arts and trades are less skillful, less inventive, and less communicative than the best craftsmen and tradesmen. Most high-school teachers of Spanish or French do not speak the language as correctly as their pupils might after half a year of competent drills. Experiments conducted by Angel Quintero in Puerto Rico suggest that many young teenagers, if given the proper incentives, programs, and access to tools, are better than most schoolteachers at introducing their peers to the scientific exploration of plants, stars, and matter, and to the discovery of how and why a motor or a radio functions. + +Opportunities for skill-learning can be vastly multiplied if we open the "market". This depends on matching the right teacher with the right student when he is highly motivated in an intelligent program, without the constraint of curriculum. Free and competing drill instruction is a subversive blasphemy to the orthodox educator. It dissociates the acquisition of skills from "humane" education, which schools package together, and thus it promotes unlicensed learning no less than unlicensed teaching for unpredictable purposes. + +There is currently a proposal on record which seems at first to make a great deal of sense. It has been prepared by Christopher Jencks of the Center for the Study of Public Policy and is sponsored by the Office of Economic Opportunity. It proposes to put educational "entitlements" or tuition grants into the hands of parents and students for expenditure in the schools of their choice. Such individual entitlements could indeed be an important step in the right direction. We need a guarantee of the right of each citizen to an equal share of tax-derived educational resources, the right to verify this share, and the right to sue for it if denied. It is one form of a guarantee against regressive taxation. + +The Jencks proposal, however, begins with the ominous statement that "conservatives, liberals, and radicals have all complained at one time or another that the American educational system gives professional educators too little incentive to provide high quality education to most children". The proposal condemns itself by proposing tuition grants which would have to be spent on schooling. + +This is like giving a lame man a pair of crutches and stipulating that he use them only if the ends are tied together. As the proposal for tuition grants now stands, it plays into the hands not only of the professional educators but of racists, promoters of religious schools, and others whose interests are socially divisive. Above all, educational entitlements restricted to use within schools play into the hands of all those who want to continue to live in a society in which social advancement is tied not to proven knowledge but to the learning pedigree by which it is supposedly acquired. This discrimination in favor of schools which dominates Jencks's discussion on refinancing education could discredit one of the most critically needed principles for educational reform: the return of initiative and accountability for learning to the learner or his most immediate tutor. The deschooling of society implies a recognition of the two-faced nature of learning. An insistence on skill drill alone could be a disaster; equal emphasis must be placed on other kinds of learning. But if schools are the wrong places for learning a skill, they are even worse places for getting an education. School does both tasks badly, partly because it does not distinguish between them. School is inefficient in skill instruction especially because it is curricular. In most schools a program which is meant to improve one skill is chained always to another irrelevant task. History is tied to advancement in math, and class attendance to the right to use the playground. + +Schools are even less efficient in the arrangement of the circumstances which encourage the open-ended, exploratory use of acquired skills, for which I will reserve the term "liberal education". The main reason for this is that school is obligatory and becomes schooling for schooling's sake: an enforced stay in the company of teachers, which pays off in the doubtful privilege of more such company. Just as skill instruction must be freed from curricular restraints, so must liberal education be dissociated from obligatory attendance. Both skill-learning and education for inventive and creative behavior can be aided by institutional arrangement, but they are of a different, frequently opposed nature. + +Most skills can be acquired and improved by drills, because skill implies the mastery of definable and predictable behavior. Skill instruction can rely, therefore, on the simulation of circumstances in which the skill will be used. Education in the exploratory and creative use of skills, however, cannot rely on drills. Education can be the outcome of instruction, though instruction of a kind fundamentally opposed to drill. It relies on the relationship between partners who already have some of the keys which give access to memories stored in and by the community. It relies on the critical intent of all those who use memories creatively. It relies on the surprise of the unexpected question which opens new doors for the inquirer and his partner. + +The skill instructor relies on the arrangement of set circumstances which permit the learner to develop standard responses. The educational guide or master is concerned with helping matching partners to meet so that learning can take place. He matches individuals starting from their own, unresolved questions. At the most he helps the pupil to formulate his puzzlement since only a clear statement will give him the power to find his match, moved like him, at the moment, to explore the same issue in the same context. + +Matching partners for educational purposes initially seems more difficult to imagine than finding skill instructors and partners for a game. One reason is the deep fear which school has implanted in us, a fear which makes us censorious. The unlicensed exchange of skills-even undesirable skills-is more predictable and therefore seems less dangerous than the unlimited opportunity for meeting among people who share an issue which for them, at the moment, is socially, intellectually, and emotionally important. + +The Brazilian teacher Paulo Freire knows this from experience. He discovered that any adult can begin to read in a matter of forty hours if the first words he deciphers are charged with political meaning. Freire trains his teachers to move into a village and to discover the words which designate current important issues, such as the access to a well or the compound interest on the debts owed to the patron. In the evening the villagers meet for the discussion of these key words. They begin to realize that each word stays on the blackboard even after its sound has faded. The letters continue to unlock reality and to make it manageable as a problem. I have frequently witnessed how discussants grow in social awareness and how they are impelled to take political action as fast as they learn to read. They seem to take reality into their hands as they write it down. + +I remember the man who complained about the weight of pencils: they were difficult to handle because they did not weigh as much as a shovel; and I remember another who on his way to work stopped with his Companions and wrote the word they were discussing with his hoe on the ground: "agua". Since 1962 my friend Freire has moved from exile to exile, mainly because he refuses to conduct his sessions around words which are preselected by approved educators, rather than those which his discussants bring to the class. The educational matchmaking among people who have been successfully schooled is a different task. Those who do not need such assistance are a minority, even among the readers of serious journals. The majority cannot and should not be rallied for discussion around a slogan, a word, or a picture. But the idea remains the same: they should be able to meet around a problem chosen and defined by their own initiative. Creative, exploratory learning requires peers currently puzzled about the same terms or problems. Large universities make the futile attempt to match them by multiplying their courses, and they generally fail since they are bound to curriculum, course structure, and bureaucratic administration. In schools, including universities, most resources are spent to purchase the time and motivation of a limited number of people to take up predetermined problems in a ritually defined setting. The most radical alternative to school would be a network or service which gave each man the same opportunity to share his current concern with others motivated by the same concern. + +Let me give, as an example of what I mean, a description of how an intellectual match might work in New York City. Each man, at any given moment and at a minimum price, could identify himself to a computer with his address and telephone number, indicating the book, article, film, or recording on which he seeks a partner for discussion. Within days he could receive by mail the list of others who recently had taken the same initiative. This list would enable him by telephone to arrange for a meeting with persons who initially would be known exclusively by the fact that they requested a dialogue about the same subject. + +Matching people according to their interest in a particular title is radically simple. It permits identification only on the basis of a mutual desire to discuss a statement recorded by a third person, and it leaves the initiative of arranging the meeting to the individual. Three objections are usually raised against this skeletal purity. I take them up not only to clarify the theory that I want to illustrate by my proposal for they highlight the deep-seated resistance to deschooling education, to separating learning from social control but also because they may help to suggest existing resources which are not now used for learning purposes. + +The first objection is: Why cannot self-identification be based also on an idea or an issue? Certainly such subjective terms could also be used in a computer system. Political parties, churches, unions, clubs, neighborhood centers, and professional societies already organize their educational activities in this way and in effect they act as schools. They all match people in order to explore certain "themes"; and these are dealt with in courses, seminars, and curricula in which presumed "common interests" are prepackaged. Such theme-matching is by definition teacher-centered: it requires an authoritarian presence to define for the participants the starting point for their discussion. + +By contrast, matching by the title of a book, film, etc., in its pure form leaves it to the author to define the special language, the terms, and the framework within which a given problem or fact is stated; and it enables those who accept this starting point to identify themselves to one another. For instance, matching people around the idea of "cultural revolution" usually leads either to confusion or to demagoguery. On the other hand, matching those interested in helping each other understand a specific article by Mao, Marcuse, Freud, or Goodman stands in the great tradition of liberal learning from Plato's Dialogues, which are built around presumed statements by Socrates, to Aquinas's commentaries on Peter the Lombard. The idea of matching by title is thus radically different from the theory on which the "Great Books" clubs, for example, were built: instead of relying on the selection by some Chicago professors, any two partners can choose any book for further analysis. + +The second objection asks: Why not let the identification of match seekers include information on age, background, world view, competence, experience, or other defining characteristics? Again, there is no reason why such discriminatory restrictions could not and should not be built into some of the many universities-with or without walls-which could use title-matching as their basic organizational device. I could conceive of a system designed to encourage meetings of interested persons at which the author of the book chosen would be present or represented; or a system which guaranteed the presence of a competent adviser; or one to which only students registered in a department or school had access; or one which permitted meetings only between people who defined their special approach to the title under discussion. Advantages for achieving specific goals of learning could be found for each of these restrictions. But I fear that, more often than not, the real reason for proposing such restrictions is contempt arising from the presumption that people are ignorant: educators want to avoid the ignorant meeting the ignorant around a text which they may not understand and which they read only because they are interested in it. + +The third objection: Why not provide match seekers with incidental assistance that will facilitate their meetings-with space, schedules, screening, and protection? This is now done by schools with all the inefficiency characterizing large bureaucracies. If we left the initiative for meetings to the match seekers themselves, organizations which nobody now classifies as educational would probably do the job much better. I think of restaurant owners, publishers, telephone-answering services, department store managers, and even commuter train executives who could promote their services by rendering them attractive for educational meetings. + +At a first meeting in a coffee shop, say, the partners might establish their identities by placing the book under discussion next to their cups. People who took the initiative to arrange for such meetings would soon learn what items to quote to meet the people they sought. The risk that the self-chosen discussion with one or several strangers might lead to a loss of time, disappointment, or even unpleasantness is certainly smaller than the same risk taken by a college applicant. A computer arranged meeting to discuss an article in a national magazine, held in a coffee shop off Fourth Avenue, would obligate none of the participants to stay in the company of his new acquaintances for longer than it took to drink a cup of coffee, nor would he have to meet any of them ever again. The chance that it would help to pierce the opaqueness of life in a modern city and further new friendship, selfchosen work, and critical reading is high. (The fact that a record of personal readings and meetings could be obtained thus by the FBI is undeniable; that this should still worry anybody in 1970 is only amusing to a free man, who willynilly contributes his share in order to drown snoopers in the irrelevancies they gather.) + +Both the exchange of skills and matching of partners are based on the assumption that education for all means education by all. Not the draft into a specialized institution but only the mobilization of the whole population can lead to popular culture. The equal right of each man to exercise his competence to learn and to instruct is now pre-empted by certified teachers. The teachers' competence, in turn, is restricted to what may be done in school. And, further, work and leisure are alienated from each other as a result: the spectator and the worker alike are supposed to arrive at the work place all ready to fit into a routine prepared for them. Adaptation in the form of a product's design, instruction, and publicity shapes them for their role as much as formal education by schooling. A radical alternative to a schooled society requires not only new formal mechanisms for the formal acquisition of skills and their educational use. A deschooled society implies a new approach to incidental or informal education. + +Incidental education cannot any longer return to the forms which learning took in the village or the medieval town. Traditional society was more like a set of concentric circles of meaningful structures, while modern man must learn how to find meaning in many structures to which he is only marginally related. In the village, language and architecture and work and religion and family customs were consistent with one another, mutually explanatory and reinforcing. To grow into one implied a growth into the others. Even specialized apprenticeship was a by-product of specialized activities, such as shoemaking or the singing of psalms. If an apprentice never became a master or a scholar, he still contributed to making shoes or to making church services solemn. Education did not compete for time with either work or leisure. Almost all education was complex, lifelong, and unplanned. + +Contemporary society is the result of conscious designs, and educational opportunities must be designed into them. Our reliance on specialized, full-time instruction through school will now decrease, and we must find more ways to learn and teach: the educational quality of all institutions must increase again. But this is a very ambiguous forecast. + +It could mean that men in the modern city will be increasingly the victims of an effective process of total instruction and manipulation once they are deprived of even the tenuous pretense of critical independence which liberal schools now provide for at least some of their pupils. It could also mean that men will shield themselves less behind certificates acquired in school and thus gain in courage to "talk back" and thereby control and instruct the institutions in which they participate. To ensure the latter we must learn to estimate the social value of work and leisure by the educational give-and. take for which they offer opportunity. Effective participation in the politics of a street, a work place, the library, a news program, or a hospital is therefore the best measuring stick to evaluate their level as educational institutions. + +I recently spoke to a group of junior-high-school students in the process of organizing a resistance movement to their obligatory draft into the next class. Their slogan was "participation not simulation". They were disappointed that this was understood as a demand for less rather than for more education, and reminded me of the resistance which Karl Marx put up against a passage in the Gotha program which-one hundred years ago wanted to outlaw child labor. He opposed the proposal in the interest of the education of the young, which could happen only at work. If the greatest fruit of man's labor should be the education he receives from it and the opportunity which work gives him to initiate the education of others, then the alienation of modern society in a pedagogical sense is even worse than its economic alienation. + +The major obstacle on the way to a society that truly educates was well defined by a black friend of mine in Chicago, who told me that our imagination was "all schooled up". We permit the state to ascertain the universal educational deficiencies of its citizens and establish one specialized agency to treat them. We thus share in the delusion that we can distinguish between what is necessary education for others and what is not, just as former generations established laws which defined what was sacred and what was profane. + +Durkheim recognized that this ability to divide social reality into two realms was the very essence of formal religion. There are, he reasoned, religions without the supernatural and without gods, but none which does not subdivide the world into things and persons that are sacred and others that as a consequence are profane. Durkheim's insight can be applied to the sociology of education, for school is radically divisive in a similar way. + +The very existence of obligatory schools divides any society into two realms: some time spans and processes and treatments and professions are "academic" or "pedagogic," and others are not. The power of school thus to divide social reality has no boundaries: education becomes unworldly and the world becomes noneducational. + +Since Bonhoeffer contemporary theologians have pointed to the confusions now reigning between the Biblical message and institutionalized religion. They point to the experience that Christian freedom and faith usually gain from secularization. Inevitably their statements sound blasphemous to many churchmen. Unquestionably, the educational process will gain from the deschooling of society even though this demand sounds to many schoolmen like treason to the enlightenment. But it is enlightenment itself that is now being snuffed out in the schools. + +The secularization fo the Christian faith depends on the dedication to it on the part of Christians rooted in the Church. In much the same way, the deschooling of education depend son the leadership of those brought up in the schools. Their curriculum cannot serve them as an aliby for the task: each of us remains responsible for what has been made of him, even though he may be able to do no more than accept this responsibility and serve as a warning to others. + + +## Phenomenology of School + +Some words become so flexible that they cease to be useful "School" and "teaching" are such terms. Like an amoeba they fit into almost any interstice of the language. ABM will teach the Russians, IBM will teach Negro children, and the army can become the school of a nation. + +The search for alternatives in education must therefore start with an agreement on what it is we mean by "school". This might be done in several ways. We could begin by listing the latent functions performed by modern school systems, such as custodial care, selection, indoctrination, and learning. We could make a client analysis and verify which of these latent functions render a service or a disservice to teachers, employers, children, parents, or the professions. We could survey the history of Western culture and the information gathered by anthropology in order to find institutions which played a role like that now performed by schooling. We could, finally, recall the many normative statements which have been made since the time of Comenius, or even since Quintilian, and discover which of these the modern school system most closely approaches. But any of these approaches would oblige us to start with certain assumptions about a relationship between school and education. To develop a language in which we can speak about school without such constant recourse to education, I have chosen to begin with something that might be called a phenomenology of public school. For this purpose I shall define "school" as the age-specific, teacher related process requiring full-time attendance at an obligatory curriculum. + +_1._ Age School groups people according to age. This grouping rests on three unquestioned premises. Children belong in school. + +Children learn in school. Children can be taught only in school. I think these unexamined premises deserve serious questioning. We have grown accustomed to children. We have decided that they should go to school, do as they are told, and have neither income nor families of their own. We expect them to know their place and behave like children. We remember, whether nostalgically or bitterly, a time when we were children, too. We are expected to tolerate the childish behavior of children. Man-kind, for us, is a species both afflicted and blessed with the task of caring for children. We forget, however, that our present concept of "childhood" developed only recently in Western Europe and more recently still in the Americas.* (For parallel histories of modern capitalism and modern childhood see Philippe Aries, Centuries 0f Childhood, Knopf, 1962.) + +Childhood as distinct from infancy, adolescence, or youth was unknown to most historical periods. Some Christian centuries did not even have an eye for its bodily proportions. Artists depicted the infant as a miniature adult seated on his mother's arm. Children appeared in Europe along with the pocket watch and the Christian moneylenders of the Renaissance. Before our century neither the poor nor the rich knew of children's dress, children's games, or the child's immunity from the law. Childhood belonged to the bourgeoisie. The worker's child, the peasant's child, and the nobleman's child all dressed the way their fathers dressed, played the way their fathers played, and were hanged by the neck as were their fathers. After the discovery of "childhood" by the bourgeoisie all this changed. Only some churches continued to respect for some time the dignity and maturity of the young. Until the Second Vatican Council, each child was instructed that a Christian reaches moral discernment and freedom at the age of seven, and from then on is capable of committing sins for which he may be punished by an eternity in Hell. Toward the middle of this century, middle-class parents began to try to spare their children the impact of this doctrine, and their thinking about children now prevails in the practice of the Church. + +Until the last century, "children" of middle-class parents were made at home with the help of preceptors and private schools. Only with the advent of industrial society did the mass production of "childhood" become feasible and come within the reach of the masses. The school system is a modern phenomenon, as is the childhood it produces. + +Since most people today live outside industrial cities, most people today do not experience childhood. In the Andes you till the soil once you have become "useful". Before that, you watch the sheep. If you are well nourished, you should be useful by eleven, and otherwise by twelve. Recently, I was talking to my night watchman, Marcos, about his eleven-year-old son who works in a barbershop. I noted in Spanish that his son was still a "ni-o,” Marcos, surprised, answered with a guileless smile: "Don Ivan, I guess you're right". Realizing that until my remark the father had thought of Marcos primarily as his "son," I felt guilty for having drawn the curtain of childhood between two sensible persons. Of course if I were to tell the New York slum-dweller that his working son is still a "child," he would show no surprise. He knows quite well that his eleven-year-old son should be allowed childhood, and resents the fact that he is not. The son of Marcos has yet to be afflicted with the yearning for childhood; the New Yorker's son feels deprived. + +Most people around the world, then, either do not want or cannot get modern childhood for their offspring. But it also seems that childhood is a burden to a good number of those few who are allowed it. Many of them are simply forced to go through it and are not at all happy playing the child's role. Growing up through childhood means being condemned to a process of in-human conflict between self awareness and the role imposed by a society going through its own school age. Neither Stephen Daedalus nor Alexander Portnoy enjoyed childhood, and neither, I suspect, did many of us like to be treated as children. If there were no age-specific and obligatory learning institution, "childhood" would go out of production. The youth of rich nations would be liberated from its destructiveness, and poor nations would cease attempting to rival the childishness of the rich. If society were to outgrow its age of childhood, it would have to become livable for the young. The present disjunction between an adult society which pretends to be humane and a school environment which mocks reality could no longer be maintained. + +The disestablishment of schools could also end the present discrimination against infants, adults, and the old in favor of children throughout their adolescence and youth. The social decision to allocate educational resources preferably to those citizens who have outgrown the extraordinary learning capacity of their first four years and have not arrived at the height of their self-motivated learning will, in retrospect, probably appear as bizarre. + +Institutional wisdom tells us that children need school. Institutional wisdom tells us that children learn in school. But this institutional wisdom is itself the product of schools because sound common sense tells us that only children can be taught in school. Only by segregating human beings in the category of childhood could we ever get them to submit to the authority of a schoolteacher. + +_2._ Teachers and Pupils By definition, children are pupils. The demand for the milieu of childhood creates an unlimited market for accredited teachers. School is an institution built on the axiom that learning is the result of teaching. And institutional wisdom continues to accept this axiom, despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary. + +We have all learned most of what we know outside school. Pupils do most of their learning without, and often despite, their teachers. Most tragically, the majority of men are taught their lesson by schools, even though they never go to school. + +Everyone learns how to live outside school. We learn to speak, to think, to love, to feel, to play, to curse, to politick, and to work without interference from a teacher. Even children who are under a teacher's care day and night are no exception to the rule. Orphans, idiots, and schoolteachers' sons learn most of what they learn outside the "educational" process planned for them. Teachers have made a poor showing in their attempts at increasing learning among the poor. Poor parents who want their children to go to school are less concerned about what they will learn than about the certificate and money they will earn. And middle-class parents commit their children to a teacher's care to keep them from learning what the poor learn on the streets. Increasingly educational research demonstrates that children learn most of what teachers pretend to teach them from peer groups, from comics, from chance observations, and above all from mere participation in the ritual of school. Teachers, more often than not, obstruct such learning of subject matters as goes on in school. + +Half of the people in our world never set foot in school. They have no contact with teachers, and they are deprived of the privilege of becoming dropouts. Yet they learn quite effectively the message which school teaches: that they should have school, and more and more of it. School instructs them in their own inferiority through the tax collector who makes them pay for it, or through the demagogue who raises their expectations of it, or through their children once the latter are hooked on it. So the poor are robbed of their self-respect by subscribing to a creed that grants salvation only through the school. At least the Church gave them a chance to repent at the hour of death. School leaves them with the expectation (a counterfeit hope) that their grandchildren will make it. That expectation is of course still more learning which comes from school but not from teachers. + +Pupils have never credited teachers for most of their learning. Bright and dull alike have always relied on rote, reading, and wit to pass their exams, motivated by the stick or by the carrot of a desired career. Adults tend to romanticize their schooling. In retrospect, they attribute their learning to the teacher whose patience they learned to admire. But the same adults would worry about the mental health of a child who rushed home to tell them what he learned from his every teacher. Schools create jobs for schoolteachers, no matter what their pupils learn from them. 3\. Full-Time Attendance Every month I see another list of proposals made by some U.S. industry to AID, suggesting the replacement of Latin-American "classroom practitioners" either by disciplined systems administrators or just by TV. In the United States teaching as a team enterprise of educational researchers, designers, and technicians is gaining acceptance. But, no matter whether the teacher is a schoolmarm or a team of men in white coats, and no matter whether they succeed in teaching the subject matter listed in the catalogue or whether they fail, the professional teacher creates a sacred milieu. + +Uncertainty about the future of professional teaching puts the classroom into jeopardy. Were educational professionals to specialize in promoting learning, they would have to abandon a system which calls for between 750 and 1,000 gatherings a year. But of course teachers do a lot more. The institutional wisdom of schools tells parents, pupils, and educators that the teacher, if he is to teach, must exercise his authority in a sacred precinct. This is true even for teachers whose pupils spend most of their school time in a classroom without walls. School, by its very nature, tends to make a total claim on the time and energies of its participants. This, in turn, makes the teacher into custodian, preacher, and therapist. + +In each of these three roles the teacher bases his authority on a different claim. The teacher-as-custodian acts as a master of ceremonies, who guides his pupils through a drawn-out labyrinthine ritual. He arbitrates the observance of rules and administers the intricate rubrics of initiation to life. At his best, he sets the stage for the acquisition of some skill as schoolmasters always have. Without illusions of producing any profound learning, he drills his pupils in some basic routines. + +The teacher-as-moralist substitutes for parents, God, or the state. He indoctrinates the pupil about what is right or wrong, not only in school but also in society at large. He stands in loco parentis for each one and thus ensures that all feel themselves children of the same state. + +The teacher-as-therapist feels authorized to delve into the personal life of his pupil in order to help him grow as a person. When this function is exercised by a custodian and preacher, it usually means that he persuades the pupil to submit to a domestication of his vision of truth and his sense of what is right. + +The claim that a liberal society can be founded on the modern school is paradoxical. The safeguards of individual freedom are all canceled in the dealings of a teacher with his pupil. When the schoolteacher fuses in his person the functions of judge, ideologue, and doctor, the fundamental style of society is perverted by the very process which should prepare for life. A teacher who combines these three powers contributes to the warping of the child much more than the laws which establish his legal or economic minority, or restrict his right to free assembly or abode. + +Teachers are by no means the only professionals who offer therapy. Psychiatrists, guidance counselors, and job counselors, even lawyers, help their clients to decide, to develop their personalities, and to learn. Yet common sense tells the client that such professionals should abstain from imposing their opinion of what is right or wrong, or from forcing anyone to follow their advice. Schoolteachers and ministers are the only professionals who feel entitled to pry into the private affairs of their clients at the same time as they preach to a captive audience. + +Children are protected by neither the First nor the Fifth Amendment when they stand before that secular priest, the teacher. The child must confront a man who wears an invisible triple crown, like the papal tiara, the symbol of triple authority combined in one person. For the child, the teacher pontificates as pastor, prophet, and priest-he is at once guide, teacher, and administrator of a sacred ritual. He combines the claims of medieval popes in a society constituted under the guarantee that these claims shall never be exercised together by one established and obligatory institution--church or state. + +Defining children as full-time pupils permits the teacher to exercise a kind of power over their persons which is much less limited by constitutional and consuetudinal restrictions than the power wielded by the guardians of other social enclaves. Their chronological age disqualifies children from safeguards which are routine for adults in a modern asylum-madhouse, monastery, or jail. + +Under the authoritative eye of the teacher, several orders of value collapse into one. The distinctions between morality, legal. ity, and personal worth are blurred and eventually eliminated. Each transgression is made to be felt as a multiple offense. The offender is expected to feel that he has broken a rule, that he has behaved immorally, and that he has let himself down. A pupil who adroitly obtains assistance on an exam is told that he is an outlaw, morally corrupt, and personally worthless. + +Classroom attendance removes children from the everyday world of Western culture and plunges them into an environment far more primitive, magical, and deadly serious. School could not create such an enclave within which the rules of ordinary reality are suspended, unless it physically incarcerated the young during many successive years on sacred territory. The attendance rule makes it possible for the schoolroom to serve as a magic womb, from which the child is delivered periodically at the school days and school year's completion until he is finally expelled into adult life. Neither universal extended childhood nor the smothering atmosphere of the classroom could exist without schools. Yet schools, as compulsory channels for learning, could exist without either and be more repressive and destructive than anything we have come to know. To understand what it means to deschool society, and not just to reform the educational establishment, we must now focus on the hidden curriculum of schooling. We are not concerned here, directly, with the hidden curriculum of the ghetto streets which brands the poor or with the hidden curriculum of the drawing room which benefits the rich. We are rather concerned to call attention to the fact that the ceremonial or ritual of schooling itself constitutes such a hidden curriculum. Even the best of teachers cannot entirely protect his pupils from it. Inevitably, this hidden curriculum of schooling adds prejudice and guilt to the discrimination which a society practices against some of its members and compounds the privilege of others with a new title to condescend to the majority. Just as inevitably, this hidden curriculum serves as a ritual of initiation into a growth oriented consumer society for rich and poor alike. + + +## Ritualization of Progress + +The university graduate has been schooled for selective service among the rich of the world. Whatever his or her claims of solidarity with the Third World, each American college graduate has had an education costing an amount five times greater than the median life income of half of humanity. A Latin American student is introduced to this exclusive fraternity by having at least 350 times as much public money spent on his education as on that of his fellow citizens of median income. With very rare exceptions, the university graduate from a poor country feels more comfortable with his North American and European colleagues than with his non-schooled compatriots, and all students are academically processed to be happy only in the company of fellow consumers of the products of the educational machine. + +The modern university confers the privilege of dissent on those who have been tested and classified as potential money-makers or power-holders. No one is given tax funds for the leisure in which to educate himself or the right to educate others unless at the same time he can also be certified for achievement. Schools select for each successive level those who have, at earlier stages in the game, proved themselves good risks for the established order. Having a monopoly on both the resources for learning and the investiture of social roles, the university coopts the discoverer and the potential dissenter. A degree always leaves its indelible price tag on the curriculum of its consumer. Certified college graduates fit only into a world which puts a price tag on their heads, thereby giving them the power to define the level of expectations in their society. In each country the amount of consumption by the college graduate sets the standard for all others; if they would be civilized people on or off the job, they will aspire to the style of life of college graduates. + +The university thus has the effect of imposing consumer standards at work and at home, and it does so in every part of the world and under every political system. The fewer university graduates there are in a country, the more their cultivated demands are taken as models by the rest of the population. The gap between the consumption of the university graduate and that of the average citizen is even wider in Russia, China, and Algeria than in the United States. Cars, airplane trips, and tape recorders confer more visible distinction in a socialist country, where only a degree, and not just money, can procure them. + +The ability of the university to fix consumer goals is something new. In many countries the university acquired this power only in the sixties, as the delusion of equal access to public education began to spread. Before that the university protected an individual's freedom of speech, but did not automatically convert his knowledge into wealth. To be a scholar in the Middle Ages meant to be poor, even a beggar. By virtue of his calling, the medieval scholar learned Latin, became an outsider worthy of the scorn as well as the esteem of peasant and prince, burgher and cleric. To get ahead in the world, the scholastic first had to enter it by joining the civil service, preferably that of the Church. The old university was a liberated zone for discovery and the discussion of ideas both new and old. Masters and students gathered to read the texts of other masters, now long dead, and the living words of the dead masters gave new perspective to the fallacies of the present day. The university was then a community of academic quest and endemic unrest. + +In the modern multiversity this community has fled to the fringes, where it meets in a pad, a professor's office, or the chaplain's quarters. The structural purpose of the modern university has little to do with the traditional quest. Since Gutenberg, the exchange of disciplined, critical inquiry has, for the most part, moved from the "chair" into print. The modern university has forfeited its chance to provide a simple setting for encounters which are both autonomous and anarchic, focused yet unplanned and ebullient, and has chosen instead to manage the process by which so-called research and instruction are produced. + +The American university, since Sputnik, has been trying to catch up with the body count of Soviet graduates. Now the Germans are abandoning their academic tradition and are building "campuses" in order to catch up with the Americans. During the present decade they want to increase their expenditure for grammar and high schools from 14 to 59 billion DM, and more than triple expenditures for higher learning. The French propose by 1980 to raise to 10 percent of their GNP the amount spent on schools, and the Ford Foundation has been pushing poor countries in Latin America to raise per capita expenses for "respect-able" graduates toward North American levels. Students see their studies as the investment with the highest monetary return, and nations see them as a key factor in development. + +For the majority who primarily seek a college degree, the university has lost no prestige, but since 1968 it has visibly lost standing among its believers. Students refuse to prepare for war, pollution, and the perpetuation of prejudice. Teachers assist them in their challenge to the legitimacy of the government, its foreign policy, education, and the American way of life. More than a few reject degrees and prepare for a life in a counterculture, outside the certified society. They seem to choose the way of medieval Fraticelli and Alumbrados of the Reformation, the hippies and dropouts of their day. Others recognize the monopoly of the schools over the resources which they need to build a counter society. They seek support from each other to live with integrity while submitting to the academic ritual. They form, so to speak, hotbeds of heresy right within the hierarchy. + +Large parts of the general population, however, regard the modern mystic and the modern heresiarch with alarm. They threaten the consumer economy, democratic privilege, and the self-image of America. But they cannot be wished away. Fewer and fewer can be reconverted by patience or coopted by subtlety for instance, by appointing them to teach their heresy. Hence the search for means which would make it possible either to get rid of dissident individuals or to reduce the importance of the university which serves them as a base for protest. + +The students and faculty who question the legitimacy of the university, and do so at high personal cost, certainly do not feel that they are setting consumer standards or abetting a production system. Those who have founded such groups as the Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars and the North American Congress on Latin America (NACLA) have been among the most effective in changing radically the perceptions of the realities of foreign countries for millions of young people. Still others have tried to formulate Marxian interpretations of American society or have been among those responsible for the flowering of communes. Their achievements add new strength to the argument that the existence of the university is necessary to guarantee continued social criticism. + +There is no question that at present the university offers a unique combination of circumstances which allows some of its members to criticize the whole of society. It provides time, mobility, access to peers and information, and a certain impunity-privileges not equally available to other segments of the population. But the university provides this freedom only to those who have already been deeply initiated into the consumer society and into the need for some kind of obligatory public schooling. + +The school system today performs the threefold function common to powerful churches throughout history. It is simultaneously the repository of society's myth, the institutionalization of that myth's contradictions, and the locus of the ritual which reproduces and veils the disparities between myth and reality. Today the school system, and especially the university, provides ample opportunity for criticism of the myth and for rebellion against its institutional perversions. But the ritual which demands tolerance of the fundamental contradictions between myth and institution still goes largely unchallenged, for neither ideological criticism nor social action can bring about a new society. Only disenchantment with and detachment from the central social ritual and reform of that ritual can bring about radical change. + +The American university has become the final stage of the most all encompassing initiation rite the world has ever known. No society in history has been able to survive without ritual or myth, but ours is the first which has needed such a dull, protracted, destructive, and expensive initiation into its myth. The contemporary world civilization is also the first one which has found it necessary to rationalize its fundamental initiation ritual in the name of education. We cannot begin a reform of education unless we first understand that neither individual learning nor social equality can be enhanced by the ritual of schooling. We cannot go beyond the consumer society unless we first understand that obligatory public schools inevitably reproduce such a society, no matter what is taught in them. + +The project of demythologizing which I propose cannot be limited to the university alone. Any attempt to reform the university without attending to the system of which it is an integral part is like trying to do urban renewal in New York City from the twelfth story up. Most current college-level reform looks like the building of high-rise slums. Only a generation which grows up without obligatory schools will be able to recreate the university. + +### The Myth of Institutionalized Values + +School initiates, too, the Myth of Unending Consumption. This modern myth is grounded in the belief that process inevitably produces something of value and, therefore, production necessarily produces demand. School teaches us that instruction produces learning. The existence of schools produces the demand for schooling. Once we have learned to need school, all our activities tend to take the shape of client relationships to other specialized institutions. Once the self-taught man or woman has been discredited, all nonprofessional activity is rendered suspect. In school we are taught that valuable learning is the result of attendance; that the value of learning increases with the amount of input; and, finally, that this value can be measured and documented by grades and certificates. + +In fact, learning is the human activity which least needs manipulation by others. Most learning is not the result of instruction. It is rather the result of unhampered participation in a meaningful setting. Most people learn best by being "with it," yet school makes them identify their personal, cognitive growth with elaborate planning and manipulation. + +Once a man or woman has accepted the need for school, he or she is easy prey for other institutions. Once young people have allowed their imaginations to be formed by curricular instruction, they are conditioned to institutional planning of every sort. "Instruction" smothers the horizon of their imaginations. They cannot be betrayed, but only short-changed, because they have been taught to substitute expectations for hope. They will no longer be surprised, for good or ill, by other people, because they have been taught what to expect from every other person who has been taught as they were. This is true in the case of another person or in the case of a machine. + +This transfer of responsibility from self to institution guarantees social regression, especially once it has been accepted as an obligation. So rebels against Alma Mater often "make it" into her faculty instead of growing into the courage to infect others with their personal teaching and to assume responsibility for the results. This suggests the possibility of a new Oedipus story-Oedipus the Teacher, who "makes" his mother in order to engender children with her. The man addicted to being taught seeks his security in compulsive teaching. The woman who experiences her knowledge as the result of a process wants to reproduce it in others. + +### The Myth of Measurement of Values + +The institutionalized values school instills are quantified ones. School initiates young people into a world where everything can be measured, including their imaginations, and, indeed, man himself. + +But personal growth is not a measurable entity. It is growth in disciplined dissidence, which cannot be measured against any rod, or any curriculum, nor compared to someone else's achievement. In such learning one can emulate others only in imaginative endeavor, and follow in their footsteps rather than mimic their gait. The learning I prize is immeasurable re-creation. + +School pretends to break learning up into subject "matters," to build into the pupil a curriculum made of these prefabricated blocks, and to gauge the result on an international scale. People who submit to the standard of others for the measure of their own personal growth soon apply the same ruler to themselves. They no longer have to be put in their place, but put themselves into their assigned slots, squeeze themselves into the niche which they have been taught to seek,and, in the very process, put their fellows into their places, too, until everybody and everything fits. + +People who have been schooled down to size let unmeasured experience slip out of their hands. To them, what cannot be measured becomes secondary, threatening. They do not have to be robbed of their creativity. Under instruction, they have unlearned to "do" their thing or "be" themselves, and value only what has been made or could be made. + +Once people have the idea schooled into them that values can be produced and measured, they tend to accept all kinds of rank' ings. There is a scale for the development of nations, another for the intelligence of babies, and even progress toward peace can be calculated according to body count. In a schooled world the road to happiness is paved with a consumer's index. + +### The Myth of Packaging Values + +School sells curriculum--a bundle of goods made according to the same process and having the same structure as other merchandise. Curriculum production for most schools begins with allegedly scientific research, on whose basis educational engineers predict future demand and tools for the assembly line, within the limits set by budgets and taboos. The distributor-teacher delivers the finished product to the consumer pupil, whose reactions are carefully studied and charted to provide research data for the preparation of the next model, which may be "ungraded," "student-designed," "team-taught," "visually-aided," or "issue-centered". + +The result of the curriculum production process looks like any other modern staple. It is a bundle of planned meanings, a package of values, a commodity whose "balanced appeal" makes it marketable to a sufficiently large number to justify the cost of production. Consumer pupils are taught to make their desires conform to marketable values. Thus they are made to feel guilty if they do not behave according to the predictions of consumer research by getting the grades and certificates that will place them in the job category they have been led to expect. + +Educators can justify more expensive curricula on the basis of their observation that learning difficulties rise proportionately with the cost of the curriculum. This is an application of Parkinson's Law that work expands with the resources available to do it. This law can be verified on all levels of school: for instance, reading difficulties have been a major issue in French schools only since their per capita expenditures have approached U.S. levels of 1950-when reading difficulties became a major issue in U.S. schools. In fact, healthy students often redouble their resistance to teaching as they find themselves more comprehensively manipulated. This resistance is due not to the authoritarian style of a public school or the seductive style of some free schools, but to the fundamental approach common to all schools-the idea that one person's judgment should determine what and when another person must learn. + +### The Myth of Self-Perpetuating Progress + +Even when accompanied by declining returns in learning, paradoxically, rising per capita instructional costs increase the value of the pupil in his or her own eyes and on the market. At almost any cost, school pushes the pupil up to the level of competitive curricular consumption, into progress to ever higher levels. Expenditures to motivate the student to stay on in school skyrocket as he climbs the pyramid. On higher levels they are disguised as new football stadiums, chapels, or programs called International Education. If it teaches nothing else, school teaches the value of escalation: the value of the American way of doing things. + +The Vietnam war fits the logic of the moment. Its success has been measured by the numbers of persons effectively treated by cheap bullets delivered at immense cost, and this brutal calculus is unashamedly called "body count". Just as business is business, the never-ending accumulation of money, so war is killing, the never-ending accumulation of dead bodies. In like manner, education is schooling, and this open-ended process is counted in pupil-hours. The various processes are irreversible and self-justifying. By economic standards the country gets richer and richer. By death-accounting standards the nation goes on winning its war forever. And by school standards the population becomes increasingly educated. + +School programs hunger for progressive intake of instruction, but even if the hunger leads to steady absorption, it never yields the joy of knowing something to one's satisfaction. Each subject comes packaged with the instruction to go on consuming one "offering" after another, and last year's wrapping is always obsolete for this year's consumer. The textbook racket builds on this demand. Educational reformers promise each new generation the latest and the best, and the public is schooled into demanding what they offer. Both the dropout who is forever reminded of what he missed and the graduate who is made to feel inferior to the new breed of student know exactly where they stand in the ritual of rising deceptions and continue to support a society which euphemistically calls the widening frustration gap a "revolution of rising expectations". + +But growth conceived as open-ended consumption-eternal progress-can never lead to maturity. Commitment to unlimited quantitative increase vitiates the possibility of organic development. + +### Ritual Game and the New World Religion + +The school leaving age in developed nations outpaces the rise in life expectancy. The two curves will intersect in a decade and create a problem for Jessica Mitford and professionals concerned with "terminal education". I am reminded of the late Middle Ages, when the demand for Church services outgrew a lifetime, and "Purgatory" was created to purify souls under the pope's control before they could enter eternal peace. Logically, this led first to a trade in indulgences and then to an attempt at Reformation. The Myth of Unending Consumption now takes the place of belief in life everlasting. + +Arnold Toynbee has pointed out that the decadence of a great culture is usually accompanied by the rise of a new World Church which extends hope to the domestic proletariat while serving the needs of a new warrior class. School seems eminently suited to be the World Church of our decaying culture. No institution could better veil from its participants the deep discrepancy between social principles and social reality in today's world. Secular, scientific, and death-denying, it is of a piece with the modern mood. Its classical, critical veneer makes it appear pluralist if not antireligious. Its curriculum both defines science and is itself defined by so-called scientific research. No one completes school--yet. It never closes its doors on anyone without first offering him one more chance: at remedial, adult, and continuing education. + +School serves as an effective creator and sustainer of social myth because of its structure as a ritual game of graded promotions. Introduction into this gambling ritual is much more important than what or how something is taught. It is the game itself that schools, that gets into the blood and becomes a habit. A whole society is initiated into the Myth of Unending Consumption of services. This happens to the degree that token participation in the open-ended ritual is made compulsory and compulsive everywhere. School directs ritual rivalry into an international game which obliges competitors to blame the world's ills on those who cannot or will not play. School is a ritual of initiation which introduces the neophyte to the sacred race of progressive consumption, a ritual of propitiation whose academic priests mediate between the faithful and the gods of privilege and power, a ritual of expiation which sacrifices its dropouts, branding them as scapegoats of underdevelopment. + +Even those who spend at best a few years in school-and this is the overwhelming majority in Latin America, Asia, and Africa-learn to feel guilty because of their underconsumption of schooling. In Mexico six grades of school are legally obligatory. Children born into the lower economic third have only two chances in three to make it into the first grade. If they make it, they have four chances in one hundred to finish obligatory schooling by the sixth grade. If they are born into the middle third group, their chances increase to twelve out of a hundred. With these rules, Mexico is more successful than most of the other twenty-five Latin American republics in providing public education. + +Everywhere, all children know that they were given a chance, albeit an unequal one, in an obligatory lottery, and the presumed equality of the international standard now compounds their original poverty with the self-inflicted discrimination accepted by the dropout. They have been schooled to the belief in rising expectations and can now rationalize their growing frustration outside school by accepting their rejection from scholastic grace. They are excluded from Heaven because, once baptized, they did not go to church. Born in original sin, they are baptized into first grade, but go to Gehenna (which in Hebrew means "slum") because of their personal faults. As Max Weber traced the social effects of the belief that salvation belonged to those who accumulated wealth, we can now observe that grace is reserved for those who accumulate years in school. + +### The Coming Kingdom: The Universalization of Expectations + +School combines the expectations of the consumer expressed in its claims with the beliefs of the producer expressed in its ritual, It is a liturgical expression of a world-wide "cargo cult," reminiscent of the cults which swept Melanesia in the forties, which injected cultists with the belief that if they but put on a black tie over their naked torsos, Jesus would arrive in a steamer bearing an icebox, a pair of trousers, and a sewing machine for each believer. + +School fuses the growth in humiliating dependence on a master with the growth in the futile sense of omnipotence that is so typical of the pupil who wants to go out and teach all nations to save themselves. The ritual is tailored to the stern work habits of the hardhats, and its purpose is to celebrate the myth of an earthly paradise of never-ending consumption, which is the only hope for the wretched and dispossessed. + +Epidemics of insatiable this-worldly expectations have occurred throughout history, especially among colonized and marginal groups in all cultures. Jews in the Roman Empire had their Essenes and Jewish messiahs, serfs in the Reformation their Thomas Müntzer, dispossessed Indians from Paraguay to Dakota their infectious dancers. These sects were always led by a prophet, and limited their promises to a chosen few. The school-induced expectation of the kingdom, on the other hand, is impersonal rather than prophetic, and universal rather than local. Man has become the engineer of his own messiah and promises the unlimited rewards of science to those who submit to progressive engineering for his reign. + +### The New Alienation + +School is not only the New World Religion. It is also the world's fastest-growing labor market. The engineering of consumers has become the economy's principal growth sector. As production costs decrease in rich nations, there is an increasing concentration of both capital and labor in the vast enterprise of equipping man for disciplined consumption. During the past decade capital investments directly related to the school system rose even faster than expenditures for defense. Disarmament would only accelerate the process by which the learning industry moves to the center of the national economy. School gives unlimited opportunity for legitimated waste, so long as its destructiveness goes unrecognized and the cost of palliatives goes up. + +If we add those engaged in full-time teaching to those in full-time attendance, we realize that this so-called superstructure has become society's major employer. In the United States sixty-two million people are in school and eighty million at work elsewhere. This is often forgotten by neo-Marxist analysts who say that the process of deschooling must be postponed or bracketed until other disorders, traditionally understood as more fundamental, are corrected by an economic and political revolution. Only if school is understood as an industry can revolutionary strategy be planned realistically. For Marx, the cost of producing demands for commodities was barely significant. Today most human labor is engaged in the production of demands that can be satisfied by industry which makes intensive use of capital. Most of this is done in school. + +Alienation, in the traditional scheme, was a direct consequence of work's becoming wage-labor which deprived man of the opportunity to create and be recreated. Now young people are prealienated by schools that isolate them while they pretend to be both producers and consumers of their own knowledge, which is conceived of as a commodity put on the market in school. School makes alienation preparatory to life, thus depriving education of reality and work of creativity. School prepares for the alienating institutionalization of life by teaching the need to be taught. Once this lesson is learned, people lose their incentive to grow in independence; they no longer find relatedness attractive, and close themselves off to the surprises which life offers when it is not predetermined by institutional definition. And school directly or indirectly employs a major portion of the population. School either keeps people for life or makes sure that they will fit into some institution. + +The New World Church is the knowledge industry, both purveyor of opium and the workbench during an increasing number of the years of an individual's life. Deschooling is, therefore, at the root of any movement for human liberation. + +### The Revolutionary Potential of Deschooling + +Of course, school is not, by any means, the only modern institution which has as its primary purpose the shaping of man's vision of reality. The hidden curriculum of family life, draft, health care, so-called professionalism, or of the media play an important part in the institutional manipulation of man's world-vision, language, and demands. But school enslaves more profoundly and more systematically, since only school is credited with the principal function of forming critical judgment, and, paradoxically, tries to do so by making learning about oneself, about others, and about nature depend on a prepackaged process. School touches us so intimately that none of us can expect to be liberated from it by something else. + +Many self-styled revolutionaries are victims of school. They see even "liberation" as the product of an institutional process. Only liberating oneself from school will dispel such illusions. The discovery that most learning requires no teaching can be neither manipulated nor planned. Each of us is personally responsible for his or her own deschooling, and only we have the power to do it. No one can be excused if he fails to liberate himself from schooling. People could not free themselves from the Crown until at least some of them had freed themselves from the established Church. They cannot free themselves from progressive consumption until they free themselves from obligatory school. + +We are all involved in schooling, from both the side of production and that of consumption. We are superstitiously convinced that good learning can and should be produced in us-and that we can produce it in others. Our attempt to withdraw from the concept of school will reveal the resistance we find in ourselves when we try to renounce limitless consumption and the pervasive presumption that others can be manipulated for their own good. No one is fully exempt from the exploitation of others in the schooling process. + +School is both the largest and the most anonymous employer of all. Indeed, the school is the best example of a new kind of enterprise, succeeding the guild, the factory, and the corporation. The multinational corporations which have dominated the economy are now being complemented, and may one day be replaced, by super nationally planned service agencies. These enterprises present their services in ways that make all men feel obliged to consume them. They are internationally standardized, redefining the value of their services periodically and everywhere at approximately the same rhythm. + +"Transportation" relying on new cars and superhighways serves the same institutionally packaged need for comfort, prestige, speed, and gadgetry, whether its components are produced by the state or not. The apparatus of "medical care" defines a peculiar kind of health, whether the service is paid for by the state or by the individual. Graded promotion in order to obtain diplomas fits the student for a place on the same international pyramid of qualified manpower, no matter who directs the school. + +In all these cases employment is a hidden benefit: the driver of a private automobile, the patient who submits to hospitalization, or the pupil in the schoolroom must now be seen as part of a new class of "employees". A liberation movement which starts in school, and yet is grounded in the awareness of teachers and pupils as simultaneously exploiters and exploited, could foreshadow the revolutionary strategies of the future; for a radical program of deschooling could train youth in the new style of revolution needed to challenge a social system featuring obligatory "health," "wealth," and "security". + +The risks of a revolt against school are unforeseeable, but they are not as horrible as those of a revolution starting in any other major institution. School is not yet organized for self-protection as effectively as a nation-state, or even a large corporation. Liberation from the grip of schools could be bloodless. The weapons of the truant officer and his allies in the courts and employment agencies might take very cruel measures against the individual offender, especially if he or she were poor, but they might turn out to be powerless against the surge of a mass movement. + +School has become a social problem; it is being attacked on all sides, and citizens and their governments sponsor unconventional experiments all over the world. They resort to unusual statistical devices in order to keep faith and save face. The mood among some educators is much like the mood among Catholic bishops after the Vatican Council. The curricula of so-called "free schools" resemble the liturgies of folk and rock masses. The demands of highschool students to have a say in choosing their teachers are as strident as those of parishioners demanding to select their pastors. But the stakes for society are much higher if a significant minority loses its faith in schooling. This would endanger the survival not only of the economic order built on the coproduction of goods and demands, but equally of the political order built on thenation-state into which students are delivered by the school. + +Our options are clear enough. Either we continue to believe that institutionalized learning is a product which justifies unlimited investment or we rediscover that legislation and planning and investment, if they have any place in formal education, should be used mostly to tear down the barriers that now impede opportunities for learning, which can only be a personal activity. + +If we do not challenge the assumption that valuable knowledge is a commodity which under certain circumstances may be forced into the consumer, society will be increasingly dominated by sinister pseudo schools and totalitarian managers of information. Pedagogical therapists will drug their pupils more in order to teach them better, and students will drug themselves more to gain relief from the pressures of teachers and the race for certificates. Increasingly larger numbers of bureaucrats will presume to pose as teachers. The language of the schoolman has already been coopted by the adman. Now the general and the policeman try to dignify their professions by masquerading as educators. In a schooled society, warmaking and civil repression find an educational rationale. Pedagogical warfare in the style of Vietnam will be increasingly justified as the only way of teaching people the superior value of unending progress. + +Repression will be seen as a missionary effort to hasten the coming of the mechanical Messiah. More and more countries will resort to the pedagogical torture already implemented in Brazil and Greece. This pedagogical torture is not used to extract information or to satisfy the psychic needs of sadists. It relies on random terror to break the integrity of an entire population and make it plastic material for the teachings invented by technocrats. The totally destructive and constantly progressive nature of obligatory instruction will fulfill its ultimate logic unless we begin to liberate ourselves right now from our pedagogical hubris, our belief that man can do what God cannot, namely, manipulate others for their own salvation. + +Many people are just awakening to the inexorable destruction which present production trends imply for the environment, but individuals have only very limited power to change these trends. The manipulation of men and women begun in school has also reached a point of no return, and most people are still unaware of it. They still encourage school reform, as Henry Ford II proposes less poisonous automobiles. + +Daniel Bell says that our epoch is characterized by an extreme disjunction between cultural and social structures, the one being devoted to apocalyptic attitudes, the other to technocratic decision-making. This is certainly true for many educational reformers, who feel impelled to condemn almost everything which characterizes modern schools-and at the same time propose new schools. + +In his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn argues that such dissonance inevitably precedes the emergence of a new cognitive paradigm. The facts reported by those who observed free fall, by those who returned from the other side of the earth, and by those who used the new telescope did not fit the Ptolemaic world view. Quite suddenly, the Newtonian paradigm was accepted. The dissonance which characterizes many of the young today is not so much cognitive as a matter of attitudes--a feeling about what a tolerable society cannot be like. What is surprising about this dissonance is the ability of a very large number of people to tolerate it. + +The capacity to pursue incongruous goals requires an explanation. According to Max Gluckman, all societies have procedures to hide such dissonances from their members. He suggests that this is the purpose of ritual. Rituals can hide from their participants even discrepancies and conflicts between social principle and social organization. As long as an individual is not explicitly conscious of the ritual character of the process through which he was initiated to the forces which shape his cosmos, he cannot break the spell and shape a new cosmos. As long as we are not aware of the ritual through which school shapes the progressive consumer--the economy's major resource--we cannot break the spell of this economy and shape a new one. + + +## Institutional Spectrum + +Most utopian schemes and futuristic scenarios call for new and costly technologies, which would have to be sold to rich and poor nations alike. Herman Kahn has found pupils in Venezuela, Argentina, and Colombia. The pipe dreams of Sergio Bernardes for his Brazil of the year 2000 sparkle with more new machinery than is now possessed by the United States, which by then will be weighted down with the antiquated missile sites, jetports, and cities of the sixties and seventies. Futurists inspired by Buckminster Fuller would depend on cheaper and more exotic devices. They count on the acceptance of a new but possible technology that would apparently allow us to make more with less lightweight monorails rather than supersonic transport; vertical living rather than horizontal sprawling. All of today's futuristic planners seek to make economically feasible what is technically possible while refusing to face the inevitable social consequence: the increased craving of all men for goods and services that will remain the privilege of a few. + +I believe that a desirable future depends on our deliberately choosing a life of action over a life of consumption, on our engendering a life style which will enable us to be spontaneous, independent, yet related to each other, rather than maintaining a life style which only allows us to make and unmake, produce and consume-a style of life which is merely a way station on the road to the depletion and pollution of the environment. The future depends more upon our choice of institutions which support a life of action than on our developing new ideologies and technologies. We need a set of criteria which will permit us to recognize those institutions which support personal growth rather than addiction, as well as the will to invest our techno-logical resources preferentially in such institutions of growth. + +The choice is between two radically opposed institutional types, both of which are exemplified in certain existing institutions, although one type so characterizes the contemporary period. as to almost define it. This dominant type I would propose to call the manipulative institution. The other type also exists, but only precariously. The institutions which fit it are humbler and less noticeable; yet I take them as models for a more desirable future. I call them "convivial" and suggest placing them at the left of an institutional spectrum, both to show that there are institutions which fall between the extremes and to illustrate how historical institutions can change color as they shift from facilitating activity to organizing production. + +Generally, such a spectrum, moving from left to right, has been used to characterize men and their ideologies, not our social institutions and their styles. This categorization of men, whether as individuals or in groups, often generates more heat than light. Weighty objections can be raised against using an ordinary convention in an unusual fashion, but by doing so I hope to shift the terms of the discussion from a sterile to a fertile plane. It will become evident that men of the left are not always characterized by their opposition to the manipulative institutions, which I locate to the right on the spectrum. + +The most influential modern institutions crowd up at the right of the spectrum. Law enforcement has moved there, as it has shifted from the hands of the sheriff to those of the FBI and the Pentagon. Modern warfare has become a highly professional enterprise whose business is killing. It has reached the point where its efficiency is measured in body counts. Its peace-keeping potential depends on its ability to convince friend and foe of the nation's unlimited death-dealing power. Modern bullets and chemicals are so effective that a few cents' worth, properly delivered to the intended "client," unfailingly kill or maim. But delivery costs rise vertiginously; the cost of a dead Vietnamese went from $360,000 in 1967 to $450,000 in 1969. Only economies on a scale approaching race suicide would render modern warfare economically efficient. The boomerang effect in war is becoming more obvious: the higher the body count of dead Vietnamese, the more enemies the United States acquires around the world; likewise, the more the United States must spend to create another manipulative institution--cynically dubbed "pacification" in a futile effort to absorb the side effects of war. + +At this same extreme on the spectrum we also find social agencies which specialize in the manipulation of their clients. Like the military, they tend to develop effects contrary to their aims as the scope of their operations increases. These social institutions are equally counterproductive, but less obviously so. Many assume a therapeutic and compassionate image to mask this paradoxical effect. For example, jails, up until two centuries ago, served as a means of detaining men until they were sentenced, maimed, killed, or exiled, and were sometimes deliberately used as a form of torture. Only recently have we begun to claim that locking people up in cages will have a beneficial effect on their character and behavior. Now quite a few people are beginning to understand that jail increases both the quality and the quantity of criminals, that, in fact, it often creates them out of mere nonconformists. Far fewer people, however, seem to understand that mental hospitals, nursing homes, and orphan asylums do much the same thing. These institutions provide their clients with the destructive self-image of the psychotic, the overaged, or the waif, and provide a rationale for the existence of entire professions, just as jails produce income for wardens. Membership in the institutions found at this extreme of the spectrum is achieved in two ways, both coercive: by forced commitment or by selective service. + +At the opposite extreme of the spectrum lie institutions distinguished by spontaneous use-the "convivial" institutions. Telephone link-ups, subway lines, mail routes, public markets and exchanges do not require hard or soft sells to induce their clients to use them. Sewage systems, drinking water, parks, and sidewalks are institutions men use without having to be institutionally convinced that it is to their advantage to do so. Of course, all institutions require some regulation. But the operation of institutions which exist to be used rather than to produce something requires rules of an entirely different nature from those required by treatment-institutions, which are manipulative. The rules which govern institutions for use have mainly the purpose of avoiding abuses which would frustrate their general accessibility. Sidewalks must be kept free of obstructions, the industrial use of drinking water must be held within limits, and ball playing must be restricted to special areas within a park. At present we need legislation to limit the abuse of our telephone lines by computers, the abuse of mail service by advertisers, and the pollution of our sewage systems by industrial wastes. The regulation of convivial institutions sets limits to their use; as one moves from the convivial to the manipulative end of the spectrum, the rules progressively call for unwilling consumption or participation. The different cost of acquiring clients is just one of the characteristics which distinguish convivial from manipulative institutions. + +At both extremes of the spectrum we find service institutions, but on the right the service is imposed manipulation, and the client is made the victim of advertising, aggression, indoctrination, imprisonment, or electroshock. On the left the service is amplified opportunity within formally defined limits, while the client remains a free agent. Right-wing institutions tend to be highly complex and costly production processes in which much of the elaboration and expense is concerned with convincing consumers that they cannot live without the product or the treatment offered by the institution. Leftwing institutions tend to be networks which facilitate client-initiated communication or cooperation. + +The manipulative institutions of the right are either socially or psychologically "addictive". Social addiction, or escalation, consists in the tendency to prescribe increased treatment if smaller quantities have not yielded the desired results. Psycho-logical addiction, or habituation, results when consumers become hooked on the need for more and more of the process or product. The self-activated institutions of the left tend to be self-limiting. Unlike production processes which identify satisfaction with the mere act of consumption, these networks serve a purpose beyond their own repeated use. An individual picks up the telephone when he wants to say something to someone else, and hangs up when the desired communication is over. He does not, teen-agers excepted, use the telephone for the sheer pleasure of talking into the receiver. If the telephone is not the best way to get in touch, people will write a letter or take a trip. Right-wing institutions, as we can see clearly in the case of schools, both invite compulsively repetitive use and frustrate alternative ways of achieving similar results. + +Toward, but not at, the left on the institutional spectrum, we can locate enterprises which compete with others in their own field, but have not begun notably to engage in advertising. Here we find hand laundries, small bakeries, hairdressers, and-to speak of professionals-some lawyers and music teachers. Characteristically left of center, then, are self-employed persons who have institutionalized their services but not their publicity. They acquire clients through their personal touch and the comparative quality of their services. + +Hotels and cafeterias are somewhat closer to the center. The big chains like Hilton-which spend huge amounts on selling their image-often behave as if they were running institutions of the right. Yet Hilton and Sheraton enterprises do not usually offer anything more-in fact, they often give less-than similarly priced, independently managed lodgings. Essentially, a hotel sign beckons to a traveler in the manner of a road sign. It says, "Stop, here is a bed for you," rather than, "You should prefer a hotel bed to a park bench!" + +The producers of staples and most perishable consumer goods belong in the middle of our spectrum. They fill generic demands and add to the cost of production and distribution whatever the market will bear in advertising costs for publicity and special packaging. The more basic the product-be it goods or services-the more does competition tend to limit the sales cost of the item. + +Most manufacturers of consumer goods have moved much further to the right. Both directly and indirectly, they produce demands for accessories which boost real purchase price far beyond production cost. General Motors and Ford produce means of transportation, but they also, and more importantly, manipulate public taste in such a way that the need for transportation is expressed as a demand for private cars rather than public buses. They sell the desire to control a machine, to race at high speeds in luxurious comfort, while also offering the fantasy at the end of the road. What they sell, however, is not just a matter of uselessly big motors, superfluous gadgetry, or the new extras forced on the manufacturers by Ralph Nader and the clean-air lobbyists. The list price includes souped-up engines, airconditioning, safety belts, and exhaust controls; but other costs not openly declared to the driver are also involved: the corporation's advertising and sales expenses, fuel, maintenance and parts, insurance, interest on credit, as well as less tangible costs like loss of time, temper, and breathable air in our traffic-congested cities. + +An especially interesting corollary to our discussion of socially useful institutions is the system of "public" highways. This major element of the total cost of automobiles deserves lengthier treatment, since it leads directly to the rightist institution in which I am most interested, namely, the school. + +### False Public Utilities + +The highway system is a network for locomotion across relatively large distances. As a network, it appears to belong on the left of the institutional spectrum. But here we must make a distinction which will clarify both the nature of highways and the nature of true public utilities. Genuinely all-purpose roads are true public utilities. Superhighways are private preserves, the cost of which has been partially foisted upon the public. + +Telephone, postal, and highway systems are all networks, and none of them is free. Access to the telephone network is limited by time charges on each call. These rates are relatively small and could be reduced without changing the nature of the system. Use of the telephone system is not in the least limited by what is transmitted, although it is best used by those who can speak coherent sentences in the language of the other party-an ability universally possessed by those who wish to use the network. Postage is usually cheap. Use of the postal system is slightly limited by the price of pen and paper, and somewhat more by the ability to write. Still, when someone who does not know how to write has a relative or friend to whom he can dictate a letter, the postal system is at his service, as it is if he wants to ship a recorded tape. + +The highway system does not similarly become available to someone who merely learns to drive. The telephone and postal networks exist to serve those who wish to use them, while the highway system mainly serves as an accessory to the private automobile. The former are true public utilities, whereas the latter is a public service to the owners of cars, trucks, and buses. Public utilities exist for the sake of communication among men; highways, like other institutions of the right, exist for the sake of a product. Auto manufacturers, we have already observed, produce simultaneously both cars and the demand for cars. They also produce the demand for multilane highways, bridges, and oilfields. The private car is the focus of a cluster of right-wing institutions. The high cost of each element is dictated by elaboration of the basic product, and to sell the basic product is to hook society on the entire package. + +To plan a highway system as a true public utility would discriminate against those for whom velocity and individualized comfort are the primary transportation values, in favor of those who value fluidity and destination. It is the difference between a far-flung network with maximum access for travelers and one which offers only privileged access to restricted areas. + +Transferring a modern institution to the developing nations provides the acid test of its quality. In very poor countries roads are usually just good enough to permit transit by special, high-axle trucks loaded with groceries, livestock, or people. This kind of country should use its limited resources to build a spiderweb of trails extending to every region and should restrict imports to two or three different models of highly durable vehicles which can manage all trails at low speed. This would simplify maintenance and the stocking of spare parts, permit the operation of these vehicles around the clock, and provide maximum fluidity and choice of destination to all citizens. This would require the engineering of all-purpose vehicles with the simplicity of the Model T, making use of the most modern alloys to guarantee durability, with a built-in speed limit of not more than fifteen miles per hour, and strong enough to run on the roughest terrain. Such vehicles are not on the market because there is no demand for them. As a matter of fact, such a demand would have to be cultivated, quite possibly under the protection of strict legislation. At present, whenever such a demand is even slightly felt, it is quickly snuffed out by counterpublicity aimed at universal sales of the machines which currently extract from U.S. taxpayers the money needed for building superhighways. + +In order to "improve" transportation, all countries-even the poorest-now plan highway systems designed for the passenger cars and high-speed trailers which fit the velocity-conscious minority of producers and consumers in the elite classes. This approach is frequently rationalized as a saving of the most precious resource of a poor country: the time of the doctor, the school inspector, or the public administrator. These men, of course, serve almost exclusively the same people who have, or hope one day to have, a car. Local taxes and scarce international exchange are wasted on false public utilities. + +"Modern" technology transferred to poor countries falls into three large categories: goods, factories which make them, and service institutions -principally schools- which make men into modern producers and consumers. Most countries spend by far the largest proportion of their budget on schools. The school-made graduates then create a demand for other conspicuous utilities, such as industrial power, paved highways, modern hospitals, and airports, and these in turn create a market for the goods made for rich countries and, after a while, the tendency to import obsolescent factories to produce them. + +Of all "false utilities," school is the most insidious. Highway systems produce only a demand for cars. Schools create a demand for the entire set of modern institutions which crowd the right end of the spectrum. A man who questioned the need for high. ways would be written off as a romantic; the man who questions the need for school is immediately attacked as either heartless or imperialist. + +### Schools as False Public Utilities + +Like highways, schools, at first glance, give the impression of being equally open to all comers. They are, in fact, open only to those who consistently renew their credentials. Just as highways create the impression that their present level of cost per year is necessary if people are to move, so schools are presumed essential for attaining the competence required by a society which uses modern technology. We have exposed speedways as spurious public utilities by noting their dependence on private automobiles. Schools are based upon the equally spurious hypothesis that learning is the result of curricular teaching. + +Highways result from a perversion of the desire and need for mobility into the demand for a private car. Schools themselves pervert the natural inclination to grow and learn into the demand for instruction. Demand for manufactured maturity is a far greater abnegation of self-initiated activity than the demand for manufactured goods. Schools are not only to the right of highways and cars; they belong near the extreme of the institutional spectrum occupied by total asylums. Even the producers of body counts kill only bodies. By making men abdicate the responsibility for their own growth, school leads many to a kind of spiritual suicide. + +Highways are paid for in part by those who use them, since tolls and gasoline taxes are extracted only from drivers. School, on the other hand, is a perfect system of regressive taxation, where the privileged graduates ride on the back of the entire paying public. School puts a head tax on promotion. The under consumption of highway mileage is not nearly so costly as the under consumption of schooling. The man who does not own a car in Los Angeles may be almost immobilized, but if he can somehow manage to reach a work place, he can get and hold a job. The school dropout has no alternative route. The suburbanite with his new Lincoln and his country cousin who drives a beat-up jalopy get essentially the same use out of the highway, even though one man's car costs thirty times more than the other's. The value of a man's schooling is a function of the number of years he has completed and of the costliness of the schools he has attended. The law compels no one to drive, whereas it obliges everyone to go to school. + +The analysis of institutions according to their present placement on a left-right continuum enables me to clarify my belief that fundamental social change must begin with a change of consciousness about institutions and to explain why the dimension of a viable future turns on the rejuvenation of institutional style. + +During the sixties institutions born in different decades since the French Revolution simultaneously reached old age; public school systems founded in the time of Jefferson or of Atatürk, along with others which started after World War II,all became bureaucratic, self-justifying, and manipulative. The same thing happened to systems of social security, to labor unions, major churches and diplomacies, the care of the aged, and the disposal of the dead. + +Today, for instance, the school systems of Colombia, Britain, the U.S.S.R., and the U.S. resemble each other more closely than U.S. schools of the late 1890's resembled either today's or their contemporaries in Russia. Today all schools are obligatory, open-ended, and competitive. The same convergence in institutional style affects health care, merchandising, personnel administration, and political life. All these institutional processes tend to pile up at the manipulative end of the spectrum. + +A merger of world bureaucracies results from this convergence of institutions. The style, the ranking systems, and the paraphernalia (from textbook to computer) are standardized on the planning boards of Costa Rica or Afghanistan after the model of Western Europe. + +Everywhere these bureaucracies seem to focus on the same task: promoting the growth of institutions of the right. They are concerned with the making of things, the making of ritual rules, and the making-and reshaping--of "executive truth," the ideology or fiat which establishes the current value which should be attributed to their product. + +Technology provides these bureaucracies with increasing power on the right hand of society. The left hand of society seems to wither, not because technology is less capable of increasing the range of human action, and providing time for the play of individual imagination and personal creativity, but because such use of technology does not increase the power of an elite which administers it. The postmaster has no control over the substantive use of the mails, the switchboard operator or Bell Telephone executive has no power to stop adultery, murder, or subversion from being planned over his network. + +At stake in the choice between the institutional right and left is the very nature of human life. Man must choose whether tobe rich in things or in the freedom to use them. He must choose between alternate styles of life and related production schedules. + +Aristotle had already discovered that "making and acting" are different, so different, in fact, that one never includes the other. "For neither is acting a way of making-nor making a way of truly acting. Architecture _techne_ is a way of making - - - of bringing something into being whose origin is in the maker and not in the thing. Making has always an end other than itself, action not; for good action itself is its end. Perfection in making is an art, perfection in acting is a virtue".[^n01] The word which Aristotle employed for making was "poesis," and the word he employed for doing, "praxis". A move to the right implies that an institution is being restructured to increase its ability to "make," while as it moves to the left, it is being restructured to allow increased "doing" or "praxis". Modern technology has increased the ability of man to relinquish the "making" of things to machines, and his potential time for "acting"" has increased. + +"Making" the necessities of life has ceased to take up his time. Unemployment is the result of this modernization: it is the idleness of a man for whom there is nothing to "make" and who does not know what to "do"--that is, how to "act". Unemployment is the sad idleness of a man who, contrary to Aristotle, believes that making things, or working, is virtuous and that idleness is bad. Unemployment is the experience of the man who has succumbed to the Protestant ethic. Leisure, according to Weber, is necessary for man to be able to work. For Aristotle, work is necessary for man to have leisure. + +Technology provides man with discretionary time he can fill either with making or with doing. The choice between sad unemployment and joyful leisure is now open for the entire culture. It depends on the institutional style the culture chooses. This choice would have been unthinkable in an ancient culture built either on peasant agriculture or on slavery. It has become inevitable for postindustrial man. + +One way to fill available time is to stimulate increased demands for the consumption of goods and, simultaneously, for the production of services. The former implies an economy which provides an ever-growing array of ever newer things which can be made, consumed, wasted, and recycled. The latter implies the futile attempt to "make" virtuous actions into the products of "service" institutions. This leads to the identification of schooling and education, of medical service and health, of program watching and entertainment, of speed and effective locomotion. This first option now goes under the name of development. + +The radically alternative way to fill available time is a limited range of more durable goods and to provide access to institutions which can increase the opportunity and desirability of human interaction. + +A durable-goods economy is precisely the contrary of an economy based on planned obsolescence. A durable-goods economy means a constraint on the bill of goods. Goods would have to be such that they provided the maximum opportunity to "do" something with them: items made for self-assembly, self-help, reuse, and repair. + +The complement to a durable, repairable, and reusable bill of goods is not an increase of institutionally produced services, but rather an institutional framework which constantly educates to action, participation, and self-help. The movement of our society from the present--in which all institutions gravitate toward post-industrial bureaucracy--to a future of postindustrial conviviality--in which the intensity of action would prevail over production--must begin with a renewal of style in the service institutions--and, first of all, with a renewal of education. A future which is desirable and feasible depends on our willingness to invest our technological know-how into the growth of convivial institutions. In the field of educational research, this amounts to the request for a reversal of present trends. + + +## Irrational Consistencies + +[^n02] I believe that the contemporary crisis of education demands that we review the very idea of publicly prescribed learning, rather than the methods used in its enforcement. The dropout rate--especially of junior-high-school students and elementary-school teachers--points to a grass-roots demand for a completely fresh look. The "classroom practitioner" who considers himself a liberal teacher is increasingly attacked from all sides. The free-school movement, confusing discipline with indoctrination, has painted him into the role of a destructive authoritarian. The educational technologist consistently demonstrates the teacher's inferiority at measuring and modifying behavior. And the school administration for which he works forces him to bow to both Summerhill and Skinner, making it obvious that compulsory learning cannot be a liberal enterprise. No wonder that the desertion rate of teachers is overtaking that of their students. + +America's commitment to the compulsory education of its young now reveals itself to be as futile as the pretended American commitment to compulsory democratization of the Vietnamese. Conventional schools obviously cannot do it. The free-school movement entices unconventional educators, but ultimately does so in support of the conventional ideology of schooling. And the promises of educational technologists, that their research and development--if adequately funded--can offer some kind of final solution to the resistance of youth to compulsory learning, sound as confident and prove as fatuous as the analogous promises made by the military technologists. + +The criticism directed at the American school system by the behaviorists and that coming from the new breed of radical educators seem radically opposed. The behaviorists apply educational research to the "induction of autotelic instruction through individualized learning packages". Their style clashes with the nondirective cooption of youth into liberated communes established under the supervision of adults. Yet, in historical perspective, these two are just contemporary manifestations of the seemingly contradictory yet really complementary goals of the public school system. From the beginning of this century, the schools have been protagonists of social control on the one hand and free cooperation on the other, both placed at the service of the "good society," conceived of as a highly organized and smoothly working corporate structure. Under the impact of intense urbanization, children became a natural resource to be molded by the schools and fed into the industrial machine. Progressive politics and the cult of efficiency converged in the growth of the U.S. public school.* (See Joel Spring, Education and the Rise of the Corporate State, Cuaderno No. 50. Centro Intercultural de Documentaci6n, Cuernavaca, Mexico, 1971) Vocational guidance and the junior high school were two important results of this kind of thinking. + +It appears, therefore, that the attempt to produce specified behavioral changes which can be measured and for which the processor can be held accountable is just one side of a coin, whose other side is the pacification of the new generation within specially engineered enclaves which will seduce them into the dream world of their elders. These pacified in society are well described by Dewey, who wants us to "make each one of our schools an embryonic community life, active with types of occupations that reflect the life of the larger society, and permeate it with the spirit of art, history and science". In this historical perspective, it would be a grave mistake to interpret the current three-cornered controversy between the school establishment, the educational technologists and the free schools as the prelude to a revolution in education. This controversy reflects rather a stage of an attempt to escalate an old dream into fact, and to finally make all valuable learning the result of professional teaching. Most educational alternatives proposed converge toward goals which are immanent in the production of the cooperative man whose individual needs are met by means of his specialization in the American system: They are oriented toward the improvement of what--for lack of a better phrase--I call the schooled society. Even the seemingly radical critics of the school system are not willing to abandon the idea that they have an obligation to the young, especially to the poor, an obligation to process them, whether by love or by fear, into a society which needs disciplined specialization as much from its producers as from its consumers and also their full commitment to the ideology which puts economic growth first. + +Dissent veils the contradictions inherent in the very idea of school. The established teachers unions, the technological wizards, and the educational liberation movement reinforce the commitment of the entire society to the fundamental axioms of a schooled world, somewhat in the manner in which many peace and protest movements reinforce the commitments of their members--be they black, female, young, or poor--to seek justice through the growth of the gross national income. + +Some of the tenets which now go unchallenged are easy to list. There is, first, the shared belief that behavior which has been acquired in the sight of a pedagogue is of special value to the pupil and of special benefit to society. This is related to the assumption that social man is born only in adolescence, and properly born only if he matures in the school-womb, which some want to gentle by permissiveness, others to stuff with gadgets, and still others to varnish with a liberal tradition. And there is, finally, a shared view of youth which is psychologically romantic and politically conservative. According to this view, changes in society must be brought about by burdening the young with the responsibility of transforming it-but only after their eventual release from school. It is easy for a society founded on such tenets to build up a sense of its responsibility for the education of the new generation, and this inevitably means that some men may set, specify, and evaluate the personal goals of others. In a "passage from an imaginary Chinese encyclopedia," Jorge Luis Borges tries to evoke the sense of giddiness such an attempt must produce. He tells us that animals are divided into the following classes: "(a) those belonging to the emperor, (b) those that are embalmed, (c) those that are domesticated, (d) the suckling pigs, (e) the sirens, (f) fabulous ones, (g) the roaming dogs, (h) those included in the present classification, (i) those that drive themselves crazy, (j) innumerable ones, (k) those painted with a very fine brush of camel hair, (1) etcetera, (m) those who have just broken the jug, (n) those who resemble flies from afar". Now, such a taxonomy does not come into being unless somebody feels it can serve his purpose: in this case, I suppose, that somebody was a tax collector. For him, at least, this taxonomy of beasts must have made sense, the same way in which the taxonomy of educational objectives makes sense to scientific authors. + +In the peasant, the vision of men with such inscrutable logic, empowered to assess his cattle, must have induced a chilling sense of impotence. Students, for analogous reasons, tend to feel paranoiac when they seriously submit to a curriculum. Inevitably they are even more frightened than my imaginary Chinese peasant, because it is their life goals rather than their life-stock which is being branded with an inscrutable sign. + +This passage of Borges is fascinating, because it evokes the logic of irrational consistency which makes Kafka's and Koestler's bureaucracies so sinister yet so evocative of everyday life. Irrational consistency mesmerizes accomplices who are engaged in mutually expedient and disciplined exploitation. It is the logic generated by bureaucratic behavior. And it becomes the logic of a society which demands that the managers of its educational institutions be held publicly accountable for the behavioral modification they produce in their clients. Students who can be motivated to value the educational packages which their teachers obligate them to consume are comparable to Chinese peasants who can fit their flocks into the tax form provided by Borges. + +At some time during the last two generations a commitment to therapy triumphed in American culture, and teachers came to be regarded as the therapists whose ministrations all men need, if they wish to enjoy the equality and freedom with which, according to the Constitution, they are born. Now the teacher-therapists go on to propose lifelong educational treatment as the next step. The style of this treatment is under discussion: Should it take the form of continued adult classroom attendance? Electronic ecstasy? Or periodic sensitivity sessions? All educators are ready to conspire to push out the walls of the classroom, with the goal of transforming the entire culture into a school. + +The American controversy over the future of education, behind its rhetoric and noise, is more conservative than the discourse in other areas of public policy. On foreign affairs, at least, an organized minority constantly reminds us that the United States must renounce its role as the world's policeman. Radical economists, and now even their less radical teachers, question aggregate growth as a desirable goal. There are lobbies for prevention over cure in medicine and others in favor of fluidity over speed in transportation. Only in the field of education do the articulate voices demanding a radical deschooling of society remain so dispersed. There is a lack of cogent argument and of mature leadership aiming at the disestablishment of any and all institutions which serve the purpose of compulsory learning. For the moment, the radical deschooling of society is still a cause without a party. This is especially surprising in a time of growing, though chaotic, resistance to all forms of institutionally planned instruction on the part of those aged twelve to seventeen. + +Educational innovators still assume that educational institutions function like funnels for the programs they package. For my argument it is irrelevant whether these funnels take the form of a classroom, a TV transmitter, or a "liberated zone". It is equally irrelevant whether the packages purveyed are rich or poor, hot or cold, hard and measurable (like Math III), or impossible to assess (like sensitivity). What counts is that education is assumed to be the result of an institutional process managed by the educator. As long as the relations continue to be those between a supplier and a consumer, educational research will remain a circular process. It will amass scientific evidence in support of the need for more educational packages and for their more deadly accurate delivery to the individual customer, just as a certain brand of social science can prove the need for the delivery of more military treatment. + +An educational revolution depends on a twofold inversion: a new orientation for research and a new understanding of the educational style of an emerging counterculture. + +Operational research now seeks to optimize the efficiency of an inherited framework--a framework which is itself never questioned. This framework has the syntactic structure of a funnel for teaching packages. The syntactic alternative to it is an educational network or web for the autonomous assembly of resources under the personal control of each learner. This alternative structure of an educational institution now lies within the conceptual blind spot of our operational research. If research were to focus on it, this would constitute a true scientific revolution. + +The blind spot of educational research reflects the cultural bias of a society in which technological growth has been confused with technocratic control. For the technocrat the value of an environment increases as more contacts between each man and his milieu can be programmed. In this world the choices which are manageable for the observer or planner converge with the choices possible for the observed so-called beneficiary. Freedom is reduced to a selection among packaged commodities. + +The emerging counterculture reaffirms the values of semantic content above the efficiency of increased and more rigid syntax. It values the wealth of connotation above the power of syntax to produce wealth. It values the unpredictable outcome of self-chosen personal encounter above the certified quality of professional instruction. This reorientation toward personal surprise rather than institutionally engineered values will be disruptive of the established order until we dissociate the increasing availability of technological tools which facilitate encounter from the increasing control of the technocrat of what happens when people meet. + +Our present educational institutions are at the service of the teacher's goals. The relational structures we need are those which will enable each man to define himself by learning and by contributing to the learning of others. + + +## Learning Webs + +In a previous chapter I discussed what is becoming a common complaint about schools, one that is reflected, for example, in the recent report of the Carnegie Commission: In school registered students submit to certified teachers in order to obtain certificates of their own; both are frustrated and both blame insufficient resources--money, time, or buildings--for their mutual frustration. + +Such criticism leads many people to ask whether it is possible to conceive of a different style of learning. The same people, paradoxically, when pressed to specify how they acquired what they know and value, will readily admit that they learned it more often outside than inside school. Their knowledge of facts, their understanding of life and work came to them from friendship or love, while viewing TV, or while reading, from examples of peers or the challenge of a street encounter. Or they may have learned what they know through the apprenticeship ritual for admission to a street gang or the initiation to a hospital, newspaper city room, plumber's shop, or insurance office. The alternative to dependence on schools is not the use of public resources for some new device which "makes" people learn; rather it is the creation of a new style of educational relationship between man and his environment. To foster this style, attitudes toward growing up, the tools available for learning, and the quality and structure of daily life will have to change concurrently. + +Attitudes are already changing. The proud dependence on school is gone. Consumer resistance increases in the knowledge industry. Many teachers and pupils, taxpayers and employers, economists and policemen would prefer not to depend any longer on schools. What prevents their frustration from shaping new institutions is a lack not only of imagination but frequently also of appropriate language and of enlightened self-interest. They cannot visualize either a deschooled society or educational institutions in a society which has disestablished school. + +In this chapter I intend to show that the inverse of school is possible: that we can depend on self-motivated learning instead of employing teachers to bribe or compel the student to find the time and the will to learn; that we can provide the learner with new links to the world instead of continuing to funnel all educational programs through the teacher. I shall discuss some of the general characteristics which distinguish schooling from learning and outline four major categories of educational institutions which should appeal not only to many individuals but also to many existing interest groups. An Objection: Who Can Be Served by Bridges to Nowhere? + +We are used to considering schools as a variable, dependent on the political and economic structure. If we can change the style of political leadership, or promote the interests of one class or another, or switch from private to public ownership of the means of production, we assume the school system will change as well. The educational institutions I will propose, however, are meant to serve a society which does not now exist, although the current frustration with schools is itself potentially a major force to set in motion change toward new social arrangements. An obvious objection has been raised to this approach: Why channel energy to build bridges to nowhere, instead of marshaling it first to change not the schools but the political and economic system? + +This objection, however, underestimates the fundamental political and economic nature of the school system itself, as well as the political potential inherent in any effective challenge to it. + +In a basic sense, schools have ceased to be dependent on the ideology professed by any government or market organization. Other basic institutions might differ from one country to another: family, party, church, or press. But everywhere the school system has the same structure, and everywhere its hidden curriculum has the same effect. Invariably, it shapes the consumer who values institutional commodities above the nonprofessional ministration of a neighbor. + +Everywhere the hidden curriculum of schooling initiates the citizen to the myth that bureaucracies guided by scientific knowledge are efficient and benevolent. Everywhere this same curriculum instills in the pupil the myth that increased production will"" provide a better life. And everywhere it develops the habit of self-defeating consumption of services and alienating production, the tolerance for institutional dependence, and the recognition of institutional rankings. The hidden curriculum of school does all this in spite of contrary efforts undertaken by teachers and no matter what ideology prevails. + +In other words, schools are fundamentally alike in all countries, be they fascist, democratic or socialist, big or small, rich or poor. This identity of the school system forces us to recognize the profound world-wide identity of myth, mode of production, and method of social control, despite the great variety of mythologies in which the myth finds expression. + +In view of this identity, it is illusory to claim that schools are, in any profound sense, dependent variables. This means that to hope for fundamental change in the school system as an effect of conventionally conceived social or economic change is also an illusion. Moreover, this illusion grants the school -the reproductive organ of a consumer society- almost unquestioned immunity. + +It is at this point that the example of China becomes important. For three millennia, China protected higher learning through a total divorce between the process of learning and the privilege conferred by mandarin examinations. To become a world power and a modern nation-state, China had to adopt the international style of schooling. Only hindsight will allow us to discover if the Great Cultural Revolution will turn out to have been the first successful attempt at deschooling the institutions of society. + +Even the piecemeal creation of new educational agencies which were the inverse of school would be an attack on the most sensitive link of a pervasive phenomenon, which is organized by the state in all countries. A political program which does not explicitly recognize the need for deschooling is not revolutionary; it is demagoguery calling for more of the same. Any major political program of the seventies should be evaluated by this measure: How clearly does it state the need for deschooling -and how clearly does it provide guidelines for the educational quality of the society for which it aims? + +The struggle against domination by the world market and big-power politics might be beyond some poor communities or countries, but this weakness is an added reason for emphasizing the importance of liberating each society through a reversal of its educational structure, a change which is not beyond any society's means. + +### General Characteristics of New Formal Educational Institutions + +A good educational system should have three purposes: it should provide all who want to learn with access to available resources at any time in their lives; empower all who want to share what they know to find those who want to learn it from them; and, finally, furnish all who want to present an issue to the public with the opportunity to make their challenge known. Such a system would require the application of constitutional guarantees to education. Learners should not be forced to submit to an obligatory curriculum, or to discrimination based on whether they possess a certificate or a diploma. Nor should the public be forced to support, through a regressive taxation, a huge professional apparatus of educators and buildings which in fact restricts the public's chances for learning to the services the profession is willing to put on the market. It should use modern technology to make free speech, free assembly, and a free press truly universal and, therefore, fully educational. + +Schools are designed on the assumption that there is a secret to everything in life; that the quality of life depends on knowing that secret; that secrets can be known only in orderly successions; and that only teachers can properly reveal these secrets. An individual with a schooled mind conceives of the world as a pyramid of classified packages accessible only to those who carry the proper tags. New educational institutions would break apart this pyramid. Their purpose must be to facilitate access for the learner: to allow him to look into the windows of the control room or the parliament, if he cannot get in by the door. Moreover, such new institutions should be channels to which the learner would have access without credentials or pedigree- public spaces in which peers and elders outside his immediate horizon would become available. + +I believe that no more than four -possibly even three- distinct "channels" or learning exchanges could contain all the resources needed for real learning. The child grows up in a world of things, surrounded by people who serve as models for skills and values. He finds peers who challenge him to argue, to compete, to cooperate, and to understand; and if the child is lucky, he is exposed to confrontation or criticism by an experienced elder who really cares. Things, models, peers, and elders are four resources each of which requires a different type of arrangement to ensure that everybody has ample access to it. + +I will use the words "opportunity web" for "network" to designate specific ways to provide access to each of four sets of resources. "Network" is often used, unfortunately, to designate the channels reserved to material selected by others for indoctrination, instruction, and entertainment. But it can also be used for the telephone or the postal service, which are primarily accessible to individuals who want to send messages to one another. I wish we had another word to designate such reticular structures for mutual access, a word less evocative of entrapment, less degraded by current usage and more suggestive of the fact that any such arrangement includes legal, organizational, and technical aspects. Not having found such a term, I will try to redeem the one which is available, using it as a synonym of "educational web". + +What are needed are new networks, readily available to the public and designed to spread equal opportunity for learning and teaching. To give an example: The same level of technology is used in TV and in tape recorders. All Latin-American countries now have introduced TV: in Bolivia the government has financed a TV station, which was built six years ago, and there are no more than seven thousand TV sets for four million citizens. The money now tied up in TV installations throughout Latin America could have provided every fifth adult with a tape recorder. In addition, the money would have sufficed to provide an almost unlimited library of prerecorded tapes, with outlets even in remote villages, as well as an ample supply of empty tapes. + +This network of tape recorders, of course, would be radically different from the present network of TV. It would provideopportunity for free expression: literate and illiterate alike could record, preserve, disseminate, and repeat their opinions. The present investment in TV, instead, provides bureaucrats, whether politicians or educators, with the power to sprinkle the continent with institutionally produced programs which they-or their sponsors--decide are good for or in demand by the people. + +Technology is available to develop either independence and learning or bureaucracy and teaching. + +### Four Networks + +The planning of new educational institutions ought not to begin with the administrative goals of a principal or president, or with the teaching goals of a professional educator, or with the learning goals of any hypothetical class of people. It must not start with the question, "What should someone learn?" but with the question, "What kinds of things and people might learners want to be in contact with in order to learn?" + +Someone who wants to learn knows that he needs both information and critical response to its use from somebody else. Information can be stored in things and in persons. In a good educational system access to things ought to be available at the sole bidding of the learner, while access to informants requires, in addition, others' consent. Criticism can also come from two directions: from peers or from elders, that is, from fellow learners whose immediate interests match mine, or from those who will grant me a share in their superior experience. Peers can be colleagues with whom to raise a question, companions for playful and enjoyable (or arduous) reading or walking, challengers at any type of game. Elders can be consultants on which skill to learn, which method to use, what company to seek at a given moment. They can be guides to the right questions to be raised among peers and to the deficiency of the answers they arrive at. Most of these resources are plentiful. But they are neither conventionally perceived as educational resources, nor is access to them for learning purposes easy, especially for the poor. We must conceive of new relational structures which are deliberately set up to facilitate access to these resources for the use of anybody who is motivated to seek them for his education. Administrative, technological, and especially legal arrangements are required to set up such web-like structures. + +Educational resources are usually labeled according to educators' curricular goals. I propose to do the contrary, to label four different approaches which enable the student to gain access to any educational resource which may help him to define and achieve his own goals: + +_1._ Reference Services to Educational Objects-which facilitate access to things or processes used for formal learning. Some of these things can be reserved for this purpose, stored in libraries, rental agencies, laboratories, and showrooms like museums and theaters; others can be in daily use in factories, airports, or on farms, but made available to students as apprentices or on off hours. + +_2._ Skill Exchanges--which permit persons to list their skills, the conditions under which they are willing to serve as models for others who want to learn these skills, and the addresses at which they can be reached. + +_3._ Peer-Matching--a communications network which permits persons to describe the learning activity in which they wish to engage, in the hope of finding a partner for the inquiry. + +_4._ Reference Services to Educators-at-Large--who can be listed in a directory giving the addresses and self descriptions of professionals, paraprofessionals, and freelancers, along with conditions of access to their services. Such educators, as we will see, could be chosen by polling or consulting their former clients. + +### Reference Services to Educational Objects + +Things are basic resources for learning. The quality of the environment and the relationship of a person to it will determine how much he learns incidentally. Formal learning requires special access to ordinary things, on the one hand, or, on the other, easy and dependable access to special things made for educational purposes. An example of the former is the special right to operate or dismantle a machine in a garage. An example of the latter is the general right to use an abacus, a computer, a book, a botanical garden, or a machine withdrawn from production and placed at the full disposal of students. + +At present, attention is focused on the disparity between rich and poor children in their access to things and in the manner in which they can learn from them. OEO and other agencies, following this approach, concentrate on equalizing chances, by trying to provide more educational equipment for the poor. A more radical point of departure would be to recognize that in the city rich and poor alike are artificially kept away from most of the things that surround them. Children born into the age of plastics and efficiency experts must penetrate two barriers which obstruct their understanding: one built into things and the other around institutions. Industrial design creates a world of things that resist insight into their nature, and schools shut the learner out of the world of things in their meaningful setting. + +After a short visit to New York, a woman from a Mexican village told me she was impressed by the fact that stores sold only wares heavily made up with cosmetics". I understood her to mean that industrial products "speak" to their customers about their allurements and not about their nature. Industry has surrounded people with artifacts whose inner workings only specialists are allowed to understand. The nonspecialist is discouraged from figuring out what makes a watch tick, or a tele-phone ring, or an electric typewriter work, by being warned that it will break if he tries. He can be told what makes a transistor radio work, but he cannot find out for himself. This type of design tends to reinforce a noninventive society in which the experts find it progressively easier to hide behind their expertise and beyond evaluation. + +The man-made environment has become as inscrutable as nature is for the primitive. At the same time, educational materials have been monopolized by school. Simple educational objects have been expensively packaged by the knowledge industry. They have become specialized tools for professional educators, and their cost has been inflated by forcing them to stimulate either environments or teachers. + +The teacher is jealous of the textbook he defines as his professional implement. The student may come to hate the lab because he associates it with schoolwork. The administrator rationalizes his protective attitude toward the library as a defense of costly public equipment against those who would play with it rather than learn. In this atmosphere the student too often uses the map, the lab, the encyclopedia, or the microscope only at the rare moments when the curriculum tells him to do so. Even the great classics become part of "sophomore year" instead of marking a new turn in a person's life. School removes things from everyday use by labeling them educational tools. + +If we are to deschool, both tendencies must be reversed. The general physical environment must be made accessible, and those physical learning resources which have been reduced to teaching instruments must become generally available for self-directed learning. Using things only as part of a curriculum can have an even worse effect than just removing them from the general environment. It can corrupt the attitudes of pupils. + +Games are a case in point. I do not mean the "games" of the physical education department (such as football and basketball), which the schools use to raise income and prestige and in which they have made a substantial capital investment. As the athletes themselves are well aware, these enterprises, which take the form of warlike tournaments, have undermined the playfulness of sports and are used to reinforce the competitive nature of schools. Rather I have in mind the educational games which can provide a unique way to penetrate formal systems. Set theory, linguistics, propositional logic, geometry, physics, and even chemistry reveal themselves with little effort to certain persons who play these games. A friend of mine went to a Mexican market with a game called "'Wff 'n Proof," which consists of some dice on which twelve logical symbols are imprinted. He showed children which two or three combinations constituted a well-formed sentence, and inductively within the first hour some onlookers also grasped the principle. Within a few hours of playfully conducting formal logical proofs, some children are capable of introducing others to the fundamental proofs of propositional logic. The others just walk away. + +In fact, for some children such games are a special form of liberating education, since they heighten their awareness of the fact that formal systems are built on changeable axioms and that conceptual operations have a gamelike nature. They are also simple, cheap, and -to a large extent- can be organized by the players themselves. Used outside the curriculum such games provide an opportunity for identifying and developing unusual talent, while the school psychologist will often identify those who have such talent as in danger of becoming antisocial, sick, or unbalanced. Within school, when used in the form of tournaments, games are not only removed from the sphere of leisure; they often become tools used to translate playfulness into competition, a lack of abstract reasoning into a sign of inferiority. An exercise which is liberating for some character types becomes a straitjacket for others. + +The control of school over educational equipment has still another effect. It increases enormously the cost of such cheap materials. Once their use is restricted to scheduled hours, professionals are paid to supervise their acquisition, storage, and use. Then students vent their anger against the school on the equipment, which must be purchased once again. + +Paralleling the untouchability of teaching tools is the impenetrability of modern junk. In the thirties any self respecting boy knew how to repair an automobile, but now car makers multiply wires and withhold manuals from everyone except specialized mechanics. In a former era an old radio contained enough coils and condensers to build a transmitter that would make all the neighborhood radios scream in feedback. Transistor radios are more portable, but nobody dares to take them apart. To change this in the highly industrialized countries will be immensely difficult; but at least in the Third World we must insist on built-in educational qualities. + +To illustrate my point, let me present a model: By spending ten million dollars it would be possible to connect forty thousand hamlets in a country like Peru with a spiderweb of six-foot-wide trails and maintain these, and, in addition, provide the country with 200,000 three-wheeled mechanical donkeys -five on the average for each hamlet. Few poor countries of this size spend less than this yearly on cars and roads, both of which are now restricted mainly to the rich and their employees, while poor people remain trapped in their villages. Each of these simple but durable little vehicles would cost $l25 - half of which would pay for transmission and a six-horsepower motor. A "donkey" could make 15 mph, and it can carry loads of 850 pounds (that is, most things besides tree trunks and steel beams which are ordinarily moved). + +The political appeal of such a transportation system to a peasantry is obvious. Equally obvious is the reason why those who hold power--and thereby automatically have a car--are not interested in spending money on trails and in clogging roads with engine-driven donkeys. The universal donkey could work only if a country's leaders were willing to impose a national speed limit of, say, twenty-five miles an hour and adapt its public institutions to this. The model could not work if conceived only as a stopgap. + +This is not the place to elaborate on the political, social, economic, financial, and technical feasibility of this model. I wish only to indicate that educational considerations may be of prime importance when choosing such an alternative to capital. intensive transport. By raising the unit cost per donkey by some 20 percent it would become possible to plan the production of all its parts in such a manner that, as far as possible, each future owner would spend a month or two making and understanding his machine and would be able to repair it. With this additional cost it would also be possible to decentralize production into dispersed plants. + +The added benefits would result not only from including educational costs in the construction process. Even more significantly, a durable motor which practically anyone could learn to repair and which could be used as a plow and pump by somebody who understood it would provide much higher educational benefits than the inscrutable engines of the advanced countries. + +Not only the junk but also the supposedly public places of the modern city have become impenetrable. In American society, children are excluded from most things and places on the grounds that they are private. But even in societies which have declared an end to private property children are kept away from the same places and things because they are considered the special domain of professionals and dangerous to the uninitiated. Since the last generation the railroad yard has become as inaccessible as the fire station. Yet with a little ingenuity it should not be difficult to provide for safety in such places. To deschool the artifacts of education will require making the artifacts and processes available--and recognizing their educational value. Certainly, some workers would find it inconvenient to be accessible to learners; but this inconvenience must be balanced against the educational gains. + +Private cars could be banned from Manhattan. Five years ago it was unthinkable. Now certain New York streets are closed off at odd hours, and this trend will probably continue. Indeed, most cross-streets should be closed to automotive traffic and parking should be forbidden everywhere. In a city opened up to people, teaching materials which are now locked up in store-rooms and laboratories could be dispersed into independently operated storefront depots which children and adults could visit without the danger of being run over. + +If the goals of learning were no longer dominated by schools and schoolteachers, the market for learners would be much more various and the definition of "educational artifacts" would be less restrictive. There could be tool shops, libraries, laboratories, and gaming rooms. Photo labs and offset presses would allow neighborhood newspapers to flourish. Some storefront learning centers could contain viewing booths for closed-circuit television, others could feature office equipment for use and for repair. The jukebox or the record player would be commonplace, with some specializing in classical music, others in international folk tunes, others in jazz. Film clubs would compete with each other and with commercial television. Museum outlets could be networks for circulating exhibits of works of art, both old and new, originals and reproductions, perhaps administered by the various metropolitan museums. + +The professional personnel needed for this network would be much more like custodians, museum guides, or reference librarians than like teachers. From the corner biology store, they could refer their clients to the shell collection in the museum or indicate the next showing of biology videotapes in a certain viewing booth. They could furnish guides for pest control, diet, and other kinds of preventive medicine. They could refer those who needed advice to "elders" who could provide it. + +Two distinct approaches can be taken to financing a network of "learning objects". A community could determine a maximum budget for this purpose and arrange for all parts of the network to be open to all visitors at reasonable hours. Or the community could decide to provide citizens with limited entitlements, according to their age group, which would give them special access to certain materials which are both costly and scarce, while leaving other, simpler materials available to everyone. + +Finding resources for materials made specifically for education is only one--and perhaps the least costly--aspect of building an educational world. The money now spent on the sacred paraphernalia of the school ritual could be freed to provide all citizens with greater access to the real life of the city. Special tax incentives could be granted to those who employed children between the ages of eight and fourteen for a couple of hours each day if the conditions of employment were humane ones. We should return to the tradition of the bar mitzvah or confirmation. By this I mean we should first restrict, and later eliminate, the disenfranchisement of the young and permit a boy of twelve to become a man fully responsible for his participation in the life of the community. Many "schoolage" people know more about their neighborhood than social workers or councilmen. Of course, they also ask more embarrassing questions and propose solutions which threaten the bureaucracy. They should be allowed to come of age so that they could put their knowledge and fact finding ability to work in the service of a popular government. + +Until recently the dangers of school were easily underestimated in comparison with the dangers of an apprenticeship in the police force, the fire department, or the entertainment industry. It was easy to justify schools at least as a means to protect youth. Often this argument no longer holds. I recently visited a Methodist church in Harlem occupied by a group of armed Young Lords in protest against the death of Julio Rodan, a Puerto Rican youth found hanged in his prison cell. I knew the leaders of the group, who had spent a semester in Cuernavaca. When I wondered why one of them, Juan, was not among them, I was told that he had "gone back on heroin and to the State University". + +Planning, incentives, and legislation can be used to unlock the educational potential within our society's huge investment in plants and equipment. Full access to educational objects will not exist so long as business firms are allowed to combine the legal protections which the Bill of Rights reserves to the privacy of individuals with the economic power conferred upon them by their millions of customers and thousands of employees, stockholders, and suppliers. Much of the world's know-how and most of its productive processes and equipment are locked within the walls of business firms, away from their customers, employees, and stockholders, as well as from the general public, whose laws and facilities allow them to function. Money now spent on advertising in capitalist countries could be redirected toward education in and by General Electric, NBC-TV, or Budweiser beer. That is, the plants and offices should be reorganized so that their daily operations could be more accessible to the public in ways that would make learning possible; and, indeed, ways might be found to pay the companies for the learning people acquired from them. + +An even more valuable body of scientific objects and data may be withheld from general access--and even from qualified scientists -under the guise of national security. Until recently science was the one forum which functioned like an anarchist's dream. Each man capable of doing research had more or less the same opportunity of access to its tools and to a hearing by the community of peers. Now bureaucratization and organization have placed much of science beyond public reach. Indeed, what used to be an international network of scientific information has been splintered into an arena of competing teams. The members as well as the artifacts of the scientific community have been locked into national and corporate programs oriented toward practical achievement, to the radical impoverishment of the men who support these nations and corporations. + +In a world which is controlled and owned by nations and corporations, only limited access to educational objects will ever be possible. But increased access to those objects which can be shared for educational purposes may enlighten us enough to help us to break through these ultimate political barriers. Public schools transfer control over the educational uses of objects from private to professional hands. The institutional inversion of schools could empower the individual to reclaim the right to use them for education. A truly public kind of ownership might begin to emerge if private or corporate control over the educational aspect of "things" were brought to the vanishing point. + +### Skill Exchanges + +A guitar teacher, unlike a guitar, can be neither classified in a museum nor owned by the public nor rented from an educational warehouse. Teachers of skills belong to a different class of resources from objects needed to learn a skill. This is not to say that they are indispensable in every case. I can rent not only a guitar but also taped guitar lessons and illustrated chord charts, and with these things I can teach myself to play the guitar. Indeed, this arrangement may have advantages--if the available tapes are better than the available teachers, or if the only time I have for learning the guitar is late at night, or if the tunes I wish to play are unknown in my country, or if I am shy and prefer to fumble along in privacy. + +Skill teachers must be listed and contacted through a different kind of channel from that of things. A thing is available at the bidding of the user -or could be- whereas a person formally becomes a skill resource only when he consents to do so, and he can also restrict time, place, and method as he chooses. + +Skill teachers must be also distinguished from peers from whom one would learn. Peers who wish to pursue a common inquiry must start from common interests and abilities; they get together to exercise or improve a skill they share: basketball, dancing, constructing a camp site, or discussing the next election. The first transmission of a skill, on the other hand, involves bringing together someone who has the skill and someone who does not have it and wants to acquire it. + +A "skill model" is a person who possesses a skill and is willing to demonstrate its practice. A demonstration of this kind is frequently a necessary resource for a potential learner. Modern inventions permit us to incorporate demonstration into tape, film, or chart; yet one would hope personal demonstration will remain in wide demand, especially in communication skills. Some ten thousand adults have learned Spanish at our Center at Cuernavaca -mostly highly motivated persons who wanted to acquire near-native fluency in a second language. When they are faced with a choice between carefully programmed instruction in a lab or drill sessions with two other students and a native speaker following a rigid routine, most choose the second. For most widely shared skills, a person who demonstrates the skill is the only human resource we ever need or get. Whether in speaking or driving, in cooking or in the use of communication equipment, we are often barely conscious of formal instruction and learning, especially after our first experience of the materials in question. I see no reason why other complex skills, such as the mechanical aspects of surgery and playing the fiddle, of reading or the use of directories and catalogues, could not be learned in the same way. + +A well-motivated student who does not labor under a specific handicap often needs no further human assistance than can be provided by someone who can demonstrate on demand how to do what the learner wants to learn to do. The demand made of skilled people that before demonstrating their skill they be certified as pedagogues is a result of the insistence either that people learn what they do not want to know or that all people-even those with a special handicap--learn certain things, at a given moment in their lives, and preferably under specified circumstances. + +What makes skills scarce on the present educational market is the institutional requirement that those who can demonstrate them may not do so unless they are given public trust, through a certificate. We insist that those who help others acquire a skill should also know how to diagnose learning difficulties and be able to motivate people to aspire to learn skills. In short, we demand that they be pedagogues. People who can demonstrate skills will be plentiful as soon as we learn to recognize them outside the teaching profession. + +Where princelings are being taught, the parents' insistence that the teacher and the person with skills be combined in one person is understandable, if no longer defensible. But for all parents to aspire to have Aristotle for their Alexander is obviously self-defeating. The person who can both inspire students and demonstrate a technique is so rare, and so hard to recognize, that even princelings more often get a sophist than a true philosopher. + +A demand for scarce skills can be quickly filled even if there are only small numbers of people to demonstrate them; but such people must be easily available. During the forties radio repairmen, most of them with no schooling in their work, were no more than two years behind radios in penetrating the interior of Latin America. There they stayed until transistor radios, which are cheap to purchase and impossible to repair, put them out of business. Technical schools now fail to accomplish what repair. men of equally useful, more durable radios could do as a matter of course. + +Converging self-interests now conspire to stop a man from sharing his skill. The man who has the skill profits from its scarcity and not from its reproduction. The teacher who specializes in transmitting the skill profits from the artisan's unwillingness to launch his own apprentice into the field. The public is indoctrinated to believe that skills are valuable and reliable only if they are the result of formal schooling. The job market depends on making skills scarce and on keeping them scarce, either by proscribing their unauthorized use and transmission or by making things which can be operated and repaired only by those who have access to tools or information which are kept scarce. + +Schools thus produce shortages of skilled persons. A good example is the diminishing number of nurses in the United States, owing to the rapid increase of four-year B.S. programs in nursing. Women from poorer families, who would formerly have enrolled in a two- or three-year program, now stay out of the nursing profession altogether. + +Insisting on the certification of teachers is another way of keeping skills scarce. If nurses were encouraged to train nurses, and if nurses were employed on the basis of their proven skill at giving injections, filling out charts, and giving medicine, there would soon be no the lack of trained nurses. Certification now tends to abridge the freedom of education by converting the civil right to share one's knowledge into the privilege of academic freedom, now conferred only on the employees of a school. To guarantee access to an effective exchange of skills, we need legislation which generalizes academic freedom. The right to teach any skill should come under the protection of freedom of speech. Once restrictions on teaching are removed, they will quickly be removed from learning as well. + +The teacher of skills needs some inducement to grant his services to a pupil. There are at least two simple ways to begin to channel public funds to noncertified teachers. One way would be to institutionalize the skill exchange by creating free skill centers open to the public. Such centers could and should be established in industrialized areas, at least for those skills which are fundamental prerequisites for entering certain apprenticeships--such skills as reading, typing, keeping accounts, foreign languages, computer programming and number manipulation, reading special languages such as that of electrical circuits, manipulation of certain machinery, etc. Another approach would be to give certain groups within the population educational currency good for attendance at skill centers where other clients would have to pay commercial rates. + +A much more radical approach would be to create a "bank" for skill exchange. Each citizen would be given a basic credit with which to acquire fundamental skills. Beyond that minimum, further credits would go to those who earned them by teaching, whether they served as models in organized skill centers or did so privately at home or on the playground. Only those who had taught others for an equivalent amount of time would have a claim on the time of more advanced teachers. An entirely new elite would be promoted, an elite of those who earned their education by sharing it. + +Should parents have the right to earn skill credit for their children? Since such an arrangement would give further advantage to the privileged classes, it might be offset by granting a larger credit to the underprivileged. The operation of a skill exchange would depend on the existence of agencies which would facilitate the development of directory information and assure its free and inexpensive use. Such an agency might also provide supplementary services of testing and certification and might help to enforce the legislation required to break up and prevent monopolistic practices. + +Fundamentally, the freedom of a universal skill exchange must be guaranteed by laws which permit discrimination only on the basis of tested skills and not on the basis of educational pedigree. Such a guarantee inevitably requires public control over tests which may be used to qualify persons for the job market. Otherwise, it would be possible to surreptitiously reintroduce complex batteries of tests at the work place itself which would serve for social selection. Much could be done to make skill-testing objective, e.g., allowing only the operation of specific machines or systems to be tested. Tests of typing (measured according to speed, number of errors, and whether or not the typist can work from dictation), operation of an accounting system or of a hydraulic crane, driving, coding into COBOL, etc., can easily be made objective. + +In fact, many of the true skills which are of practical importance can be so tested. And for the purposes of manpower management a test of a current skill level is much more useful than the information that twenty years ago a person satisfied his teacher in a curriculum in which typing, stenography, and accounting were taught. The very need for official skill-testing can, of course, be questioned: I personally believe that freedom from undue hurt to a man's reputation through labeling is better guaranteed by restricting than by forbidding tests of competence. + +### Peer-Matching + +At their worst, schools gather classmates into the same room and subject them to the same sequence of treatment in math, citizenship, and spelling. At their best, they permit each student to choose one of a limited number of courses. In any case, groups of peers form around the goals of teachers. A desirable educational system would let each person specify the activity for which he sought a peer. + +School does offer children an opportunity to escape their homes and meet new friends. But, at the same time, this process indoctrinates children with the idea that they should select their friends from among those with whom they are put together. Providing the young from their earliest age with invitations to meet, evaluate, and seek out others would prepare them for a lifelong interest in seeking new partners for new endeavors. + +A good chess player is always glad to find a close match, and one novice to find another. Clubs serve their purpose. People who want to discuss specific books or articles would probably pay to find discussion partners. People who want to play games, go on excursions, build fish tanks, or motorize bicycles will go to considerable lengths to find peers. The reward for their efforts is finding those peers. Good schools try to bring out the common interests of their students registered in the same program. The inverse of school would be an institution which increased the chances that persons who at a given moment shared the same specific interest could meet--no matter what else they had in common. + +Skill-teaching does not provide equal benefits for both parties, as does the matching of peers. The teacher of skills, as I have pointed out, must usually be offered some incentive beyond the rewards of teaching. Skill-teaching is a matter of repeating drills over and over and is, in fact, all the more dreary for those pupils who need it most. A skill exchange needs currency or credits or other tangible incentives in order to operate, even if the exchange itself were to generate a currency of its own. A peer-match. ing system requires no such incentives, but only a communications network. + +Tapes, retrieval systems, programmed instruction, and reproduction of shapes and sounds tend to reduce the need for recourse to human teachers of many skills; they increase the efficiency of teachers and the number of skills one can pick up in a lifetime. Parallel to this runs an increased need to meet people interested in enjoying the newly acquired skill. A student who has picked up Greek before her vacation would like to discuss in Greek Cretan politics when she returns. A Mexican in New York wants to find other readers of the paper Siempre---or of "Los Agachados,” the most popular comic book. Somebody else wants to meet peers who, like himself, would like to increase their interest in the work of James Baldwin or of Bolivar. + +The operation of a peer-matching network would be simple. The user would identify himself by name and address and describe the activity for which he sought a peer. A computer would send him back the names and addresses of all those who had inserted the same description. It is amazing that such a simple utility has never been used on a broad scale for publicly valued activity. + +In its most rudimentary form, communication between client and computer could be established by return mail. In big cities typewriter terminals could provide instantaneous responses. The only way to retrieve a name and address from the computer would be to list an activity for which a peer was sought. People using the system would become known only to their potential peers. + +A complement to the computer could be a network of bulletin boards and classified newspaper ads, listing the activities for which the computer could not produce a match. No names would have to be given. Interested readers would then introduce their names into the system. A publicly supported peer-match network might be the only way to guarantee the right of free assembly and to train people in the exercise of this most fundamental civic activity. + +The right of free assembly has been politically recognized and culturally accepted. We should now understand that this right is curtailed by laws that make some forms of assembly obligatory. This is especially the case with institutions which conscript according to age group, class, or sex, and which are very time-consuming. The army is one example. School is an even more outrageous one. + +To deschool means to abolish the power of one person to oblige another person to attend a meeting. It also means recognizing the right of any person, of any age or sex, to call a meeting. This right has been drastically diminished by the institutionalization of meetings. "Meeting" originally referred to the result of an individual's act of gathering. Now it refers to the institutional product of some agency. + +The ability of service institutions to acquire clients has far outgrown the ability of individuals to be heard independently of institutional media, which respond to individuals only if they are salable news. Peer-matching facilities should be available for individuals who want to bring people together as easily as the village bell called the villagers to council. School buildings--of doubtful value for conversion to other uses--could often serve this purpose. + +The school system, in fact, may soon face a problem which churches have faced before: what to do with surplus space emptied by the defection of the faithful. Schools are as difficult to sell as temples. One way to provide for their continued use would be to give over the space to people from the neighborhood. Each could state what he would do in the classroom and when, and a bulletin board would bring the available programs to the attention of the inquirers. Access to "class" would be free--or purchased with educational vouchers. The "teacher" could even be paid according to the number of pupils he could attract for any full two-hour period. I can imagine that very young leaders and great educators would be the two types most prominent in such a system. The same approach could be taken toward higher education. Students could be furnished with educational vouchers which entitled them to ten hours' yearly private consultation with the teacher of their choice--and, for the rest of their learning, depend on the library, the peer-matching network, and apprenticeships. + +We must, of course, recognize the probability that such public matching devices would be abused for exploitative and immoral purposes, just as the telephone and the mails have been so abused. As with those networks, there must be some protection. I have proposed elsewhere a matching system which would allow only pertinent printed information, plus the name and address of the inquirer, to be used. Such a system would be virtually foolproof against abuse. Other arrangements could allow the addition of any book, film, TV program, or other item quoted from a special catalogue. Concern about the dangers of the system should not make us lose sight of its far greater benefits. + +Some who share my concern for free speech and assembly will argue that peer-matching is an artificial means of bringing people together and would not be used by the poor -who need it most. Some people become genuinely agitated when one suggests the setting up of ad hoc encounters which are not rooted in the life of a local community. Others react when one suggests using a computer to sort and match client-identified interests. People cannot be drawn together in such an impersonal manner, they say. Common inquiry must be rooted in a history of shared experience at many levels, and must grow out of this experience-the development of neighborhood institutions, for example. + +I sympathize with these objections, but I think they miss my point as well as their own. In the first place, the return to neighborhood life as the primary center of creative expression might actually work against the reestablishment of neighborhoods as political units. Centering demands on the neighborhood may, in fact, neglect an important liberating aspect of urban life -the ability of a person to participate simultaneously in several peer groups. Also, there is an important sense in which people who have never lived together in a physical community, may occasionally have far more experiences to share than those who have known each other from childhood. The great religions have always recognized the importance of far-off encounters, and the faithful have always found freedom through them; pilgrimage, monasticism, the mutual support of temples and sanctuaries reflect this awareness. Peer-matching could significantly help in making explicit the many potential but suppressed communities of the city. + +Local communities are valuable. They are also a vanishing reality as men progressively let service institutions define their circles of social relationship. Milton Kotler in his recent book has shown that the imperialism of "downtown" deprives the neighborhood of its political significance. The protectionist attempt to resurrect the neighborhood as a cultural unit only supports this bureaucratic imperialism. Far from artificially removing men from their local contexts to join abstract groupings, peer-matching should encourage the restoration of local life to cities from which it is now disappearing. A man who recovers his initiative to call his fellows into meaningful conversation may cease to settle for being separated from them by office protocol or suburban etiquette. Having once seen that doing things together depends on deciding to do so, men may even insist that their local communities become more open to creative political exchange. + +We must recognize that city life tends to become immensely costly as city-dwellers must be taught to rely for every one of their needs on complex institutional services. It is extremely expensive to keep it even minimally livable. Peer-matching in the city could be a first step toward breaking down the dependence of citizens on bureaucratic civic services. + +It would also be an essential step to providing new means of establishing public trust. In a schooled society we have come to rely more and more on the professional judgment of educators on the effect of their own work in order to decide whom we can or cannot trust: we go to the doctor, lawyer, or psychologist because we trust that anybody with the required amount of specialized educational treatment by other colleagues deserves our confidence. + +In a deschooled society professionals could no longer claim the trust of their clients on the basis of their curricular pedigree, or ensure their standing by simply referring their clients to other professionals who approved of their schooling. Instead of placing trust in professionals, it should be possible, at any time, for any potential client to consult with other experienced clients of a professional about their satisfaction with him by means of another peer network easily set up by computer, or by a number of other means. Such networks could be seen as public utilities which permitted students to choose their teachers or patients their healers. + +### Professional Educators + +As citizens have new choices, new chances for learning, their willingness to seek leadership should increase. We may expect that they will experience more deeply both their own independence and their need for guidance. As they are liberated from manipulation by others, they should learn to profit from the discipline others have acquired in a lifetime. Deschooling education should increase--rather than stifle--the search for men with practical wisdom who would be willing to sustain the newcomer in his educational adventure. As masters of their art abandon the claim to be superior informants or skill models, their claim to superior wisdom will begin to ring true. + +With an increasing demand for masters, their supply should also increase. As the schoolmaster vanishes, conditions will arise which should bring forth the vocation of the independent educator. This may seem almost a contradiction in terms, so thoroughly have schools and teachers become complementary. Yet this is exactly what the development of the first three educational exchanges would tend to result in -and what would be required to permit their full exploitation- for parents and other '"natural educators" need guidance, individual learners need assistance, and the networks need people to operate them. + +Parents need guidance in directing their children on the road that leads to responsible educational independence. Learners need experienced leadership when they encounter rough terrain. These two needs are quite distinct: the first is a need for pedagogy, the second for intellectual leadership in all other fields of knowledge. The first calls for knowledge of human learning and of educational resources, the second for wisdom based on experience in any kind of exploration. Both kinds of experience are indispensable for effective educational endeavor. Schools package these functions into one role--and render the independent exercise of any of them if not disreputable at least suspect. + +Three types of special educational competence should, in fact, be distinguished: one to create and operate the kinds of educational exchanges or networks outlined here; another to guide students and parents in the use of these networks; and a third to act as primus inter pares in undertaking difficult intellectual exploratory journeys. Only the former two can be conceived of as branches of an independent profession: educational administrators and pedagogical counselors. To design and operate the networks I have been describing would not require many people, but it would require people with the most profound understanding of education and administration, in a perspective quite different from and even opposed to that of schools. + +While an independent educational profession of this kind would welcome many people whom the schools exclude, it would also exclude many whom the schools qualify. The establishment and operation of educational networks would require some designers and administrators, but not in the numbers or of the type required by the administration of schools. Student discipline, public relations, hiring, supervising, and firing teachers would have neither place nor counterpart in the networks I have been describing. Neither would curriculum-making, textbook-purchasing, the maintenance of grounds and facilities, or the supervision of interscholastic athletic competition. Nor would child custody, lesson-planning, and record-keeping, which now take up so much of the time of teachers, figure in the operation of educational networks. Instead, the operation of learning webs would require some of the skills and attitudes now expected from the staff of a museum, a library, an executive employment agency, or a maître d'hôtel. + +Today's educational administrators are concerned with controlling teachers and students to the satisfaction of others-trustees, legislatures, and corporate executives. Network builders and administrators would have to demonstrate genius at keeping themselves, and others, out of people's way, at facilitating en-counters among students, skill models, educational leaders, and educational objects. Many persons now attracted to teaching are profoundly authoritarian and would not be able to assume this task: building educational exchanges would mean making it easy for people--especially the young--to pursue goals which might contradict the ideals of the traffic manager who makes the pursuit possible. + +If the networks I have described could emerge, the educational path of each student would be his own to follow, and only in retrospect would it take on the features of a recognizable program. The wise student would periodically seek professional advice: assistance to set a new goal, insight into difficulties encountered, choice between possible methods. Even now, most persons would admit that the important services their teachers have rendered them are such advice or counsel, given at a chance meeting or in a tutorial. Pedagogues, in an unschooled world, would also come into their own, and be able to do what frustrated teachers pretend to pursue today. + +While network administrators would concentrate primarily on the building and maintenance of roads providing access to resources, the pedagogue would help the student to find the path which for him could lead fastest to his goal. If a student wanted to learn spoken Cantonese from a Chinese neighbor, the pedagogue would be available to judge their proficiency, and to help them select the textbook and methods most suitable to their talents, character, and the time available for study. He could counsel the would-be airplane mechanic on finding the best places for apprenticeship. He could recommend books to somebody who wanted to find challenging peers to discuss African history. Like the network administrator, the pedagogical counselor would conceive of himself as a professional educator. Access to either could be gained by individuals through the use of educational vouchers. + +The role of the educational initiator or leader, the master or "true" leader, is somewhat more elusive than that of the professional administrator or the pedagogue. This is so because leadership is itself hard to define. In practice, an individual is a leader if people follow his initiative and become apprentices in his progressive discoveries. Frequently, this involves a prophetic vision of entirely new standards -quite understandable today- in which present "wrong" will turn out to be "right". In a society which would honor the right to call assemblies through peermatching, the ability to take educational initiative on a specific subject would be as wide as access to learning itself. But, of course, there is a vast difference between the initiative taken by someone to call a fruitful meeting to discuss this essay and the ability of someone to provide leadership in the systematic exploration of its implications. + +Leadership also does not depend on being right. As Thomas Kuhn points out, in a period of constantly changing paradigms most of the very distinguished leaders are bound to be proven wrong by the test of hindsight. Intellectual leadership does depend on superior intellectual discipline and imagination and the willingness to associate with others in their exercise. A learner, for example, may think that there is an analogy between the U.S. antislavery movement or the Cuban Revolution and what is happening in Harlem. The educator who is himself a historian can show him how to appreciate the flaws in such an analogy. He may retrace his own steps as a historian. He may invite the learner to participate in his own research. In both cases he will apprentice his pupil in a critical art--which is rare in school--and which money or other favors cannot buy. + +The relationship of master and disciple is not restricted to intellectual discipline. It has its counterpart in the arts, in physics, in religion, in psychoanalysis, and in pedagogy. It fits mountain-climbing, silverworking and politics, cabinetmaking and personnel administration. What is common to all true master-pupil relationships is the awareness both share that their relationship is literally priceless and in very different ways a privilege for both. + +Charlatans, demagogues, proselytizers, corrupt masters, and simoniacal priests, tricksters, miracle workers, and messiahs have proven capable of assuming leadership roles and thus show the dangers of any dependence of a disciple on the master. Different societies have taken different measures to defend themselves against these counterfeit teachers. Indians relied on caste-lineage, Eastern Jews on the spiritual discipleship of rabbis, high periods of Christianity on an exemplary life of monastic virtue, other periods on hierarchical orders. Our society relies on certification by schools. It is doubtful that this procedure provides a better screening, but if it should be claimed that it does, then the counterclaim can be made that it does so at the cost of making personal discipleship almost vanish. + +In practice, there will always be a fuzzy line between the teacher of skills and the educational leaders identified above, and there are no practical reasons why access to some leaders could not be gained by discovering the "master" in the drill teacher who introduces students to his discipline. + +On the other hand, what characterizes the true master disciple relationship is its priceless character. Aristotle speaks of it as a "moral type of friendship, which is not on fixed terms: it makes a gift, or does whatever it does, as to a friend". Thomas Aquinas says of this kind of teaching that inevitably it is an act of love and mercy. This kind of teaching is always a luxury for the teacher and a form of leisure (in Greek, "schole") for him and his pupil: an activity meaningful for both, having no ulterior purpose. + +To rely for true intellectual leadership on the desire of gifted people to provide it is obviously necessary even in our society, but it could not be made into a policy now. We must first construct a society in which personal acts themselves reacquire a value higher than that of making things and manipulating people. In such a society exploratory, inventive, creative teaching would logically be counted among the most desirable forms of leisurely "unemployment". But we do not have to wait until the advent of utopia. Even now one of the most important consequences of deschooling and the establishment of peer-matching facilities would be the initiative which "masters" could take to assemble congenial disciples. It would also, as we have seen, provide ample opportunity for potential disciples to share information or to select a master. + +Schools are not the only institutions which pervert professions by packaging roles. Hospitals render home care increasingly impossible--and then justify hospitalization as a benefit to the sick. At the same time, the doctor's legitimacy and ability to work come increasingly to depend on his association with a hospital, even though he is still less totally dependent on it than are teachers on schools. The same could be said about courts, which overcrowd their calendars as new transactions acquire legal solemnity, and thus delay justice. Or it could be said about churches, which succeed in making a captive profession out of a free vocation. The result in each case is scarce service at higher cost, and greater income to the less competent members of the profession. + +So long as the older professions monopolize superior income and prestige it is difficult to reform them. The profession of the schoolteacher should be easier to reform, and not only because it is of more recent origin. The educational profession now claims a comprehensive monopoly; it claims the exclusive competence to apprentice not only its own novices but those of other professions as well. This overexpansion renders it vulnerable to any profession which would reclaim the right to teach its own apprentices. Schoolteachers are overwhelmingly badly paid and frustrated by the tight control of the school system. The most enterprising and gifted among them would probably find more congenial work, more independence, and even higher incomes by specializing as skill models, network administrators, or guidance specialists. + +Finally, the dependence of the registered student on the certified teacher can be broken more easily than his dependence on other professionals--for instance, that of a hospitalized patient on his doctor. If schools ceased to be compulsory, teachers who find their satisfaction in the exercise of pedagogical authority in the classroom would be left only with pupils who were attracted by their style. The disestablishment of our present professional structure could begin with the dropping out of the schoolteacher. + +The disestablishment of schools will inevitably happen- and it will happen surprisingly fast. It cannot be retarded very much longer, and it is hardly necessary to promote it vigorously, for this is being done now. What is worthwhile is to try to orient it in a hopeful direction, for it could take place in either of two diametrically opposed ways. + +The first would be the expansion of the mandate of the pedagogue and his increasing control over society even outside school. With the best of intentions and simply by expanding the rhetoric now used in school, the present crisis in the schools could provide educators with an excuse to use all the networks of contemporary society to funnel their messages to us--for our own good. Deschooling, which we cannot stop, could mean the advent of a ""brave new world" dominated by well-intentioned administrators of programmed instruction. + +On the other hand, the growing awareness on the part of governments, as well as of employers, taxpayers, enlightened pedagogues, and school administrators, that graded curricular teaching for certification has become harmful could offer large masses of people an extraordinary opportunity: that of preserving the right of equal access to the tools both of learning and of sharing with others what they know or believe. But this would require that the educational revolution be guided by certain goals: + +_1._ To liberate access to things by abolishing the control which persons and institutions now exercise over their educational values. + +_2._ To liberate the sharing of skills by guaranteeing freedom to teach or exercise them on request. + +_3._ To liberate the critical and creative resources of people by returning to individual persons the ability to call and hold meetings--an ability now increasingly monopolized by institutions which claim to speak for the people. + +_4._ To liberate the individual from the obligation to shape his expectations to the services offered by any established profession--by providing him with the opportunity to draw on the experience of his peers and to entrust himself to the teacher, guide, adviser, or healer of his choice. Inevitably the deschooling of society will blur the distinctions between economics, education, and politics on which the stability of the present world order and the stability of nations now rest. + +Our review of educational institutions leads us to a review of our image of man. The creature whom schools need as a client has neither the autonomy nor the motivation to grow on his own. We can recognize universal schooling as the culmination of a Promethean enterprise, and speak about the alternative as a world fit to live in for Epimethean man. While we can specify that the alternative to scholastic funnels is a world made transparent by true communication webs, and while we can specify very concretely how these could function, we can only expect the Epimethean nature of man to re-emerge; we can neither plan nor produce it. + + +## Rebirth of Epimethean Man + +Our society resembles the ultimate machine which I once saw in a New York toy shop. It was a metal casket which, when you touched a switch, snapped open to reveal a mechanical hand. Chromed fingers reached out for the lid, pulled it down, and locked it from the inside. It was a box; you expected to be able to take something out of it; yet all it contained was a mechanism for closing the cover. This contraption is the opposite of Pandora's "box". + +The original Pandora, the All-Giver, was an Earth goddess in prehistoric matriarchal Greece. She let all ills escape from her amphora (pythos). But she closed the lid before Hope could escape. The history of modern man begins with the degradation of Pandora's myth and comes to an end in the self-sealing casket. It is the history of the Promethean endeavor to forge institutions in order to corral each of the rampant ills. It is the history of fading hope and rising expectations. + +To understand what this means we must rediscover the distinction between hope and expectation. Hope, in its strong sense, means trusting faith in the goodness of nature, while expectation, as I will use it here, means reliance on results which are planned and controlled by man. Hope centers desire on a person from whom we await a gift. Expectation looks forward to satisfaction from a predictable process which will produce what we have the right to claim. The Promethean ethos has now eclipsed hope. Survival of the human race depends on its rediscovery as a social force. + +The original Pandora was sent to Earth with a jar which contained all ills; of good things, it contained only hope. Primitive man lived in this world of hope. He relied on the munificence of nature, on the handouts of gods, and on the instincts of his tribe to enable him to subsist. Classical Greeks began to replace hope with expectations. In their version of Pandora she released both evils and goods. They remembered her mainly for the ills she had unleashed. And, most significantly, they forgot that the All-Giver was also the keeper of hope. + +The Greeks told the story of two brothers, Prometheus and Epimetheus. The former warned the latter to leave Pandora alone. Instead, he married her. In classical Greece the name "Epimetheus," which means "hindsight," was interpreted to mean "dull" or "dumb". By the time Hesiod retold the story in its classical form, the Greeks had become moral and misogynous patriarchs who panicked at the thought of the first woman. They built a rational and authoritarian society. + +Men engineered institutions through which they planned to cope with the rampant ills. They became conscious of their power to fashion the world and make it produce services they also learned to expect. They wanted their own needs and the future demands of their children to be shaped by their artifacts. They became lawgivers, architects, and authors, the makers of constitutions, cities, and works of art to serve as examples for their offspring. Primitive man had relied on mythical participation in sacred rites to initiate individuals into the lore of society, but the classical Greeks recognized as true men only those citizens who let themselves be fitted by paideIa (education) into the institutions their elders had planned. + +The developing myth reflects the transition from a world in which dreams were interpreted to a world in which oracles were made. From immemorial time, the Earth Goddess had been worshipped on the slope of Mount Parnassus, which was the center and navel of the Earth. There, at Delphi (from deiphys, the womb), slept Gaia, the sister of Chaos and Eros. Her son, Python the dragon, guarded her moonlit and dewy dreams, until Apollo the Sun God, the architect of Troy, rose from the east, slew the dragon, and became the owner of Gaia's cave. His priests took over her temple. They employed a local maiden, sat her on a tripod over Earth's smoking navel, and made her drowsy with fumes. They then rhymed her ecstatic utterances into hexameters of self-fulfilling prophecies. From all over the Peloponnesus men brought their problems to Apollo's sanctuary. The oracle was consulted on social options, such as measures to be taken to stop a plague or a famine, to choose the right constitution for Sparta or the propitious sites for cities which later became Byzantium and Chalcedon. The never-erring arrow became Apollo's symbol. Everything about him became purposeful and useful. + +In the Republic, describing the ideal state, Plato already excludes popular music. Only the harp and Apollo's lyre would be permitted in towns because their harmony alone creates "the strain of necessity and the strain of freedom, the strain of the unfortunate and the strain of the fortunate, the strain of courage and the strain of temperance which befit the citizen". City-dwellers panicked before Pan's flute and its power to awaken the instincts. Only "the shepherds may play Pan's pipes and they only in the country". + +Man assumed responsibility for the laws under which he wanted to live and for the casting of the environment into his own image. Primitive initiation by Mother Earth into mythical life was transformed into the education (paideia) of the citizen who would feel at home in the forum. + +To the primitive the world was governed by fate, fact, and necessity. By stealing fire from the gods, Prometheus turned facts into problems, called necessity into question, and defied fate. Classical man framed a civilized context for human perspective. He was aware that he could defy fate-nature-environment, but only at his own risk. Contemporary man goes further; he attempts to create the world in his image, to build a totally man-made environment, and then discovers that he can do so only on the condition of constantly remaking himself to fit it. We now must face the fact that man himself is at stake. + +Life today in New York produces a very peculiar vision of what is and what can be, and without this vision life in New York is impossible. A child on the streets of New York never touches anything which has not been scientifically developed, engineered, planned, and sold to someone. Even the trees are there because the Parks Department decided to put them there. The jokes the child hears on television have been programmed at a high cost. The refuse with which he plays in the streets of Harlem is made of broken packages planned for somebody else. Even desires and fears are institutionally shaped. Power and violence are organized and managed: the gangs versus the police. Learning itself is defined as the consumption of subject matter, which is the result of researched, planned, and promoted programs. Whatever good there is, is the product of some specialized institution. It would be foolish to demand something which some institution cannot produce. The child of the city cannot expect anything which lies outside the possible development of institutional process. Even his fantasy is prompted to produce science fiction. He can experience the poetic surprise of the unplanned only through his encounter with "dirt," blunder, or failure: the orange peel in the gutter, the puddle in the street, the breakdown of order, program, or machine are the only take-offs for creative fancy. "Goofing off" becomes the only poetry at hand. + +Since there is nothing desirable which has not been planned, the city child soon concludes that we will always be able to design an institution for our every want. He takes for granted the power of process to create value. Whether the goal is meeting a mate, integrating a neighborhood, or acquiring reading skills, it will be defined in such a way that its achievement can be engineered. The man who knows that nothing in demand is out of production soon expects that nothing produced can be out of demand. If a moon vehicle can be designed, so can the demand to go to the moon. Not to go where one can go would be subversive. It would unmask as folly the assumption that every satisfied demand entails the discovery of an even greater unsatisfied one. Such insight would stop progress. Not to produce what is possible would expose the law of "rising expectations" as a euphemism for a growing frustration gap, which is the motor of a society built on the coproduction of services and increased demand. + +The state of mind of the modern city-dweller appears in the mythical tradition only under the image of Hell: Sisyphus, who for a while had chained Thanatos (death), must roll a heavy stone up the hill to the pinnacle of Hell, and the stone always slips from his grip just when he is about to reach the top. Tantalus, who was invited by the gods to share their meal, and on that occasion stole their secret of how to prepare all-healing ambrosia, which bestowed immortality, suffers eternal hunger and thirst standing in a river of receding waters, overshadowed by fruit trees with receding branches. A world of ever-rising demands is not just evil-it can be spoken of only as Hell. + +Man has developed the frustrating power to demand anything because he cannot visualize anything which an institution cannot do for him. Surrounded by all-powerful tools, man is reduced to a tool of his tools. Each of the institutions meant to exorcise one of the primeval evils has become a fail-safe, self-sealing coffin for man. Man is trapped in the boxes he makes to contain the ills Pandora allowed to escape. The blackout of reality in the smog produced by our tools has enveloped us. Quite suddenly we find ourselves in the darkness of our own trap. + +Reality itself has become dependent on human decision. The same President who ordered the ineffective invasion of Cambodia could equally well order the effective use of the atom. The "Hiroshima switch" now can cut the navel of the Earth. Man has acquired the power to make Chaos overwhelm both Eros and Gaia. This new power of man to cut the navel of the Earth is a constant reminder that our institutions not only create their own ends, but also have the power to put an end to themselves and to us. The absurdity of modern institutions is evident in the case of the military. Modern weapons can defend freedom, civilization, and life only by annihilating them. Security in military language means the ability to do away with the Earth. + +The absurdity that underlies nonmilitary institutions is no less manifest. There is no switch in them to activate their destructive power, but neither do they need a switch. Their grip is already fastened to the lid of the world. They create needs faster than they can create satisfaction, and in the process of trying to meet the needs they generate, they consume the Earth. This is true for agriculture and manufacturing, and no less for medicine and education. Modern agriculture poisons and exhausts the soil. The "green revolution" can, by means of new seeds, triple the output of an acre--but only with an even greater proportional increase of fertilizers, insecticides, water, and power. Manufacturing of these, as of all other goods, pollutes the oceans and the atmosphere and degrades irreplaceable resources. If combustion continues to increase at present rates, we will soon consume the oxygen of the atmosphere faster than it can be replaced. We have no reason to believe that fission or fusion can replace combustion without equal or higher hazards. Medicine men replace midwives and promise to make man into something else: genetically planned, pharmacologically sweetened, and capable of more protracted sickness. The contemporary ideal is a pan-hygienic world: a world in which all contacts between men, and between men and their world, are the result of foresight and manipulation. School has become the planned process which tools man for a planned world, the principal tool to trap man in man s trap. It is sup-posed to shape each man to an adequate level for playing a part in this world game. Inexorably we cultivate, treat, produce, and school the world out of existence. + +The military institution is evidently absurd. The absurdity of nonmilitary institutions is more difficult to face. It is even more frightening, precisely because it operates inexorably. We know which switch must stay open to avoid an atomic holocaust. No switch detains an ecological Armageddon. + +In classical antiquity, man had discovered that the world could be made according to man's plans, and with this insight he perceived that it was inherently precarious, dramatic and comical. Democratic institutions evolved and man was presumed worthy of trust within their framework. Expectations from due process and confidence in human nature kept each other in balance. The traditional professions developed and with them the institutions needed for their exercise. + +Surreptitiously, reliance on institutional process has replaced dependence on personal good will. The world has lost its humane dimension and reacquired the factual necessity and fatefulness which were characteristic of primitive times. But while the chaos of the barbarian was constantly ordered in the name of mysterious, anthropomorphic gods, today only man's planning can be given as a reason for the world being as it, is. Man has become the plaything of scientists, engineers, and planners. + +We see this logic at work in ourselves and in others. I know a Mexican village through which not more than a dozen cars drive each day. A Mexican was playing dominoes on the new hard-surface road in front of his house--where he had probably played and sat since his youth. A car sped through and killed him. The tourist who reported the event to me was deeply upset, and yet he said: "The man had it coming to him". + +At first sight, the tourist's remark is no different from the statement of some primitive bushman reporting the death of a fellow who had collided with a taboo and had therefore died. But the two statements carry opposite meanings. The primitive can blame some tremendous and dumb transcendence, while the tourist is in awe of the inexorable logic of the machine. The primitive does not sense responsibility; the tourist senses it, but denies it. In both the primitive and the tourist the classical mode of drama, the style of tragedy, the logic of personal endeavor and rebellion is absent. The primitive man has not become conscious of it, and the tourist has lost it. The myth of the Bushman and the myth of the American are made of inert, inhuman forces. Neither experiences tragic rebellion. For the Bushman, the event follows the laws of magic; for the American, it follows the laws of science. The event puts him under the spell of the laws of mechanics, which for him govern physical, social, and psychological events. + +The mood of 1971 is propitious for a major change of direction in search of a hopeful future. Institutional goals continuously contradict institutional products. The poverty program produces more poor, the war in Asia more Vietcong, technical assistance more underdevelopment. Birth control clinics increase survival rates and boost the population; schools produce more dropouts; and the curb on one kind of pollution usually increases another. + +Consumers are faced with the realization that the more they can buy, the more deceptions they must swallow. Until recently it seemed logical that the blame for this pandemic inflation of dysfunctions could be laid either on the limping of scientific discovery behind the technological demands or on the perversity of ethnic, ideological, or class enemies. Both the expectations of a scientific millennium and of a war to end all wars have declined. + +For the experienced consumer, there is no way back to a naïve reliance on magical technologies. Too many people have had bad experiences with neurotic computers, hospital-bred infections, and jams wherever there is traffic on the road, in the air, or on the phone. Only ten years ago conventional wisdom anticipated a better life based on an increase in scientific discovery. Now scientists frighten children. The moon shots provide a fascinating demonstration that human failure can be almost eliminated among the operators of complex systems-yet this does not allay our fears that the human failure to consume according to instruction might spread out of control. + +For the social reformer there is no way back, either, to the assumptions of the forties. The hope has vanished that the problem of justly distributing goods can be sidetracked by creating an abundance of them. The cost of the minimum package capable of satisfying modern tastes has skyrocketed, and what makes tastes modern is their obsolescence prior even to satisfaction. + +The limits of the Earth's resources have become evident. No breakthrough in science or technology could provide every man in the world with the commodities and services which are now available to the poor of rich countries. For instance, it would take the extraction of one hundred times the present amounts of iron, tin, copper, and lead to achieve such a goal, with even the "lightest" alternative technology. + +Finally, teachers, doctors, and social workers realize that their distinct professional ministrations have one aspect-at least-in common. They create further demands for the institutional treatments they provide, faster than they can provide service institutions. + +Not just some part, but the very logic, of conventional wisdom is becoming suspect. Even the laws of economy seem unconvincing outside the narrow parameters which apply to the social, geographic area where most of the money is concentrated. Money is, indeed, the cheapest currency, but only in an economy geared to efficiency measured in monetary terms. Both capitalist and Communist countries in their various forms are committed to measuring efficiency in cost-benefit ratios expressed in dollars. Capitalism flaunts a higher standard of living as its claim to superiority. Communism boasts of a higher growth rate as an index of its ultimate triumph. But under either ideology the total cost of increasing efficiency increases geometrically. The largest institutions compete most fiercely for resources which are not listed in any inventory: the air, the ocean, silence, sunlight, and health. They bring the scarcity of these resources to public attention only when they are almost irremediably degraded. Everywhere nature becomes poisonous, society inhumane, and the inner life is invaded and personal vocation smothered. + +A society committed to the institutionalization of values identifies the production of goods and services with the demand for such. Education which makes you need the product is included in the price of the product. School is the advertising agency which makes you believe that you need the society as it is. In such a society marginal value has become constantly self-transcendent. It forces the few largest consumers to compete for the power to deplete the earth, to fill their own swelling bellies, to discipline smaller consumers, and to deactivate those who still find satisfaction in making do with what they have. The ethos of nonsatiety is thus at the root of physical depredation, social polarization, and psychological passivity. + +When values have been institutionalized in planned and engineered processes, members of modern society believe that the good life consists in having institutions which define the values that both they and their society believe they need. Institutional value can be defined as the level of output of an institution. The corresponding value of man is measured by his ability to consume and degrade these institutional outputs, and thus create a new-even higher demand. The value of institutionalized man depends on his capacity as an incinerator. To use an image--he has become the idol of his handiworks. Man now defines himself as the fur-nace which burns up the values produced by his tools. And there is no limit to his capacity. His is the act of Prometheus carried to an extreme. + +The exhaustion and pollution of the earth's resources is, above all, the result of a corruption in man's self-image, of a regression in his consciousness. Some would like to speak about a mutation of collective consciousness which leads to a conception of man as an organism dependent not on nature and individuals, but rather on institutions. This institutionalization of substantive values, this belief that a planned process of treatment ultimately gives results desired by the recipient, this consumer ethos, is at the heart of the Promethean fallacy. + +### Efforts to find a new balance in the global milieu depend on the deinstitutionalization of values + +The suspicion that something is structurally wrong with the vision of _homo faber_ is common to a growing minority in capitalist, Communist, and "underdeveloped" countries alike. This suspicion is the shared characteristic of a new elite. To it belong people of all classes, incomes, faiths, and civilizations. They have 'become wary of the myths of the majority: of scientific utopias, of ideological diabolism, and of the expectation of the distribution of goods and services with some degree of equality. They share with the majority the sense of being trapped. They share with the majority the awareness that most new policies adopted by broad consensus consistently lead to results which are glaringly opposed to their stated aims. Yet whereas the Promethean majority of would-be spacemen still evades the structural issue, the emergent minority is critical of the scientific _deus ex machina_, the ideological panacea, and the hunt for devils and witches. This minority begins to formulate its suspicion that our constant deceptions tie us to contemporary institutions as the chains bound Prometheus to his rock. Hopeful trust and classical irony (eironeia) must conspire to expose the Promethean fallacy. + +Prometheus is usually thought to mean "foresight," or sometimes even "he who makes the North Star progress". He tricked the gods out of their monopoly of fire, taught men to use it in the forging of iron, became the god of technologists, and wound up in iron chains. + +The Pythia of Delphi has now been replaced by a computer which hovers above panels and punch cards. The hexameters of the oracle have given way to sixteen-bit codes of instructions. Man the helmsman has turned the rudder over to the cybernetic machine. The ultimate machine emerges to direct our destinies. Children phantasize flying their spacecrafts away from a crepuscular earth. + +From the perspectives of the Man on the Moon, Prometheus could recognize sparkling blue Gaia as the planet of Hope and as the Arc of Mankind. A new sense of the finiteness of the Earth and a new nostalgia now can open man's eyes to the choice of his brother Epimetheus to wed the Earth with Pandora. + +At this point the Greek myth turns into hopeful prophecy because it tells us that the son of Prometheus was Deucalion, the Helmsman of the Ark who like Noah outrode the Flood to become the father of a new mankind which he made from the earth with Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora. We are gaining insight into the meaning of the Pythos which Pandora brought from the gods as being the inverse of the Box: our Vessel and Ark. + +We now need a name for those who value hope above expectations. We need a name for those who love people more than products, those who believe that + +``` +No people are uninteresting. +Their fate is like the chronicle of planets. + +Nothing in them is not particular, +and planet is dissimilar from planet. +``` + +We need a name for those who love the earth on which each can meet the other, + +``` +And if a man lived in obscurity +making his friends in that obscurity, +obscurity is not uninteresting. +``` + +We need a name for those who collaborate with their Promethean brother in the lighting of the fire and the shaping of iron, but who do so to enhance their ability to tend and care and wait upon the other, knowing that + +``` +to each his world is private, +and in that world one excellent minute. +And in that world one tragic minute. +These are private. +``` + +[^n03] I suggest that these hopeful brothers and sisters be called Epimethean men. + + +[^n00:] Penrose B. Jackson, _Trends in Elementary and Secondary Education Expenditures: Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968_, U.S. Office of Education, Office of Program and Planning Evaluation, June 1969. ] + +[^n01:] "Nichomachean Ethics", 1 140. ] + +[^n02:] This chapter was presented originally at a meeting of the American Educational Research Association, in New York City, February 6, 1971.) ] + +[^n03:] The three quotations are from "People" from the book Selected Poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Translated and with Introduction by Robin Milner Gulland and Peter Levi. Published by E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1962, and reprinted with their permission. ]
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/es.txt b/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/es.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..e526e1b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../es/book/deschooling/es.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/index.txt b/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..875b378 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/deschooling/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +# Deschooling society + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Deschooling society_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1970 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** ... + + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/energy/en.txt b/data/pages/en/book/energy/en.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b63f167 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/energy/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1,415 @@ +# Energy and equity + +## Foreword + +This essay is my summary of the discussions which took place in the course of two sessions--one in English, the other in Spanish--of a seminar that met at the Center for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) in Cuernavaca, Mexico. I am grateful to my colleagues who contributed ideas, facts and criticism. Copies of the working papers of our ongoing seminar on the history of thermodynamics as applied to transportation can be obtained from Isaac Rogel, CIDOC Librarian, Apdo. 479, Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico. I owe special thanks to Dennis Sullivan for his editorial assistance on this essay. + +The seminar on traffic was one of the preparatory meetings for a consultation which Valentina Borremans is now organizing at CIDOC for 1975-76\. The consultation will focus on the interlocking structure by which medical, legal, educational and energy-intensive agencies (such as those which produce transportation and housing) impose their paralysing monopoly on contemporary society. Although the context of our discussion is Latin America, its theme is pertinent to other regions. + +During the next thirty months, the consultation ought to generate several more short working papers which are of general interest even though they are only vulnerable ideas in progress and in search of critique. Such essays cannot await the permanence of the book. They do not belong in the learned journal. They resist packaging in periodicals. The monopoly of publishers over the printed word too often pushes the tract into the mimeograph’s limbo or seduces the author to reshape his text to fit the available vehicles. To break this monopoly Marion Boyars has shaped the format of this series, and Dennis Sullivan has offered to edit and submit to her what our consultation might produce. + +> El socialismo puede llegar solo en bicicleta + +José Antonio Viera-Gallo, Assistant Secretary of Justice in the Government of Salvador Allende + +## The energy crisis + +It has recently become fashionable to insist on an impending energy crisis. This euphemistic term conceals a contradiction and consecrates an illusion. It masks the contradiction implicit in the joint pursuit of equity and industrial growth. It safeguards the illusion that machine power can indefinitely take the place of manpower. To face this contradiction and betray this illusion, it is urgent to clarify the reality that the language of crisis obscures: high quanta of energy degrade social relations just as inevitably as they destroy the physical milieu. + +The proponents of an energy crisis confirm and continue to propagate a peculiar vision of man. According to this notion, man is born into prolonged dependence on slaves which he must painfully learn to master. If he does not employ prisoners, then he needs motors to do most of his work. According to this doctrine, the well-being of a society can be measured by the number of years its members have gone to school and by the number of energy slaves they have thereby learned to command. This belief is common to the conflicting economic ideologies now in vogue. It is threatened by the obvious inequity, harriedness and impotence that appear everywhere once the voracious hordes of energy slaves outnumber people by a certain proportion. The energy crisis focuses concern on the scarcity of fodder for these slaves. I prefer to ask whether free men need them. + +The energy policies adopted during the current decade will determine the range of social relationships a society will be able to enjoy by the year 2000. A low energy policy allows for a wide choice of life styles and cultures. If, on the other hand, a society opts for high energy consumption, its social relations must be dictated by technocracy and will be equally distasteful whether labelled capitalist or socialist. + +At this moment, most societies--especially the poor ones--are still free to set their energy policies by any of three guidelines. Well-being can be identified with high amounts of per capita energy use, with high efficiency of energy transformation, or with the least possible use of mechanical energy by the most powerful member of society. The first approach would stress tight management of scarce and destructive fuels on behalf of industry, whereas the second would emphasize the retooling of industry in the interest of thermodynamic thrift. Both attitudes necessarily imply huge public expenditures and increased social control; both rationalize the emergence of a computerized Leviathan, and both are at present widely discussed. + +The possibility of a third option is barely noticed. While people have begun to accept ecological limits on maximum per capita energy use as a condition for physical survival, they do not yet think about the use of minimum feasible power as the foundation of any of various social orders that would be both modern and desirable. Yet only a ceiling on energy use can lead to social relations that are characterized by high levels of equity. The one option that is presently neglected is the only choice within the reach of all nations. It is also the only strategy by which a political process can be used to set limits on the power of even the most motorized bureaucrat. Participatory democracy postulates low energy technology. Only participatory democracy creates the conditions for rational technology. + +What is generally overlooked is that equity and energy can grow concurrently only to a point. Below a threshold of per capita wattage, motors improve the conditions for social progress. Above this threshold, energy grows at the expense of equity. Further energy affluence then means decreased distribution of control over that energy. + +The widespread belief that clean and abundant energy is the panacea for social ills is due to a political fallacy, according to which equity and energy consumption can be indefinitely correlated, at least under some ideal political conditions. Labouring under this illusion, we tend to discount any social limit on the growth of energy consumption. But if ecologists are right to assert that non-metabolic power pollutes, it is in fact just as inevitable that, beyond a certain threshold, mechanical power corrupts. The threshold of social disintegration by high energy quanta is independent from the threshold at which energy conversion produces physical destruction. Expressed in horsepower, it is undoubtedly lower. This is the fact which must be theoretically recognized before a political issue can be made of the per capita wattage to which a society will limit its members. + +Even if non-polluting power were feasible and abundant, the use of energy on a massive scale acts on society like a drug that is physically harmless but psychically enslaving. A community can choose between Methadone and ‘cold turkey’--between maintaining its addiction to alien energy and kicking it in painful cramps--but no society can have a population that is at once autonomously active and hooked on progressively larger numbers of energy slaves. + +In previous discussions, I have shown that, beyond a certain level of GNP, the cost of social control must rise faster than total output and become the major institutional activity within an economy. Therapy administered by educators, psychiatrists and social workers must converge with the designs of planners, managers and salesmen, and complement the services of security agencies, the military and the police. I now want to indicate one reason why increased affluence requires increased control over personnel. I argue that beyond a certain median per capita energy level, the political system and cultural context of any society must decay. Once the critical quantum of per capita energy is surpassed, education for the abstract goals of a bureaucracy must supplant the legal guarantees of personal and concrete initiative. This quantum is the limit of social order. + +I will argue here that technocracy must prevail as soon as the ratio of mechanical power and metabolic energy oversteps a definite, identifiable threshold. The order of magnitude within which this threshold lies is largely independent from the level of technology applied, yet its very existence has slipped into the blindspot of social imagination in both rich and medium rich countries. Both the United States and Mexico have passed the critical divide. In both countries, further energy inputs increase inequality, inefficiency and personal impotence. Although one country has a per capita income of $500 and the other of nearly $5,000, huge vested interest in an industrial infrastructure prods both of them to further escalate the use of energy. As a result, both North American and Mexican ideologues put the label of ‘energy crisis’ on their frustration, and both countries are blinded to the fact that the threat of social breakdown is due neither to a shortage of fuel, nor to the wasteful, polluting and irrational use of available wattage, but to the attempt of industries to gorge society with energy quanta that inevitably degrade, deprive and frustrate most people. + +A people can be just as dangerously overpowered by the wattage of its tools as by the caloric content of its foods, but it is much harder to confess to a national overindulgence in wattage than to a sickening diet. The per capita wattage that is critical for social well-being lies within an order of magnitude which is far above the horsepower known to four-fifths of humanity and far below the power commanded by any Volkswagen driver. It eludes the underconsumer and the overconsumer alike. Neither is willing to face the facts. For the primitive, the elimination of slavery and drudgery depends on the introduction of appropriate modern technology, and for the rich, the avoidance of an even more horrible degradation depends on the effective recognition of a threshold in energy consumption beyond which technical processes begin to dictate social relations. Calories are both biologically and socially healthy only as long as they stay within the narrow range that separates enough from too much. + +The so-called energy crisis is, then, a politically ambiguous issue. Public interest in the quantity of power and in the distribution of controls over the use of energy can lead in two opposite directions. On the one hand, questions can be posed that would open the way to political reconstruction by unblocking the search for a post-industrial, labour-intensive, low energy and high equity economy. On the other hand, hysterical concern with machine fodder can reinforce the present escalation of capital-intensive institutional growth, and carry us past the last turnoff from a hyper-industrial Armageddon. Political reconstruction presupposes the recognition of the fact that there exist _critical_ _per_ _capita_ _quanta_ beyond which energy can no longer be controlled by political process. Social breakdown will be the inevitable outcome of ecological restraints on _total_ _energy_ _use_ imposed by industrially-minded planners bent on keeping industrial production at some hypothetical maximum. + +Rich countries like the United States, Japan or France might never reach the point of choking in their own waste, but only because their societies will have already collapsed into a socio-cultural energy coma. Countries like India, Burma and, for another short while at least, China, are in the inverse position of being still muscle-powered enough to stop short of an energy stroke. They could choose, right now, to stay within those limits to which the rich will be forced back at an enormous loss in their vested interest. + +The choice of a minimum energy economy compels the poor to abandon distant expectations and the rich to recognize their vested interest as a ghastly liability. Both must reject the fatal image of man the slaveholder currently promoted by an ideologically stimulated hunger for more energy. In countries that were made affluent by industrial development, the energy crisis serves as a whip to raise the taxes which will be needed to substitute new, more sober and socially more deadly industrial processes for those that have been rendered obsolete by inefficient overexpansion. For the leaders of people who have been disowned by the same process of industrialization, the energy crisis serves as an alibi to centralize production, pollution and its control in a last-ditch effort to catch up with the more highly powered. By exporting their crisis and by preaching the new gospel of Puritan energy worship, the rich do even more damage to the poor than they did by selling them the products of now outdated factories. As soon as a poor country accepts the doctrine that more energy more carefully managed will always yield more goods for more people, that country is hooked into the race for enslavement to maximum industrial outputs. Inevitably the poor abandon the option for rational technology when they choose to modernize their poverty by increasing their dependence on energy. Inevitably the poor reject the possibility of liberating technology and participatory politics when, together with maximum feasible energy use, they accept maximum feasible social control. + +The energy crisis cannot be overwhelmed by more energy inputs. It can only be dissolved, along with the illusion that well-being depends on the number of energy slaves a man has at his command. For this purpose, it is necessary to identify the thresholds beyond which power corrupts, and to do so by a political process that associates the community in the search for limits. Because this kind of research runs counter to that now done by experts and for institutions, I shall call it counterfoil research. It has three steps. First, the need for limits on the per capita use of energy must be theoretically recognized as a social imperative. Then, the range must be located wherein the critical magnitude might be found. Finally, each community has to identify the levels of inequity, harrying and operant conditioning that its members are willing to accept in exchange for the satisfaction that comes of idolizing powerful devices and joining in rituals directed by the professionals who control their operation. + +The need for political research on socially optimal energy quanta can be clearly and concisely illustrated by an examination of modern traffic. The United States puts 45 per cent of its total energy into vehicles: to make them, run them and clear a right of way for them when they roll, when they fly and when they park. Most of this energy is to move people who have been strapped into place. For the sole purpose of transporting people, 250 million Americans allocate more fuel than is used by 1,300 million Chinese and Indians for all purposes. Almost all of this fuel is burnt in a rain dance of time-consuming acceleration. Poor countries spend less energy per person, but the percentage of total energy devoted to traffic in Mexico or in Peru is greater than in the USA, and it benefits a smaller percentage of the population. The size of this enterprise makes it both easy and significant to demonstrate the existence of socially critical energy quanta by the example of personal carriage. + +In traffic, energy used over a specific period of time (power) translates into speed. In this case, the critical quantum will appear as a speed limit. Wherever this limit has been passed, the basic pattern of social degradation by high energy quanta has emerged. Once some public utility went faster than ± 15 mph, equity declined and the scarcity of both time and space increased. Motorized transportation monopolized traffic and blocked self-powered transit. In every Western country, passenger mileage on all types of conveyance increased by a factor of a hundred within fifty years of building the first railroad. When the ratio of their respective power outputs passed beyond a certain value, mechanical transformers of mineral fuels excluded people from the use of their metabolic energy and forced them to become captive consumers of conveyance. This effect of speed on the autonomy of people is only marginally affected by the technological characteristics of the motorized vehicles employed or by the persons or entities who hold the legal titles to airlines, buses, railroads or cars. High speed is the critical factor which makes transportation socially destructive. A true choice among political systems and of desirable social relations is possible only where speed is restrained. Participatory democracy demands low energy technology, and free people must travel the road to productive social relations at the speed of a bicycle.* + +* I speak about traffic for the purpose of illustrating the more general point of socially optimal energy use, and I restrict myself to the locomotion of persons, including their personal baggage and the fuel, materials and equipment used for the vehicle and the road. I purposely abstain from the discussion of two other types of traffic: merchandise and messages. A parallel argument can be made for both, but this would require a different line of reasoning, and I leave it for another occasion. + +## The industrialization of traffic + +The discussion of how energy is used to move people requires a formal distinction between transport and transit as the two components of traffic. By _traffic_ I mean any movement of people from one place to another when they are outside of their homes. By _transit_ I mean those movements that put human metabolic energy to use, and by _transport_ that mode of movement which relies on other sources of energy. These energy sources will henceforth be mostly motors, since animals compete fiercely with men for their food in an over-populated world, unless they are thistle eaters like donkeys and camels. + +As soon as people become tributaries of transport, not only when they travel for several days, but also on their daily trips, the contradictions between social justice and motorized power, between effective movement and higher speed, between personal freedom and engineered routing, become poignantly-clear. Enforced dependence on auto-mobile machines then denies a community of self-propelled people just those values supposedly procured by improved transportation. + +People move well on their feet. This primitive means of getting around will, on closer analysis, appear quite effective when compared with the lot of people in modern cities or on industrialized farms. It will appear particularly attractive once it has been understood that modern Americans walk, on the average, as many miles as their ancestors--most of them through tunnels, corridors, parking lots and stores. + +People on their feet are more or less equal. People solely dependent on their feet move on the spur of the moment, at three to four miles per hour, in any direction and to any place from which they are not legally or physically barred. An improvement on this native degree of mobility by new transport technology should be expected to safeguard these values and to add some new ones, such as greater range, time economies, comfort, or more opportunities for the disabled. So far this is not what has happened. Instead, the growth of the transportation industry has everywhere had the reverse effects. From the moment its machines could put more than a certain horsepower behind any one passenger, this industry has reduced equality among men, restricted their mobility to a system of industrially defined routes and created time scarcity of unprecedented severity. As the speed of their vehicles crosses a threshold, citizens become transportation consumers on the daily loop that brings them back to their home, a circuit which the United States Department of Commerce calls a ‘trip’ as opposed to the ‘travel’ for which Americans leave home equipped with a toothbrush. + +More energy fed into the transportation system means that more people move faster over a greater range in the course of every day. Everybody’s daily radius expands at the expense of being able to drop in on an acquaintance or walk through the park on the way to work. Extremes of privilege are created at the cost of universal enslavement. An elite packs unlimited distance into a lifetime of pampered travel, while the majority spend a bigger slice of their existence on unwanted trips. The few mount their magic carpets to travel between distant points that their ephemeral presence renders both scarce and seductive, while the many are compelled to trip further and faster and to spend more time preparing for and recovering from their trips. + +In the United States, four-fifths of all man-hours on the road are those of commuters and shoppers who hardly ever get into a plane, while four-fifths of the mileage flown to conventions and resorts is covered year after year by the same one and a half per cent of the population, usually those who are either well-to-do or professionally trained to do good. The speedier the vehicle, the larger the subsidy it gets from regressive taxation. Barely 0·2 per cent of the entire US population can engage in self-chosen air travel more than once a year, and few other countries can support a jet set which is that large. + +The captive tripper and the reckless traveller become equally dependent on transport. Neither can do without it. Occasional spurts to Acapulco or to a Party Congress dupe the ordinary passenger into believing that he has made it into the shrunk world of the powerfully rushed. The occasional chance to spend a few hours strapped into a high-powered seat makes him an accomplice in the distortion of human space, and prompts him to consent to the design of his country’s geography around vehicles rather than around people. Man has evolved physically and culturally together with his cosmic niche. What for animals is their environment he has learned to make into his home. His self-image requires as its complement a life-space and a life-time integrated by the pace at which he moves. If that relationship is determined by the velocity of vehicles rather than by the movement of people, man the architect is reduced to the status of a mere commuter. + +The typical American male devotes more than 1,600 hours a year to his car. He sits in it while it goes and while it stands idling. He parks it and searches for it. He earns the money to put down on it and to meet the monthly instalments. He works to pay for petrol, tolls, insurance, taxes and tickets. He spends four of his sixteen waking hours on the road or gathering his resources for it. And this figure does not take into account the time consumed by other activities dictated by transport: time spent in hospitals, traffic courts and garages; time spent watching automobile commercials or attending consumer education meetings to improve the quality of the next buy. The model American puts in 1,600 hours to get 7,500 miles: less than five miles per hour. In countries deprived of a transportation industry, people manage to do the same, walking wherever they want to go, and they allocate only three to eight per cent of their society’s time budget to traffic instead of 28 per cent. What distinguishes the traffic in rich countries from the traffic in poor countries is not more mileage per hour of life-time for the majority, but more hours of compulsory consumption of high doses of energy, packaged and unequally distributed by the transportation industry. + +## Speed stunned imagination + +PAST a certain threshold of energy consumption, the transportation industry dictates the configuration of social space. Motorways expand, driving wedges between neighbours and removing fields beyond the distance a farmer can walk. Ambulances take clinics beyond the few miles a sick child can be carried. The doctor will no longer come to the house, because vehicles have made the hospital into the right place to be sick. Once heavy lorries reach a village high in the Andes, part of the local market disappears. Later, when the high school arrives at the plaza along with the paved highway, more and more of the young people move to the city, until not one family is left which does not long for a reunion with someone hundreds of miles away, down on the coast. + +Equal speeds have equally distorting effects on the perception of space, time and personal potency in rich and in poor countries, however different the surface appearances might be. Everywhere, the transportation industry shapes a new kind of man to fit the new geography and the new schedules of its making. The major difference between Guatemala and Kansas is that in Central America some people are still exempt from all contact with vehicles and are, therefore, still not degraded by their dependence on them. + +The product of the transportation industry is the habitual passenger. He has been boosted out of the world in which people still move on their own, and he has lost the sense that he stands at the centre of his world. The habitual passenger is conscious of the exasperating time scarcity that results from daily recourse to the cars, trains, buses, undergrounds and lifts that force him to cover an average of twenty miles each day, frequently crossing his path within a radius of less than five miles. He has been lifted off his feet. No matter if he goes by underground or jetplane he feels slower and poorer than someone else and resents the shortcuts taken by the priviledged few who can escape the frustrations of traffic. If he is cramped by the timetable of his commuter train, he dreams of a car. If he is exhausted by the rush hour, he envies the speed capitalist who drives against the traffic. If he must pay for his car out of his own pocket, he knows full well that the commanders of corporate fleets send the fuel bill to the company and write off the rented car as a business expense. The habitual passenger is caught at the wrong end of growing inequality, time scarcity and personal impotence, but he can see no way out of this bind except to demand more of the same: more traffic by transport. He stands in wait of technical changes in the design of vehicles, roads and schedules; or else he expects a revolution to produce mass rapid transport under public control. In neither case does he calculate the price of being hauled into a better future. He forgets that he is the one who will pay the bill, either in fares or in taxes. He overlooks the hidden costs of replacing private cars with equally rapid public transport. + +The habitual passenger cannot grasp the folly of traffic based overwhelmingly on transport. His inherited perceptions of space and time and of personal pace have been industrially deformed. He has lost the power to conceive of himself outside of the passenger role. Addicted to being carried along, he has lost control over the physical, social and psychic powers that reside in man’s feet. The passenger has come to identify territory with the untouchable landscape through which he is rushed. He has become impotent to establish his domain, mark it with his imprint and assert his sovereignty over it. He has lost confidence in his power to admit others into his presence and to share space consciously with them. He can no longer face the remote by himself. Left on his own, he feels immobile. + +The habitual passenger must adopt a new set of beliefs and expectations if he is to feel secure in the strange world where both liaisons and loneliness are products of conveyance. To ‘gather’ for him means to be brought together by vehicles. He comes to believe that political power grows out of the capacity of a transportation system, and in its absence is the result of access to the television screen. He takes freedom of movement to be the same as one’s claim on propulsion. He believes that the level of democratic process correlates to the power of transportation and communications systems. He has lost faith in the political power of the feet and of the tongue. As a result, what he wants is not more liberty as a citizen but better service as a client. He does not insist on his freedom to move and to speak to people but on his claim to be shipped and to be informed by media. He wants a better product rather than freedom from servitude to it. It is vital that he come to see that the acceleration he demands is self-defeating, and that it must result in a further decline of equity, leisure and autonomy. + +## Net transfer of lifetime + +UNCHECKED speed is expensive and progressively fewer can afford it. Each increment in the velocity of a vehicle results in an increase in the cost of propulsion, track-construction and--most dramatically--in the space the vehicle devours while it is on the move. Past a certain threshold of energy consumption for the fastest passenger, a worldwide class structure of speed capitalists is created. The exchange value of time becomes dominant, and this is reflected in language: time is spent, saved, invested, wasted and employed. As societies put price tags on time, equity and vehicular speed correlate inversely. + +High speed capitalizes a few people’s time at an enormous rate but, paradoxically, it does this at a high cost in time for all. In Bombay, only a very few people own cars. They can reach a provincial capital in one morning and make the trip once a week. Two generations ago, this would have been a week-long trek once a year. They now spend more time on more trips. But these same few also disrupt, with their cars, the traffic flow of thousands of bicycles and pedicabs that move through downtown Bombay at a rate of effective locomotion superior to that of downtown Paris, London or New York. The compounded, transport-related time expenditure within a society grows much faster than the time economies made by a few people on their speedy excursions. Traffic grows indefinitely with the availability of transports. Beyond a critical threshold, the output of the industrial complex established to move people costs a society more time than it saves. The marginal utility of an increment in the speed of a small number of people has for its price the growing marginal disutility of this acceleration for the great majority. + +Beyond a critical speed, no one can save time without forcing another to lose it. The man who claims a seat in a faster vehicle insists that his time is worth more than that of the passenger in a slower one. Beyond a certain velocity, passengers become consumers of other people’s time, and accelerating vehicles become the means for effecting a net transfer of life-time. The degree of transfer is measured in quanta of speed. This time-grab despoils those who are left behind, and since they are the majority, it raises ethical issues of a more general nature than kidney dialysis or organ transplants. + +Beyond a certain speed, motorized vehicles create remoteness which they alone can shrink. They create distances for all and shrink them for only a few. A new dirt road through the wilderness brings the city within view, but not within reach, of most Brazilian subsistence farmers. The new expressway expands Chicago, but it sucks those who are well-wheeled away from a downtown that decays into a ghetto. + +Man’s speed remained unchanged from the Age of Cyrus to the Age of Steam. News could not travel more than a hundred miles per day, no matter how the message was carried. Neither the Inca’s runners nor the Venetian galley, the Persian horseman or the mail coach under Louis XIV, could break the barrier. Soldiers, explorers, merchants and pilgrims moved at twenty miles per day. In Valéry’s words, Napoleon still had to move at Caesar’s slowness: _Napoléon va à la même lenteur que César._ The Emperor knew that ‘public prosperity is measured by the income of the coaches’: _On_ _mésure_ _la_ _prospérité_ _publique_ _aux_ _comptes_ _des_ _diligences_ , __ but he could barely speed them up. Paris-Toulouse had required about 200 hours in Roman times, and the scheduled stagecoach still took 158 hours in 1782. Only the nineteenth century accelerated man. By 1830, the trip had been reduced to 110 hours, but at a new cost. In the same year, 4,150 stagecoaches overturned in France, causing more than a thousand deaths. Then the railroad brought a sudden change. By 1855, Napoleon III claimed to have travelled an average of 96 kilometres per hour on the train between Paris and Marseilles. Within one generation, the average distance travelled each year per Frenchman increased one hundred and thirty times, and Britain’s railroad network reached its greatest expansion. Passenger trains attained their optimum cost calculated in terms of time spent for their maintenance and use. + +With further acceleration, transportation began to dominate traffic, and speed began to erect a hierarchy of destinations. By now, each set of destinations corresponds to a specific level of speed and defines a certain passenger class. Each circuit of terminal points degrades those pegged at a lower number of miles per hour. Those who must get around on their own power have been redefined as underdeveloped outsiders. Tell me how fast you go and I’ll tell you who you are. If you can corner the taxes which fuel the Concorde, you are certainly at the top. + +Over the last two generations, the vehicle has become the sign of career achievement, just as the school has become the sign of starting advantage. At each new level, the concentration of power must produce its own kind of rationale. So, for example, the reason that is usually given for spending public money to make a man travel more miles in less time each year is the still greater investment that was made to keep him more years in school. His putative value as a capital-intensive production tool sets the rate at which he is being shipped. Other ideological labels besides ‘a good education’ are just as useful for opening the cabin door to luxuries paid for by others. If the Thought of Chairman Mao must now be rushed around China by jet, this can only mean that two classes are needed to fuel what his revolution has become, one of them living in the geography of the masses and the other in the geography of the cadres. The suppression of intermediary levels of speed in Popular China has certainly made the concentration of power more efficient and rational, but it also underscores the new difference in value between the time of the bullock driver and the time of the jet-driven. Accelerating speed inevitably concentrates horsepower under the seats of a few and compounds the increasing time-lack of most commuters with the further sense that they are lagging behind. + +The need for unequal privilege in an industrial society is generally advocated by means of an argument with two sides. The hypocrisy of this argument is clearly betrayed by acceleration. Privilege is accepted as the necessary pre-condition to improve the lot of a growing total population, or it is advertised as the instrument for raising the standards of a deprived minority. In the long run, accelerating transportation does neither. It only creates a universal demand for motorized conveyance, and puts previously unimaginable distances between the various layers of privilege. Beyond a certain point, more energy means less equity. + +## The ineffectiveness of acceleration + +It should not be overlooked that top speeds for a few exact a different price than high speeds for all. Social classification by levels of speed enforces a net transfer of power: the poor work and pay to get left behind. But if the middle classes of a speed society may be tempted to ignore discrimination, they should not neglect the rising marginal disutilities of transportation and their own loss of leisure. High speeds for all mean that everybody has less time for himself as the whole society spends a growing slice of its time budget on moving people. Vehicles running over the critical speed not only tend to impose inequality, they also inevitably establish a self-serving industry that hides an inefficient system of locomotion under apparent technological sophistication. I will argue that a speed limit is necessary not only to safeguard equity; it is equally a condition for increasing the total distance travelled within a society, while decreasing the total time that travel takes. + +There is little research available on the impact of vehicles on the twenty-four-hour time budget of individuals and societies. From transportation studies, we get statistics on the cost of time per mile, on the value of time measured in dollars or in length of trips. But these statistics tell us nothing about the hidden costs of transportation: about how traffic nibbles away at life-time, about how vehicles devour space, about the multiplication of trips made necessary by the existence of vehicles, or about the time spent directly and indirectly preparing for locomotion. Further, there is no available measure of the even more deeply buried costs of transport, such as higher rent to live in areas convenient to the flow of traffic, or the cost of protecting these areas from the noise, pollution and danger to life and limb that vehicles create. The lack of an account of expenditures from the social time budget should not lead us to believe, however, that such an accounting is impossible, nor should it prevent our drawing conclusions from the little that we do know. + +From our limited information it appears that everywhere in the world, after some vehicle broke the speed barrier of 15 mph, time scarcity related to traffic began to grow. After industry had reached this threshold of per capita output, transport made of man a new kind of waif: a being constantly absent from a destination he cannot reach on his own but must reach within the day. By now, people work a substantial part of every day to earn the money without which they could not even get to work. The time a society spends on transportation grows in proportion to the speed of its fastest public conveyance. Japan now leads the United States in both areas. Life-time gets cluttered up with activities generated by traffic as soon as vehicles crash through the barrier that guards people from dislocation and space from distortion. + +Whether the vehicle that speeds along the public freeway is owned by the state or by an individual has little to do with the time scarcity and over-programming that rise with every increment in speed. Buses use one-third of the fuel which cars burn to carry one man over a given distance. Commuter trains are up to ten times more efficient than cars. Both could become even more efficient and less polluting. If publicly owned and rationally managed, they could be so scheduled and routed that the privileges they presently provide under private ownership and incompetent organization would be considerably cut. But as long as any system of vehicles imposes itself on the public by its unlimited top speed, the public is left to choose between spending more time to pay for more people to be carried from station to station, and paying less taxes so that even fewer people can travel in much less time much further than others. The order of magnitude of the top speed which is permitted within a transportation system determines the slice of its time budget that an entire society spends on traffic. + +## The radical monopoly of industry + +A desirable ceiling on the velocity of movement cannot be usefully discussed without returning to the distinction between self-powered _transit_ and motorized _transport_ , __ and comparing the contribution each component makes relative to the total locomotion of people, which I have called _traffic._ + +Transport stands for the capital-intensive mode of traffic and transit indicates the labour-intensive mode. Transport is the product of an industry whose clients are passengers. It is an industrial commodity and therefore scarce by definition. Improvement of transport always takes place under conditions of scarcity that become more severe as the speed--and with it the cost--of the service increases. Conflict about insufficient transport tends to take the form of a zero-sum game where one wins only if another loses. At best, such a conflict allows for the solution of the Prisoner’s Dilemma: by cooperating with their jailer, both prisoners get off with less time in the cell. + +Transit is not the product of an industry, but the independent enterprise of transients. It has use value by definition but need not have any exchange value. The ability to engage in transit is native to man and more or less equally distributed among healthy people of the same age. The exercise of this ability can be restricted by depriving some class of people of the right to take a straight route, or because a population lacks shoes or pavements. Conflict about unsatisfactory transit conditions tends to take, therefore, the form of a non-zero-sum game in which everyone comes out ahead--not only the people who get the right to walk through a formerly walled property, but also the owner who now gets a road. + +Total traffic is the result of two profoundly distinct modes of production. These can reinforce each other harmoniously only as long as the autonomous outputs are protected against the encroachment of the industrial product. + +The harm done by contemporary traffic is due to the monopoly of transport. The allure of speed has deceived the passenger into accepting the promises made by an industry that produces capital-intensive traffic. He is convinced that high-speed vehicles have allowed him to progress beyond the limited autonomy he enjoyed when moving under his own power. He has allowed planned transport to predominate over the alternative of labour-intensive transit. Destruction of the physical environment is the least noxious effect of this concession. The far more bitter results are the multiplication of psychic frustration, the growing disutilities of continued production, and subjection to an inequitable transfer of power--all of which are manifestations of a distorted relationship between life-time and life-space. The passenger who agrees to live in a world monopolized by transport becomes a harassed, overburdened consumer of distances whose shape and length he can no longer control. + +Every society that imposes compulsory speed submerges transit to the profit of transport. Where-ever not only privilege but also elementary necessities are denied to those who do not use high-speed conveyances, an involuntary acceleration of personal rhythms is imposed. Industry dominates traffic as soon as daily life comes to depend on motorized trips. + +This profound control of the transportation industry over natural mobility constitutes a monopoly much more pervasive than either the commercial monopoly Ford might win over the automobile market, or the political monopoly car manufacturers might wield against the development of trains and buses. Because of its hidden, entrenched and structuring nature, I call this a _radical_ _monopoly._ Any industry exercises this kind of deep-seated monopoly when it becomes the dominant means of satisfying needs that formerly occasioned a personal response. The compulsory consumption of a high-powered commodity (motorized transport) restricts the conditions for enjoying an abundant use value (the innate capacity for transit). Traffic serves here as the paradigm of a general economic law: _Any industrial product that comes in per capita quanta beyond a given intensity exercises a radical monopoly over the satisfaction of a need_. Beyond some point, compulsory schooling destroys the environment for learning, medical delivery systems dry up the non-therapeutic sources of health, and transportation smothers traffic. + +Radical monopoly is first established by a rearrangement of society for the benefit of those who have access to the larger quanta, then it is enforced by compelling all to consume the minimum quantum in which the output is currently produced. Compulsory consumption will take on a different appearance in industrial branches where information dominates, such as education or medicine, than it will in those branches where quanta can be measured in British thermal units, such as housing, clothing or transport. The industrial packaging of values will reach critical intensity at different points with different products but, for each major class of outputs, the threshold occurs within an order of magnitude that is theoretically identifiable. The fact that it is possible theoretically to determine the range of speed within which transportation develops a radical monopoly over traffic does not mean that it is possible theoretically to determine just how much of such a monopoly any given society will tolerate. The fact that it is possible to identify a level of compulsory instruction at which learning by seeing and doing declines does not enable the theorist to identify the specific pedagogical limits to the division of labour that a culture will tolerate. Only recourse to juridical and, above all, to political process can lead to the specific, though provisional, measures by which speed or compulsory education will actually be limited in a given society. The magnitude of voluntary limits is a matter of politics; the encroachment of radical monopoly can be pinpointed by social analysis. + +A branch of industry does not impose a radical monopoly on a whole society by the simple fact that it produces scarce products, or because it drives competing industries off the market, but rather by virtue of its acquired ability to create and shape the need which it alone can satisfy. + +Shoes are scarce all over Latin America and many people never wear them. They walk on the bare soles of their feet, or wear the world’s widest variety of excellent sandals, supplied by a range of artisans. Their transit is in no way restricted by their lack of shoes. But in some countries of South America people are compelled to be shod ever since access to schools, jobs and public services was denied to the barefoot. Teachers or party officials define the lack of shoes as a sign of indifference toward ‘progress’. Without any intentional conspiracy between the promoters of national development and the shoe industry, the barefoot in these countries are now barred from any office. + +Schools, like shoes, were scarce at all times. But it was never the small number of privileged pupils that turned the school into an obstacle for learning. Only when laws were enacted to make schools both compulsory and free did the educator assume the power to deny learning opportunities on the job to the underconsumer of educational therapies. Only when school attendance had become obligatory did it become feasible to impose on all a progressively more complex artificial environment into which the unschooled and unprogrammed do not fit. + +The potential of a radical monopoly is unmistakeable in the case of traffic. Imagine what would happen if the transportation industry could somehow distribute its output more adequately: a traffic Utopia of free _rapid_ transportation for all would inevitably lead to a further expansion of traffic’s domain over human life. What could such a Utopia look like? Traffic would be organized exclusively around public transportation systems. It would be financed by a progressive tax calculated on income and on the proximity of one’s residence to the next terminal and to the job. It would be designed so that everybody could occupy any seat on a first-come, first-served basis: the doctor, the vacationer and the President would not be assigned any priority of person. In this fool’s paradise, all passengers would be equal, but they would be just as equally captive consumers of transport. Each citizen of a motorized Utopia would be deprived of the use of his feet and drafted into the servitude of proliferating networks of transportation. + +Certain would-be miracle makers disguised as architects offer a specious escape from the paradox of speed. By their standards, acceleration imposes inequities, time loss and controlled schedules only because people do not yet live in those patterns and orbits into which vehicles can best place them. These futuristic architects would house and occupy people in self-sufficient units of towers interconnected by tracks for high-speed capsules. Soleri, Doxiadis or Fuller would solve the problem created by high-speed transport by identifying the entire human habitat with the problem. Rather than asking how the earth’s surface can be preserved for people, they ask how reservations for necessary people can be established on an earth that has been reshaped for the sake of industrial outputs. + +## The elusive threshold + +Any traffic-optimal speed for transport seems capricious or fanatical to the confirmed passenger, whereas it looks like the flight of the bird to the donkey driver. Four or six times the speed of a man on foot constitutes a threshold too low to be deemed worthy of consideration by the habitual passenger and too high to convey the sense of a _limit_ to the three-quarters of humanity who still get around on their own power. + +All those who plan other people’s housing, transportation or education belong to the passenger class. Their claim to power is derived from the value their employers place on acceleration. Social scientists can build a computer model of traffic in Calcutta or Santiago, and engineers can design monorail webs according to abstract notions of traffic flow. Since these planners are true believers in problem solving by industry, the real solution for traffic congestion is beyond their grasp. Their belief in the effectiveness of power blinds them to the disproportionately greater effectiveness of abstaining from its use. Traffic engineers have yet to combine in one simulation model the mobility of people with that of vehicles. The engineer cannot conceive the possibility of renouncing speed and slowing down for the sake of permitting optimal traffic flow. He would never entertain the thought of programming his computer on the stipulation that no motorized vehicle within any city should ever overtake the speed of a velocipede. The development expert who looks down compassionately from his Land-Rover on the Indian peasant driving his pigs to market refuses to acknowledge the relative advantage of feet. The expert tends to forget that this man has dispensed ten others in his village from spending time on the road, whereas the engineer and every member of his family separately devote a major part of every day to being in traffic. For a man who believes that human mobility must be conceived in terms of indefinite progress, there can be no optimal level of traffic but only passing consensus on a given level of technical development. + +Most Mexicans, not to speak of Indians and Chinese, are in a position inverse to that of the confirmed passenger. The critical threshold is entirely beyond what all but a few of them know or expect. They still belong to the class of the self-powered. Some of them have a lingering memory of a motorized adventure, but most of them have no personal experience of travelling at or above the critical speed. In the two typical Mexican states of Guerrero and Chiapas, less than one per cent of the population moved even once over ten miles in less than one hour during 1970. The vehicles into which people in these areas are sometimes crowded render traffic indeed more convenient, but barely faster than the speed of a bicycle. The third class bus does not separate the farmer from his pig, and it takes them both to market without inflicting any loss of weight, but this acquaintance with motorized ‘comfort’ does not amount to dependence on destructive speed. + +The order of magnitude in which the critical threshold of speed can be found is too low to be taken seriously by the passenger, and too high to concern the peasant. It is so obvious it cannot be easily seen. The proposal of a limit to speed within this order of magnitude engenders stubborn opposition. It exposes the addiction of industrialized men to consuming ever higher doses of energy, while it asks those who are still sober to abstain from something they have yet to taste. + +To propose counterfoil research is not only a scandal, it is also a threat. Simplicity threatens the expert, who supposedly understands just why the commuter train runs at 8:15 and 8:41 and why it must be better to use fuel with certain additives. That a political process could identify a natural magnitude, both inescapable and limited, is an idea that lies outside the passenger’s world of verities. He has let respect for specialists he doesn’t even know turn into unthinking submission. If a political resolution could be found for problems created by experts in the field of traffic, then perhaps the same remedy could be applied to problems of education, medicine or urbanization. If the order of magnitude of traffic optimal vehicular velocities could be determined by laymen actively participating in an ongoing political process, then the foundation on which the framework of every industrial society is built would be shattered. To propose such research is politically subversive. It puts in question the overarching consensus on the need for more transportation which now allows the proponents of public ownership to define themselves as political adversaries of the proponents of private enterprise. + +## Degrees of self powered mobility + +A century ago the ball bearing was invented it reduced the coefficient of friction by a factor of a thousand by applying a well calibrated ball-bearing between two neolithic millstones, a man could now grind in a day what took his ancestors a week. The ball-bearing also made possible the bicycle, allowing the wheel--probably the last of the great neolithic inventions--finally to become useful for self-powered mobility. + +Man, unaided by any tool, gets around quite efficiently. He carries one gram of his weight over a kilometre in ten minutes by expending 0·75 calories. Man on his feet is thermodynamically more efficient than any motorized vehicle and most animals. For his weight, he performs more work in locomotion than rats or oxen, less than horses or sturgeon. At this rate of efficiency man settled the world and made its history. At this rate peasant societies spend less than five per cent and nomads less than eight per cent of their respective social time budgets outside the home or the encampment. + +Man on a bicycle can go three or four times faster than the pedestrian, but uses five times less energy in the process. He carries one gram of his weight over a kilometre of flat road at an expense of only 0·15 calories. The bicycle is the perfect transducer to match man’s metabolic energy to the impedance of locomotion. Equipped with this tool, man outstrips the efficiency of not only all machines, but all other animals as well. + +The invention of the ball-bearing, the tangent-spoked wheel and the pneumatic tyre taken together can be compared to only three other events in the history of transportation. The invention of the wheel at the dawn of civilization took the load off man’s back and put it onto the barrow. The invention and simultaneous application, during the European Middle Ages, of stirrup, shoulder harness and horseshoe increased the thermodynamic efficiency of the horse by a factor of up to five, and changed the economy of medieval Europe: it made frequent ploughing possible and thus introduced rotation agriculture; it brought more distant fields into the reach of the peasant, and thus permitted landowners to move from six-family hamlets into 100-family villages, where they could live around the church, the square, the jail and--later--the school; it allowed the cultivation of northern soils and shifted the centre of power into cold climates. The building of the first ocean-going vessels by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, under the aegis of developing European capitalism, laid the solid foundations for a globe-spanning culture and market. + +The invention of the ball-bearing signalled a fourth revolution. It created an option between more freedom in equity and more speed. The bearing is an equally fundamental ingredient of two new types of locomotion, respectively symbolized by the bicycle and the car. The bicycle lifted man’s automobility into a new order, beyond which progress is theoretically not possible. In contrast, the accelerating individual capsule enabled societies to engage in a ritual of progressively paralysing speed. + +The monopoly of a ritual application over a potentially useful device is nothing new. Thousands of years ago, the wheel took the load off the carrier-slave, but it did so only on the Eurasian landmass. In Mexico, the wheel was well-known, but never applied to transport. It served exclusively for the construction of carriages for toy gods. The taboo on wheelbarrows in America before Cortés is no more puzzling than the taboo on bicycles in modern traffic. + +It is by no means necessary that the invention of the ball-bearing continue to serve the increase of energy use, and thereby produce time scarcity, space consumption and class privilege. If the new order of self-powered mobility offered by the bicycle were protected against devaluation, paralysis and risk to the limbs of the rider, it would be possible to guarantee optimal shared mobility to all people and put an end to the imposition of maximum privilege and exploitation. It would be possible to control the patterns of urbanization if the organization of space were constrained by the power man has to move through it. + +Bicycles are not only thermodynamically efficient, they are also cheap. With his much lower salary, the Chinese acquires his durable bicycle in a fraction of the working hours an American devotes to the purchase of his obsolescent car. The cost of public utilities needed to facilitate bicycle traffic versus the price of an infrastructure tailored to high speeds is proportionately even less than the price differential of the vehicles used in the two systems. In the bicycle system, engineered roads are necessary only at certain points of dense traffic, and people who live far from the surfaced path are not thereby automatically isolated as they would be if they depended on cars or trains. The bicycle has extended man’s radius without shunting him onto roads he cannot walk. Where he cannot ride his bike he can usually push it. + +The bicycle also uses little space. Eighteen bikes can be parked in the place of one car, thirty of them can move along in the space devoured by a single automobile. It takes two lanes of a given size to move 40,000 people across a bridge in one hour by using modern trains, four to move them on buses, 12 to move them in their cars, and only one lane for them to pedal across on bicycles. Of all these vehicles, only the bicycle really allows people to go from door to door without walking. The cyclist can reach new destinations of his choice without his tool creating new locations from which he is barred. + +Bicycles let people move with greater speed without taking up significant amounts of scarce space, energy or time. They can spend fewer hours on each mile and still travel more miles in a year. They can get the benefit of technological breakthroughs without putting undue claims on the schedules, energy or space of others. They become masters of their own movements without blocking those of their fellows. Their new tool creates only those demands which it can also satisfy. Every increase in motorized speed creates new demands on space and time. The use of the bicycle is self-limiting. It allows people to create a new relationship between their life-space and their life-time, between their territory and the pulse of their being, without destroying their inherited balance. The advantages of modern self-powered traffic are obvious, and ignored. That better traffic runs faster is asserted, but never proved. Before they ask people to pay for it, those who propose acceleration should try to display the evidence for their claim. + +A grizzly contest between bicycles and motors has just come to an end. In Vietnam, a hyperindustrialized army tried to conquer, but could not overcome, a people organized around bicycle speed. The lesson should be clear. High energy armies can annihilate people--both those they defend and those against whom they are launched, but they are of very limited use to a people which defends itself. It remains to be seen if the Vietnamese will apply what they learned in war to an economy of peace, if they will be willing to protect the values that made their victory possible. The dismal likelihood is that the victors, for the sake of industrial progress and increased energy consumption, will tend to defeat themselves by destroying that structure of equity, rationality and autonomy into which American bombers had forced them by depriving them of fuels, motors and roads. + +## Dominant v subsidiary motors + +Men are born almost equally mobile their natural ability speaks for the personal liberty of each one to go wherever he or she wants to go Citizens of a society founded on the notion of equity will demand the protection of this right against any abridgement. It should be irrelevant to them by what means the exercise of personal mobility is denied, whether by imprisonment, bondage to an estate, revocation of a passport, or enclosure within an environment that encroaches on a person’s native ability to move in order to make him a consumer of transport. This inalienable right of free movement does not lapse just because most of our contemporaries have strapped themselves into ideological seat belts. Man’s natural capacity for transit emerges as the only yardstick by which to measure the contribution transport can make to traffic: there is only so much transport that traffic can bear. It remains to be outlined how we can distinguish those forms of transport that cripple the power to move from those that enhance it. + +Transportation can abridge traffic in three ways: by breaking its flow, by creating isolated sets of destinations, and by increasing the loss of time due to traffic. I have already argued that the key to the relation between transport and traffic is the speed of vehicles. I have described how, past a certain threshold of speed, transport has gone on to obstruct traffic in these three ways. It blocks mobility by cluttering up the environment with vehicles and roads. It transforms geography into a pyramid of circuits sealed off from one another according to levels of acceleration. It expropriates life-time at the behest of speed. + +If beyond a certain threshold transport obstructs traffic, the inverse is also true: below some level of speed, motorized vehicles can complement or improve traffic by permitting people to do things they could not do on foot or on bicycle. Motors can be used to transport the sick, the lame, the old and the just plain lazy. Motorpulleys can lift people over hills, but they can do so peacefully only if they do not push the climber off the path. Trains can extend the range of travel, but only if they give people equal opportunity to come closer to each other. A well-developed transportation system running at top speeds of 25 mph would have allowed Fix to chase Phileas Fogg around the world in less than half of 80 days. The time engaged in travel must be, as much as possible, the traveller’s own: only insofar as motorized transport remains limited to speeds which leave it subsidiary to autonomous transit can a traffic-optimal transportation system be developed. + +A limit on the power and therefore on the speed of motors does not by itself insure those who are weaker against exploitation by the rich and powerful, who can still devise means to live and work at better located addresses, travel with retinue in plush carriages, and reserve a special lane for doctors and members of the central committee. But at a sufficiently limited maximum speed, this is an unfairness which can be reduced or even corrected by a combination of taxes and technological devices. At unlimited top speed neither public ownership of the means of transportation nor technical improvements in their control can ever eliminate growing and unequal exploitation. A transportation industry is the key to optimal production of traffic, but only if it does not exercise its radical monopoly over personal productivity. + +## Underequipment overdevelopment and mature technology + +The combination of transportation and transit that constitutes traffic has provided us with an example of socially optimal per capita wattage and of the need for politically chosen limits on it. Traffic is also a model for the convergence of worldwide development goals, and a criterion by which to distinguish those countries which are lamely underequipped from those that are destructively overindustrialized. + +A country can be classified as underequipped if it cannot outfit each citizen with a bicycle or provide a five-speed transmission for anyone who wants to pedal others around. It is underequipped if it cannot provide good roads for the cycle, or free public motorized transportation for those who want to travel for more than a few hours in succession. No technical, economic or ecological reason exists why such backwardness should be tolerated anywhere in 1975. It would be a scandal if the natural mobility of a people were forced to stagnate on a pre-bicycle level against its will. + +A country can be classified as overindustrialized when its social life is dominated by the transportation industry, which has come to determine its class privileges, to accentuate its time scarcity, and to tie its people more tightly to the tracks it has laid out for them. + +Beyond underequipment and overindustrialization, there is a place for the world of post-industrial effectiveness, where the industrial mode of production complements other autonomous forms of production. There is a place, in other words, for a world of technological maturity. In terms of traffic, it is the world of those who have tripled the extent of their daily horizon by lifting themselves onto their bicycles. It is just as much the world marked by a variety of subsidiary motors available for the occasions when a bicycle is not enough and when an extra push will limit neither equity nor freedom. And it is, too, the world of the long voyage: a world where every place is open to every person, at his own pleasure and speed, without haste or fear, by means of vehicles that cross distances without breaking with the earth which man walked for hundreds of thousands of years on his own two feet. + +Underequipment keeps people enslaved to primordial nature and limits their freedom. Overindustrialization does not admit of differences in production and political style. It imposes its technical characteristics on social relations. The world of technological maturity permits a variety of political choices and cultures. The variety diminishes, of course, as a community allows industry to grow at the cost of autonomous production. Reasoning alone can offer no precise measure for the level of post-industrial effectiveness and technological maturity appropriate to a concrete society. It can only indicate in dimensional terms the range into which these technological characteristics must fit. It must be left to a historical community engaged in its own political process to decide when programming, space distortion, time scarcity and inequality cease to be worth its while. Reasoning can identify speed as the critical factor in traffic. It cannot set politically feasible limits. + +Only when top speeds on personal carriage reflect the enlightened self-interest of a political community can they become operative. This interest cannot be expressed in a society where one class monopolizes not only transportation, but communication, medicine, education and weapons as well. It does not matter if this power is held by legal owners or by entrenched managers of an industry that is legally owned by the workers. This power must be reappropriated and submitted to the sound judgment of the common man. The reconquest of power starts with the recognition that expert knowledge blinds the secretive bureaucrat to the obvious way of dissolving the energy crisis, just as it has blinded him to recognize the obvious solution to the war in Vietnam. + +There are two roads from where we are to technological maturity: one is the road of liberation from affluence; the other is the road of liberation from dependence. Both roads have the same destination: the social restructuring of space that offers to each person the constantly renewed experience that the centre of the world is where he stands, walks and lives. + +Liberation from affluence begins on the traffic islands where the rich run into one another. The well-sped are tossed from one island to the next and are offered but the company of fellow passengers en route to somewhere else. This solitude of plenty breaks down as the traffic islands gradually expand and people begin to recover their native power to move around the place where they live. Thus, the impoverished environment of the traffic island can embody the beginnings of social reconstruction, and the people who now call themselves rich will break with bondage to overefficient transport on the day they come to treasure the horizon of their traffic islands, now fully grown, and to dread frequent shipments from their homes. + +Liberation from dependence starts at the other end. It breaks the constriction of village and valley and leaves behind the boredom of narrow horizons and the stifling oppression of a world closed in on itself. To expand life beyond the radius of tradition without scattering it to the winds of acceleration is a goal that any poor country could achieve within a few years, but it is a goal that will be reached only by those who reject the offer of unchecked industrial development made in the name of an ideology of indefinite energy consumption. + +Liberation from the radical monopoly of industry is possible only where people engage in a political process founded on the protection of optimal traffic. This protection, in turn, demands a recognition of those energy quanta upon whose neglect industrial society has been built. These energy quanta can carry those who consume that much, but no more, into a post-industrial age that is technologically mature. + +Liberation which comes cheap to the poor will cost the rich dear, but they will pay its price once the acceleration of their transportation systems grinds traffic to a halt. A concrete analysis of traffic betrays the truth underlying the energy crisis: the impact of industrially packaged quanta of energy on the social environment tends to be degrading, exhausting and enslaving, and these effects come into play even before those which threaten the pollution of the physical environment and the extinction of the race. The crucial point at which these effects can be reversed is not, however, a matter of deduction, but of decision. + +## Bibliography + +_Seminars on ‘Alternatives to Acceleration in the Improvement of Traffic’ and on ‘The History of Thermodynamics Applied to Personal Transportation’ are meeting at CIDOC in Cuernavaca during 1974 and 1975. The following list has been culled from the seminar library. Only those titles have been quoted which, besides having proved useful in past sessions of the seminar, could easily be overlooked by those who might wish to pursue the line of inquiry followed in this essay_. + +ALBION, R. G., _Naval_ _and_ _Maritime_ _History_ , _An_ _Annotated_ _Bibliography_. Mystic, The Marine Hist. Assn. Conn. 1972. + +ANDERSON, Romola and Roger, _The_ _Sailing_ _Ship:_ _Six_ _Thousand_ _Years_ _of_ _History_. London, Harrap, 1926. + +BANKS, Arthur S., _Cross-Polity_ _Times_ _Series_ _Data_. Cambridge, Mass.; MIT, 1971. + +BARKIN, David, ‘El consumo y la vía chilena al socialismo; reflexiones en torno a la decisión automotriz’. Versión Preliminar. _Centro_ _de_ _Estudios_ _Socio-Económicos_ , Santiago de Chile, 1972. (Available from CIDOC Library.) + +BERNSTEIN, M. T., _Steamboats_ _on_ _the_ _Ganges_. Bombay, Orient Longmans, 1960. + +BIVAR, A. D. H., ‘The Stirrup and Its Origins’. _Oriental_ _Art_ , vol. I, 1955, pp. 61-65\. + +BLAISDEL, R. et al., _Sources_ _of_ _Information_ _in_ _Transportation_. Evanston, Ill., Northwestern University Press (The Transportation Center), 1964. + +BOWDEN, Frank Philip, Art. on ‘Friction’ in the _Encyclopaedia_ _Britannica_ , vol. 9, pp. 840A-841\. + +BRANCH, Melville C., _Comprehensive_ _Urban_ _Planning:_ _A_ _Selected_ _Anno_ _tated_ _Bibliography_ _with_ _Related_ _Materials_. Sage Publications, 1973. For material on transportation, cf. pp. 251-272\. + +BRAUDEL, Fernand, ‘La Lenteur des Transports’ in _Civilisation_ _Materielle_ _et_ _Capitalisme_ , _XV-XVIII_ _Siècle_ , pp. 314-329\. Paris, Armand Colin, 1967. + +----. ‘Vicissitudes des Routes’ in _La_ _Méditerranée_ _et_ _le_ _Monde_ _Medi_ _terranéen_ , pp. 242-259\. Paris, Armand Colin, 1949. + +BRUNOT, Ferdinand, _Histoire_ _de_ _la_ _Langue_ _Française_ _des_ _Origines_ _a_ _nos_ _Jours_. For references to ‘transport’, cf. esp. tome VI, pp. 357-360 and tome VII, pp. 201-231\. + +BUCHANAN, C. D., _Mixed_ _Blessing:_ _The_ _Motor_ _Car_ _in_ _Britain_. 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Paris, Picard, 1931. + +----. _De_ _la_ _Marine_ _Antique_ _à_ _la_ _Marine_ _Moderne:_ _La_ _Revolution_ _du_ _Gouvernail_. Paris, 1935. + +LEWIS, Richard S. and SPINRAD, Bernard I., _The_ _Energy_ _Crisis_. Chicago, Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, 1972. + +LIEPMANN, Kate K., _The_ _Journey_ _to_ _Work_ , _Its_ _Significance_ _for_ _Industrial_ _and_ _Community_ _Life_. London, 1944. + +LINDER, Staffan Burestam, _The_ _Harried_ _Leisure_ _Class_. New York, Columbia University Press, 1971. + +LISCO, Thomas E., ‘The Future of Urban Transportation; Mass Transportation: Cinderella in Our Cities’. _The_ _Public_ _Interest_. 1970. + +LOPEZ, R. S. and RAYMOND, J. W., eds., _Medieval_ _Trade_ _in_ _the_ _Mediter_ _ranean_ _World_ : _Illustrative_ _Documents_. New York, Columbia University Press, 1955. + +MANHEIM, Marvin L., ‘Principles of Transport Systems Analysis’. _Proceedings_ _of_ _the_ _Seventh_ _Annual_ _Meeting_ _of_ _the_ _Transportation_ _Research_ _Forum_ , 1966, pp. 9-21\. + +MARSH, George Perkins, _The_ _Earth_ _As_ _Modified_ _by_ _Human_ _Action_. Third Edition. New York, 1888. + +MEYER, Balthasar H., ed., _History_ _of_ _Transportation_ _in_ _the_ _United_ _States_ _before_ _1860_. Washington, D.C., 1917. + +MEYER, John R., Art. on ‘Transportation: Economic Aspects’ in the _Encyclopedia_ _of_ _Social_ _Sciences_ , vol. 16, pp. 134-140\. + +MOTT, George Fox, ‘Transportation in Contemporary Civilization’ in _Transportation_ _Renaissance_ , vol. 345 of The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, pp. 1-5, Philadelphia, 1963. + +MACKAYE, Benton, ‘Townless Highways for the Motorist’. _Harper’s_ _Magazine_ , Aug., 1931. + +MCMURRAY, David F. 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Universidad de Córdoba, Argentina, 1963. + +SUNDQUIST, James L., ‘A Policy for Urban Growth: Where Shall They Live?’ _The_ _Public_ _Interest_. No. 18, Winter 1970. + +STUTZ, Frederick P., _Research_ _on_ _Intra-Urban_ _Social_ _Travel:_ _Introduction_ _and_ _Bibliography_ _;_ _Exchange_ _Bibliography_ _No_. _173_. Monticello, Mich., Council of Planning Librarians, Feb., 1971. + +TAYLOR, George, _The_ _Transportation_ _Revolution_. New York, Harper & Row, 1951. + +TERRAZAS DE LA PEÑA, Eduardo, ‘Necesidad de un Incremento en la Intensidad del Uso del Espacio’. Paper presented at a regional meeting on urban development policies, Mexico City, July, 1972. CIDOC Library. + +_Transportation_ _Renaissance_ , Vol. 345 of The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Philadelphia, 1963. + +TURNER, John F. C., ‘Housing for People or Housing by People’? Mimeograph, 10 pp. Cambridge, Mass., MIT, 1970. + +WESTERGAARD, John, ‘Journey to Work in London Region’. _TPR_ , April, 1957. + +WHEELER, James O., _Research_ _on_ _the_ _Journey_ _to_ _Work:_ _Introduction_ _and_ _Bibliography;_ _Exchange_ _Bibliography_ _No_. _65_. Monticello, Mich., Council of Planning Librarians, January, 1969. + +WHITE, Lynn, ‘Tibet, India and Malaya as Sources of Western Medieval Technology’. _American_ _Historical_ _Review_ , vol. 65, 1960, pp. 515-526\. + +----. ‘The Agricultural Revolution of the Early Middle Ages’ in _Medieval_ _Technology_ _and_ _Social_ _Change_. Oxford University Press, 1969, pp. 39-78\. + +WHITE, Leslie, _The_ _Science_ _of_ _Culture_ _:_ _Energy_ _and_ _the_ _Evolution_ _of_ _Culture_. New York, Grove Press, 1949. cf. esp. pp. 363-393\. + +WILSON, S. S., ‘Bicycle Technology’. _Scientific_ _American_ , March, 1973, pp. 81-91\. + +WILSON, George W., et. al., _The_ _Impact_ _of_ _Highway_ _Investment_ _on_ _Development_. Washington, D.C., The Brookings Institution Transport Research Program, 1966. + +YURICK, Sol, ‘The Political Economy of Junk’. _Monthly_ _Review_ , vol. 22, no. 7, Dec, 1970, pp. 22-37\. diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/energy/es.txt b/data/pages/en/book/energy/es.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e448072 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/energy/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1,456 @@ +# Energía y equidad + +## La importación de una crisis + +Mientras mas rico el país, más de buen gusto es mostrarse preocupado por la llamada “crisis de energía”. El tema saltó a primer plano entre aquellos que _Le Monde_ y el _New York Times_ trataron inmediatamente después de que Kissinger anunció la suspensión de bombardeos en Vietnam. El nuevo problema --chispa para los grandes programas de televisión-- está en la agenda del _jet-set_ científico internacional, meollo en la reorganización de las relaciones comerciales entre rusos y norteamericanos. Ya en 1970, este mismo tema llegó a tener preeminencia en las revistas de las élites científicas; en parte porque cómodamente amalgama varias ramas “distinguidas” de la investigación reciente, ampliamente popularizadas durante la década de los sesenta: el estudio psicosociológico de los conflictos, de la ecología y de la contaminación ambiental, el de las mutaciones previsibles en la tecnología futurista. Ahora, en 1973, vemos los primeros signos de que la importación de la “crisis energética” empieza a tener éxito en América Latina. Se multiplica la reproducción de traducciones sobre el tema. En la prensa periódica, destinada a las clases escolarizadas, las vitrinas de las librerías exhiben títulos al respecto; los programas de televisión, promovidos por las fundaciones extranjeras, conectan el tema a la necesidad de limitar la población, de aumentar los niveles tecnológicos para usar la energía escasa en forma más económica y de llegar a acuerdos internacionales de naturaleza no política. Me parece de suma importancia fijar nuestra atención en la realidad que subyace en esta “crisis” y encontrar una manera que habilite a las masas populares para participar en el análisis, sin que por ello baje el nivel lógico y técnico de la discusión. El presente documento es una contribución para orientar esta discusión en uno de los sentidos posibles. + +Hay que desenmascarar la así llamada “crisis de energía”. Se trata de un eufemismo que encubre una contradicción, indica una frustración, consagra una ilusión. Encubre la contradicción inherente al hecho de querer alcanzar, al mismo tiempo, un estado social basado en la noción de EQUIDAD y un nivel cada vez más elevado de crecimiento industrial. Indica cuál es el grado de frustración actual, provocado por el desarrollo industrial. Finalmente, consagra la ilusión de que se puede sustituir indefinidamente la potencia de la máquina por la energía metabólica del hombre, ilusión que lleva, en este momento, a los países ricos a la parálisis y fatalmente desorienta la planificación del desarrollo en los países pobres. Al difundir el pánico de una inminente e inevitable “crisis de energía”, los ricos perjudican aún más a los pobres que al venderles los productos de su industria. Construir las propias centrales nucleares en los Andes incorpora a un país al Club de los Exploradores, mientras que la importación de coches o aviones solamente acentúa su dependencia. Al difundir en el mundo de los pobres el temor por la insuficiencia de energía para el “progreso” hacia tales metas, los pobres aceptan la explicación que presentan los ricos sobre la crisis en el progreso y se ponen al mismo tiempo un _handicap_ en la carrera del crecimiento a la cual se obligan. Optan por una pobreza modernizada, en vez de elegir, con el uso racional de las técnicas modernas, el acceso a un modo de producción que refleje madurez política y científica. En mi opinión es de la mayor importancia enfrentarse a la realidad que oculta ese llamado concepto de “crisis”. Hay que reconocer que la incorporación de algo más que un cierto quántum de energía por unidad de un producto industrial inevitablemente tiene efectos destructores, tanto en el ambiente sociopolítico como en el ambiente biofísico. + +## El abuso político de la contaminación + +A la presente “crisis” energética la precedió una análoga “crisis” ecológica: se abusa de ambas con fines de explotación política. Hay que entender que la segunda no encuentra su solución aun cuando se encontraran formas de producir energía abundante y limpia, es decir, sin efecto destructor sobre el medio ambiente. + +Los métodos que hoy se utilizan para producir energía, en su creciente mayoría agotan los recursos y contaminan el ambiente. Al ritmo actual de su utilización, el carbón, el petróleo, el gas natural y el uranio se consumirán dentro del horizonte temporal de tres generaciones, y en el entretiempo habrán cambiado tanto al ser humano como su atmósfera de forma definitiva. Para transportar a un solo hombre en un Volkswagen, sobre una distancia de 500 km, se queman los mismos 175 kg de oxígeno que un individuo respira en todo un año. Las plantas y las algas reproducen suficiente oxígeno para los 3 000 millones de hombres que existen. Pero no puede reproducirlo para un mundo automovilizado, cuyos vehículos queman cada uno por lo menos 14 veces más oxígeno del que quema un individuo. Los métodos usados para producir energía no sólo son caros --y por tanto son recursos escasos--, sino igualmente destructores, al punto de engendrar su propia escasez. Los esfuerzos de los últimos decenios se han orientado a producir más petróleo, a refinarlo mejor y a controlar su distribución. El énfasis ahora se va trasladando hacia la investigación para encontrar fuentes de energía abundante y _limpia_ y motores comparables en potencia a los presentes, que sean más rentables y menos venenosos. Se olvida que automóviles que no envenenen el ambiente, ni en su manufactura ni en su marcha, costarían un múltiplo de los que ahora tenemos. La promoción de la técnica limpia casi siempre constituye la promoción de un médico de lujo para producir bienes de primera necesidad. + +En su forma más trágica y amenazante, la quimera energética se manifiesta en la llamada “Revolución verde”. Los granos milagrosos introducidos en la India hace pocos años, hacen sobrevivir y multiplicarse a los hambrientos que se multiplicaron por el crecimiento industrial. Estas nuevas simientes se cargan de energía en forma de agua de bombeo, abonos químicos e insecticidas. Su precio se paga no tanto en dólares sino más bien en trastornos sociales y en destrucción ecológica. De esta forma, los cuatro quintos menos industrializados de la especie humana, quienes llegan a depender más de la agricultura “milagrosa”, empiezan a rivalizar con la minoría privilegiada en materia de destrucción ambiental. Hace sólo 10 años se podía decir que la capacidad de un recién nacido norteamericano de envenenar el mundo con sus excrementos tecnológicos era 100 veces mayor que la de su coetáneo en Bengala. Gracias a que el bengalí depende de la agricultura “científica”, su capacidad de destruir el ambiente en forma irreversible se ha multiplicado por un factor de cinco a 10, mientras que la capacidad del norteamericano para reducir la contaminación que causa ha disminuido un poco. Los ricos, como grupo, ya van en vías de perder el primer puesto en la contaminación del planeta. Los ricos tienden a acusar a los pobres por usar poca energía en forma ineficiente y dañina y los pobres acusan a los ricos de producir más excrementos porque devoran sin digerir mucho más que ellos. Los utópicos prometen soluciones milagrosas a los dos, tales como la posibilidad de realizar pronto un decrecimiento demográfico o la desalinización de las aguas del mar por energía de fusión. Los pobres se ven obligados a fundar sus esperanzas de sobrevivir en su derecho a un ambiente reglamentado que les “ofrece” la generosidad de los ricos. La doble crisis de abastecimiento y de contaminación ya manifiesta los límites implícitos en el crecimiento industrial. Pero la contradicción decisiva de esta expansión más allá de ciertos límites reside en un nivel más hondo, en lo político. + +## La ilusión fundamental + +Creer en la posibilidad de altos niveles de energía _limpia_ como solución a todos los males, representa un error de juicio político. Es imaginar que la equidad en la participación del poder y el consumo de energía pueden crecer juntos. Víctimas de esta ilusión, los hombres industrializados no ponen el menor límite al crecimiento en el consumo de energía, y este crecimiento continúa con el único fin de proveer cada vez a más gente de más productos de una industria controlada cada vez por menos gente. Prevalece la ilusión de que una revolución política, al suprimir los errores técnicos de las industrias presentes, crearía la posibilidad de distribuir equitativamente el disfrute del bien producido, a la par que el poder de control sobre lo que se produce. Es mi tarea analizar esta ilusión. Mi tesis sostiene que no es posible alcanzar un estado social basado en la noción de equidad y simultáneamente aumentar la energía mecánica disponible, a no ser bajo la condición de que el consumo de energía por cabeza se mantenga dentro de límites. En otras palabras: sin electrificación no puede haber socialismo, pero inevitablemente esta electrificación se transforma en justificación para la demagogia cuando los vatios per cápita exceden cierta cifra. El socialismo exige para la realización de sus ideales un cierto nivel en el uso de la energía: no puede venir a pie, ni puede venir en coche, sino solamente a velocidad de bicicleta. + +## Mi tesis + +En mi análisis del sistema escolar he señalado que en una sociedad industrial el costo del control social aumenta más rápidamente que el nivel del consumo de energía. Este control lo ejercen en primera línea los educadores y médicos, los cuerpos asistenciales y políticos, sin contar la policía, el ejército y los psiquiatras. El subsistema social destinado al control social crece a un ritmo canceroso convirtiéndose en la razón de la existencia para la sociedad misma. He demostrado que solamente imponiendo límites a la despersonalización e industrialización de los valores se puede mantener un proceso de participación política. + +En el presente ensayo mi argumento procederá analógicamente. Señalaré que en el desarrollo de una sociedad moderna existe un momento en el que el uso de energía ambiental excede por un determinado múltiplo el total de la energía metabólica humana disponible. Una vez rebasada esta cuota de alerta, inevitablemente los individuos y los grupos de base tienen que abdicar progresivamente del control sobre su futuro y someterse siempre más a una tecnocracia regida por la lógica de sus instrumentos. + +Los ecólogos tienen razón al afirmar que toda energía no metabólica es contaminante: es necesario ahora que los políticos reconozcan que la energía física, pasado cierto límite, se hace inevitablemente corrupta del ambiente social. Aun si se lograra producir una energía no contaminante y producirla en cantidad, el uso masivo de energía siempre tendrá sobre el cuerpo social el mismo efecto que la intoxicación por una droga físicamente inofensiva, pero psíquicamente esclavizante. Un pueblo puede elegir entre una droga sustitutiva tal como el metadone y una desintoxicación realizada a voluntad en el aislamiento; pero no puede aspirar simultáneamente a la evolución de su libertad y convivencialidad por un lado, y a una tecnología de alta energía por el otro. + +## El marco latinoamericano + +La llamada crisis de la energía es un concepto políticamente ambiguo. En la manera como se usa en el presente, sirve a los intereses imperialistas tanto en Rusia como en Estados Unidos. Sirve de explicación para limitar privilegios a quienes más directamente cooperan en el desarrollo de éstos. En América Latina la difusión del pánico serviría para integrar el continente más perfectamente como periferia de un mundo cuyo centro está donde más energía per cápita se utiliza. No hay movimiento de verdadera liberación que no reconozca la necesidad de adoptar una tecnología de bajo consumo energético. + +Discutir la crisis de energía equivale a colocarse en el cruce de dos caminos. A mano izquierda se abre la posibilidad de transición a una economía posindustrial, que pone el énfasis en el desarrollo de formas más eficientes de trabajo manual y en la realización concreta de la equidad. Nos conduciría a un mundo de satisfacción austera de todas las aspiraciones realistas. A mano derecha se ofrece la opción de acometer la escalada de un crecimiento que pondría el énfasis en la capitalización y el control social necesarios para evitar niveles intolerables de contaminación. Nos conduciría a transformar los países latinoamericanos en participantes de tercer orden en el apocalipsis industrial, hacia el cual marchan los países ricos. Estados Unidos, Japón o Alemania ya están a punto de perpetrar el autoaniquilamiento social en una parálisis causada por el superconsumo de energía. Insistiendo en el sueño de hacer trabajar las máquinas en lugar del hombre, se desintegran políticamente, aun antes de verse sofocados en sus propios desechos. Hay ciertos países, como la India, Birmania, y espero que aún por cierto tiempo también China, que son todavía bastante operantes en el uso de sus músculos, previniendo así el aumento del desarrollo energético. Pueden aún limitar el uso de energía al nivel actual, tratando de usar sus vatios para fines cualitativamente cada vez más altos y cada vez en forma de mejor distribución. + +Posiblemente den el ejemplo de una economía al mismo tiempo posindustrial y socialista, para lo cual deberán mantener una tecnología con un bajo consumo de energía y decidir, desde ahora, vivir más acá del nivel de consumo por cabeza de energía mecánica que deberán recuperar los países ricos para poder sobrevivir. + +América Latina se encuentra dentro de una tercera situación. Sus industrias están subcapitalizadas y sus subproductos, física y socialmente destructores, son menos visibles que en los países ricos, haciendo excepción particular del Distrito Federal en México y de São Paulo en Brasil. El menor número de gente es consciente de sufrir precisamente a causa del aumento de la potencia de la máquina industrial y, por tanto, menos es la gente dispuesta a tomar en serio la necesidad de limitar el desarrollo ulterior de tal potencia. Por otro lado, todos los países de América Latina ya tienen una infraestructura física que _a priori_ impide al no escolarizado, al no motorizado, al no electrificado, al no industrializado participar humanamente en el proceso de producción. Aquí, la idea de una alternativa al desarrollo de la industria pesada ya implica la renuncia a lo que se está haciendo o se cree poder hacer mañana: una renuncia al coche, a la nevera, al ascensor y, en muchos casos, hasta al cemento armado que ya están en el pueblo o en la casa del vecino. En Latinoamérica hay menos conciencia que en los países ricos de la necesidad de un modelo alternativo de tecnología y tampoco se vislumbra una renuncia al modelo de los ricos, cosas que pudieran permitirse los chinos, si así lo quisieran. + +## El poderío de alto voltaje + +Tanto los pobres como los ricos deberán superar la ilusión de que MÁS energía es MEJOR. Con este fin es necesario, ante todo, determinar el límite de energía más allá del cual se ejerce el efecto corruptor del poder mecánico. Este efecto corruptor puede ser controlado en dos niveles característicos. Una sociedad puede sacrificar su propia supervivencia, como comunidad política, al ídolo del poder material. Puede optar conscientemente, o por falta de iniciativa contraria, por identificar el bienestar con el más alto consumo de energía, estableciendo el sistema de planificación que lo hace posible. La maximización del sistema industrial bajo un techo energético más allá del cual cesa la viabilidad del sistema, requiere la transformación de nuevos poderes a un Leviatán tecnofascista. + +Una sociedad que dé preferencia al pleno desarrollo de sus industrias sobre la plena participación de sus miembros en el proceso, no puede evitar un nuevo nivel de tecnocracia. Es de poca importancia real el modo concreto como llegue esta tecnocracia al poder: por imposición extranjera, por revolución dentro o fuera de la legalidad o a través de un nuevo contrato social. Tecnocracia es la orientación que siguen los países ricos y la misma que quieren imponer a los países pobres. + +Hay un segundo nivel característico, y más bajo, al cual se puede limitar la energía utilizada dentro de un sistema social: es el nivel en el que un pueblo cree tener mejor participación en el dominio de la máquina al combinar mejor y simultáneamente el desarrollo de sus valores tradicionales con la realización de sus ideales sociales. Para ello hay que limitar el uso de la energía, recuperando el nivel tope, pasado el cual éste reduce la autonomía de los individuos y de los grupos de base. + +La hipótesis es evidentemente verdadera: más allá de cierto nivel de uso per cápita de energía física, el ambiente de una sociedad cesa de funcionar como nicho de su población. En esta afirmación no hay nada novedoso pero yo pretendo decir más que esto en mi hipótesis. + +## Mi hipótesis + +El hombre es el ser consciente de su espacio vital y de su limitación temporal. Integra a los dos por medio de su acción, de la aplicación de su energía a sus circunstancias concretas en las cuales se encuentra. Para tal fin utiliza instrumentos de varios tipos, algunos de ellos dan mayor efecto a las energías metabólicas de las que dispone, y otros le permiten hallar fuentes energéticas que son exteriores a su propio cuerpo. + +La energía, transformada en trabajo físico le permite integrar su espacio y su tiempo. Privado de energía suficiente se ve condenado a ser un simple espectador inmóvil en un espacio que lo oprime. Al usar sus manos y pies transforma el espacio, simple territorio para el animal, en casa y patria. Al aumentar la eficiencia en la aplicación de su propia energía, lo embellece. Al aprender a usar nuevas fuentes de energía, lo expande y lo pone en peligro. Más allá de cierto punto, el uso de energía motorizada inevitablemente empieza a oprimirlo. + +Mi hipótesis es que no puede existir una sociedad que merezca el calificativo de “socialista” si la energía mecánica que utiliza aplasta al hombre; inevitablemente, pasado cierto punto, la energía mecánica tiene tal efecto. Existe una constante K. Ésta indica la cantidad por la que hay que multiplicar la energía mecánica utilizada para todos los fines en la sociedad. No puede existir una sociedad “socialista”, en tanto K no quede entre los límites. La sociedad debe considerarse subequipada para una forma de producción participativa y eficaz, mientras K no alcanza el valor del límite inferior. Cuando K se vuelve mayor que el valor del límite superior, termina la posibilidad de mantener una distribución equitativa del control sobre el poder mecánico en la sociedad. Espero elaborar un modelo teórico que ilustre esta hipótesis. Si ésta es correcta, existe en cada sociedad concreta un “nivel de energía de rendimiento mecánico” dentro del cual puede funcionar de manera óptima un sistema político participativo. El orden de magnitud en que se da este nivel de energía es independiente del instrumental tecnológico o de la eficiencia en la transformación de la energía misma. + +Simultáneamente propongo se verifique esta misma hipótesis en algunos campos concretos que consumen un porcentaje importante de la energía mecánica en nuestras sociedades. Tales campos serían: la habitación, los aspectos mecanizados de la agricultura y del transporte. Yo me he decidido a formular mi argumento partiendo de un análisis de este último. + +## El paradigma de la circulación + +Para tales fines presento a consideración el campo de la circulación de personas. Me limitaré al análisis de la circulación de la gente y de su equipaje personal, porque la circulación de bienes en cantidades superiores exigiría otro planteamiento. En la circulación distinguiré dos medios de locomoción: _el tránsito_ de las personas que usan su propia fuerza para trasladarse de un punto a otro y _el transporte_ motorizado. Incluyo en la circulación total dos grandes clases estadísticas de locomoción bien distintas: _el viaje_ , que al empezar conlleva la intención de dormir en otro lugar, por lo menos durante una noche, y _el desplazamiento_ , o trayecto de ida y vuelta, que termina durante el mismo día en su lugar de origen. El viaje y el desplazamiento pueden tener como fin el trabajo, el paseo, el mercado o la participación en actividades sociales. + +En el ejemplo de la circulación creo poder aclarar por qué la “crisis de energía” es un eufemismo detrás del cual se esconde la ilusión de que el uso de la energía y la equidad puedan crecer al mismo paso indefinidamente. La circulación ofrece una oportunidad para exponer la urgencia del análisis que propongo, al mismo tiempo que permite llamar la atención sobre la ceguera ante la evidencia de esta urgencia. Finalmente, me permito presentar mi argumento en forma tal que pueda entenderse y verificarse en discusiones públicas con gente de cualquier grado de instrucción formal. + +## La industria del transporte + +En el momento en que una sociedad se hace tributaria del transporte, no sólo para los viajes ocasionales sino por sus desplazamientos cotidianos, se pone de manifiesto la contradicción entre justicia social y energía motorizada, libertad de la persona y mecanización de la ruta. La dependencia, en relación con el motor, niega a una colectividad precisamente aquellos valores que se considerarían implícitos en el mejoramiento de la circulación. + +Lo siguiente es evidente para campesinos sensatos y se hace dudoso para una persona que sube por la escalera de la escolaridad: la máquina es una contribución positiva cuando su empleo conduce a expander el radio de circulación para todos, multiplicando los destinos terminales sin que por esto aumente la parte del tiempo social que se dedica a la circulación. Hoy en día, ningún sistema motorizado de locomoción llega a aumentar el radio de circulación y simultáneamente a salvaguardar la equidad en la distribución de costos y en la accesibilidad a los puntos de destino escogidos. Frente a esta evidencia el campesino y el peón fácilmente llegan a entender la trampa de la aceleración que roba su tiempo a la mayoría, mientras que los universitarios justifican los privilegios con que esta velocidad les provee, mediante argumentos extraños al debate; insisten en que los países latinoamericanos tienen derecho a competir con la tecnología rica; muestran que el transporte genera un aumento importante en el PNB y que sin una política de movilización mecánica de las masas no es posible desarrollar aquella forma de control social que para ellos se esconde detrás del ideal nacionalista. + +En mi análisis del transporte no me interesa identificar los beneficios económicos que éste genera, sino la contribución que presta a la circulación. Lo quiero analizar como medio de circulación y no como medio de inflación. Es fácil constatar que dondequiera que las máquinas destinan una tasa elevada de energía mecánica a la propulsión de un pasajero, el desarrollo de los transportes como industria reduce la igualdad entre los hombres, limita la movilidad personal dentro de un sistema de rutas trazadas al servicio de las industrias, las burocracias y los militares y, además, aumenta la escasez de tiempo dentro de la sociedad. En otras palabras, cuando la velocidad de sus vehículos rebasa cierto margen, la gente se convierte en prisionera del vehículo que la lleva cada día de la casa al trabajo. La extensión del radio de desplazamiento diario de los trabajadores tiene como contrapartida la disminución en la elección de puntos de destino. Quien va a pie al trabajo llega a crearse un ambiente a lo largo de su ruta; quien recorre el camino en vehículo está privado de una multiplicidad de opciones: paradas, accesos, contactos. Pero, el mismo transporte que para la mayoría crea nuevas distancias físicas y sociales, crea islotes de privilegios al precio de una esclavitud general. Mientras que unos pocos viajan en alfombra mágica entre puntos distantes, y por medio de su presencia prestigiosa los hacen no sólo raros sino seductores, los otros, que son la mayoría, se tienen que desplazar con más y más rapidez por los mismos trayectos monótonos y deben consagrar cada vez más tiempo a estos desplazamientos. + +En Estados Unidos de América cuatro quintos del tiempo consumido en la circulación concierne a las personas que se mueven entre su casa, el sitio de su trabajo y el supermercado. Y cuatro quintos de kilometraje destinado a congresos, a viajes de vacaciones y de negocios son para el 1.5% de la población. La gente que se encuentra en los aeropuertos siempre es la misma. También ellos se dividen en dos clases: los que se ven obligados a viajar y quienes lo hacen por propia decisión, que forman la minoría. Un tercio de la población adulta debe hacer 40 kilómetros por día entre la casa, la escuela, el trabajo y el supermercado para que 0.5% pueda elegir viajar en avión más de una vez al año. Todos aumentan su kilometraje personal obligatorio para que algunos puedan franquear incalculables distancias en el transcurso de algunos años. + +Los medios de transporte acentúan la división de clases en las sociedades ricas, y siendo su lugar de destino las capitales del mundo pobre, extienden la estratificación en un plano global. + +El esclavo del desplazamiento cotidiano y el viajero impenitente se ven igualmente sometidos al transporte. Ocasionales puntos altos de velocidad dan al usuario corriente la ilusión de pertenecer al mundo protegido de los altos consumidores de energía. La oportunidad ocasional que tiene el trabajador negro en Miami de pasar dos semanas de vacaciones en Copacabana, le hace olvidar que para el viaje por avión de seis horas de ida y seis de vuelta tuvo que trabajar tres veces más días de lo que hubiera tomado el viaje por barco. El pobre del mundo moderno, capaz de acelerar de vez en cuando, refuerza él mismo la ilusión de la que es víctima premeditada y se hace cómplice de la destrucción del cuadro social del espacio. No sólo quien usa el avión, sino también quien defiende su uso coopera a destruir la relación multimilenaria que existe entre el hombre y su geografía. + +El hombre americano típico consagra más de 1 600 horas por año a su automóvil: sentado dentro de él, en marcha o parado, trabajando para pagarlo, para pagar la gasolina, las llantas, los peajes, el seguro, las infracciones y los impuestos para las carreteras federales y los estacionamientos comunales. Le consagra cuatro horas al día en las que se sirve de él, se ocupa de él o trabaja para él. Aquí no se han tomado en cuenta todas sus actividades orientadas por el transporte: el tiempo que consume en el hospital, en el tribunal y en el taller mecánico; el tiempo pasado ante la televisión viendo publicidad automovilística, el tiempo invertido en ganar dinero para viajar en avión o en tren. Sin duda, con estas actividades hace marchar la economía, procura trabajo a sus compañeros, ingresos a los jeques de Arabia y justificación a Nixon por su guerra en Asia. Pero si nos preguntamos de qué manera estas 1600 horas, que son una estimación mínima, contribuyen a su circulación, la situación se ve diferente. Estas 1 600 horas le sirven para hacer unos 10 000 kilómetros de camino, o sea seis kilómetros en una hora. Es exactamente lo mismo que alcanzan los hombres en los países que no tienen industria del transporte. Pero, mientras el norteamericano consagra a la circulación una cuarta parte del tiempo social disponible, en las sociedades no motorizadas se destina a este fin entre 3 y 8% del tiempo social. Lo que diferencia la circulación en un país rico y en un país pobre no es una mayor eficacia, sino la obligación de consumir en dosis altas las energías condicionadas por la industria del transporte. + +## El estupor inducido por la velocidad + +Al rebasar determinado límite en el consumo de energía, la industria del transporte dicta la configuración del espacio social. Las autopistas hacen retroceder los campos fuera del alcance del campesino que quisiera caminar, los viaductos y aeropuertos cortan el acceso de un lado del barrio a otro, las ambulancias empujan las clínicas más allá de la corta distancia que se puede cubrir llevando a un niño enfermo. El coche o la moto permiten al médico y a la partera vivir lejos del ambiente en el que ejercen, y mientras más costosos los transportes, más se vuelve privilegio de ricos o de jerarcas la visita a domicilio. Cuando los camiones pesados llegan a un poblado de los Andes, lo primero que desaparece es parte del mercado local. Luego, cuando llega la ruta asfaltada y un grupo de maestros de secundaria se establece en el poblado, cada vez más gente joven se va hacia la ciudad, hasta que no queda una sola familia que no espere reunirse con alguien allá, a cientos de kilómetros. + +Frecuentemente nos olvidamos de que la aceleración de los viajes es un hecho muy nuevo. Valéry tenía razón cuando afirmaba que Napoleón aún se movía a la lentitud de César. Desde los tiempos de Ciro el Grande, rey de los persas, los imperios contaban con la posibilidad de enviar las cartas a una velocidad hasta de 160 kilómetros por día, los mensajes de toda la historia circulaban a un promedio de 100 kilómetros diarios, ya fuesen transportados en galeras de Constantinopla a Venecia o llevados por los corredores de los Fugger, por jinetes del califa o por las rutas del inca. El primer camino para diligencia entre París y Marsella o Tolouse, que regularmente hacía más de 100 kilómetros por día precedió por sólo 70 años al primer tren que hacía 100 kilómetros por hora en 1853. Pero una vez creada la vía férrea el hombre se vio clavado a ella. En Francia, entre 1850 y 1900, el kilometraje por pasajero se multiplicó por un factor de 53. + +Por su impacto geográfico, en definitiva, la industria del transporte moldea una nueva especie de hombres: los usuarios. El usuario vive en un mundo ajeno al de las personas dotadas de la autonomía de sus miembros. El usuario es consciente de la exasperante penuria del tiempo que provoca recurrir cotidianamente al tren, al automóvil, al metro, al ascensor, que lo trasladan diariamente a través de los mismos canales y túneles sobre un radio de 10 a 25 kilómetros. Conoce los atajos que encuentran los privilegiados para escapar a la exasperación engendrada por la circulación y los conducen adonde ellos quieren llegar, mientras él, el usuario, tiene que conducir su propio vehículo de un lugar, donde preferiría no vivir, a un empleo que preferiría evitar. El usuario se sabe limitado por los horarios de tren y autobús, en las horas que su esposa lo priva del coche, pero ve a los ejecutivos desplazarse y viajar por el mundo cuando y como a ellos les place. Paga su automóvil de su propio bolsillo, en un mundo donde los privilegios van para el personal dirigente de las grandes firmas, universidades, sindicatos y partidos. Los pobres se atan a su coche, y los ricos usan el coche de servicio, o alquilan el coche de Hertz. El usuario se exaspera por la desigualdad creciente, la penuria de tiempo y su propia impotencia, pero insensatamente pone su única esperanza en _más_ de la misma cosa: más circulación por medio de más transporte. Espera el alivio por cambios de orden técnico que han de afectar la concepción de los vehículos, de las rutas o de la reglamentación de la circulación. O bien espera una revolución que transfiera la propiedad de los vehículos a la colectividad y que, por descuento a los salarios, mantenga una red de transportes gratuitos, cuyas secciones más veloces y costosas serán otra vez accesibles sólo a quienes la sociedad considere más importantes. Casi todos los proyectos de reforma de los transportes que se suponen radicales padecen de este prejuicio: se olvidan del costo en tiempo humano resultante de sustituir el sistema presente por otro, más “público”, si este último ha de ser tan rápido como el otro. + +Por las noches el usuario sueña con lo que los ingenieros le sugieren durante el día a través de la televisión y de las columnas seudocientíficas de los diarios. Sueña con redes estratificadas de vehículos de diferente velocidad que convergen en intersecciones donde la gente puede encontrarse en los espacios que le conceden las máquinas. Sueña con los servicios especiales de la “Red de Transporte” que se harán cargo de él definitivamente. + +El usuario no puede captar la demencia inherente al sistema de circulación que se basa principalmente en el transporte. Su percepción de la relación del espacio con el tiempo ha sido objeto de una distorsión industrial. Ha perdido el poder de concebirse como otra cosa que no sea un usuario. Intoxicado por el transporte, ha perdido conciencia de los poderes físicos, sociales y psíquicos de que dispone el hombre, gracias a sus pies. Olvida que el territorio lo crea el hombre con su cuerpo, y toma por territorio lo que no es más que un paisaje visto a través de una ventanilla por un hombre amarrado a su butaca. Ya no sabe marcar el ámbito de sus dominios con la huella de sus pasos, ni encontrarse con los vecinos, caminando en la plaza. Ya no encuentra al otro sin chocar, ni llega sin que un motor lo arrastre. Su órbita puntual y diaria lo enajena de todo territorio libre. + +Atravesándolo a pie el hombre transforma el espacio geográfico en morada dominada por él. Dentro de ciertos límites que aplica al movimiento determina su movilidad y su poder de dominio. La relación con el espacio del usuario de transportes se determina por una potencia física ajena a su ser biológico. El motor mediatiza su relación con el medio ambiente y pronto lo enajena de tal manera que depende del motor para definir su poder político. El usuario está condicionado a creer que el motor aumenta la capacidad de los miembros de una sociedad de participar en el proceso político. Perdió la fe en el poder político de caminar. + +En sus demandas políticas el usuario no busca más caminos abiertos sino más vehículos que lo transporten; quiere más de lo mismo que ahora lo frustra, en vez de pedir garantía de que, en todo sentido, la precedencia la tenga siempre el peatón. La liberación del usuario consiste en su comprensión de la realidad: mientras exija más energía para propulsar con más aceleración a algunos individuos de la sociedad, precipita la corrupción irreversible de la equidad, del tiempo libre y de la autonomía personal. El progreso con el que sueña no es más que la destrucción mejor lograda. + +## Los chupatiempo + +En toda sociedad que hace pagar, el tiempo, la equidad y la velocidad en la locomoción tienden a variar en proporción inversa una de la otra. Los ricos son aquellos que pueden moverse más, ir donde les plazca, detenerse donde deseen y obtener estos servicios a cambio de una fracción muy pequeña de su tiempo vital. Los pobres son los que usan mucho tiempo para que el sistema del transporte funcione para los ricos del país. + +La razón de ello es que la velocidad resulta demasiado cara para ser realmente compartida: todo aumento en la velocidad de un vehículo ocasiona un aumento correspondiente en el consumo de energía necesaria para propulsarlo. + +No sólo el funcionamiento mismo consume energía: mientras mayor la velocidad, más energía se invierte en la construcción del vehículo mismo, en el mantenimiento de su pista y en los servicios adicionales sin los cuales no puede funcionar. + +No sólo energía consume un vehículo veloz; más importante aún es que consume espacio. Cada aumento en la velocidad hace al vehículo más voraz de metros cuadrados o cúbicos. + +Alemania Federal consumió su tierra a razón de 0.2% por año durante la década de los cincuenta. En los sesenta ya había logrado cubrir permanentemente con asfalto 0.4% de su territorio. Los norteamericanos requieren, para sus propios movimientos y para los de sus mercancías, una suma de energía superior a la totalidad de lo disponible, en todos los efectos, para la mitad de la humanidad entera, reunida entre China, India y el sudeste asiático. Ineluctablemente la aceleración chupa tiempo, espacio y energía. + +Ahora bien, cuando la energía requerida por el usuario rebasa cierta barrera, el tiempo de unos cuantos adquiere un valor muy alto, en tanto se desprecia el de la mayoría de los demás. En Bombay bastan algunos pocos automóviles para perturbar la circulación de miles de bicicletas y carretillas de tracción humana. Desplazándolos reducen gravemente su flujo y crean tapones. Pero uno de estos escasos automovilistas puede trasladarse en una mañana a la capital de provincia, trayecto que, dos generaciones antes, hubiera llevado una semana entera. En Tailandia los transportes tradicionales eran tan excelentes y flexibles que los reyes nunca pudieron imponer contribuciones sobre los movimientos del arroz: tan múltiples eran las vías por las cuales se podía escapar de la vigilancia del recaudador en unos botecitos elegantes y rápidos, usando una vasta red de canales. Para poder introducir el automóvil todo este sistema perfectamente democrático fue paralizado, cubriendo algunos de los _klongs_ (canales) con asfalto. Algunos poquísimos individuos pueden moverse con rapidez y la mayoría se hizo dependiente y debe adquirir “transporte”. + +Lo que es válido en la India, donde el ingreso anual por cabeza alcanza 70 dólares, lo es también en Boston, donde la circulación se ha hecho más lenta que en la época de los carruajes de caballos. El tiempo usado en actividades relacionadas con el transporte lógicamente crece con los gastos hechos para acelerarlo. Una minoría de bostonianos puede permitirse el lujo de vivir en rascacielos, cerca de su trabajo, usar el puente aéreo para dar una vuelta y almorzar en Nueva York. Para la mayoría aumenta la porción de dos horas de vigilia pasadas para crear “transporte”. + +En cualquier lugar, la demanda de circulación crece con la aceleración de los vehículos y con mayor premura que la posibilidad de satisfacerla. Pasado cierto límite, la industria del transporte cuesta a la sociedad más tiempo del que ahorra. Con aumentos ulteriores en la velocidad de ciertos vehículos, decrece el kilometraje total viajado por los pasajeros, pero no el tiempo que les cuesta mantener el sistema de transportes. La utilidad marginal en el aumento de la velocidad, accesible sólo a un pequeño número de gente, al rebasar un límite conlleva para la mayoría un aumento en la desutilidad total del transporte. La mayoría no sólo paga más, sino que sufre más daños irreparables. + +Pasada la barrera crítica de la velocidad en un vehículo, nadie puede ganar tiempo sin que, obligadamente, lo haga perder a otro. Aquel que exige una plaza en un avión, proclama que su tiempo vale más que el del prójimo. En una sociedad en donde el tiempo para consumir o usar se ha convertido en un bien precioso, servirse de un vehículo, cuya velocidad exceda esta barrera crítica, equivale a poner una inyección suplementaria del tiempo vital de otros al usuario privilegiado de vehículos. + +La velocidad sirve para medir la dosis de la inyección que transforma en ganancia de tiempo para unos pocos la gran pérdida de tiempo de muchos. Inevitablemente esta carrera contra el tiempo y contra la muerte de los ricos deja heridos tras de sí. Presenta problemas éticos de orden más universal que la diálisis renal o los injertos de vísceras, que a tantos sublevan. + +Al rebasar cierto límite de velocidad, los vehículos motorizados crean distancias que sólo ellos pueden reducir. Crean distancias a costa de todos, luego las reducen únicamente en beneficio de algunos. Una carretera abierta en el desierto pone la ciudad al alcance de la vista del campesino hambriento, pero ciertamente no al alcance de su mano. La nueva ruta _express_ extiende a Chicago, absorbiendo a los motorizados hacia los nuevos suburbios y dejando que el centro de la ciudad degenere en arrabales de asfalto para los otros. + +El desplazamiento en masa no es cosa nueva; nuevo es el desplazamiento diario de masas de gente sobre distancias que no pueden cubrirse a pie; nueva es la dependencia de los vehículos para hacer el trayecto diario de ida y vuelta. El uso diario de la silla de posta, el _rickshaw_ y el _fiacre_ , sirvió en su tiempo para comodidad de una ínfima minoría, que no quería ensuciarse los pies ni fatigarse, pero no para aventajar el paso del caminante. El tránsito diario de masas aparece solamente con el ferrocarril. En Francia, entre 1900 y 1950, aumentó casi 100 veces el kilometraje por pasajero. La existencia del ferrocarril hizo posible la expansión de las fábricas, creando, desde un principio, una nueva forma de discriminación. Hizo posible que el director empleara en la fábrica gente que se resistía a una distancia mayor de la que se puede cubrir a pie, creando con esto un “mercado de compra” para la mano de obra. Los ferrocarriles con su capacidad enorme de transporte comenzaron luego a transformar el espacio, permitiendo el crecimiento de la urbe, del arrabal y de la fábrica, que se hizo más gigantesca. + +El impacto directo de los primeros ferrocarriles recayó sobre la estructura del espacio: en sus primeros años el tren pudo acentuar los privilegios establecidos, creando la primera clase, que los ricos usaban en vacaciones y para sus negocios, mientras que los pobres se vieron obligados a usar la tercera todos los días. Pero la velocidad aún no determinaba las distinciones. Fue a finales de siglo cuando las cosas cambiaron. La velocidad se convirtió en factor de discriminación. El tren expreso ya corría tres veces más rápido que el tren lechero y era más costoso. Pasados otros 20 años, con el uso común del automóvil, el hombre de la calle comenzó a ser su propio chofer. Los beneficios de la velocidad, logrados por todas partes, llegaron a constituir la base para los privilegios reservados a las nuevas élites. + +El porcentaje de gente que emplea hoy chofer es más o menos el mismo que lo empleaba hace dos generaciones; sólo que hoy el salario que éste gana lo pagan las empresas, los ministerios y los sindicatos. Pero además de usar chofer, esta gente es la misma que usa aviones y helicópteros, vive cerca de las arterias de transporte y trabaja en lugares próximos al restaurante, al barbero y a las tiendas. Mucho más de lo que pudo hacerlo el tren, los nuevos niveles de velocidad agrupan las zonas burocráticas favorecidas, los espacios residenciales más atractivos y las estaciones turísticas de lujo, dentro de una órbita cerrada, a la que el acceso que tienen las masas es, primordialmente, a través de la televisión. En los países de Europa oriental donde el número de lugares privilegiados para quienes disponen de coches es menor, su importancia relativa es, quizás, mayor. + +Hoy vemos la formación de una jerarquía de diferentes circuitos de transporte, los cuales determinan el acceso a sus servicios de acuerdo con la velocidad que desarrollan y, por tanto, cada uno define su propia clase de usuarios. Cada uno de estos circuitos, si es de velocidad superior, reduce el acceso a menor número de personas, conecta puntos más distantes entre sí y devalúa los circuitos de menor velocidad. + +Dime a qué velocidad te mueves y te diré quién eres. Si no puedes contar más que con tus propios pies para desplazarte, eres un marginado, porque, desde medio siglo atrás, el vehículo se ha convertido en signo de selección social y en condición para la participación en la vida nacional. Dondequiera que la industria del transporte ha hecho franquear a sus pasajeros una barrera crítica de velocidad, inevitablemente establece nuevos privilegios para la minoría y agobia a la mayoría. + +A todos los niveles, para que la acumulación de poder pueda ser factible, tiene que crear su propia justificación. Así es como un hombre queda justificado al consumir fondos públicos para aumentar la cantidad anual de sus viajes, sumándolos a los fondos públicos ya consumidos anteriormente y al extender la duración de sus estudios. Allí donde se cree que el saber puede capitalizarse y se puede medir el valor productivo por los años de escolaridad de un individuo, inevitablemente se llega a justificar que éste capitalice su vida utilizándola más intensivamente al usar transportes más veloces. + +En los países ricos, quienes ganan mucho tienen el mejor transporte y mayor probabilidad de tener éxito en los estudios que justifican los demás privilegios. Pero no es necesario usar el salario o el título académico como pasaporte que permita la entrada a un avión. Hay factores de orden ideológico que pueden igualmente abrir o cerrar la puerta de la cabina. Si bien es cierto que la LÍNEA JUSTA de Mao, para extenderse en China, necesita actualmente de aviones a reacción, esto no puede significar sino la emergencia de un espacio/tiempo propio de los cuadros del partido y diferente al espacio/tiempo en el que viven las masas. En la China Popular la supresión de los niveles intermedios ha hecho más eficaz y más racional la concentración del poder, pero simultáneamente ha recalcado también cómo el tiempo del hombre que guía su búfalo vale mucho menos que el tiempo del hombre que trae ideas y se hace transportar en jet. La velocidad vehicular concentra la potencia energética y el poder en las posaderas de unos cuantos: es estructuralmente demagógica y elitista, independientemente de las intenciones que tenga quien se hace propulsar velozmente. Es un hecho: los caballos de fuerza no pueden sino pisotear la equidad. Además, hacen perder tiempo. + +## La aceleración dimensión técnica que expropia el tiempo + +La velocidad reduce el tiempo en un doble sentido: disminuyendo el que necesita el pasajero para cubrir 1 000 kilómetros y reduciendo el que podría emplear en otra cosa que no fuera el desplazamiento. La velocidad superior de ciertos vehículos favorece a algunas personas, pero la dependencia general de los vehículos veloces consume el tiempo de todos. Cuando la velocidad rebasa cierta barrera empieza a aumentar el tiempo total devuelto por la sociedad a la circulación. + +El efecto que tienen los vehículos superpotentes sobre el presupuesto cotidiano del tiempo disponible de individuos y de sociedades se conoce mal. Lo que las estadísticas nos muestran es el precio en dólares por kilómetro o la duración en horas por desplazamiento. Muy poca es la información sobre los presupuestos de tiempo en el transporte. Hay pocos datos estadísticos de cómo la circulación carcome el tiempo, de cómo el automóvil devora espacio, de cómo se multiplican los recorridos necesarios, de cómo se alejan terminales codiciadas y de cómo al hombre motorizado le cuesta adaptarse al transporte y reponerse de él. + +Ningún estudio señala los costos indirectos del transporte, por ejemplo, el precio que se paga por residir en un sector con circulación de fácil acceso, los gastos implicados en protegerse del ruido, de la contaminación y de los peligros de la circulación. + +Sin embargo, la inexistencia de una contabilidad nacional del tiempo social no debe hacernos creer que es imposible establecerla, ni debe impedirnos utilizar lo poco que ya sabemos al respecto. + +Lo que sí sabemos con seguridad es que en todas partes del mundo, en cuanto la velocidad de los vehículos que cubren los desplazamientos diarios rebasa un punto de alrededor de los 20 kilómetros por hora, la escasez del tiempo relacionada con el desarrollo del transporte general comienza a aumentar. Una vez que la industria alcanza este punto crítico de concentración de vatios por cabeza, el transporte hace del hombre el fantasma que sabemos, un desatinado que constantemente se ve obligado a alcanzar dentro de las próximas 12 horas una meta que por sus propios medios físicos no puede alcanzar. En la actualidad, la gente se ve obligada a trabajar buena parte del día para pagar los desplazamientos necesarios para dirigirse al trabajo. Dentro de una sociedad, el tiempo devuelto al transporte crece en función del máximo de la velocidad de los transportes públicos. Por tener medios de transporte público más modernos, Japón ya precede a Norteamérica en velocidad y en el tiempo perdido en gozarla. + +El tiempo carcomido por la circulación; el hombre privado de su movilidad y sometido a depender de las ruedas; la arquitectura al servicio del vehículo; todo esto es consecuencia de la reorganización del mundo sujeta a la aceleración prepotente. No cambia mucho el asunto si la máquina es pública o privada. Inevitablemente con el aumento de la velocidad crece la escasez de tiempo: pasando del coche al tren, que le da el mismo servicio, el usuario trabaja dos o tres horas al día para pagar más impuestos en lugar de trabajar para pagar su Ford. Inevitablemente aumenta la programación: en vez de tener que añadir dos horas de trabajo como chofer de su propio coche al trabajo diario en la fábrica o en la oficina, ahora tiene que adaptar su día a los horarios de los diferentes medios de transporte público. Así como los vehículos ocupan el espacio y reducen los lugares donde la gente pueda parar o vivir, así igualmente ocupan más horas cada año, además imponen su ritmo al proyecto de cada día. + +## El monopolio radical del transporte + +Como indiqué anteriormente, para poder entender la disfunción que analizamos hay que distinguir entre la circulación, el tránsito y el transporte. Por _circulación_ designo todo desplazamiento de personas. Llamo _tránsito_ a los movimientos que se hacen con energía muscular del hombre y _transporte_ a aquellos que recurren a motores mecánicos para trasladar hombres y bultos. Sin duda, desde tiempos inmemoriales el animal ha compartido el hambre del ser humano y fue su dócil vehículo. Es cosa del pasado: el aumento de los hombres cada vez lo excluye más de un mundo superpoblado y ahora los motores mecánicos generan la forma inhumana de los movimientos. + +Dentro de esta perspectiva, se diferencian dos formas de producción de la circulación. El transporte, que es la forma basada en la utilización intensiva del capital; el tránsito, la forma basada en el trabajo intensivo del cuerpo humano. El transporte es prevalentemente un producto de la industria, el tránsito no lo es, ni puede serlo. Quien transita en el acto es eminentemente su propio dueño, quien usa transporte es pasajero o usuario, inevitablemente cliente de una industria. El transporte que usa es un bien con valor de cambio, sujeto a la escasez. Se somete al juego del mercado, organizado como un “juego con suma cero”, de tal manera que si unos ganan los otros pierden. El tránsito, por definición, tiene un valor de uso, que normalmente es del transeúnte. No se ve necesariamente afectado por algún valor de cambio. El niño puede visitar a su abuela sin pagar a nadie, pero puede, si quiere, llevar un bulto para el vecino de la señora, cobrando por la molestia de llevarlo. Hay penuria de tránsito únicamente al negar a los individuos la posibilidad de utilizar su capacidad innata de moverse; no se les puede privar del medio de locomoción que usan. Por esto el tránsito en sí no es fácil de organizar como un “juego con suma cero”. Por su naturaleza, al mejorar el tránsito de un miembro de la colectividad, mejora la suerte del conjunto. Todo esfuerzo por perfeccionar el tránsito toma la forma de una operación en la que finalmente todo el mundo sale ganando. En cambio, de toda lucha por acelerar el transporte (por encima de cierta barrera), inevitablemente resulta en un aumento de la injusticia. El transporte más rápido para algunos inevitablemente empeora la situación de los demás. + +Las paradojas, contradicciones y frustraciones de la circulación contemporánea se deben al monopolio ejercido por la industria de los transportes sobre la circulación de las personas. La circulación mecánica no solamente tiene un efecto destructor sobre el ambiente físico, ahonda las disfunciones económicas y carcome el tiempo y el espacio. Además de todo esto, inhibe a la gente de servirse de sus pies, incapacitando a todos por igual. En Los Ángeles no hay destino para el pie: el coche dictó su forma a la ciudad. + +El dominio del sistema industrial de circulación sobre el sistema personal se establece cuando, y sólo entonces, los medios de transporte circulan a velocidad prepotente. La velocidad, al volverse obligatoria, arruina el tránsito en favor del transporte motorizado. Dondequiera que el ejercicio de privilegios y la satisfacción de las necesidades más elementales va unida al uso del vehículo prepotente, se impone una aceleración de los ritmos personales. La industria tiene el monopolio de la circulación cuando la vida cotidiana llega a depender del desplazamiento motorizado. + +Este poderoso control que ejerce la industria del transporte sobre la capacidad innata que tiene todo hombre para moverse, crea una situación de monopolio más agobiante que el monopolio comercial de Ford sobre el mercado de automóviles o el monopolio político que ejerce la industria automovilística en detrimento de los medios de transporte colectivos. Por su carácter disimulado, su atrincheramiento, su poder para estructurar la sociedad, este monopolio es radical: obliga a satisfacer de manera industrial una necesidad elemental hasta ahora satisfecha de forma personal. El consumo obligatorio de un bien de cambio, el transporte motorizado, restringe las condiciones para poder gozar de un valor de uso superabundante, la capacidad innata de tránsito. La reorganización del espacio en favor del motor vacía de poder y de sentido la capacidad innata de moverse. + +La circulación nos sirve aquí de ejemplo para formular una ley económica y política general: cuando un producto excede cierto límite en el consumo de energía por cabeza, ejerce el _monopolio radical_ sobre la satisfacción de una necesidad. Este monopolio se instituye cuando la sociedad se adapta a los fines de aquellos que consumen el total mayor de quanta de energía, y se arraiga irreversiblemente cuando se empieza a imponer a todos la obligación de consumir el quántum mínimo sin el cual la máquina no puede funcionar. El monopolio radical que ejerce una industria sobre toda una sociedad no es efecto de la escasez de bienes reservados a una minoría de clientes; es más bien la capacidad que tiene esta industria de convertir a todos en usuarios. + +En toda América Latina los zapatos son escasos. Mucha gente no los usa jamás. Caminan descalzos o con sandalias, huaraches o caites que ellos mismos se fabrican; sin embargo, nunca la falta de zapatos ha limitado su tránsito. Pero, unas dos generaciones atrás, se convirtió en ideal de los nacionalistas calzar al pueblo. Se empezó a obligar a la gente a calzarse, prohibiéndoles comulgar, graduarse o hacer gestiones públicas ante burócratas, presentándose descalzos. El poder del burócrata para definir lo que es bueno para el pueblo inevitablemente le da el poder de establecer nuevas jerarquías. + +Como el calzado, las escuelas han sido siempre un bien escaso. Pero el solo hecho de admitir una minoría privilegiada no ha logrado que la escuela sea un obstáculo para la adquisición de saber por parte de la mayoría. Ha sido necesario establecer la escuela gratuita y obligatoria para que el educador, convertido en tamiz entre el saber y las masas, pudiera definir al subconsumidor de sus tratamientos como despreciable autodidacta. + +La industria de la construcción podría servirnos de tercer ejemplo de lo que es un monopolio radical. La mayoría de nuestra gente sabe aun crearse un ambiente físico y construir su casita. No es la casa del rico o el palacio de gobierno lo que impide que lo haga hoy, sino la ley que presenta la casa profesionalmente construida como modelo la que impide la autoconstrucción moderna a la mayoría. + +Los elementos que constituyen a una industria gran consumidora de energía en monopolio radical, se ponen de manifiesto si tratamos de realizar los ideales que hoy rigen la circulación. Imaginemos que se organiza un sistema de transportes para uso diario, que realmente sea _rápido, gratuito, igualmente accesible a todos_. En un mundo hipermoderno, dotado de un sistema semejante, todos los transportes serían pagados con fondos públicos, es decir, con fondos recaudados por medio de impuestos. La imposición, a su vez, no sería solamente mayor para quienes ganan más, sino paraquienes viven o tienen negocios más cercanos a las terminales. Además, en este sistema, quien llegara primero sería también primero en ocupar su plaza, sin prioridad reconocida ni al médico, ni a quien va de fiesta, ni al directivo. Un mundo utópico semejante bien pronto se manifestaría como una pesadilla, en la que todos serían igualmente prisioneros del transporte. Cada uno privado del uso de sus pies, incapaz de competir con los vehículos, se convertiría en agente de la proliferación ulterior de la red de transportes. La única alternativa que le quedaría se impone por sí sola: insistir en que la velocidad de los vehículos disponibles se reduzca a un nivel que permita al hombre competir con ella por sus propias fuerzas. + +## El límite inasequible + +Hay que preguntarse por qué la investigación insistentemente continúa orientada hacia el desarrollo de los transportes cada vez más dañinos, en vez de determinar las condiciones óptimas de la circulación. En mi opinión, hay una razón obvia. No se pueden identificar las condiciones para una circulación óptima sin decidir de antemano que la circulación en cuestión debe ser la locomoción de las personas y no de los vehículos. Ahora bien, para poder asentar las metas de un sistema de transportes en tal premisa, hay que tomar en consideración que las personas tienen una capacidad innata de moverse sin que para ello necesiten de la ayuda de políticos e ingenieros. Aunque pueda parecer extraño al hombre común, es precisamente a esta movilidad natural del ser humano a la que no dan significación formal los grandes equipos de profesionales, quienes prepararon la mayoría de los grandes estudios sobre la reorganización de la circulación necesaria durante los próximos 10 años. + +Asentada la premisa de que el hombre nace con alta movilidad, característica de su ser y tradicionalmente satisfactoria, se impone el problema de cómo salvaguardar esta movilidad natural, a pesar de las medidas que se tomen para “mejorarla”. Una de las formas que garanticen el disfrute de la movilidad natural consiste en imponer un límite a la industria del transporte, límite que, a cierto nivel, tome la forma de restricción de la velocidad. El obstáculo mayor para la discusión racional del tema es el orden de magnitud de la velocidad en el que se encuentra este límite. + +El usuario comprende que algunas velocidades deben excluirse, comprende que la generalización del avión supersónico le impediría el descanso y el sueño y, con mucha probabilidad, a sus nietos les quitaría el oxígeno necesario para vivir. Sin dificultad comprende que existen velocidades máximas, pero no ha meditado en la posibilidad de velocidades óptimas. Las discusiones sobre velocidades que lleven a una circulación óptima le parecen arbitrarias o autoritarias. Del otro lado, al ciclista o al mulatero la discusión le parece carente de sentido. Para ambos, lo que podrían llegar a identificar como velocidad óptima en la circulación, es distinto a lo que ellos conocen por experiencia. Una velocidad cuatro o seis veces mayor a la de un peatón representa un margen demasiado bajo para que el usuario del sistema de transportes lo considere y es demasiado elevado para tres cuartas partes de la humanidad que todavía se mueve por sus propias fuerzas. Es aquí donde está el obstáculo para la politización del asunto. + +La gente que planifica el alojamiento, el transporte o la educación de los demás pertenece toda a la clase de los usuarios. La competencia que reivindica se basa en el valor reconocido al producto de sus agencias: los “milagros médicos”, la velocidad o los certificados escolares. Sociólogos o ingenieros pueden dar cuenta del embotellamiento en Calcuta o en Caracas, en términos informativos. Hasta saben trazar planos para la sustitución de coches por autobuses, metros o aerotrén. Pero inevitablemente son gente que cree poder aportar algo que los demás no tienen: un vehículo, un plan o un sistema. Son personajes profesionalmente adictos a la solución industrial de problemas creados por una industria. Su fe en la potencia, en la fuerza de concentración de la energía, les impide tomar conciencia de la potencia, superior en mucho, inherente a la renuncia. El ingeniero es incapaz de concebir la renuncia a la velocidad, el retardo general de la circulación, como medio de abolir el espasmo energético que ahora entorpece los transportes. No quiere elaborar sus programas sobre el postulado de prohibir en la ciudad todo vehículo motorizado que aventaje la marcha de una bicicleta. + +Desde su Land Rover, el consejero para el desarrollo se compadece del peruano que lleva sus marranos al mercado. Se rehúsa a reconocer las ventajas que le da el hecho de ir a pie: se olvida de que si bien este hombre pasará en el camino tres días enteros del mes, la mayoría de sus familiares no tienen que salir del pueblo. En contraste, cada uno de los miembros de la familia del norteamericano, en Saint Louis Missouri, está obligado a pasar cuatro horas diarias en el servicio de los transportes. No sorprende, pues, que como benefactor de la humanidad subdesarrollada ponga empeño en proveer a los indios de la sierra de “privilegio” semejante. Para el ingeniero del desarrollo no existe nada que sea sencillamente _bueno_ , sueña con lo mejor, lo más rápido, lo más costoso y, por tanto, acrecentando el medio aleja el fin. + +La mayoría de los peruanos y mexicanos, para no hablar de los chinos, se encuentran en la actitud opuesta. El límite crítico de la velocidad se coloca para ellos muy por delante de lo que conocen por experiencia propia. Sí, hay unos cuantos que guardan de por vida el recuerdo de alguna escapada motorizada; recuerdan el día en que, en el camión del ejército, los transportaron a una manifestación en el zócalo o en Pekín; recuerdan la visita del cacique en su coche. Pero aun estas raras ocasiones, en las que se movieron sobre la pista a una velocidad de 50 kilómetros, en una hora no recorrieron más de 30 kilómetros. No asimilan la experiencia de haber recorrido tal distancia en tan poco tiempo. En Guerrero y en Chiapas, dos estados mexicanos característicos, en 1970 menos de 1% de la población jamás había recorrido 15 kilómetros en menos de una hora. Los caminos de tercera sin duda hacen más cómodo el desplazamiento, hacen posible los recorridos más largos, pero no los _aceleran_ , pasando el límite. Permiten a todos moverse juntos, llevan al campesino al mercado sin separarlo de su marrano y sin ocasionarle al puerco pérdida de peso, pero no los hacen llegar más que seis veces más pronto que si hubiesen ido a pie. + +El orden de magnitud donde se coloca el punto límite crítico de la velocidad es muy bajo para que el usuario lo tome en serio y muy alto para afectar al campesino. De esta manera se sitúa para ambos en el punto ciego de su campo visual. Al campesino le parecería volar como un pájaro si pudiera trasladarse de su casa a un campo a 25 kilómetros de distancia en una hora o menos, mientras que el usuario olvida que la enorme mayoría de los habitantes de Londres, París, Nueva York y Tokio emplean más de una hora por cada 10 kilómetros que se desplazan. El hecho de que la velocidad crítica para la circulación esté situada en un punto ciego común al campo visual del usuario y del campesino, es lo que hace tan difícil presentar el asunto a la discusión pública. El usuario está intoxicado por el consumo de altas dosis de energía industrial y se le toca un nervio vivo al mencionar el punto, mientras que el campesino no ve la razón de defenderse de algo que no conoce. + +A esta dificultad general para politizar el asunto de las velocidades se añade otro obstáculo aún más palmario. El usuario de transportes no es cliente de las carreteras únicamente. Es casi siempre un hombre moderno, lo que quiere decir que igualmente es cliente encadenado a otros sistemas públicos, tales como la escuela, el hospital y el sindicato. Está condicionado a creer que sólo los especialistas pueden comprender el porqué de las “características técnicas” según las cuales funcionan los sistemas: sólo el médico puede identificar y curar su calentura, y sólo el maestro titulado debe enseñarle a leer a su hijo. Igualmente está acostumbrado a confiar en los expertos, y a que sólo ellos comprendan _por qué_ el tren suburbano parte a las 8:15 y a las 8:41 o por qué los coches se tienen que hacer cada vez más complejos y costosos sin que para él mejore la circulación. La idea de que por un proceso político se podría encontrar una característica técnica tan elemental como la “velocidad crítica”, aquí bajo estudio, le parece fruto de la imaginación ingenua de un abuelo, de un inculto, de un _luddita_[^n01] o de un demagogo irresponsable. Su respeto al especialista, a quien no conoce, se ha transformado en ciega sumisión a las condiciones que éste ha establecido. La mistificación propia y típica del hombre-cliente es el segundo obstáculo para el control popular de la circulación. + +Hay un tercer obstáculo a la construcción de la circulación: tal reconstrucción por iniciativa mayoritaria es potencialmente un explosivo social. Si en un solo campo mayor las masas llegaran a entender hasta qué punto han sido fantoches de una ilusión tecnológica, la misma mutación de conciencia podría fácilmente extenderse a otros campos. Si fuese posible identificar públicamente un valor natural máximo para las velocidades vehiculares, como condición para el tránsito óptimo, análogas intervenciones públicas en la tecnoestructura serían entonces mucho más fáciles. La estructura institucional total está tan integrada, tan tensa y frágil, que desde cualquier punto crítico se puede producir un derrumbe. Si el problema del tránsito se pudiera resolver por la intervención popular, y sin referencia a los expertos en el campo del transporte, entonces se podría aplicar el mismo tratamiento a las cuestiones de la educación, de la salud, del urbanismo y hasta de las Iglesias y de los partidos. Si, para todos los efectos y sin ayuda de expertos, los límites críticos de velocidad los determinaran las asambleas representativas del pueblo, entonces se cuartearían las bases mismas del sistema político. Así, la investigación que propongo es fundamentalmente política y subversiva. + +## Sobre los grados del moverse + +El hombre se mueve con eficacia sin ayuda de ningún implemento. Caminando hace su sendero. La locomoción de cada gramo de su propio cuerpo o de su carga, sobre cada kilómetro recorrido en 10 minutos, le consume 0.75 calorías. Comparándolo con una máquina termodinámica, el hombre es más rentable que cualquier vehículo motorizado, que consume por lo menos cuatro veces más calorías en el mismo trayecto. Además es más eficiente que todos los animales de un peso comparable. El tiburón o el perro le ganan, pero sólo en poco. Con este índice de eficiencia de menos de una caloría por gramo, históricamente organizó su sistema de circulación, prevalentemente basado en el tránsito. Exploró el mundo, creó culturas, sostuvo comercios y, por cuanto podamos saber, no gastó más que 3.5% del tiempo social en moverse fuera de su hogar o de su campamento. Sólo algunos pueblos, en raros momentos de su historia, probablemente consagraron más de este porcentaje del tiempo común en moverse o en ocuparse con sus vehículos y motores animales, por ejemplo, los mongoles en sus guerras. + +Hace un siglo el hombre inventó una máquina que lo dotó de eficiencia aún mayor: la bicicleta. Se trataba de una invención novedosa, a base de materiales nuevos combinados en una tecnología ingeniosa, e impensados en tiempos del joven Marx. + +El uso de la bicicleta hace posible que el movimiento del cuerpo humano franquee una última barrera. Le permite aprovechar la energía metabólica disponible y acelerar la locomoción a su límite teórico. En terreno plano, el ciclista es tres o cuatro veces más veloz que el peatón, gastando en total cinco veces menos calorías por kilómetro que éste. El transporte de un gramo de su cuerpo sobre esta distancia no le consume más que 0.15 calorías. Con la bicicleta, el hombre rebasa el rendimiento posible de cualquier máquina y de cualquier animal evolucionado. + +Además, la bicicleta no ocupa mucho espacio. Para que 40 000 personas puedan cruzar un puente en una hora moviéndose a 25 kilómetros por hora, se necesita que éste tenga 138 metros de anchura si viajan en coche, 38 metros si viajan en autobús y 20 metros si van a pie; en cambio, si van en bicicleta, el puente no necesita más de 10 metros de anchura. Únicamente un sistema hipermoderno de trenes rápidos, a 100 kilómetros por hora y sucediéndose a intervalos de 30 segundos podría pasar esta cantidad de gente por un puente semejante en el mismo tiempo. + +No sólo en movimiento, también estacionado hay una diferencia enorme entre el espacio que ocupa el vehículo potencialmente rápido y la bicicleta. Donde se estaciona un coche caben 18 bicicletas. Para salir del estacionamiento de un estadio, 10 000 personas en bicicleta necesitan una tercera parte del tiempo que necesita el mismo número que abordan autobuses. + +Dotado de bicicleta, el hombre puede cubrir una distancia anual superior, dedicándole en total menos tiempo y exigiendo menos espacio para hacerlo y muy poca inversión de energía física que no es parte de su propio ciclo vital. + +Además, las bicicletas cuestan poco. Con una fracción de las horas de trabajo que exige al norteamericano la compra de su coche, el chino, ganando un salario mucho menor, compra su bicicleta, que le dura toda la vida, mientras que el coche, cuanto más barato, más pronto hay que reponerlo. Eso mismo puede decirse respecto a las carreteras. Para que un mayor número de ciudadanos pueda llegar hasta su casa en coche, se corroe más el territorio nacional. Inevitablemente el coche está ligado a la carretera, no así la bicicleta. Donde no puede ir montado en ella, el ciclista la empuja. El radio diario de trayectos aumenta para todos por igual sin que por esto disminuya para el ciclista la intensidad de acceso. El hombre con bicicleta se convierte en dueño de sus propios movimientos, sin estorbar al vecino. Si hay quien pretenda que en materia de circulación es posible lograr algo mejor, es ahora cuando debe probarlo. + +La bicicleta es invento de la misma generación que creó el vehículo de motor, pero las dos invenciones son símbolos de adelantos hechos en direcciones opuestas por el hombre moderno. La bicicleta permite a cada uno controlar el empleo de su propia energía; el vehículo de motor inevitablemente hace de los usuarios rivales entre sí por la energía, el espacio y el tiempo. En Vietnam, un ejército hiperindustrializado no ha podido derrotar a un pueblo que se desplaza a la velocidad de la bicicleta. Esto debería hacernos meditar: tal vez la segunda forma del empleo de la técnica sea superior a la primera. Naturalmente, queda por ver si los vietnamitas del norte están dispuestos a permanecer dentro de esos límites de velocidad que son los únicos susceptibles de respetar los valores mismos que hicieron posible su victoria. Hasta el momento presente los bombarderos americanos les han privado de gasolina, de motores, de carreteras y los han obligado a emplear una técnica también moderna, mucho más eficaz, equitativa y autónoma que la que Marx hubiese podido imaginar. Queda por ver si ahora, en nombre de Marx, no se lanzan a una industrialización, cuantitativamente tan superior a lo que Marx pudo prever, que sea imposible la aplicación de los ideales que él formuló. + +## Motores dominantes contra motores auxiliares + +Los hombres nacieron dotados de movilidad más o menos igual. Esta capacidad innata de movimiento aboga en favor de una libertad igual en la elección de su destino. La noción de equidad puede servir de base para defender este derecho fundamental contra toda limitación. Dentro de esta perspectiva, poco importa cuál sea la amenaza al libre ejercicio del derecho de moverse y elegir su propio destino: la prisión, la prohibición de cruzar fronteras, la reclusión dentro de un ambiente urbano que impida la movilidad innata de la persona con la sola finalidad de transformarlo en usuario. El hecho de que nuestros contemporáneos, en su mayoría, estén atados a su butaca por su cinturón de seguridad ideológica, no basta para que el derecho fundamental a la libertad de movimientos se vuelva obsoleto. La movilidad humana es el único patrón válido para medir la contribución que cualquier sistema de transporte haga a la circulación. Si por el transporte el tránsito se ve restringido, el transporte hace declinar la circulación. + +Para distinguir el transporte que mutila el derecho del movimiento de aquel que lo ensancha, hay que reconocer que el vehículo puede entorpecer la circulación triplemente: rompiendo su flujo, aislando categorías jerarquizadas de destinación y aumentando la pérdida de tiempo vinculada con la circulación. Se ha visto que la clave de las relaciones entre el transporte y la calidad de la circulación es la velocidad del vehículo. También se ha visto que, pasado cierto límite de velocidad, el transporte afecta la circulación de tres maneras: la entorpece al saturar de vías y coches un ambiente físico; transforma el territorio en una trama de circuitos cerrados y estancos, y sustrae al individuo del tiempo y el espacio de existir, convirtiéndolo en presa de la velocidad. + +Lo contrario es cierto también: bajo determinado nivel de velocidad, los vehículos motorizados pueden complementar o mejorar el tráfico, permitiendo a las personas hacer cosas que no podrían hacer a pie o en bicicleta. Los motores pueden usarse para transportar al enfermo, al lisiado, al viejo o al simplemente perezoso. + +Las motocicletas pueden transportar personas pasando sobre montículos, pero lo pueden hacer en forma sosegada solamente si no aventajan a una mayoría que tiene que subir a pie. Los trenes pueden extender el radio de vivencia para una mayoría, pero pueden hacerlo sólo si con ello ofrecen igual oportunidad a todas las personas de estar más cercanas entre sí. Un sistema de transporte bien desarrollado, a velocidades tope de 25 kilómetros por hora, hubiera permitido al policía Fix perseguir a Phileas Fogg alrededor del mundo no en 80 días, sino en 40. Pero en un sistema así, el tiempo empleado para viajar pertenece en forma dominante al viajero: más baja la velocidad, menor es la expropiación del tiempo ajeno que practica el viajero. + +La coexistencia de vehículos movidos sólo a fuerza de energía metabólica humana y de otros auxiliados por motores, será ponderada únicamente si se concede preferencia absoluta a la autonomía de movimiento del hombre y si se protege la geografía humana contra aquellas velocidades que la distorsionan en geografía vehicular. + +Se puede desarrollar un sistema de transportes con características óptimas para el tráfico siempre que el transporte motorizado se mantenga limitado a velocidades subsidiarias del tránsito autónomo. El límite a la potencia, y por tanto a la velocidad de los motores, en sí mismo no protege a los más débiles contra la explotación de los ricos y poderosos. Éstos siempre podrán idear medios para vivir y trabajar en mejores localidades, viajar en gran lujo y hacerse transportar sobre los hombros de sus esclavos. Pero al fijar velocidades máximas dentro de ciertos límites es posible reducir, y hasta corregir disparidades, combinando medios políticos con recursos tecnológicos. Una revolución política puede eliminar la institución de la esclavitud; sin limitar la velocidad no puede eliminar la nueva explotación que el sistema de transporte impone. Si no hay velocidades máximas determinadas, no pueden superarse las disparidades, ni siendo propiedad del Estado los medios de transporte, ni aplicando mejores técnicas para su control. Una industria del transporte sirve para la producción del tráfico total únicamente si no ejerce un monopolio radical sobre la productividad personal que la tecnología moderna ha elevado a un nuevo orden. + +## Equipo insuficiente superdesarrollo y tecnología madura + +La combinación de transportes y tránsito que constituye la circulación nos indica cuál es la potencia en vatios per cápita socialmente óptima y señala la necesidad de someterla a límites elegidos políticamente. Asimismo nos ofrece un ejemplo de la convergencia de metas en el desarrollo socioeconómico y un criterio para distinguir a los países que están insuficientemente equipados de los que están destructivamente superindustrializados. + +Un país se puede clasificar de _subequipado_ cuando no puede dotar a cada ciudadano de una bicicleta o proveer una transmisión de cinco velocidades a cualquiera que desee pedalear llevando a otros. Está subequipado si no puede proveer buenos caminos para la bicicleta o transportes públicos gratuitos para aquellos que quieren viajar horas seguidas. No existe una razón técnica, económica o ecológica para que por el año de 1975 se tolere semejante retraso, consecuencia de un equipo insuficiente. Sería un escándalo si la movilidad natural de los hombres se viera, contra su voluntad, forzada al estancamiento a un nivel prebicicleta. + +Un país puede clasificarse como _superindustrializado_ cuando su vida social está dominada por la industria del transporte que ha llegado a determinar sus privilegios de clase, a acentuar la escasez de tiempo y a mantener a los hombres más firmemente en los carriles trazados para ellos. + +Más allá del subequipado y del superindustrializado está el sitio del mundo de la _eficacia posindustrial_ , en donde la modalidad industrial de producción complementa la producción social sin monopolizarla. En otras palabras, hay un sitio para un mundo de madurez tecnológica. En términos de circulación, éste es el mundo de aquellos que han ensanchado su horizonte cotidiano a 13 kilómetros, montados en su bicicleta. Al mismo tiempo es el mundo marcado por una variedad de motores subsidiarios disponibles para cuando la bicicleta no basta y cuando un aumento en el empuje no obstaculice ni la equidad ni la libertad. También es el mundo del viaje largo, un mundo donde cualquier lugar está abierto a cualquier persona, a su albedrío y a su velocidad, sin prisa o temor, por medio de vehículos que cruzan las distancias sin roturar la tierra sobre la que el hombre ha caminado con sus pies por cientos de miles de años. + +El mundo superindustrializado no admite diferencias en el estilo de la producción y de la política. Impone sus características técnicas a las relaciones sociales. El mundo de la madurez industrial permite una variedad de elecciones políticas y culturales. Esta variedad, por supuesto, disminuye en la medida en que una comunidad permite a la industria crecer a costa de la producción autónoma. El razonamiento solo no puede ofrecer la medida para fijar el nivel de eficacia posindustrial y la madurez tecnológica que se ajuste a una sociedad concreta. Únicamente puede indicar, en término dimensional, el radio dentro del cual deben ajustarse estas características tecnológicas. Solamente un proceso político, dentro de una comunidad histórica, puede decidir cuándo dejan de valer la pena la programación, la distorsión del espacio, la escasez del tiempo y la desigualdad. El razonamiento puede _identificar_ la velocidad como un factor crítico en el transporte, pero no puede _fijar_ límites políticos factibles. + +Las velocidades tope en el transporte de personas se hacen operantes sólo si reflejan con claridad el interés propio de una comunidad política. La expresión común de este interés no es posible en una sociedad en la que una clase monopoliza no sólo los transportes, sino igualmente las comunicaciones, la medicina, la educación o el armamento. No tiene importancia que este poder lo ejerzan los propietarios legales o los gerentes atrincherados en la industria o si ésta es legalmente propiedad de los trabajadores. Este poder debe incautarse y someterse al sano juicio del hombre común. Su reconquista comienza al reconocer que el conocimiento experto ciega a los burócratas reservados frente a la forma evidente de disolver la crisis de la energía, así como los cegó para reconocer la solución evidente para resolver la guerra en Vietnam. + +De donde nos encontramos ahora parten dos caminos hacia la madurez tecnológica. Uno es el camino de la liberación de la abundancia, el otro el de la liberación de la dependencia. Ambos tienen el mismo destino: la reestructuración del espacio que ofrece a cada persona la experiencia, constantemente renovada, de saber que el centro del mundo es donde ella vive. + +Los hombres que tienen los pies en la tierra, que dominan su morada, que ejercen su poder innato de moverse, saben dónde está el centro de la Tierra. Saben vivir en una vecindad, conocer a sus vecinos, detenerse a hablar con el hombre que encuentran en la esquina, pasear y sentarse en una banca de la acera. + +El tráfico de la abundancia atropella y zarandea a los ricos. La _liberación_ de esta _abundancia_ empieza con el dominio sobre la aceleración destructora del tiempo ajeno. Los veloces son empujados de un lado a otro, son lanzados de una vía rápida a otra y sólo tropiezan con otros usuarios propulsados hacia rumbos diferentes. Ven las caras anónimas de los demás en el cruce de dos circuitos. Es éste un mundo de órbitas sin centro. + +La soledad de la abundancia se quebrantará cuando los usuarios rompan la servidumbre al transporte supereficiente. La liberación de la abundancia se hará cuando rompan los circuitos veloces que extienden el territorio y tomen de nuevo posesión de la tierra con sus pies. + +_La liberación de la dependencia_ comienza en el otro extremo. Rompe con la opresión de la población y del valle, deja detrás el tedio de los horizontes estrechos y sofocantes y el agobio de un mundo encerrado en sí. Expander la vida más allá del radio de la tradición, sin inseminarla por los vientos de la aceleración, es una meta que cualquier país pobre podría alcanzar en pocos años. Sin embargo, es una meta que podrán alcanzar sólo aquellos que rechazan la oferta del desarrollo de un monopolio industrial, sobre la producción hecha en nombre de una ideología de consumo indefinido de energía. + +Lo que ahora amenaza tanto a los países ricos como a los países pobres es precisamente lo contrario. Más que los jeques árabes y más que las compañías petroleras internacionales, la crisis energética recientemente “descubierta” aventaja a las clases gobernantes y a sus lacayos profesionales. En lugar de identificar el mínimo de carburante necesario para la mayor movilidad personal, ellos tratan de obligarnos a consumir el máximo de medios de transporte que puede hacerse funcionar con el carburante disponible. Los ingenieros de tráfico imponen límites de 80 kilómetros por hora en la ruta, porque a tal velocidad la eficiencia de los motores es máxima, y límites de 40 en los puntos congestionados, porque así el número máximo de vehículos cabe en cada kilómetro de asfalto. Aumentan los reglamentos y los horarios, y los privilegios para doctores, policías y potentados. El límite tecnocrático en favor del transporte está así en oposición diametral al límite político que se debería escoger en protección del tránsito humano. Así, empero, también se hace más evidente la contradicción entre la racionalización del transporte veloz y la calidad de la circulación. Entre más duros, vejatorios y evidentes se hacen los sacrificios impuestos a la mayoría por los veladores del modo de producción industrial, más probable se hace la emergencia de una conciencia mayoritaria en favor de la limitación de toda circulación a una velocidad del orden de 25 kilómetros por hora, lo que para la gran mayoría implicaría más equidad, libertad y acceso mutuo. + +La protección de la movilidad personal autónoma y sin clases contra el monopolio radical de la industria es posible únicamente donde la gente se empeñe en un proceso político, basado en la protección del tráfico óptimo. Esta protección, a su vez, exige reconocer aquellos quanta de energía que la sociedad industrial ha desatendido y sobre los cuales basa su propio desarrollo. El consumo estricto de estos quanta puede conducir a quienes lo respeten a una era posindustrial tecnológicamente madura. + +La liberación que para los países pobres será barata, costará a los ricos, y éstos no pagarán el precio sino hasta que la aceleración de su sistema de transporte triture el tráfico hasta paralizarlo. Un análisis concreto del tráfico traiciona la verdad que subyace en _la crisis de la energía_ : el impacto sobre el ambiente social de quanta de energía industrialmente empaquetado es degradante, agotador y esclavizante. Estos efectos se hacen sentir antes que la amenaza de la contaminación del ambiente físico y de la extinción de la raza humana. El punto crucial en el que estos efectos son reversibles no es, sin embargo, cuestión de deducción sino de decisión política, posiblemente sólo donde la voz de la mayoría puede limitar el poder y la velocidad de sus gobernantes. + +## Bibliografía + +Durante 1974 y 1975 se llevaron a cabo seminarios sobre “Las alternativas a la aceleración y la mejora del tráfico” en el Cidoc, en Cuernavaca. La lista que sigue es el resultado de los trabajos previos de este seminario. Sólo se reseñan aquellos títulos que, además de haberse mostrado útiles en pasadas sesiones de estudio, pueden ser más fácilmente localizados por aquellos que deseen proseguir la línea de investigación presentada en este ensayo. + +Albion, R. G., _Naval and Maritime History, Annotated Bibliography,_ Mystic, Conn., 1972. + +Anderson, Romola, y Roger Anderson, _The Sailing Ship: Six Thousand Years of History_ , Harrap, Londres, 1926. + +Banks, A., _Cross-Polity Time Series Data_ , MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1971. + +Barkin, David, “El consumo y la vía chilena al socialismo; reflexiones en torno a la decisión automotriz”, versión preliminar, _Centro de Estudios Socio-Económicos,_ Santiago de Chile, 1972. + +Bernstein, M. T., _Steamboats on the Ganges,_ Orient Longmans, Bombay, 1960. + +Bivar, A. D. H., “The Stirrup and Its Origins”, _Oriental Art_ , vol. I, 1955, pp. 62-65. + +Blaisdel, R., y cols., _Sources of Information in Transportation_ , Northwestern University Press (The Transportation Center), Evanston, Ill., 1964. + +Bowden, Frank Philip, “Friction”, en _Encyclopedia Britannica_ , vol. 9, pp. 840A-841. + +Branch, Melville C., _Comprehensive Urban Planning: A Selected Annotated Bibliography with Related Materials_ , Sage Publication, 1973. Para material de transporte, _cf_. pp. 251-272. + +Braudel, Fernand, “La Lenteur des Transports”, en _Civilisation Materielle et Capitalisme_ , XV-XVIII Siècle, Armand Colin, París, 1967, pp. 314-329. + +------, “Vicissitudes des Routes”, en _La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen_ , Armand Colin, París, 1949, pp. 242-259. + +Brunot, Ferdinand, _Histoire de la Langue Française des Origines à nos Jours_. Para referencias al transporte, _cf_. esp. tomo VI, pp. 357-360, y tomo VII, pp. 201-231. + +Buchanan, C. 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B. S., “On Being the Right Size”, en James R. Newman (ed.), _The World of Mathematics,_ vol. II, Simon and Schuster, Nueva York, 1956. + +Hall, Edward T., _The Hidden Dimension,_ Doubleday, Nueva York, 1969. + +Hannen, Bruce, “Options for Energy Conservation”, inédito, febrero de 1973, Biblioteca Cidoc. + +Hasebrok, Johannes, _Griechische Wirtschaftgeschichte und Gesellschaftgeschichte bis zur Perserzeit,_ Tubinga, 1931. + +Haudricourt, André G., “Contribution à la Géographie et à l’Èthnologie de la Voiture”, _Revue de Géographie Humaine et Ethnologie,_ 1948, pp. 54-64. + +Heichelheim, Fritz M., _An Ancient Economic History, from the Paleolithic Age to the Migration of the Germanic, Slavic and Arabic Nations,_ tres volúmenes, Leiden, 1938. + +Herendeen, R., _Use of Input/Output. Analysis to Determine the Energy Cost of Goods and Services,_ mimeografiado, 22 pp., University of Illinois (Center for Advanced Computer Studies), Urbana, 20 de febrero de 1973. + +Hirst, E., _Energy Efficiency for Passenger Transportation and for Freight Transportation,_ Oak Ridge National Laboratories, 1971. + +Hornell, J., _Water Transport: Origins and Early Evolution_ , Cambridge University Press, 1946. + +Hoskins, Halford, _British Routes to India,_ Nueva York, 1928. + +Hunter, Holland, _Soviet Transport Experience, Its Lessons for Other Countries,_ The Brookings Institution Transports Research Program, Washington, 1968. + +Jope, E. M., “Vehicles and Harness”, en Singer, _A History of Technology,_ vol. 2, Oxford University Press, 1956, p. 537. + +Kalmus, Ludwig, _Weltgeschichte des Post mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des deutschen Sprachgebietes,_ Viena, 1937. + +Kirkland, Edward, “Men, cities and Transportation”, en _A Study of New England History 1820-1900,_ dos volúmenes, Cambridge, Mass., 1948. + +Kohl, Johann Georg, _Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der Menschen in Ihrer Abhaengigkeit von der Gestaltung der Erdoberflaeche,_ Leipzig, 1841. + +Lansing, John B., Robert Marans, y cols., _Car Ownership, Annual Mileage, and the Journey to Work,_ Ann Arbor, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, 1970. _Cf_. esp. pp. 137-151. + +Lapin, Howard, _Structuring the Journey to Work,_ Philadelphia University Press, 1964. + +Lefebvre des Noettes, R., _L’Attelage et le Cheval de Selle à travers les Âges; Contribution l’Histoire de l’Esclavage,_ Picard, París, 1931. + +--------, _De la Marine Antique a la Marine Moderne: La Revolution du Governail,_ París, 1935. + +Lewis, Richard S., y Bernard I. Spinrad, _The Energy Crisis,_ Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Chicago, 1972. + +Liepmann, Kate K., _The Journey to Work, Its Significance for Industrial and Community Life,_ Londres, 1944. + +Linder, Staffan Burestam, _The Harried Leisure Class,_ Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1971. + +Lisco, Thomas E., “The Future of Urban Transportation; Mass Transportation, Cinderella in Our Cities”, _The Public Interest,_ 1970. + +López, R. S., y J. W. Raymond, _Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents,_ Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1955. + +Mackaye, Benton, “Townless Highways for the Motorist”, _Harper’s Magazine,_ agosto de 1931. + +Macmurray, David F. E., _Aspects of Time and the Study of Activity Routines,_ Thesis for the M.S. in city planning, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1968. + +Manheim, Marvin L., “Principles of Transport System Analysis”, _Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Forum,_ 1966, pp. 9-21. + +Marsh, George Perkins, _The Earth As Modified by Human Action,_ 3a. ed., Nueva York, 1888. + +Meyer, Balthasar H. (ed.), _History of Transportation in the United States before 1860,_ Washington, 1917. + +Meyer, John R., “Transportation, Economic Aspects”, en _Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,_ vol. 16, pp. 134-140. + +Mott, George Fox, “Transportation in Contemporary Civilization”, en _Transportation Renaissance, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science_ , vol. 345, Filadelfia, 1963, pp. 1-5. + +Mott, G. F., “Vehicles for Land Transport”, en _Science and Civilization in China,_ vol. 4 (Physics and Physical Technology), parte II (Mechanical Engineering), Cambridge University Press, 1965, pp. 243-281. + +Needham, Joseph, “Power Sources and Their Employment, (1) Animal Traction”, en _ibid_., pp. 303-328. + +Olsson, Gunnar, “Distance and Human Interaction”, _A review Bibliography,_ Science Research Institute, Filadelfia, 1965. + +Ostwald, W., _Energetische Grundlagen der Kulturwissenschaft,_ Leipzig, 1960. + +Ottley, George, _A bibliography of British Railway History_ , Allen and Unwin, Londres, 1965. + +Owen, Wilfred, _Strategy for Mobility,_ Brookings Institution, Washington, 1964. + +Perraton, Jean, “Planning for the Cyclist in Urban Areas”, _The Town Planning Review,_ vol. 39, núm. 2, julio de 1968, pp. 149-162. + +Platt, John, “Hierarchical Restructuring”, _Bulletin of Anatomic Scientists,_ noviembre de 1970. + +Polanyi, Karl (ed.), _Trade and Market in Early Empires,_ The Free Press, Glencoe, Ill., 1957. + +Robbins, Michael, _The Railway Age,_ Routledge and Kegan Paul, Penguin, Londres, 1964. + +Russeau, Pierre, _Histoire des Transports, Arthème Fayard,_ París, 1961. + +Sauer, Carl O., _Agricultural Origins and Dispersal,_ Bowman Memorial Lectures, Series Two, Nueva York, 1952. + +Sauvy, Alfred, _Les Quatre Roues de la Fortune; Essai sur L’Automobile,_ París, 1968. + +Schnore, Leo F., “Transportation, Comutation”, en _Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,_ vol. 16, pp. 140-144. + +Sherrington, Charles E. R., _A Hundred Years of Inland Transportation, 1830-1933_ , Londres, 1934; reimpresión Kelly, 1969. + +Smerk, George M., _Readings in Urban Transportation,_ Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1968. + +Smith, William, _The History of the Post Office in British North America, 1639-1870_ , Cambridge University Press, 1920. + +Spengler, Joseph, “On the Progress of Quantification in Economics”, en Harry Woolf (ed.), _A History of the Meaning of Measurement in the Natural and Social Sciences,_ Bobbs Merrill, Nueva York, 1961, pp. 128-146. + +Stone, Tabor R., _Beyond the Automobile; Reshaping the Transportation Environment,_ Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1971. + +Strube Erdmann, Leon, _Vialidad imperial de los incas,_ Universidad de Córdoba, Argentina, 1963. + +Stutz, Frederick P., _Research on Intra-Urban Social Travel: Introduction and Bibliography, Exchange Bibliography,_ núm. 173, Council of Planning Librarians, Monticello, Mich., febrero de 1971. + +Sundquist, James L., “A Policy for Urban Growth: Where Sall They Live?”, _The Public Interest,_ 1970. + +Taylor, George, _The Transportation Revolution,_ Nueva York, 1951. + +Terrazas de la Peña, Eduardo, “Necesidad de un incremento en la intensidad del uso del espacio”, texto presentado en el Congreso regional sobre política de desarrollo urbano, México, julio de 1972, Cidoc. + +“Transportation Renaissance”, _The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science_ , vol. 345, Filadelfia, 1963. + +Turner, John F. C., “Housing for People or Housing by People”, mimeografiado, 10 pp., MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1970. + +Westergaard, John, “Journey to work in London Region”, TPR, abril de 1957. + +Wheeler, James O., _Research on the Journey to Work: Introduction and Bibliography, Exchange Bibliography,_ núm. 65, Council of Planning Librarians, Monticello, Mich., enero de 1969. + +White, Leslie, _The Science of Culture; Energy and the Evolution of Culture,_ Grove Press, Nueva York, 1949. _Cf_. esp. pp. 363-393. + +White, Lynn, “The Agricultural Revolution of the Early Middle Age’s”, en _Medieval Technology and social Change,_ Oxford University Press, 1969, pp. 39-78. + +Wilson, George W., y cols., _The Impact of Highway Investment of Development,_ The Brookings Institution Transport Research Program, Washington, 1966. + +Wilson, S. S., “Bicycle Technology”, _Scientific American,_ marzo de 1973, pp. 81-91. + +Yurick, Sol, “The Political Economy of Junk”, _Monthly Review,_ vol. 22, núm. 7, diciembre de 1970, pp. 22-37. + + +[^n01:] En 1811, en el Condado de Nottingham, en Inglaterra, bandas de artesanos que habían sido desplazados por las máquinas empezaron a irrumpir en las fábricas de telas y a destruir los telares mecánicos. Se llamaban a sí mismos _Ludds_ o “ludditas”, según el nombre de un personaje legendario, John Ludd, supuestamente oriundo de Leicester y que, alrededor de 1780, en un acto de coraje, destruyó uno de los primeros telares mecánicos.] diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/energy/index.txt b/data/pages/en/book/energy/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f7a7c81 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/energy/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# Energy and equity + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:en|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Énergie et équité_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1974 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** was first written in French and published in Le Monde in May 1973 in three instalments. Developed and rewritten, with the help of Luce Giard and Vincent Bardet, it was the subject of a first edition in French in 1975, under the Éditions du Seuil. A longer and more detailed English version was established on this complete and enriched plot of works conducted at the CIDOC of Cuernavaca. + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/gender/index.md b/data/pages/en/book/gender/index.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d41e4a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/gender/index.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ + +--- +title: "Gender" +author: "Ivan Illich" +abstract: "https://illich.test/en:book:gender:index?rev=1621567599" +date: "**1982" +lang: "ex" +titlepage: true +titlepage-color: "FFFFFF" +titlepage-text-color: "000000" +titlepage-rule-color: "CCCCCC" +titlepage-rule-height: 4 +--- + diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/gender/index.txt b/data/pages/en/book/gender/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..55c3e09 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/gender/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +# Gender + +* ** #@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:en|Online]] +* ** #@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1982 +* ** #@LANG_comments@#:** ... +* ** #@LANG_authors@#**: Ivan Illich + + + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.epub b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.epub Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..481befb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.epub diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.pdf b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.pdf Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bdce430 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.pdf diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.txt b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..41ba134 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1,274 @@ +# The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies + +## Foreword + +In the last decade or so I have prepared and published a number of essays[^n01] on the industrial mode of production. During this period, I have focused on the processes through which growing dependence on mass-produced goods and services gradually erodes the conditions necessary for a convivial life. Examining distinct areas of economic growth, each essay demonstrates a general rule: use-values are inevitably destroyed when the industrial mode of production achieves the predominance that I have termed "radical monopoly". This and my previous essays describe how industrial growth produces the modernization of poverty. + +Modernized poverty appears when the intensity of market dependence reaches a certain threshold. Subjectively, it is the experience of frustrating affluence that occurs in persons mutilated by their reliance on the riches of industrial productivity. It deprives those affected by it of their freedom and power to act autonomously, to live creatively; it confines them to survival through being plugged into market relations. And precisely because this new impotence is so deeply experienced, it is with difficulty expressed. For example, we are the witnesses of a barely perceptible transformation in ordinary language: verbs which formerly expressed satisfying actions have been replaced by nouns which name packages designed for passive consumption only – "to learn" becomes "to accumulate credits". A profound change in individual and social self-images is here reflected. And the layman is not the only one who has difficulty in accurately expressing what he experiences. The professional economist is unable to recognize the poverty that his conventional instruments fail to uncover. Nevertheless, the new mutant of impoverishment continues to spread. The peculiarly modern inability to use personal endowments, community wealth, and environmental resources in an autonomous way infects every aspect of life where a professionally engineered commodity has succeeded in replacing a culturally shaped use-value. The opportunity to experience personal and social satisfaction outside the market is thus destroyed. I am poor, for example, when the use-value of my feet is lost because I live in Los Angeles or work on the thirty-fifth floor of a sky-scraper. + +This new impotence-producing poverty must not be confused with the widening gap between the consumption of rich and poor in a world where basic needs are increasingly shaped by industrial commodities. This gap is the form traditional poverty assumes in an industrial society, and the conventional terms of class struggle appropriately reveal and reduce it. I further distinguish modernized poverty from the burdensome price exacted by the externalities which increased levels of production spew into the environment. It is clear that these kinds of pollution, stress, and taxation are unequally imposed. Correspondingly, defences against such depredations are unequally distributed. But like the new gaps in access, such inequities in social costs are aspects of industrialized poverty for which economic indicators and objective verification can be found. Such is not true for the industrialized impotence that affects both rich and poor. Where this kind of poverty reigns, life without addictive access to commodities is rendered impossible or criminal – or both. Making do without consumption becomes impossible, not just for the average consumer, but even for the poor. All forms of welfare, from affirmitive action to job training, are of no help. The liberty to design and craft one’s own distinctive dwelling is abolished in favour of the bureaucratic provision of standardized housing in the United States, Cuba or Sweden. The organization of employment, skills, building resources, of rules and credit favour shelter as a commodity rather than as an activity. Whether the product is provided by an entrepreneur or an apparatchik, the effective result is the same: citizen impotence, our specifically modern experience of poverty. + +Wherever the shadow of economic growth touches us, we are left useless unless employed on a job or engaged in consumption: the attempt to build a house or set a bone outside the control of certified specialists appears as anarchic conceit. We lose sight of our resources, lose control over the environmental conditions which make these resources applicable, lose taste for self-reliant coping with challenges from without and anxiety from within. Take childbirth in Mexico today. Delivery without professional care has become unthinkable for those women whose husbands hold regular employment and, therefore, access to social services, no matter how marginal or tenuous, is denied. They move in circles where the production of babies faithfully reflects the patterns of industrial outputs. Yet their sisters who live in the slums of the poor or the villages of the isolated still feel quite competent to give birth on their own mats; they are still unaware that they face a modern indictment of criminal neglect toward their child. But as professionally engineered delivery models reach these independent women, the desire, competence, and conditions for autononmous behaviour are being destroyed. + +For advanced industrial society, the modernization of poverty means that people are helpless to recognize evidence unless it has been certified by a professional – be he a television weather commentator or an educator; organic discomfort becomes intolerably threatening unless it has been medicalized into dependence on a therapist; neighbours and friends are lost unless vehicles bridge the separating distance (created by the vehicles in the first place). In short, most of the time we find ourselves out of touch with our world, out of sight of those for whom we work, out of tune with what we feel. + +This essay is a postscript to my book, Tools for Conviviality, published in 1973. It reflects the changes which have occurred during the past decade, both in economic reality and in my own perceptions of it. It assumes a rather large increase in the non-technical, ritual, and symbolic powers of our major technological and bureaucratic systems, and a corresponding decrease in their scientific, technical, and instrumental credibility. In 1968, for example, it was still quite easy to dismiss organized lay resistance to professional dominance as nothing more than a throwback to romantic, obscurantist or élitist fantasies. The grass roots, common sense assessment of technological systems which I then outlined, seemed childish or retrograde to the political leaders of citizen activism, and to the "radical" professionals who laid claim to the tutorship of the poor by means of their special knowledge. The reorganization of late industrial society around professionally defined needs, problems, and solutions was still the commonly accepted value implicit in ideological, political, and juridical systems otherwise clearly and sometimes violently opposed to one another. + +Now the picture has changed. A hallmark of advanced and enlightened technical competence is a self-confident community, neighbourhood or group of citizens engaged in the systematic analysis and consequent ridicule of the "needs", "problems", and " solutions " defined for them by the agents of professional establishments. In the sixties, lay opposition to legislation based on expert opinion still sounded like anti-scientific bigotry. Today, lay confidence in public policies based upon the expert’s opinion is tenuous indeed. Now thousands reach their own judgments and, at great cost, engage in citzien action without any professional tutorship; through personal, independent effort, they gain the scientific information they need. Sometimes risking limb, freedom, and respectability, they bear witness to a newly mature scientific attitude. They know, for example, that the quality and amount of technical evidence sufficiently conclusive to oppose atomic power plants, the multiplication of intensive care units, compulsory education, foetal monitoring, psycho-surgery, electro-shock treatment, or genetic engineering is also simple and clear enough for the layman to grasp and utilize. + +Ten years ago, compulsory schooling was still protected by powerful taboos. Today, its defenders are almost exclusively either teachers whose jobs depend upon it or Marxist ideologues who defend professional knowledge-holders in a shadow battle against the hip-bourgeoisie. Ten years ago, the myths about the effectiveness of modern medical institutions were still unquestioned. For example, most textbooks accepted the beliefs that adult life expectancy was increasing, that treatment for cancer postponed death, that the availability of doctors produced greater infant survival rates. Since then people have "discovered" what vital statistics have always shown – adult life expectancy has not changed in any socially significant way over the last few generations, is lower in most rich countries today than in our grandparents" time, and lower than in many poor nations. Ten years ago, universal access to post-secondary schooling, to adult education, to preventative medicine, to highways, to a wired global village were still prestigious goals. Today, the great myth-making rituals organized around education, transportation, health care, urbanization have indeed been partly demystified; they have however not yet been disestablished. + +Shadow prices and increased consumption gaps are important aspects of the new poverty. But my principal interest is directed towards a different concomitant of modernization – the process through which autonomy is undermined, satisfaction is dulled, experience is flattened out, needs are frustrated for nearly everyone. For example, I have examined the society-wide obstacles to mutual presence which are necessary side effects of energy-intensive transportation. I have wanted to define the power limits of motors equitably used to increase access to one another. I recognize, of course, that high speeds inevitably impose a skewed distribution of harriedness, noise, pollution, and enjoyment of privilege. But my emphasis is other. My arguments are focused on the negative internalities of modernity – such as time-consuming acceleration, sick-making health care, stupefying education. The unequal distribution of these ersatz benefits, or the unequal imposition of their negative externalities, are corollaries to my basic argument. I am interested in the direct and specific effects of modernized poverty, in human tolerance for such effects and in the possibility of escaping the new misery. I share with others a deep desire to see greater justice. I am absolutely opposed to the unjust distribution of what can be genuinely shared with pleasure. But I have found it necessary, these last few years, to examine carefully the objects of any and every redistribution proposal. Today I see my task even more clearly than when I first started talking and writing about the counterproductive mythmaking that is latent in all late industrial enterprises. My aim has been to detect and denounce the false affluence which is always unjust because it can only frustrate. Through this kind of analysis one can begin to develop the theory which would inspire the social regeneration possible for twentieth-century man. + +During these last years I have found it necessary to examine, again and again, the correlation between the nature of tools and the meaning of justice that prevails in the society that uses them. I could not help but observe the decline of freedom in societies in which rights are shaped by expertise. I had to weigh the trade-offs between new tools that enhance the production of commodities and those equally modern ones that permit the generation of values in use; between rights to mass-produced commodities and the level of liberties that permit satisfying and creative personal expression; between paid employment and useful unemployment. And in each dimension of the trade-off between heteronomous management and autonomous action I found that the language that would permit us to insist on the latter has to be recovered with pains. I am, of course, like those whom I seek as my readers, so clearly committed to a radically equitable distribution of goods, rights and jobs that I find it almost unnecessary to insist on our struggle for this side of justice. I find it much more important and difficult to deal with its complement: the Politics of Conviviality. I use this term in the technical sense that I have given to it in Tools for Conviviality. There the term designates the struggle for an equitable distribution of the liberty to generate use-values and for the instrumentation of this liberty by the assignment of an absolute priority to the production of those industrial and professional commodities that confer on the least advantaged the greatest power to generate values in use. + +Convivial Politics are based on the insight that in a modern society both wealth and jobs can be equitably shared and enjoyed in liberty only when both are limited by a political process. Excessive forms of wealth and prolonged formal employment, no matter how well distributed, destroy the social, cultural, and environmental conditions for equal productive freedom. Bits and watts (which stand for units of information and of energy respectively) when packaged into any mass-produced commodity in amounts that pass a threshold, inevitably constitute impoverishing wealth. Such impoverishing wealth is either too rare to be shared, or it is destructive of the freedom and liberty of the weakest. With each of my essays I have attempted to make a contribution to the political process by which the socially critical thresholds of enrichment are recognized by citizens and translated into society-wide ceilings or limits. + + +### Introduction + +Fifty years ago, most of the words heard by an American were personally spoken to him as an individual, or to somebody standing nearby. Only occasionally did words reach him as the undifferentiated member of a crowd – in the classroom or church, at a rally or a circus. Words were mostly like handwritten, sealed letters, and not like the junk that now pollutes our mail. Today, words that are directed to one person’s attention have become rare. Engineered staples of images, ideas, feelings and opinions, packaged and delivered through the media, assault our sensibilities with round-the-clock regularity. Two points now become evident: 1) what is occurring with language fits the pattern of an increasingly wide range of need-satisfaction relationships; 2) this replacement of convivial means by manipulative industrial ware is truly universal, and is relentlessly making the New York teacher, the Chinese commune member, the Bantu schoolboy, and the Brazilian sergeant alike. In this postscript to my essay Tools for Conviviality I shall do three things: 1) describe the character of a commodity/market-intensive society in which the very abundance of commodities paralyzes the autonomous creation of use-values; 2) insist on the hidden role that professions play in such a society by shaping its needs; 3) expose some illusions and propose some strategies to break the professional power that perpetuates market dependence. + +### Disabling Market Intensity + +Crisis has come to mean that moment when doctors, diplomats, bankers and assorted social engineers take over and liberties are suspended. Like patients, nations go on the critical list. Crisis, the Greek term that has designated "choice" or "turning point" in all modern languages now means "driver, step on the gas". Crisis now evokes an ominous but tractable threat against which money, manpower and management can be rallied. Intensive care for the dying, bureaucratic tutelage for the victim of discrimination, fission for the energy glutton, are typical responses. Crisis, understood in this way, is always good for executives and commissars, especially those scavengers who live on the side effects of yesterday’s growth: educators who live on society’s alienation, doctors who prosper on the work and leisure that have destroyed health, politicians who thrive on the distribution of welfare which, in the first instance, was financed by those assisted. Crisis understood as a call for acceleration not only puts more power under the control of the driver, while squeezing the passengers more tightly into their safety belts; it also justifies the depredation of space, time and resources for the sake of motorized wheels and it does so to the detriment of people who want to use their feet. + +But crisis need not have this meaning. It need not imply a headlong rush for the escalation of management. Instead, it can mean the instant of choice, that marvellous moment when people suddenly become aware of their self-imposed cages, and of the possibility of a different life. And this is the crisis, that, as a choice, confronts both the United States and the world today. + +#### A world-wide choice + +In only a few decades, the world has become an amalgam. Human responses to everyday occurrences have been standardized. Though languages and gods still appear to be different, people daily join the stupendous majority who march to the beat of the very same mega-machine. The light switch by the door has replaced the dozens of ways in which fires, candles and lanterns were formerly kindled. In ten years, the number of switch-users in the world has tripled: flush and paper have become essential conditions for the relief of the bowels. Light that does not flow from high-voltage networks and hygiene without tissue paper spell poverty for ever more people. Expectations grow, while hopeful trust in one’s own competence and the concern for others rapidly decline. + +The now soporific, now raucous intrusion of the media reaches deeply into the commune, the village, the corporation, the school. The sounds made by the editors and announcers of programmed texts daily pervert the words of a spoken language into the building blocks for packaged messages. Today, one must either be isolated and cut off, or a carefully guarded, affluent drop-out, to allow one’s children to play in an environment where they listen to people rather than to stars, speakers, or instructors. All over the world, one can see the rapid encroachment of the disciplined acquiescence that characterizes the audience, the client, the customer. The standardization of human action grows apace. + +It now becomes clear that most of the world’s communities are facing exactly the same critical issue: people must either remain ciphers in the conditioned crowd that surges towards greater dependence (thus necessitating savage battles for a share of the drugs to feed their habit), or they must find the courage that alone saves in a panic: to stand still and look around for another way out than the obvious marked exit. But many, when told that Bolivians, Canadians and Hungarians all face the same fundamental choice, are not simply annoyed, but deeply offended. The idea appears not only foolish but shocking. They fail to detect the sameness in the new bitter degradation that underlies the hunger of the Indian in the Altiplano, the neurosis of the worker in Amsterdam, and the cynical corruption of the bureaucrat in Warsaw. + +#### Towards a culture for staples + +Development has had the same effect in all societies: everyone has been enmeshed in a new web of dependence on commodities that flow out of the same kind of machines, factories, clinics, television studios, think tanks. To satisfy this dependence, more of the same must be produced: standardized, engineered goods, designed for the future consumers who will be trained by the engineer’s agent to need what he or she is offered. These products – be they tangible goods or intangible services – constitute the industrial staple. Their imputed monetary value as a commodity is determined by state and market in varying proportions. Thus different cultures become insipid residues of traditional styles of action, washed up in one world-wide wasteland: an arid terrain devastated by the machinery needed to produce and consume. On the banks of the Seine and those of the Niger, people have unlearned how to milk, because the white stuff now comes from the grocer. (Thanks to more richly endowed consumer protection, it is less poisonous in France than in Mali.) True, more babies get cow’s milk, but the breasts of both rich and poor dry up. The addicted consumer is born when the baby cries for the bottle: when the organism is trained to reach for milk from the grocer and to turn away from the breast that thus defaults. Autonomous and creative human action, required to make man’s universe bloom, atrophies. Roofs of shingle or thatch, tile or slate, are displaced by concrete for the few and corrugated plastic for the many. Neither jungle marshes nor ideological biases have prevented the poor and the socialist from rushing onto the highways of the rich, the roads leading them into the world where economists replace priests. The mint stamps out all local treasures and idols. Money devalues what it cannot measure. The crisis, then, is the same for all: the choice of more or less dependence upon industrial commodities. More dependence means the rapid and complete destruction of cultures which determine the criteria for satisfying subsistence activities. Less means the variegated flowering of use-values in modern cultures of intense activity. Although hard to imagine for those already accustomed to living inside the supermarket, a structure different only in name from a ward for idiots, the choice is essentially the same for both rich and poor. + +Present-day industrial society organizes life around commodities. Our market-intensive societies measure material progress by the increase in the volume and variety of commodities produced. And taking our cue from this sector, we measure social progress by the distribution of access to these commodities. Economics has been developed as propaganda for the takeover by large-scale commodity producers. Socialism has been debased to a struggle against handicapped distribution, and welfare economics has identified the public good with opulence – the humiliating opulence of the poor in the schools, hospitals, jails and asylums of the United States and other western countries. + +By disregarding all trade-offs to which no price tag is attached, industrial society has created an urban landscape that is unfit for people unless they devour each day their own weight in metals and fuels, a world in which the constant need for protection against the unwanted results of more things and more commands has generated new depths of discrimination, impotence and frustration. The establishment-orientated ecological movement so far has further strengthened this trend: it has concentrated attention on faulty industrial technology, and, at best, on exploitation of industrial production by private owners. It has questioned the depletion of natural resources, the inconvenience of pollution, and net transfers of power. But even when price tags are attached to reflect the environmental impact, the disvalue of nuisance, or the cost of polarization, we still do not see clearly that the division of labour, the multiplication of commodities and dependence on them have forcibly substituted standardized packages for almost everything people formerly did or made on their own. + +For two decades now, about fifty languages have died each year; half of all those still spoken in 1950 survive only as subjects for doctoral theses. And what distinct languages do remain to witness the incomparably different ways of seeing, using, and enjoying the world, now sound more and more alike. Consciousness is colonized everywhere by imported labels. Yet, even those who do worry about the loss of cultural and genetic variety, or about the multiplication of long-impact isotopes, do not advert to the irreversible depletion of skills, stories, and senses of form. And this progressive substitution of industrial goods and services for useful but non-marketable values has been the shared goal of political factions and regimes otherwise violently opposed to one another. + +In this way, ever larger pieces of our lives are so transformed that life itself comes to depend almost exclusively on the consumption of commodities sold on the world market. The United States corrupts its farmers to provide grain to a regime which increasingly stakes its legitimacy on the ability to deliver ever more grain. Of course, the two regimes allocate resources by different methods: here, by the wisdom of pricing; there, by the wisdom of planners. But the political opposition between proponents of alternate methods of allocation only masks the similar ruthless disregard of personal dignity and freedom by all factions and parties. + +Energy policy is a good example for the profound identity in the world-views of the self-styled socialist and the so-called capitalist supporters of the industrial system. Possibly excluding such places as Cambodia, about which I am uninformed, no governing élite nor any socialist opposition can conceive of a desirable future that would be based on per capita energy consumption of a magnitude inferior to that which now prevails in Europe. All existing political parties stress the need for energy-intensive production – albeit with Chinese discipline – while failing to comprehend that the corresponding society will further deny people the free use of their limbs. Here sedans and there buses push bicycles off the road. All governments stress an employment-intensive force of production, but are unwilling to recognize that jobs can also destroy the use-value of free time. They all stress a more objective and complete professional definition of people’s needs, but are insensitive to the consequent expropriation of life. + +In the late Middle Ages the stupefying simplicity of the heliocentric model was used as an argument to discredit the new astronomy. Its elegance was interpreted as naivete. In our days, use-value centred theories that analyze the social costs generated by established economics are certainly not rare. Such theories are being proposed by dozens of outsiders, who often identify them with radical technology, ecology, community life-styles, smallness, or beauty. As an excuse to avoid looking at these theories, the frequent failure of their proponents" experiments in personal living are held against them and magnified. Just as the legendary inquisitor refused to look through Galileo’s telescope, so most modern economists refuse to look at an analysis that might displace the conventional centre of their economic system. The new analytical systems would force us to recognize the obvious: that the generation of non-marketable use-values must inevitably occupy the centre of any culture that provides a programme for satisfactory life to a majority of its members. Cultures are programmes for activities, not for firms. Industrial society destroys this centre by polluting it with the measured output of corporations, public or private, degrading what people do or make on their own. As a consequence, societies have been transformed into huge zero-sum games, monolithic delivery systems in which every gain for one turns into a loss or burden for another, while true satisfaction is denied to both. + +On the way, innumerable sets of infrastructures in which people coped, played, ate, made friends, and loved have been destroyed. A couple of so-called development decades have sufficed to dismantle traditional patterns of culture from Manchuria to Montenegro. Prior to these years, such patterns permitted people to satisfy most of their needs in a subsistence mode. After these years, plastic had replaced pottery, carbonated beverages replaced water, Valium replaced camomile tea, and records replaced guitars. All through history, the best measure for bad times was the percentage of food eaten that had to be purchased. In good times, most families got most of their nutrition from what they grew or acquired in a network of gift relationships. Until late in the eighteenth century, more than 99 per cent of the world’s food was produced inside the horizon that the consumer could see from the church steeple or minaret. Laws that tried to control the number of chickens and pigs within the city walls suggest that, except for a few large urban areas, more than half of all food eaten was also cultivated within the city. Before World War II, less than 4 per cent of all food eaten was transported into the region from abroad, and these imports were largely confined to the eleven cities which then contained more than two million inhabitants. Today, 40 per cent of all people survive only because they have access to inter-regional markets. A future in which the world market of capital and goods would be severely reduced is as much a taboo today as a modern world in which active people would use modern convivial tools to create an abundance of use-values that liberated them from consumption. One can see in this pattern a reflection of the belief that useful activities by which people both express and satisfy their needs can be replaced indefinitely by standardized goods or services. + +#### The modernization of poverty + +Beyond a certain threshold, the multiplication of commodities induces impotence, the incapacity to grow food, to sing, or to build. The toil and pleasure of the human condition become a faddish privilege restricted to some of the rich. When Kennedy launched the Alliance for Progress, Acatzingo, like most Mexican villages of its size, had four groups of musicians who played for a drink and served the population of eight hundred. Today, records and radios, hooked up to loudspeakers, drown out local talent. Occasionally, in an act of nostalgia, a collection is taken up to bring a band of drop-outs from the university for some special holiday to sing the old songs. On the day Venezuela legislated the right of each citizen to "housing", conceived of as a commodity, three-quarters of all families found that their self-built dwellings were thereby degraded to the status of hovels. Furthermore – and this is the rub – self-building was now prejudiced. No house could be legally started without the submission of an approved architect’s plan. The useful refuse and junk of Caracas, up until then re-employed as excellent building materials, now created a problem of solid-waste disposal. The man who produces his own "housing" is looked down upon as a deviant who refuses to cooperate with the local pressure group for the delivery of mass-produced housing units. Also, innumerable regulations have appeared which brand his ingenuity as illegal, or even criminal. This example illustrates how the poor are the first to suffer when a new kind of commodity castrates one of the traditional subsistence crafts. The useful unemployment of the jobless poor is sacrificed to the expansion of the labour market. "Housing" as a self-chosen activity, just like any other freedom for useful unemployment of time off the job, becomes the privilege of some deviant, often the idle rich. + +An addiction to paralyzing affluence, once it becomes engrained in a culture, generates " modernized poverty". This is a form of disvalue necessarily associated with the proliferation of commodities. This rising disutility of industrial mass products has escaped the attention of economists, because it is not accessible to their measurements, and of social servicers, because it cannot be "operationalized". Economists have no effective means of including in their calculations the society-wide loss of a kind of satisfaction that has no market equivalent. Thus, one could today define economists as the members of a fraternity which only accepts people who, in the pursuit of their professional work, can practice a trained social blindness towards the most fundamental trade-off in contemporary systems, both East and West: the decline in the individual-personal ability to do or to make, which is the price of every additional degree of commodity affluence. + +The existence and nature of modernized poverty remained hidden, even in ordinary conversation, as long as it primarily affected the poor. As development, or modernization, reached the poor – those who until then had been able to survive in spite of being excluded from the market economy – they were systematically compelled to survive through buying into a purchasing system which, for them, always and necessarily meant getting the dregs of the market. Indians in Oaxaca who formerly had no access to schools are now drafted into school to "earn" certificates that measure precisely their inferiority relative to the urban population. Furthermore – and this is again the rub – without this piece of paper they can no longer enter even the building trades. Modernization of "needs" always adds new discrimination to poverty. + +Modernized poverty has now become the common experience of all except those who are so rich that they can drop out in luxury. As one facet of life after another becomes dependent on engineered supplies, few of us escape the recurrent experience of impotence. The average United States consumer is bombarded by a hundred advertisements per day, and reacts to many of them – more often than not – in a negative way. Even well-heeled shoppers acquire, with each new commodity, a fresh experience of disutility. They suspect they have purchased something of doubtful value, perhaps soon useless, or even dangerous, and something that calls for an array of even more expensive complements. Affluent shoppers organize: they usually begin with demands for quality control, and not infrequently generate consumer resistance. Across the tracks, slum neighbourhoods "unplug" themselves from service and "care", from social work in South Chicago and from textbooks in Kentucky. Rich and poor are almost ready to recognize clearly a new form of frustrating wealth in the further expansions of a market-intensive culture. Also, the affluent come to sense their own plight as it is mirrored in the poor, though for the moment this intimation has not developed beyond a kind of romanticism. + +The ideology that identifies progress with affluence is not restricted to the rich countries. The same ideology degrades non-marketable activities even in areas where, until recently, most needs were still met through a subsistence mode of life. For example, under Mao the Chinese – drawing inspiration from their own tradition – seemed willing and able to redefine technical progress and to opt for the bicycle over the jet plane. They stressed local self-determination as a goal of inventive people, rather than as a means for national defence. But by 1977, their propaganda was glorying in China’s industrial capacity to deliver more health care, education, housing, and general welfare – at a lower cost. Merely tactical functions are provisionally assigned to the herbs in the bag of the barefoot doctor and to labour-intensive production methods. Here, as in other areas of the world, heteronomous – that is, other-directed – production of goods, standardized for categories of anonymous consumers, fosters unrealistic and ultimately frustrating expectations. Furthermore, the process inevitably corrupts the trust of people in their own and their neighbours" ever-surprising autonomous competences. China simply represents the latest example of the particular western version of modernization through intensive market dependence seizing a traditional society as no cargo cult did at its most irrational extreme. + +#### The history of needs + +In both traditional and modern societies, an important change has occurred in a very short period: the means for satisfaction of needs have been radically altered. The motor has sapped the muscle; instruction has deadened self-confident curiosity. As a consequence, both needs and wants have acquired a character for which there is no historical precedent. For the first time, needs have become almost exclusively coterminous with commodities. As long as most people walked wherever they wanted to go, they felt restrained mainly when their freedom was restricted. Now that they depend on transportation in order to move, they claim not a freedom but a right to passenger miles. And as ever more vehicles provide ever more people with such "rights", the freedom to walk is degraded and eclipsed by the provision of these rights. For most people, wants follow suit. They cannot even imagine liberation from universal passengerhood, that is the liberty of modern man in a modern world to move on his own. + +This situation, by now a rigid interdependence of needs and market, is legitimated through appeal to the expertise of an élite whose knowledge, by its very nature, cannot be shared. Economists of rightist as well as leftist persuasion vouch to the public that an increase in jobs depends on more energy; educators persuade the public that law, order, and productivity depend on more instruction; gynaecologists claim that the quality of infant life depends on their involvement in childbirth. Therefore, the near-universal extension of market intensity in the world’s economies cannot be effectively questioned as long as the immunity of the élites which legitimize the nexus between commodity and satisfaction has not been destroyed. The point is well illustrated by a woman who told me about the birth of her third child. Having borne two children, she felt both competent and experienced. She was in hospital and sensed the child coming. She called the nurse, who, instead of helping, rushed for a sterile towel to press the baby’s head back into the womb and ordered the mother to stop pushing because, "Dr. Levy has not yet arrived". + +But this is the moment for public decision, for political action instead of professional management. Modern societies, rich or poor, can move in either of two opposite directions: they can produce a new bill of goods — albeit safer, less wasteful, more easily shared — and thereby further intensify their dependence on consumer staples. Or, they can take a totally new approach to the inter-relationship between needs and satisfactions. In other words, societies can either retain their market-intensive economies, changing only the design of the output, or they can reduce their dependence on commodities. The latter entails the adventure of imagining and constructing new frameworks in which individuals and communities can develop a new kind of modern toolkit. This would be organized so as to permit people to shape and satisfy an expanding proportion of their needs directly and personally. + +The first direction represents a continuing identification of technical progress with the multiplication of commodities. The bureaucratic managers of egalitarian persuasion and the technocrats of welfare would converge in a call for austerity: to shift from goods, such as jets, that obviously cannot be shared, to so-called "social" equipment, like buses; to distribute more equitably the decreasing hours of employment available and ruthlessly limit the typical work week to about twenty hours on the job; to draft the new resource of unemployed life-time into retraining or voluntary service on the model of Mao, Castro, or Kennedy. This new stage of industrial society – though socialist, effective, and rational – would simply usher in a new state of the culture that downgraded the satisfaction of wants into repetitive relief of imputed needs through engineered staples. At its best, this alternative would produce goods and services in smaller quantities, distribute them more equitably, and foster less envy. The symbolic participation of people in deciding what ought to be made might be transferred from a buck in the market to a gawk in the political assembly. The environmental impact of production could be softened. Among commodities, services, especially the various forms of social control, would certainly grow much faster than the manufacture of goods. Huge sums are already being spent on the oracle industry so that government prophets can spew out "alternative" scenarios designed to shore up this first choice. Interestingly, many of them have already reached the conclusion that the cost of the social controls necessary to enforce austerity in an ecologically feasible, but still industry-centred society would be intolerable. + +The second choice would bring down the curtain on absolute market dominance, and foster an ethic of austerity for the sake of widespread satisfying action. If in the first alternative austerity would mean the individual’s acceptance of managerial ukazes for the sake of increased institutional productivity, austerity in the second alternative would mean that social virtue by which people recognize and decide limits on the maximum amount of instrumented power that anyone may claim, both for his own satisfaction and in the service of others. This convivial austerity inspires a society to protect personal use-value against disabling enrichment. Under such protection against disabling affluence many distinct cultures would arise, each modern and each emphasizing the dispersed use of modern tools. Convivial austerity so limits the use of any tool that tool ownership would lose much of its present power. If bicycles are owned here by the commune, there by the rider, nothing is changed about the essentially convivial nature of the bicycle as a tool. Such commodities would still be produced in large measure by industrial methods, but they would be seen and evaluated differently. Now, commodities are viewed mostly as staples that directly feed the needs shaped by their designers. In the second option, they would be valued either as raw materials or as tools that permitted people to generate use-values in maintaining the subsistence of their respective communities. But this choice depends, of course, on a Copernican revolution in our perception of values. At present, we see consumer goods and professional services at the centre of our economic system, and specialists relate our needs exclusively to this centre. In contrast, the social inversion contemplated here would assign use-values created and personally valued by people themselves to the centre. It is true that people have recently lost the confidence to shape their own desires. The world-wide discrimination against the autodidact has vitiated many people’s confidence in determining their own goals and needs. But the same discrimination has also resulted in a multiplicity of growing minorities who are infuriated by this insidious dispossession. + +### Disabling professions + +These minorities already see that they – and all autochthonous cultural life – are threatened by mega-tools which systematically expropriate the environmental conditions that foster individual and group autonomy. And so they quietly determine to fight for the usefulness of their bodies, memories, and skills. Because the rapidly increasing multiplication of imputed needs generates ever new kinds of dependence and ever new categories of modernized poverty, present-day industrial societies take on the character of interdependent conglomerates of bureaucratically stigmatized majorities. Among this great mass of citizens who are crippled by transport, rendered sleepless by schedules, poisoned by hormone therapy, silenced by loudspeakers, sickened by food, a few form minorities of organized and active citizens. Now these are barely beginning to grow and coalesce for public dissidence. Subjectively, these groups are ready to end an age. But to be dispatched, an age needs a name that sticks. I propose to call the mid-twentieth century the Age of Disabling Professions. I choose this designation because it commits those who use it. It exposes the anti-social functions performed by the least challenged providers: educators, physicians, social workers, and scientists. Simultaneously, it indicts the complacency of citizens who have submitted themselves to multi-faceted bondage as clients. To speak about the power of disabling professions shames their victims into recognizing the conspiracy of the life-long student, gynaecological case, or consumer, each with his or her manager. By describing the sixties as an apogee of the problem-solver, one immediately exposes both the inflated conceit of our academic élites and the greedy gullibility of their victims. + +But this focus on the makers of the social imagination and the cultural values does more than expose and denounce; by designating the last twenty-five years as the Age of Dominant Professions, one also proposes a strategy. One sees the necessity of going beyond the expert redistribution of wasteful, irrational, and paralyzing commodities, the hallmark of Radical Professionalism, the conventional wisdom of today’s good guys. The strategy demands nothing less than the unmasking of the professional ethos. The credibility of the professional expert, be he scientist, therapist, or executive, is the Achilles" heel of the industrial system. Therefore, only those citizen initiatives and radical technologies that directly challenge the insinuating dominance of disabling professions open the way to freedom for non-hierarchical, community-based competence. The waning of the current professional ethos is a necessary condition for the emergence of a new relationship between needs, contemporary tools, and personal satisfaction. The first step toward this emergence is a sceptical and non-deferential posture of the citizen towards the professional expert. Social reconstruction begins with a doubt raised among citizens. + +When I propose the analysis of professional power as the key to social reconstruction, I am usually told that it is a dangerous error to select this phenomenon as the crux for recovery from the industrial system. Is not the shape of the educational, medical, and planning establishments actually the reflection of the distribution of power and privilege of a capitalist élite? Is it not irresponsible to undermine the trust of the man in the street in his scientifically-trained teacher, physician, or economist precisely at the moment when the poor need these trained protectors to gain access to classroom, clinic, and expert? Ought not the industrial system’s indictment expose the income of stockholders in drug firms or the perquisites of power-brokers that belong to the new élites? Why spoil the mutual dependence of clients and professional providers, especially when increasingly – as in Cuba or the United States – both tend to come from the same social class? Is it not perverse to denigrate the very people who have painfully acquired the knowledge to recognize and service our needs for welfare? In fact, should not the radically socialist professional leaders be singled out as the most apt leaders in the ongoing task of society of defining and meeting people’s "real" needs in an egalitarian society? + +The arguments implicit in these questions are frequently advanced to disrupt and discredit public analysis of the disabling effects of industrial welfare systems which focus on services. Such effects are essentially identical and clearly inevitable, no matter what the political flag under which they are imposed. They incapacitate people’s autonomy through forcing them – via legal, environmental, and social changes – to become consumers of care. These rhetorical questions represent a frantic defence of privilege on the part of those élites who might lose income, but would certainly gain status and power if, in a new form of a market-intensive economy, dependence on their services were rendered more equitable. + +A further objection to the critique of professional power drives out the devil with Beelzebub. This objection singles out, as the key target for analysis, the defence conglomerates seemingly at the centre of each bureaucratic-industrial society. The developed argument then posits the security forces as the motor behind the contemporary universal regimentation into market-dependent discipline. It identifies as the principal need-makers the armed bureaucracies that have come into being since, under Louis XIV, Richelieu established the first professional police: that is, the professional agencies that are now in charge of weaponry, intelligence, and propaganda. Since Hiroshima, these so-called services appear to be the determinants for research, design production, and employment. They rest upon civilian foundations, such as schooling for discipline, consumer training for the enjoyment of waste, habituation to violent speeds, medical engineering for life in a world-wide shelter, and standardized dependence on issues dispensed by benevolent quartermasters. This line of thought sees state security as the generator of a society’s production patterns, and views the civilian economy as, to a large extent, either the military’s spin-off or its prerequisite. + +If an argument constructed around these notions were valid, how could such a society forego atomic power, no matter how poisonous, oppressive or counter-productive a further energy glut might be? How could a defence-ridden state be expected to tolerate the organization of disaffected citizen groups who unplug their neighbourhoods from consumption to claim the liberty to small-scale use-value-intensive production that happens in an atmosphere of satisfying and joyful austerity? Would not a militarized society soon have to move against need-deserters, brand them as traitors, and, if possible, expose them not just to scorn but to ridicule? Would not a defence-driven society have to stamp out those examples that would lead to non-violent modernity, just at the time when public policy calls for a decentralization of commodity production reminiscent of Mao, and for more rational, equitable, and professionally supervised consumption? + +This argument pays undue credit to the military as the source of violence in an industrial state. The assumption that military requirements are to blame for the aggressiveness and destructiveness of advanced industrial society must be exposed as an illusion. No doubt, if it were true that the military had somehow usurped the industrial system, if it had wrenched the various spheres of social endeavour and action away from civilian control, then the present state of militarized politics would have reached a point of no return; at least of no potential for civilian reform. This is in fact the argument made by the brightest of Brazil’s military leaders, who see the armed forces as the only legitimate tutor of peaceful industrial pursuit during the rest of this century. + +But this is simply not so. The modern industrial state is not a product of the army. Rather, its army is one of the symptoms of its total and consistent orientation. True, the present industrial mode of organization can be traced to military antecedents in Napoleonic times. True, the compulsory education for peasant boys in the 1830s, the universal health care for the industrial proletariat in the 1850s, the growing communications networks of the 1860s, as well as most forms of industrial standardization, are all strategies first introduced into modern societies as military requirements, and only later understood as dignified forms of peaceful, civilian progress. But the fact that systems of health, education, and welfare needed a military rationale to be enacted into law, does not mean that they were not thoroughly consistent with the basic thrust of industrial development which, in fact, was never non-violent, peaceful, or respectful of people. + +Today, this insight is easier to gain. First, because since Polaris it is no longer possible to distinguish between wartime and peacetime armies and second, because since the War on Poverty, peace is on the war-path. Today, industrial societies are constantly and totally mobilized; they are organized for constant public emergencies; they are shot through with variegated strategies in all sectors; the battlefields of health, education, welfare, and affimative equality are strewn with victims and covered with ruins; citizens" liberties are continually suspended for campaigns against ever newly discovered evils; each year new frontier-dwellers are discovered who must be protected against or cured of some new disease, some previously unknown ignorance. The basic needs that are shaped and imputed by all professional agencies are needs for defence against evils. + +Today’s professors and social scientists who seek to blame the military for the destructiveness of commodity -intensive societies are people who, in a very clumsy way, are attempting to arrest the erosion of their own legitimacy. They claim that the military pushes the industrial system into its frustrating and destructive state, thereby distracting attention from the profoundly destructive nature of a market-intensive society which drives its citizens into today’s wars. Both those who seek to protect professional autonomy against citizen maturity, and those who wish to portray the professional as victim of the militarized state, will be answered by a choice: the direction free citizens wish to go in order to supersede the world-wide crisis. + +#### The waning of the professional age + +The illusions that permitted the installation of professions as arbiters of needs are now increasingly visible to common sense. Procedures in the service sector are often understood for what they are – Linus Blankets, or rituals that hide from the provider- consumer-caboodle the disparity and antipathy between the ideal for the sake of which the service is rendered, and the reality that the service creates. Schools that promise equal enlightenment generate unequally degrading meritocracy and life-long dependence on further tutorship; vehicles compel everyone to a flight forward. But the public has not yet clarified the choices. Projects under professional leadership could result in compulsory political creeds (with their accompanying versions of a new fascism), or experiences of citizens could dismiss our hubris as yet another historical collection of neo-Promethean but essentially ephemeral follies. Informed choice requires that we examine the specific role of the professions in determining who in this age got what from whom and why. + +To see the present clearly, let us imagine the children who will soon play in the ruins of high-schools, Hiltons – and hospitals. In these professional castles turned cathedrals, built to protect us against ignorance, discomfort, pain, and death, the children of tomorrow will re-enact in their play the delusions of our Age of Professions, as from ancient castles and cathedrals we reconstruct the crusades of knights against sin and the Turk in the Age of Faith. Children in their games will mingle the uniquack which now pollutes our language with archaisms inherited from robber barons and cowboys. I see them addressing each other as chairman and secretary rather than as chief and lord. Hopefully adults will blush when they slip into managerial pidgin with terms such as policy-making, social planning, and problem-solving. + +The Age of Professions will be remembered as the time when politics withered, when voters guided by professors entrusted to technocrats the power to legislate needs, the authority to decide who needs what and a monopoly over the means by which these needs shall be met. It will be remembered as the Age of Schooling, when people for one-third of their lives were trained how to accumulate needs on prescription and for the other two-thirds were clients of prestigious pushers who managed their habits. It will be remembered as the age when recreational travel meant a packaged gawk at strangers, and intimacy meant training by Masters and Johnson; when formed opinion was a replay of last night’s talk-show, and voting an endorsement to a salesman for more of the same. + +Future students will be as much confused by the supposed differences between capitalist and socialist school, health-care, prison or transportation systems as today’s students are by the claimed differences between justification by works as opposed to justification by faith in the late Reformation Christian sects. They will also discover that the professional librarians, surgeons, or supermarket designers in poor or socialist countries towards the end of each decade came to keep the same records, use the same tools, and build the same spaces that their colleagues in rich countries had pioneered at the decade’s beginning. Archeologists will periodize our life-span not by potsherds but by professional fashions, reflected in the mod-trends of United Nations publications. + +It would be pretentious to predict whether this age, when needs were shaped by professional design, will be remembered with a smile or a curse. I hope, of course, that it will be remembered as the night when father went on a binge, dissipated the family fortune, and obligated his children to start anew. Sadly, it will more probably be remembered as the time when a whole generation’s frenzied pursuit of impoverishing wealth rendered all freedoms alienable and, after first turning politics into the organized gripes of welfare recipients, extinguished it in expert totalitarianism. + +#### Professional dominance + +Let us first face the fact that the bodies of specialists that now dominate the creation, adjudication, and satisfaction of needs are a new kind of cartel. And this must be recognized to outflank their developing defences. For we already see the new biocrat hiding behind the benevolent mask of the physician of old; the paedocrat’s behavioural aggression is shrugged off as perhaps silly, overzealous care of the concerned teacher; the personnel manager equipped with a psychological arsenal presents himself in the guise of an old-time foreman. The new specialists, who are usually servicers of human needs that their speciality has defined, tend to wear the mask of and to provide some form of care. They are more deeply entrenched than a Byzantine bureaucracy, more international than a world church, more stable than any labour union, endowed with wider competencies than any shaman, and equipped with a tighter hold over those they claim than any mafia. + +The new organized specialists must, first, be carefully distinguished from racketeers. Educators, for instance, now tell society what must be learned and can write off as useless what has been learned outside of school. By this kind of monopoly, which enables tyrannical professions to prevent you from shopping elsewhere and from making your own booze, they at first seem to fit the dictionary definition of gangsters. But gangsters, for their own profit, corner a basic necessity by controlling supplies. Educators and doctors and social workers today – as priests and lawyers formerly – gain legal power to create the need that, by law, they alone will be allowed to serve. They turn the modern state into a holding corporation of enterprises that facilitate the operation of their self-certified competencies. + +Legalized control over work has taken many different forms: soldiers of fortune refused to fight until they got the licence to plunder; Lysistrata organized female chattels to enforce peace by refusing sex; doctors in Kos conspired by oath to pass trade secrets only to their offspring; guilds set the curricula, prayers, tests, pilgrimages and hazings through which Hans Sachs had to pass before he was permitted to shoe his fellow burghers. In capitalist countries, unions attempt to control who shall work what hours for what pay. All these trade associations are attempts by specialists to determine how their kind of work shall be done, and by whom. But none of these specialists are professionals in the sense that doctors, for instance, are today. Today’s domineering professionals, of whom physicians provide the most striking and painful example, go further: they decide what shall be made, for whom, and how it shall be administered. They claim special, incommunicable knowledge, not just about the way things are and are to be made, but also about the reasons why their services ought to be needed. Merchants sell you the goods they stock. Guildsmen guarantee quality. Some craftspeople tailor their product to your measure or fancy. Professionals however, tell you what you need. They claim the power to prescribe. They not only advertise what is good, but ordain what is right. Neither income, long training, delicate tasks, nor social standing is the mark of the professional. Their income can be low or taxed away, their training compressed into weeks instead of years; their status can approach that of the oldest profession. Rather, what counts is the professional’s authority to define a person as client, to determine that person’s need, and to hand that person a prescription which defines this new social role. Unlike the hookers of old, the modern professional is not one who sells what others give for free, but rather one who decides what ought to be sold and must not be given for free. + +There is a further distinction between professional power and that of other occupations: professional power springs from a different source. A guild, a union, or a gang forces respect for its interest and rights by a strike, blackmail, or overt violence. In contrast, a profession, like a priesthood, holds power by concession from an élite whose interests it props up. As a priesthood offers the way to salvation in the train of an anointed king, so a profession interprets, protects, and supplies a special this-worldly interest to the constituency of modern rulers. Professional power is a specialized form of the privilege to prescribe what is right for others and what they therefore need. It is the source of prestige and control within the industrial state. This kind of professional power could, of course, come into existence only in societies where élite membership itself is legitimated, if not acquired, by professional status: a society where governing élites are attributed a unique kind of objectivity in defining the moral status of a lack. It fits like a glove the age in which even access to parliament, the house of commons, is overwhelmingly limited to those who have acquired the title of master by accumulating knowledge stock in some college. Professional autonomy and licence, in defining the needs of society are the logical forms that oligarchy takes in a political culture that has replaced the means-test by knowledge-stock certificates issued by schools. The professions" power over the work their members do is thus distinct in both scope and origin. + +#### Towards professional tyranny + +Professional power has also, recently, so changed in degree that two animals of entirely different colours now go by the same name. For instance, the practicing and experimenting health scientist consistently evades critical analysis by dressing up in the clothes of yesterday’s family doctor. The wandering physician became the medical doctor when he left commerce in drugs to the pharmacist and kept for himself the power to prescribe them. At that moment, he acquired a new kind of authority by uniting three roles in one person: the sapiential authority to advise, instruct, and direct; the moral authority that makes its acceptance not just useful but obligatory; and the charismatic authority that allows the physician to appeal to some supreme interest of his clients that not only outranks conscience but sometimes even the raison d’état. This kind of doctor, of course, still exists, but within a modern medical system he is a figure out of the past. A new kind of health scientist is now much more common. He increasingly deals more with cases than with persons; he deals with the breakdowns that he can perceive in the case, rather than with the complaint of the individual; he protects society’s interest rather than the person’s. The authorities that, during the liberal age, had coalesced in the individual practitioner in his treatment of a patient are now claimed by the professional corporation in the service of the state. This entity now carves out for itself a social mission. + +Only during the last twenty-five years has medicine turned from a liberal into a dominant profession by obtaining the power to indicate what constitutes a health need for people in general. Health specialists as a corporation have acquired the authority to determine what health care must be provided to society at large. It is no longer the individual professional who imputes a "need" to the individual client, but a corporate agency that imputes a need to entire classes of people, and then claims the mandate to test the complete population in order to identify all who belong to the group of potential patients. And what happens in health care is thoroughly consistent with other domains. New pundits jump on the bandwagon of the therapeutic care-provider: educators, social workers, the military, town-planners, judges, policemen, and their ilk have obviously made it. They enjoy wide autonomy in creating the diagnostic tools by which they then catch their clients for treatment. Dozens of other need-creators try: international bankers "diagnose" the ills of an African country and then induce it to swallow the prescribed treatment, even though the "patient" might die; security specialists evaluate the loyalty risk in a citizen and then extinguish his private sphere; dog-catchers sell themselves to the public as pest controllers, and claim a monopoly over the lives of stray dogs. The only way to prevent the escalation of needs is a fundamental, political exposure of those illusions that legitimize dominating professions. + +Many professions are so well established that they not only exercise tutelage over the citizen-become-client, but also determine the shape of his world- become-ward. The language in which he perceives himself, his perception of rights and freedoms, and his awareness of needs all derive from professional hegemony. + +The difference between craftsman, liberal professional, and the new technocrat can be clarified by comparing the typical reaction of people who neglect their respective advice. If you did not take the craftsman’s advice, you were a fool. If you did not take liberal counsel, society blamed you. Now the profession or the government may be blamed when you escape from the care that your lawyer, teacher, surgeon, or shrink has decided upon for you. Under the pretense of meeting needs better and on a more equitable basis, the service-professional has mutated into a crusading philanthropist. The nutritionist prescribes the "right" formula for the infant, and the psychiatrist the "right" anti-depressant, and the schoolmaster – now acting with the fuller power of "educator" – feels entitled to push his method between you and anything you want to learn. Each new speciality in service production thrives only when the public has accepted and the law has endorsed a new perception of what ought not to exist. Schools expanded in a moralizing crusade against illiteracy, once illiteracy had been defined as an evil. Maternity wards mushroomed to do away with home births. + +Professionals claim a monopoly over the definition of deviance and the remedies needed. For example, lawyers assert that they alone have the competence and the legal right to provide assistance in divorce. If you devise a kit for do-it-yourself divorce, you find yourself in a double bind: if you are not a lawyer, you are liable of practice without a license; if you are a member of the bar, you can be expelled for unprofessional behaviour. Professionals also claim secret knowledge about human nature and its weaknesses, knowledge they are also mandated to apply. Gravediggers, for example, did not become members of a profession by calling themselves morticians, by obtaining college credentials, by raising their incomes, or by getting rid of the odour attached to their trade by electing one of themselves president of the Lion’s Club. Morticians formed a profession, a dominant and disabling one, when they acquired the muscle to have the police stop your burial if you are not embalmed and boxed by them. In any area where a human need can be imagined, these new disabling professions claim that they are the exclusive experts of the public good. + +#### Professions as a new clergy + +The transformation of a liberal profession into a dominant one is equivalent to the legal establishment of a church. Physicians transmogrified into biocrats, teachers into gnosocrats, morticians into thanatocrats, are much closer to state-supported clergies than to trade associations. The professional as teacher of the current brand of scientific orthodoxy acts as theologian. As moral entrepreneur, he acts the role of priest: he creates the need for his mediation. As crusading helper, he acts the part of the missionary and hunts down the underprivileged. As inquisitor, he outlaws the unorthodox – he imposes his solutions on the recalcitrants who refuse to recognize that they are a problem. This multi-faceted investiture with the task of relieving a specific inconvenience of man’s estate turns each profession into the analogue of an established cult. The public acceptance of domineering professions is thus essentially a political event. The new profession creates a new hierarchy, new clients and outcasts, and a new strain on the budget. But, also, each new establishment of professional legitimacy means that the political tasks of lawmaking, judicial review, and executive power lose more of their proper character and independence. Public affairs pass from the layperson’s elected peers into the hands of a self-accrediting élite. + +When medicine recently outgrew its liberal restraints, it invaded legislation by establishing public norms. Physicians had always determined what constitutes disease; dominant medicine now determines what diseases society shall not tolerate. Medicine has invaded the courts. Physicians had always diagnosed who is sick; dominant medicine, however, brands those who must be treated. Liberal practitioners prescribed a cure: dominant medicine has public powers of correction; it decides what shall be done with or to the sick. In a democracy, the power to make laws, execute them, and achieve public justice must derive from the citizens themselves. This citizen control over the key powers has been restricted, weakened, and sometimes abolished by the rise of church-like professions. Government by a congress that bases its decisions on expert opinions of such professions might be government for, but never by, the people. This is not the place to investigate the intent with which political rule has thus been weakened ; it is sufficient to indicate the professional disqualification of lay opinion as a necessary condition for this subversion. + +Citizen liberties are grounded in the rule that excludes hearsay from testimony on which public decisions are based. What people can see for themselves and interpret is the common ground for binding rules. Opinions, beliefs, inferences, or persuasions ought not to stand when in conflict with the eyewitness – ever. Expert élites could become dominant professions only by a piecemeal erosion and final reversal of this rule. In the legislature and courts, the rule against hearsay evidence is now, de facto, suspended in favour of the opinions profferred by the members of these self-accredited élites. + +But let us not confuse the public use of expert factual knowledge with a profession’s corporate exercise of normative judgment. When a craftsman, such as a gunmaker, was called into court as an expert to reveal to the jury the secrets of his trade, he apprenticed the jury to his craft on the spot. He demonstrated visibly from which barrel the bullet had come. Today, most experts play a different role. The dominant professional provides jury or legislature with his fellow-initiate’s opinion, rather than with factual evidence and a skill. He calls for a suspension of the hearsay rule and inevitably undermines the rule of law. Thus, democratic power is ineluctably abridged. + +#### The hegemony of imputed needs + +Professions could not have become dominant and disabling unless people were ready to experience as a lack that which the expert imputed to them as a need. Their mutual dependence as tutor and charge has become resistant to analysis because it has been obscured by corrupted language. Good old words have been made into branding irons that claim wardship for experts over home, shop, store, and the space or ether between them. Language, the most fundamental of commons, is thus polluted by twisted strands of jargon, each under the control of another profession. The disseizin of words, the depletion of ordinary language and its degradation into bureaucratic terminology, parallel in a more intimately debasing manner that particular form of environmental degradation that dispossesses people of their usefulness unless they are gainfully employed. Possible changes in design, attitudes, and laws that would retrench professional dominance cannot be proposed unless we become more sensitive to the misnomers behind which this dominance hides. + +When I learned to speak, "problems" existed only in mathematics or chess; "solutions" were saline or legal, and "need" was mainly used as a verb. The expressions, "I have a problem", or, "I have a need", both sounded silly. As I grew into my teens and Hitler worked at solutions, the "social problem" also spread. "Problem" children of ever newer shades were discovered among the poor as social workers learned to brand their prey and to standardize their "needs". "Need", used as a noun, became the fodder on which professions fattened into dominance. Poverty was modernized. Management translated poverty from an experience into a measure. The poor became the needy. + +During the second half of my life, to be "needy" became respectable. Computable and imputable needs moved up the social ladder. It ceased to be a sign of poverty to have needs. Income opened new registers of need. Spock, Comfort, and the vulgarizers of Nader trained laymen to shop for solutions to problems they learned to cook up according to professional recipes. Education qualified graduates to climb ever more rarefied heights and implant and cultivate there ever newer strains of hybridized needs. Prescriptions increased and competences shrank. For example, in medicine, ever more pharmacologically active drugs went on prescription, and people lost their will and ability to cope with indisposition or even with discomfort. In American supermarkets, where it is estimated that about 1500 new products appear each year, less than 20 per cent survive more than one year on the shelves, the remainder, having proved unsellable, fadish, risky, unprofitable, or obsolete competitors to new models. Therefore, consumers are forced to seek guidance from professional consumer protectors. + +Furthermore, the rapid turnover of products renders wants shallow and plastic. Paradoxically, then, high aggregate consumption resulting from engineered needs fosters growing consumer indifference to specific, potentially felt wants. Increasingly, needs are created by the advertising slogan and by purchases made by order from registrar, beautician, gynaecologist, and dozens of other prescribing diagnosticians. The need to be formally taught how to need, be this by advertising, prescription, or guided discussion in the collective or in the commune, appears in any culture where decisions and actions are no longer the result of personal experience in satisfaction, and the adaptive consumer cannot but substitute learned for felt needs. As people become apt pupils in learning how to need, the ability to shape wants from experienced satisfaction becomes a rare competence of the very rich or the seriously under-supplied. As needs are broken down into ever smaller component parts, each managed by an appropriate specialist, the consumer experiences difficulty in integrating the separate offerings of his various tutors into a meaningful whole that could be desired with commitment and possessed with pleasure. The income managers, life-style counsellors, consciousness raisers, academic advisers, food-fad experts, sensitivity developers, and others like them clearly perceive the new possibilities for management and move in to match packaged commodities to the splintered needs. + +Used as a noun, "need" is the individual offspring of a professional pattern; it is a plastic-foam replica of the mould in which professionals cast their staple; it is the advertised shape of the brood cells out of which consumers are produced. To be ignorant or unconvinced of one’s own needs has become the unforgivable anti-social act. The good citizen is one who imputes standardized needs to himself with such conviction that he drowns out any desire for alternatives, much less the renunciation of need. + +When I was born, before Stalin and Hitler and Roosevelt came to power, only the rich, hypochondriacs, and members of élite unions spoke of their need for medical care when their temperatures rose. Doctors then, in response, could not do much more than grandmothers had done. In medicine the first mutation of needs came with sulfa drugs and antibiotics. As the control of infections became a simple and effective routine, drugs went more and more on prescription. Assignment of the sick-role became a medical monopoly. The person who felt ill had to go to the clinic to be labelled with a disease-name and be legitimately declared a member of the minority of the so-called sick: people were excused from work, entitled to help, put under doctor’s orders, and were enjoined to heal in order to become useful again. Paradoxically, as pharmacological technique – tests and drugs – became so predictable and cheap that one could have dispensed with the physician, society enacted laws and police regulations to restrict the free use of those procedures that science had simplified, and placed them on the prescription list. + +The second mutation of medical needs happened when the sick ceased to be a minority. Today, few people eschew doctors" orders for any length of time. In Italy, the United States, France, or Belgium, one out of every two citizens is being watched simultaneously by several health professionals who treat, advise, or at least observe him or her. The object of such specialized care is, more often than not, a condition of teeth, womb, emotions, blood pressure, or hormone levels that the patient himself does not feel. Patients are no more in the minority. Now, the minority are those deviants who somehow escape from any and all patient-roles. This minority is made up of the poor, the peasants, the recent immigrants, and sundry others who, sometimes of their own volition, have gone medically AWOL. Just twenty years ago, it was a sign of normal health – which was assumed to be good – to get along without a doctor. The same status of non-patient is now indicative of poverty or dissidence. Even the status of the hypochondriac has changed. For the doctor in the forties, this was the label applied to the gate-crashers in his office – the designation reserved for the imaginary sick. Now, doctors refer to the minority who flee them by the same name: hypochondriacs are the imaginary healthy. To be plugged into a professional system as a life-long client is no longer a stigma that sets apart the disabled person from citizens at large. We now live in a society organized for deviant majorities and their keepers. To be an active client of several professionals provides you with a well-defined place within the realm of consumers for the sake of whom our society functions. Thus, the transformation of medicine from a liberal consulting profession into a dominant, disabling profession has immeasurably increased the number of the needy. + +At this critical moment, imputed needs move into a third mutation. They coalesce into what the experts call a multi-disciplinary problem necessitating, therefore, a multi-professional solution. First, the proliferation of commodities, each tending to turn into a requirement, has effectively trained the consumer to need on command. Next, the progressive fragmentation of needs into even smaller and unconnected parts made the client dependent on professional judgment for the blending of his needs into a meaningful whole. The auto industry provides a good example. By the end of the sixties, the advertised optional equipment needed to make a basic Ford desirable had been multiplied immensely. But contrary to the customer’s expectations, this "optional" flim-flam is in fact installed on the assembly line of the Detroit factory, and the shopper in Plains is left with a choice between a few packaged samples that are shipped at random: he can either buy the convertible that he wants but with the green seats he hates, or he can humour his girlfriend with leopardskin seats – at the cost of buying an unwanted paisley hard top. + +Finally, the client is trained to need a team approach to receive what his guardians consider "satisfactory treatment". Personal services that improve the consumer illustrate the point. Therapeutic affluence has exhausted the available life-time of many whom service professionals diagnose as standing in need of more. The intensity of the service economy has made the time needed for the consumption of pedagogical, medical and social treatments increasingly scarce. Time scarcity may soon turn into the major obstacle for the consumption of prescribed, and often publicly financed, services. Signs of such scarcity become evident from one’s early years. Already in kindergarten, the child is subjected to management by a team made up of such specialists as the allergist, speech pathologist, paediatrician, child psychologist, social worker, physical education instructor and teacher. By forming such a paedocratic team, many different professionals attempt to share the time that has become the major limiting factor to the imputation of further needs. For the adult, it is not the school but the work-place where the packaging of services focuses. The personnel manager, labour educator, in-service trainer, insurance planner, consciousness raiser find it more profitable to share the worker’s time than compete for it. A need-less citizen would be highly suspicious. People are told that they need their jobs, not so much for the money as for the services they get. The commons are extinguished and replaced by a new placenta built of funnels that deliver professional services. Life is paralyzed in permanent intensive care. + +### Enabling distinctions + +The disabling of the citizen through professional dominance is completed through the power of illusion. Hopes of religious salvation are displaced by expectations that centre on the state as supreme manager of professional services. Each of many special priesthoods claims competence to define public issues in terms of specific serviceable problems. The acceptance of this claim legitimates the docile recognition of imputed lacks on the part of the layman, whose world turns into an echo-chamber of engineered and managed needs. This dominance, the satisfaction of self-defined preference, is sacrificed to the fulfilment of educated needs and is reflected in the skyline of the city. Professional buildings look down on the crowds that shuttle between them in a continual pilgrimage to the new cathedrals of health, education, and welfare. Healthy homes are transformed into hygienic apartments where one cannot be born, cannot be sick, and cannot die decently. Not only are helpful neighbours a vanishing species, but also liberal doctors who make house calls. Work places fit for apprenticeship turn into opaque mazes of corridors that permit access only to functionaries equipped with "identities" in mica holders pinned to their lapels. A world designed for service deliveries is the utopia of citizens turned into welfare recipients. + +The prevailing addiction to imputable needs on the part of the rich, and the paralyzing fascination with needs on the part of the poor, would indeed be irreversible if people actually fitted the calculus of needs. But this is not so. Beyond a certain level of intensity, medicine engenders helplessness and disease ; education turns into the major generator of a disabling division of labour; fast transportation systems turn urbanized people for about one-sixth of their waking hours into passengers, and for an equal amount of time into members of the road gang that works to pay Ford, Esso, and the highway department. The threshold at which medicine, education, and transportation turn into counterproductive tools has been reached in all the countries of the world with per capita incomes comparable at least to those prevalent in Cuba. In all countries examined, and contrary to the illusions propagated by the orthodoxies of both East and West, this specific counter-productivity bears no relation to the kind of school, vehicle, or health organization now used. It sets in when the capital-intensity of the production process passes a critical threshold. + +Our major institutions have acquired the uncanny power to subvert the very purposes for which they were originally engineered and financed. Under the rule of our most prestigious professions, our institutional tools have as their principal product paradoxical counterproductivity – the systematic disabling of the citizenry. A city built around wheels becomes inappropriate for feet, and no increase of wheels can overcome the engineered immobility of such cripples. Autonomous action is paralyzed by a surfeit of commodities and treatments. But this does not represent simply a net loss of satisfactions that do not happen to fit into the industrial age. The impotence to produce use-values ultimately renders counterpurposive the very commodities meant to replace them. The car, the doctor, the school, and the manager are then commodities that have turned into destructive nuisances for the consumer, and retain net value only for the provider of services. + +Why are there no rebellions against the coalescence of late industrial society into one huge disabling service delivery system? The chief explanation must be sought in the illusion-generating power that these same systems possess. Besides doing technical things to body and mind, professionally attended institutions function also as powerful rituals which generate credence in the things their managers promise. Besides teaching Johnny to read, schools also teach him that learning from teachers is "better", and that, without compulsory schools, fewer books would be read by the poor. Besides providing locomotion, the bus, just as much as the sedan, reshapes the environment and puts walking out of step. Besides providing help in avoiding taxes, lawyers also convey the notion that laws solve problems. An ever growing part of our major institutions" functions is the cultivation and maintenance of three sets of illusions which turn the citizen into a client to be saved by experts. + +#### Congestion versus paralysis + +The first enslaving illusion is the idea that people are born to be consumers and that they can attain any of their goals by purchasing goods and services. This illusion is due to an educated blindness to the worth of use-values in the total economy. In none of the economic models serving as national guidelines is there a variable to account for non-marketable use-values any more than there is a variable for nature’s perennial contribution. Yet there is no economy that would not collapse immediately if use-value production contracted beyond a point; for example, if homemaking were done only for wages, or intercourse engaged in only at a fee. What people do or make but will not or cannot put up for sale is as immeasurable and as invaluable for the economy as the oxygen they breathe. + +The illusion that economic models can ignore use-values springs from the assumption that those activities which we designate by intransitive verbs can be indefinitely replaced by institutionally defined staples referred to as nouns: "education" substituted for "I learn’; "health care" for "I heal’; transportation for "I move’; "television" for "I play". + +The confusion of personal and standardized values has spread throughout most domains. Under professional leadership, use-values are dissolved, rendered obsolete, and finally deprived of their distinctive nature. Love and institutional care become coterminous. Ten years of running a farm can be thrown into a pedagogical mixer and made equivalent to a high school degree. Things picked up at random and hatched in the freedom of the street are added as "educational experience" to things funneled into pupils" heads. The knowledge accountants seem unaware that the two activities, like oil and water, mix only as long as they are osterized by an educator’s perception. Gangs of crusading need-catchers could not continue to tax us, nor could they spend our resources on their tests, networks, and other nostrums if we did not remain paralyzed by this kind of greedy belief. + +The usefulness of staples, or packaged commodities, is intrinsically limited by two boundaries that must not be confused. First, queues will sooner or later stop the operation of any system that produces needs faster than the corresponding commodity and, second, dependence on commodities will sooner or later so determine needs that the autonomous production of a functional analogue will be paralyzed. The usefulness of commodities is limited by congestion and paralysis. Congestion and paralysis are both results of escalation in any sector of production, albeit results of a very different kind. Congestion, which is a measure of the degree to which staples get in their own way, explains why mass transportation by private car in Manhattan would be useless; it does not explain why people work hard to buy and insure cars that cannot move them. Even less does congestion alone explain why people become so dependent on vehicles that they are paralyzed and just cannot take to their feet. + +People become prisoners to time-consuming acceleration, stupefying education and sick-making medicine because beyond a certain threshold of intensity, dependence on a bill of industrial and professional goods destroys human potential, and does so in a specific way. Only up to a point can commodities replace what people make or do on their own. Only within limits can exchange-values satisfactorily replace use-values. Beyond this point, further production serves the interests of the professional producer – who has imputed the need to the consumer – and leaves the consumer befuddled and giddy, albeit richer. Needs satisfied rather than merely fed must be determined to a significant degree by the pleasure that is derived from the remembrance of personal autonomous action. There are boundaries beyond which commodities cannot be multiplied without disabling their consumer for this self-affirmation in action. + +Packages alone inevitably frustrate the consumer when their delivery paralyzes him or her. The measure of well-being in a society is thus never an equation in which these two modes of production are matched; it is always a balance that results when use-values and commodities fruitfully mesh in synergy. Only up to a point can heteronomous production of a commodity enhance and complement the autonomous production of the corresponding personal purpose. Beyond this point, the synergy between the two modes of production paradoxically turns against the purpose for which both use-value and commodity were intended. Occasionally, this is not clearly seen because the mainstream ecology movement tends to obscure the point. For example, atomic energy reactors have been widely criticized because their radiation is a threat, or because they foster technocratic controls. So far, however, only very few have dared to criticize them because they add to the energy glut. The paralysis of human action by socially destructive energy quanta has not yet been accepted as an argument for reducing the call for energy. Similarly, the inexorable limits to growth that are built into any service agency are still widely ignored. And yet it ought to be evident that the institutionalization of health care tends to make people into unhealthy marionettes, and that life long education fosters a culture of programmed people. Ecology will provide guidelines for a feasible form of modernity only when it is recognized that a man-made environment designed for commodities reduces personal aliveness to the point where the commodities themselves lose their value as means for personal satisfaction. Without this insight, industrial technology that was cleaner and less aggressive would be used for now-impossible levels of frustrating enrichment. + +It would be a mistake to attribute counterproductivity essentially to the negative externalities of economic growth, to exhaustion, pollution and various forms of congestion. This mistake would lead to confusing the congestion by which things get into his way, with the paralysis of the person who can no more exercise his autonomy in an environment designed for things. + +The fundamental reason why market intensity leads to counterproductivity must be sought in the relationship between the monopoly of commodities and human needs. This monopoly extends beyond its usual meaning. A commercial monopoly merely corners the market for one brand of whisky or car. An industry-wide cartel can restrict freedom further: it can corner all mass transportation in favour of internal combustion engines, as General Motors did when it purchased the Los Angeles trolleys. You can escape the first by sticking to rum and the second by purchasing a bicycle. I use the term "radical monopoly " to designate something else: the substitution of an industrial product or a professional service for a useful activity in which people engage or would like to engage. A radical monopoly paralyzes autonomous action in favour of professional deliveries. The more completely vehicles dislocate people, the more traffic managers will be needed and the more powerless people will be to walk home. This radical monopoly would accompany high-speed traffic even if motors were powered by sunshine and vehicles were spun of air. The longer each person is in the grip of education, the less time and inclination he has for browsing and exploration. At some point in every domain, the amount of goods delivered so degrades the environment for personal action that the possible synergy between use-values and commodities turns negative. Paradoxical, or specific, counterproductivity sets in. I will use this term whenever the impotence resulting from the substitution of a commodity for a value in use turns this commodity into a dis-value in the pursuit of the satisfaction it was meant to provide. + +#### Industrial versus convivial tools + +Man ceases to be recognizable as one of his kind when he can no longer shape his own needs by the more or less competent use of those tools that his culture provides. Throughout history, most tools were labour-intensive means that could be used to satisfy the user of the tool, and were used in domestic production. Only marginally were shovels or hammers used to produce pyramids or a surplus for gift-exchange, and even more rarely to produce things for the market. Occasions for the extraction of profits were limited. Most work was done to create use-values not destined for exchange. But technological progress has been consistently applied to develop a very different kind of tool: it has pressed the tool primarily into the production of marketable staples. At first, during the industrial revolution, the new technology reduced the worker on the job to a Charlie Chaplin of Modern Times. At this early stage, however, the industrial mode of production did not yet paralyze people when they were off the job. Now women or men, who have come to depend almost entirely on deliveries of standardized fragments produced by tools operated by anonymous others, have ceased to find the same direct satisfaction in the use of tools that stimulated the evolution of man and his cultures. Although their needs and their consumption have multiplied many times, their satisfaction in handling tools has become rare, and they have ceased to live a life for which the organism acquired its form. At best, they barely survive, even though they do so surrounded by glitter. Their life-span has become a chain of needs that have been met for the sake of ulterior striving for satisfaction. Ultimately man-the-passive-consumer loses even the ability to discriminate between living and survival. The gamble on insurance and the gleeful expectation of rations and therapies take the place of enjoyment. In such company, it becomes easy to forget that satisfaction and joy can result only as long as personal aliveness and engineered provisions are kept in balance while a goal is pursued. + +The delusion that tools in the service of market-orientated institutions can with impunity destroy the conditions for convivial and personally manageable means permits the extinction of "aliveness" by conceiving of technological progress as a kind of engineering product that licences more professional domination. This delusion says that tools, in order to become more efficient in the pursuit of a specific purpose, inevitably become more complex and inscrutable: one thinks of cockpits and cranes. Therefore, it seems that modern tools necessarily require special operators who are highly trained and who alone can be securely trusted. Actually, just the opposite is usually true, and ought to be so. As techniques multiply and become more specific, their use often requires less complex judgments. They no longer require that trust on the part of the client on which the autonomy of the liberal professional, and even that of the craftsman, was built. However far medicine has advanced, only a tiny fraction of the total volume of demonstrably useful medical services requires advanced training in an intelligent person. From a social point of view, we ought to reserve the designation "technical progress" to instances in which new tools expand the capacity and the effectiveness of a wider range of people, especially when new tools permit more autonomous production of use-values. + +There is nothing inevitable about the expanding professional monopoly over new technology. The great inventions of the last hundred years, such as new metals, ball-bearings, some building materials, electronics, some tests and remedies, are capable of increasing the power of both the heteronomous and the autonomous modes of production. In fact, however, most new technology has not been incorporated into convivial equipment, but into institutional packages and complexes. The professionals rather consistently have used industrial production to establish a radical monopoly by means of technology’s obvious power to serve its manager. Counterproductivity due to the paralysis of use-value production is fostered by this notion of technological progress. + +There is no simple "technological imperative" which requires that ball-bearings be used in motorized vehicles or that electronics be used to control the brain. The institutions of high-speed traffic and of mental health are not the necessary result of ball-bearings or electronics. Their functions are determined by the needs they are supposed to serve – needs that are overwhelmingly imputed and reinforced by disabling professions. This is a point that the young Turks in the professions seem to overlook when they justify their institutional allegiance by presenting themselves as the publicly appointed ministers of technological progress that must be domesticated. + +The same subservience to the idea of progress conceives of engineering principally as a contribution to institutional effectiveness. Scientific research is highly financed, but only if it can be applied for military use or for further professional domination. Alloys which make bicycles both stronger and lighter are a fall-out of research designed to make jets faster and weapons deadlier. But the results of most research go solely into industrial tools, thus making already huge machines even more complex and inscrutable. Because of this bias on the part of scientists and engineers, a major trend is strengthened: needs for autonomous action are precluded, while those for the acquisition of commodities are multiplied. Convivial tools which facilitate the individual’s enjoyment of use-values – without or with only minimal supervision by policemen, physicians, or inspectors – are polarized at two extremes: poor Asian workers and rich students and professors are the two kinds of people who ride bicycles. Perhaps without being conscious of their good fortune, both enjoy being free from this second illusion. + +Recently, some groups of professionals, government agencies, and international organizations have begun to explore, develop, and advocate small-scale, intermediate technology. These efforts might be interpreted as an attempt to avoid the more obvious vulgarities of a technological imperative. But most of the new technology designed for self-help in health care, education, or home building is only an alternative model of high-intensity dependence commodities. For example, experts are asked to design new medicine cabinets that allow people to follow the doctor’s orders over the telephone. Women are taught to determine themselves how ripe their breasts are for useless amputation by the surgeon. Cubans are given paid leaves from work to erect their pre-fabricated houses. The enticing prestige of professional products as they become cheaper ends by making rich and poor more alike. Both Bolivians and Swedes feel equally backward, underprivileged, and exploited to the degree that they learn without the supervision of certified teachers, keep healthy without the check-ups of a physician, and move about without a motorized crutch. + +#### Liberties versus rights + +The third disabling illusion looks to experts for limits to growth. Entire populations socialized to need on command are assumed ready to be told what they do not need. The same multinational agents that for a generation imposed an international standard of bookkeeping, deodorants, and energy consumption on rich and poor alike now sponsor the Club of Rome. Obediently, UNESCO gets into the act and trains experts in the regionalization of imputed needs. For their own imputed good, the rich are thereby programmed to pay for more costly professional dominance at home and to provide the poor with assigned needs of a cheaper and tighter brand. The brightest of the new professionals see clearly that growing scarcity pushes controls over needs ever upward. The central planning of output-optimal decentralization has become the most prestigious job of the late seventies. But what is not yet recognized is that this new illusory salvation by professionally decreed limits confuses liberties and rights. + +In each of the seven United Nations-defined world regions a new clergy is being trained to preach the appropriate style of austerity drafted by the new need-designers. Consciousness raisers roam through local communities inciting people to meet the decentralized production goals that have been assigned to them. Milking the family goat was a liberty until more ruthless planning made it a duty to contribute the yield to the GNP. + +The synergy of autonomous and heteronomous production is reflected in society’s balance of liberties and rights. Liberties protect use-values as rights protect the access to commodities. And just as commodities can extinguish the possibility of producing use-values and turn into impoverishing wealth, so the professional definition of rights can extinguish liberties and establish a tyranny that smothers people underneath their rights. + +The confusion is revealed with special clarity when one considers the experts on health. Health encompasses two aspects: liberties and rights. It designates the area of autonomy within which a person exercises control over his own biological states and over the conditions of his immediate environment. Simply stated, health is identical with the degree of lived freedom. Therefore, those concerned with the public good should work to guarantee the equitable distribution of health as freedom which, in turn, depends on environmental conditions that only organized political efforts can achieve. Beyond a certain level of intensity, professional health care, however equitably distributed, will smother health-as-freedom. In this fundamental sense, the care of health is a matter of well-protected liberty. + +As is evident, such a notion of health implies a principled commitment to inalienable freedoms. To understand this, one must distinguish clearly between civil liberty and civil rights. The liberty to act without restraint from government has a wider scope than the civil rights the state may enact to guarantee that people will have equal powers to obtain certain goods and services. + +Civil liberties ordinarily do not force others to act in accord with one’s own wishes. I have the freedom to speak and publish my opinion, but no specific newspaper is obliged to print it, nor are fellow citizens required to read it. I am free to paint as I see beauty, but no museum has to buy my canvas. At the same time, however, the state as guarantor of liberty can and does enact laws that protect the equal rights without which its members would not enjoy their freedoms. Such rights give meaning and reality to equality, while liberties give possibility and shape to freedom. One certain way to extinguish the freedoms to speak, to learn, to heal, or to care is to delimit them by transmogrifying civil rights into civic duties. The precise character of this third illusion is to believe that the publicly sponsored pursuit of rights leads inevitably to the protection of liberties. In reality, as society gives professionals the legitimacy to define rights, citizen freedoms evaporate. + +### Equity in useful unemployment + +At present, every new need that is professionally certified translates sooner or later into a right. The political pressure for the enactment of each right generates new jobs and commodities. Each new commodity degrades an activity by which people so far have been able to cope on their own; each new job takes away legitimacy from work so far done by the unemployed. The power of professions to measure what shall be good, right, and done warps the desire, willingness, and ability of the "common" man to live within his measure + +As soon as all law students currently registered at United States law schools are graduated, the number of United States lawyers will increase by about 50 per cent. Judicare will complement Medicare, as legal insurance increasingly turns into the kind of necessity that medical insurance is now. When the right of the citizen to a lawyer has been established, settling the dispute in the pub will be branded unenlightened or anti-social, as home births are now. Already the right of each citizen of Detroit to live in a home that has been professionally wired turns the auto-electrician who installs his own plugs into a lawbreaker. The loss of one liberty after another to be useful when out of a job or outside professional control is the unnamed, but also the most resented experience that comes with modernized poverty. By now the most significant privilege of high social status might well be some vestige of freedom for useful unemployment that is increasingly denied to the great majority. The insistence on the right to be taken care of and supplied has almost turned into the right of industries and professions to conquer clients, to supply them with their product, and by their deliveries to obliterate the environmental conditions that make unemployed activities useful. Thus, for the time being, the struggle for an equitable distribution of the time and the power to be useful to self and others outside employment or the draft has been effectively paralyzed. Work done off the paid job is looked down upon if not ignored. Autonomous activity threatens the employment level, generates deviance, and detracts from the GNP: therefore it is only improperly called "work". Labour no longer means effort or toil but the mysterious mate wedded to productive investments in plant. Work no longer means the creation of a value perceived by the worker but mainly a job, which is a social relationship. Unemployment means sad idleness, rather than the freedom to do things that are useful for oneself or for one’s neighbour. An active woman who runs a house and brings up children and takes in those of others is distinguished from a woman who "works", no matter how useless or damaging the product of this work might be. Activity, effort, achievement, or service outside a hierarchical relationship and unmeasured by professional standards, threatens a commodity-intensive society. The generation of use-values that escape effective measurement limits not only the need for more commodities but also the jobs that create them and the paycheques needed to buy them. + +What counts in a market-intensive society is not the effort to please or the pleasure that flows from that effort but the coupling of the labour force with capital. What counts is not the achievement of satisfaction that flows from action but the status of the social relationship that commands production – that is, the job, situation, post, or appointment. In the Middle Ages there was no salvation outside the Church, and the theologians had a hard time explaining what God did with those pagans who were visibly virtuous or saintly. Similarly, in contemporary society effort is not productive unless it is done at the behest of a boss, and economists have a hard time dealing with the obvious usefulness of people when they are outside the corporate control of a corporation, volunteer agency, or labour camp. Work is productive, respectable, worthy of the citizen only when the work process is planned, monitored, and controlled by a professional agent, who insures that the work meets a certified need in a standardized fashion. In an advanced industrial society it becomes almost impossible to seek, even to imagine, unemployment as a condition for autonomous, useful work. The infrastructure of society is so arranged that only the job gives access to the tools of production, and this monopoly of commodity production over the generation of use-values turns even more stringent as the state takes over. Only with a license may you teach a child; only at a clinic may you set a broken bone. Housework, handicrafts, subsistence agriculture, radical technology, learning exchanges, and the like are degraded into activities for the idle, the unproductive, the very poor, or the very rich. A society that fosters intense dependence on commodities thus turns its unemployed into either its poor or its dependents. In 1945, for each American Social Security recipient there were still 35 workers on the job. In 1977, 3.2 employed workers have to support one such retiree, who is himself dependent on many more services than his retired grandfather could have imagined. + +Henceforth the quality of a society and of its culture will depend on the status of its unemployed: will they be the most representative productive citizens, or will they be dependants? The choice or crisis again seems clear: advanced industrial society can degenerate into a holding operation harking back to the dream of the sixties; into a well-rationed distribution system that doles out decreasing commodities and jobs and trains its citizens for more standardized consumption and more powerless work. This is the attitude reflected in the policy proposals of most governments at present, from Germany to China, albeit a fundamental difference in degree: the richer the country, the more urgent it seems to ration access to jobs and to impede useful unemployment that would threaten the volume of the labour market. The inverse, of course, is equally possible: a modern society in which frustrated workers organize to protect the freedom of people to be useful outside the activities that result in the production of commodities. But again, this social alternative depends on a new, rational, and cynical competence of the common man when faced with the professional imputation of needs. + +### Outflanking the new professional + +Today, professional power is clearly threatened by increasing evidence of the counterproductivity of its output. People are beginning to see that such hegemony deprives them of their right to politics. The symbolic power of experts which, while defining needs, eviscerates personal competence is now seen to be more perilous than their technical capability, which is confined to servicing the needs they create. Simultaneously, one hears the repeated call for the enactment of legislation that might lead us beyond an age dominated by the professional ethos: the demand that professional and bureaucratic licensing be replaced by the investiture of elected citizens, rather than altered by the inclusion of consumer representatives on licensing boards; the demand that prescription rules in pharmacies, curricula, and other pretentious supermarkets be relaxed; the demand for the protection of productive liberties; the demand for the right to practice without a license; the demand for public utilities that facilitate client evaluation of all practitioners who work for money. In response to these threats, the major professional establishments, each in its own way, use three fundamental strategies to shore up the erosion of their legitimacy and power. + +#### The self-critical hooker + +The first approach is represented by the Club of Rome. Fiat, Volkswagen, and Ford pay economists, ecologists, and experts in social control to identify the products industries ought not to produce, in order to strengthen the industrial system. Also, doctors in the Club of Kos now recommend that surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy be abandoned in the treatment of most cancers, since these treatments usually prolong and intensify suffering without adding to the life of the treated. Lawyers and dentists promise to police, as never before, the competence, decency, and rates of their fellow professionals. + +A variant of this approach is seen in some individuals or their organizations, who challenge the American Bar Association, British Medical Association, and other power brokers of the establishment. These claim to be radical because, 1) they advise consumers against the interests of the majority of their peers; 2) they tutor laymen on how to behave on hospital, university, or police governing boards; and 3) they occasionally testify to legislative committees on the uselessness of procedures proposed by the professions and demanded by the public. For example, in a province of Western Canada doctors prepared a report on some two dozen medical procedures for which the legislature was considering a budget increase. All the procedures were costly, and the doctors pointed out that they were also very painful, and many were dangerous, and that none could be proven effective. For the time being the legislators refused to act on such medical advice, a failure that, provisionally, tends to reinforce the belief in the necessity of professional protection against professional hubris. + +Professional self-policing is useful principally in catching the grossly incompetent – the butcher or the outright charlatan. But as has been shown again and again, it only protects the inept and cements the dependence of the public on their services. The "critical" doctor, the "radical" lawyer, or the "advocacy" architect seduces clients away from his colleagues, who are less aware than he of the vagaries of fashion. First liberal professions sell the public on the need for their services by promising to watch over the poorer layman’s schooling, ethics or inservice training. Then dominant professions insist on their rightful duty to guide and further disable the public by organizing into clubs that brandish the high consciousness of ecological, economic, and social constraints. Such action inhibits the further extension of the professional sector but strengthens public dependence within that sector. The idea that professionals have a right to serve the public is thus of very recent origin. Their struggle to establish and legitimate this corporate right becomes one of our most oppressive social threats. + +#### The alliance of hawkers + +The second strategy seeks to organize and coordinate professional response in a manner that purportedly is more faithful to the multifaceted character of human problems. Also, this approach seeks to utilize ideas borrowed from systems analysis and operations research in order to provide more national and all-encompassing solutions. An example of what this means in practice can be taken from Canada. Some years ago, the Minister of Health launched a campaign to convince the public that spending more money on physicians would not change the country’s patterns of disease and death. He pointed out that premature loss of life-time was due overwhelmingly to three factors: accidents, mostly in motor vehicles; heart disease and lung cancer, which doctors are notoriously powerless to heal; and suicide combined with murder, phenomena that are outside medical control. The minister called for new approaches to health and for the retrenchment of medicine. The task of protecting, restoring, or consoling those made sick by the destructive life-style and environment typical of contemporary Canada was taken up by a great variety of new and old professions. Architects discovered that they had a mission to improve Canadians" health; dog-control was found to be an inter- departmental problem calling for new specialists. A new corporate biocracy intensified control over the organisms of Canadians with a thoroughness the old iatrocracy could hardly have imagined. The slogan "better spend money in order to stay healthy than on doctors when you get sick" can now be recognized as the hawking of new hookers who want the money spent on them. + +The practice of medicine in the United States illustrates a similar dynamic. There, a coordinated approach to the health of Americans has become enormously expensive without being especially effective. In 1950, the typical wage-earner transferred less than two weeks pay per year to professional health care. In 1976, the proportion was up to around five to seven weeks pay per year: buying a new Ford, one now pays more for worker hygiene than for the metal the car contains. Yet with all this effort and expense, the life expectancy of the adult male population has not sensibly changed in the last one hundred years. It is lower than in many poor countries, and has been declining slowly but steadily for the last twenty years. + +Where disease patterns have changed for the better, it has been due principally to the adoption of a healthier life-style, especially in diet. To a small degree, inoculations and the routine administration of such simple interventions as antibiotics, contraceptives, or Carman tubes have contributed to the decline of certain diseases. But such procedures do not postulate the need for professional services. People cannot become healthier by being more firmly wedded to a medical profession, yet many "radical" doctors call for just such an increased biocracy. They seem to be unaware that a more rational " problem-solving " approach is simply another version, though perhaps more sophisticated, of affirmative action. + +#### The professionalization of the client + +The third strategy to make dominant professions survive is this year’s radical chic. As the prophets of the sixties drooled about development on the door-steps of affluence these myth makers mouth about the self-help of professionalized clients. + +In the United States alone since 1965, about 2700 books have appeared that teach you how to be your own patient, so that you need see the doctor only when it is worthwhile for him. Some books recommend that only after due training and examination should graduates in self-medication be empowered to buy aspirin and dispense it to their children. Others suggest that professionalized patients should receive preferential rates in hospitals and that they should benefit from lower insurance premiums. Only women with a license to practice home birth should have their children outside hospitals since such professional mothers can, if necessary, be sued for malpractice. I have seen a "radical" proposal that such a license to birth be obtained under feminist rather than medical auspices. + +The professional dream of rooting each hierarchy of needs in the grassroots goes under the banner of self-help. At present it is promoted by the new tribe of experts in self-help who have replaced the experts in development of the sixties. The universal professionalization of clients is their aim. American building experts who last autumn invaded Mexico serve as an example of the new Crusade. About two years ago a Boston professor of architecture came to Mexico for a vacation. A Mexican friend of mine took him beyond the airport where, during the last twelve years, a new city had grown up. From a few huts, it had mushroomed into a community three times the size of Cambridge, Massachusetts. My friend, also an architect, wanted to show him the thousands of examples of peasant ingenuity with patterns, structures, and uses of refuse not in and therefore not derivable from textbooks. He should not have been surprised that his colleague took several hundred rolls of pictures of these brilliant amateur inventions that make the two-million-person slum work. The pictures were analyzed in Cambridge; and by the end of the year, new-baked United States specialists in community architecture were busy teaching the people of Ciudad Netzahualcoyotl their problems, needs, and solutions. + +### The post-professional ethos + +The inverse of professionally certified lack, need, and poverty is modern subsistence. The term "subsistence economy" is now generally used only to designate group survival which is marginal to market- dependence and in which people make what they use by means of traditional tools and within an inherited, often unexamined, social organization. I propose to recover the term by speaking about modern subsistence. Let us call modern subsistence the style of life that prevails in a post-industrial economy in which people have succeeded in reducing their market dependence, and have done so by protecting – by political means – a social infrastructure in which techniques and tools are used primarily to generate use-values that are unmeasured and unmeasurable by professional need-makers. I have developed a theory of such tools elsewhere ( Tools for Conviviality, Calder & Boyars, 1973), proposed the technical term "convivial tool" for use-value-orientated engineered artefacts. I have shown that the inverse of progressive modernized poverty is politically generated convivial austerity that protects freedom and equity in the use of such tools. + +A retooling of contemporary society with convivial rather than industrial tools implies a shift of emphasis in our struggle for social justice; it implies a new kind of subordination of distributive to participatory justice. In an industrial society, individuals are trained for extreme specialization. They are rendered impotent to shape or to satisfy their own needs. They depend on commodities and on the managers who sign the prescriptions for them. The right to diagnosis of need, prescription of therapy, and – in general – distribution of goods predominates in ethics, politics, and law. This emphasis on the right to imputed necessities shrinks the liberty to learn or to heal or to move on one’s own to fragile luxuries. In a convivial society, the opposite would be true. The protection of equity in the exercise of personal liberties would be the predominant concern of a society based on radical technology: science and technique at the service of a more effective use-value generation. Obviously, such equitably distributed liberty would be meaningless if it were not grounded in the right of equal access to raw materials, tools, and utilities. Food, fuel, fresh air, or living space can no more be equitably distributed than wrenches or jobs unless they are rationed without regard to imputed need, that is, in equal maximum amounts to young and old, cripple and president. A society dedicated to the protection of equally distributed, modern and effective tools for the exercise of productive liberties cannot come into existence unless the commodities and resources on which the exercise of these liberties is based are equally distributed to all. + +[^n01:]"Deschooling Society" (1971); "Tools for Conviviality" (1973); "Energy & Equity" (1974); "Medical Nemesis – The Expropriation of Health" (1976); "Disabling Professions" (1977)] diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/es.txt b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/es.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..104cc11 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../es/book/unemployment/es.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/index.txt b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dada828 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/book/unemployment/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# The Right to Useful Unemployment + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:en|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1978 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** ... + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/en/footer.txt b/data/pages/en/footer.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1aa7999 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/footer.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +<html><center>Contact us on <a href="mailto:info@ivanilli.ch" class="mail" title="info@acerv.us">info@acerv.us</a></center></html> diff --git a/data/pages/en/index.txt b/data/pages/en/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe8c59a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,594 @@ + +# English + + +## Original books series + + +* 1951 - Die philosophischen Grundlagen der Geschichtsschreibung bei Arnold Joseph +Toynbee _(The Philosophical Foundations of Historiography in Arnold Joseph Toynbee's Work)_ + +* [[en:book:awareness:index|1970 - Celebration Of Awareness]] + +* [[en:book:deschooling:index|1970 - Deschooling Society]] + +* [[en:book:church:index|1970 - The Church, Change and Development]] + +* [[en:book:conviviality:index|1973 - Tools for Conviviality]] + +* [[en:book:energy:index|1973 - Energy And Equity]] + +* [[en:book:medical:index|1975 - Medical Nemesis-The Expropriation Of Health]] + +* [[en:book:unemployment:index|1978 - The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies]] + +* [[en:book:shadow:index|1981 - Shadow Work]] + +* [[en:book:gender:index|1982 - Gender ]] + +* [[en:book:school:index|1984 - School into Museum]] + +* [[en:book:h20:index|1985 - H2O And The Waters Of Forgetfulness]] + +* [[en:book:abc:index|1988 - ABC-The Alphabetization Of The Popular Mind]] + +* [[en:book:mirror:index|1992 - In The Mirror Of The Past-Lectures And Addresses, 1978-1990]] + +* [[en:book:vineyard:index|1993 - In The Vineyard Of The Text-A Commentary To Hugh's Didascalicon]] + +### Compilations + + +* [[en:1977:index|1977 - Toward A History Of Needs]] ((includes "Energy And Equity" and "The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies")) + +* [[en:1977b:index|1977 - Disabling professions]] ((includes only on text of Illich and from other authors)) + + +## Articles + +### 1950's + +* 1953 - Basic Policies for Courses of Missionary Formation + * Requested at: https://findingaids.library.uic.edu/sc/MSICUI89.xml + +* [[en:article:1955-the_american_parish:index|1955 - The American Parish]] + +* 1955 - Can a Catholic Get a Divorce? + * in Integrity, vol. 9, n. 7, aprile 1955, pp. 7-10; + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +* 1955 - Sacred Virginity + +* 1956 - Puerto Ricans in New York + * En Celebration + * Otro titulo: Puerto Ricans in New York + +* 1956 - Rehearsal for Death + +* 1958 - The End of Human Life + +1958 - The Pastoral Care of Puerto Rican Migrants in New York + * in Social Compass, vol. 5, nn. 5-6, marzo 1958, pp. 256-260. + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +### 1960's + +* 1960 - Missionary Silence + +* [[en:article:1961-bootcamp_for_urbanites:index|1961 - Boot Camp for Urbanites]] + +* 1961 - Brazil + * in Data for DECISION in Latin America, novembre 1961, + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +* 1961 - Spiritual Poverty and the Missionary Character + +* 1962 - The Lay Missionary in Latin America + +* 1962 - Education and Economic Development + * in Data for DECISION in Latin America, maggio/giugno/luglio 1962, + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +* 1963 - The Predicament of the Church and the Task of the Religious Orders + +* 1964 - Religion and the Universities: An Invitation to Discussion + * in CIF Reports, vol. 2, febbraio 1964, poi in «CIDOC Cuaderno No. 37», 1969, pp. 16-18, + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +* 1964 - A Note from the Publisher + * in CIF Reports, vol. 2, n. 10, marzo 1964, pp. 3-4; poi in «CIDOC Cuaderno No. 37», 1969, pp. 10/3-4. I + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +* 1964 - The Education of Submarginal People + * in Joseph P. Fitzpatrick (a c. di), Educational Planning and Socio-Economic Development in Latin America, «Sondeos No. 9», 1966, pp. 159-161. + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +* 1965 - Dear Father Kevane + +* 1966 - Concerning Aesthetic and Religious Experience + +* [[en:article:1968-the_redistribution_of_educational_tasks:index|1968 - The Redistribution of Educational Tasks between Schools and Other Organs of Society]] + +* 1967 - Dear Mary: Letter to an American Volunteer + +* 1967 - Yankee, Go Home: The American Do-Gooder in South America + +* 1967 - The Church, Change and Development + +* 1967 - The Seamy Side of Charity + * the powerless church + * Las sombras de la caridad + +* 1967 - The Vanishing Clergyman + * the powerless church + * la metamorfosis del clero + +* 1967 - To be perfectly frank + +* 1967 - The Secular City and the Structure of Religious Life: A Discussion Outline + * Cuernavaca 1967, in CIDOC Informa, gennaio-giugno 1968, «CIDOC Cuaderno No. 20», vol. 6, 1968, pp. 51a/1-9. + * in Obras Completas Italianas 1 + +* 1968 - Violence: A Mirror for Americans + +* 1968 - La escuela, esa vieja y gorda vaca sagrada + * 1969 - Commencement at the University of Puerto Rico + * 1968 - To Hell with Good Intentions + +* 1969 - Between Jail and Campus: The Chaplain’s Halfway House + +* 1969 - The need for counterfoil research. Address to the Canadian Institute of Public Affairs at Couchiching + * En CIDOC DOC + + +### 1970's + +* 1970 - Mission and Midwifery, Part I: Missionary Formation Based on Missiology + +* 1970 - Mission and Midwifery, Part II: Selection and Formation of the Missionary + +* 1970 - Missionary Poverty + +* 1970 - Missionary Silence + + +* 1970 - Beecher Lectures + * Cuadernos CIDOC ; No.1002 + +* 1970 - Ivan Illich Writes Pope Paul + +* 1970 - A Call to Celebration + +* 1973 - Abolishing schools 1 + * In New York Times, May 3, 1971. page 37. + +* 1971 - Draft for an address to the American Educational Research Association meeting in New York + * February 6, 1971. CIDOC, Doc. A/E 71/282. + +* 1971 - The Powerless Church + +* 1971 - De-schooling the Teaching Orders + +* 1971 - Por qué debemos abolir la trata escolar + * Cuaderno 66 + +* 1971 - Contra la religión de la escuela + * Cuaderno 66 + +* 1971 - The Alternative to Schooling + * In: "Saturday Review". 19 June 1971 + +* 1971 - The Breakdown of Schools: A Problem or a Symptom? + +* 1971 - Society and Imagination + +* **1971 - The Evolution of the School** + +* **1971 - The Roots of Human Liberation** + +* **1971 - This Book Is About Schools** + +* 1971 - The institutionalization of truth + * En Tradition and revolution, Lionel Rubinoff (solicitado a Harvard) + +* 1972 - How Will We Pass on Christianity? + +* 1972 - Foreword to Letters from the desert + +* **1972 - Education: Knowledge Capitalism** + * CIDOC. No. 39, + +* 1972 - A Center Conference: Toward a Society without Schools + * CIDOC DOCUMENTA Alternatives in Education V. 2, + +* 1972 - Identity and the nature of revolution + * In Latin America: The Dynamics of Social Change: https://hollis.harvard.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=01HVD_ALMA211929995010003941&context=L&vid=HVD2&lang=en_US&search_scope=everything&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=everything&query=any,contains,Latin%20America:%20The%20Dynamics%20of%20Social%20Change&offset=0 + +* **1972 - Hacía una sociedad convivencial** + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 1021 + +* 1972 - Institutional Inversion + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 1017 + +* 1972 - Mr Chief Justice Burger and the disestablishment of schooling + * in CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 76 + +* 1972 - Anglo American Law and a convivial society + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 82 + +* 1972 - Gradual change or violent revolution in Latin America? + +* 1973 - After Deschooling, What? + * Un Mundo sin escuelas + +* **1973 - An Expansion of the Concept of Alienation** + +* 1973 - La necesidad de un techno común; el control social de latecnología. + +* 1973 0 Maintaining a Wattage Threshold. + * In: "The New York Times".; p. 33 + +* 1973 - Limits of Therapy + * Preparatory Documents for 1974 CIDOC + +* 1973 - Herramientas para la convivencia + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 1027 + +* 1973 - La escuela y la represion de nuestros hijos + +* 1973 - National Health Insurance and the People's + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 + +* 1973 - On the Political Uses of Natural Death + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 + +* 1973 - Para reencontrar la vida + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 + +* 1973 - Recycling the World + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 84 + +* 1973 - The illusion of unlimited Health Insurance + * In: CIDOC Documenta I/V, Julio 1971 - Agosto 1972. In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 82 + +* 1974 - Discurso en el Colegio de Abogados de San Juan, Puerto Rico, el 15 de abril de 1974 + * In: CIDOC DOCUMENTA I/V + +* 1974 - Lima Discourse + +* 1974 - The Annual Encyclopaedia Brittanica Lecture, Edinburgh + +* 1975 - Crisis en la didáctica, 2a parte. + +* 1975 - Introduction + * In: CIDOC CUADERNO. No. 90 + +* 1975 - La educación autocrítica + * and Paulo Freire + +* 1975 - Pilgrims of the Obvious: A Conversation with Ivan Illich and Paulo Freire + * In: "Risk" + +* 1975 - The industrialization of medicine + * In: "Ciba Found Symp" + +* 1975 - The medicalization of life + * In: "Journal of Medical Ethics. The Journal of the Society for the Study of Medical Ethics" + +* 1975 - The Recovery of Health + * In: "Cross Currents" + +* 1976 - Political Inversion + * Included in "Imprisoned in the Global Classroom" + +* 1976 - Medicine Is a Major Threat to Health + * [Co-author: Keen, Sam.] In: "Psychology Today" + +* 1976 - The age of professional dominance + * [A draft.] In: "TECNO-POLITICA". Doc. Cuernavaca, (México) + +* 1977 - Factors in Contemporary Medicine + +* 1978 - Alternativas de la educacion + * In: Coleccion Afluente. Ed. Apex: Buenos Aires; 116 + +* 1978 - In Lieu of Education + * In: Illich, Ivan: Toward a history of needs + +* 1978 - Tantalizing Needs + * In: Illich, Ivan: Toward a history of needs + +* 1978 - Introduction + * In: Doctors on trial. + +* 1978 - Taught Mother Tongue + * In Mirror + * Other name: Taught mother language and vernacular tongue + * In the book "Multilingualism and mother-tongue education" with Debi Prasanna Pattanayak + +* 1978 - Introduction to "The Inverse of Managed Health" + * [Co-author: Illich, Ivan.] In: "Social Alternatives". with Borremans, Valentina + +* [[en:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index|1978 - The Message of Bapu’s Hut]] + +* 1979 - Preface + * In: Borremanns,Valentina: Guide to convivial tools + +* 1979 - The New Frontier for Arrogance: Colonization of the Informal Sector + +* 1979 - Vernacular Values and Education + +* 1979 - The Educational Sphere + * In Mirror + +### 1980's + +* 1980 - Alternativas del desarrollo. In: "El Viejo Topo". + +* 1980 - Los profesionales de la impotencia. + * In: "Construcción, Arquitectura y Urbanismo". 61, Col. Of. de Arquitectos Téc. y Aparejadores de Cataluña: Barcelona; + +* 1980 - Hugh - or, Science by People + +* 1980 - The De-linking of Peace and Development + * In Mirror + +* 1981 - Multilingualism and mother-tongue education (with Pattanayak, Debi Prasanna) + +* 1981 - On Education + * In: "New Education". + +* 1981 - La guerra contra la subsistencia: antología. + * In: Coleccion "Esta America". + * Otro titulo: La represión del ámbito vernáculo. + +* 1982 - Medicalization and primary care + * In: "The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners". + +* 1982 - Silence is a Commons. + * In mirror + * Otro titulo: La sociedad gestionada mediante computadoras + +* Draft for a lecture in Berlin + +* 1983 - I Too Have Decided to Keep Silent + * In Mirror + +* 1984 - Dwelling + * In Mirror + +* 1984 - Eco Paedagogics and the Commons + * In: "Education". no. 2, 6, p. 29-34 + +* 1985 - In the vineyard of text + * (primero en aleman?) + +* 1985 - Twelve Years after Medical Nemesis: A Plea for Body History + * Escribir la historia del cuerpo doce años después de Nemesis médica. In: "Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura". No 15, Archipiélago: Barcelona; p + +* 1986 - Education as a problem of scarcity of means + +* 1986 - A plea for body history + +* 1986 - A Plea for Research on Lay Literacy + * In Mirror + +* [[en:article:1986-disvalue:index|1986 - Disvalue]] + +* 1987 - El género del espacio. El hogar vernáculo + * In: "Av. Arquitectura y vivienda". 12, Soc.Estatal de Gestión para la Rehabilitación y Construcción de la Vivienda: Madrid + +* 1987 - Hospitality and Pain. + +* 1987 - Computer Literacy and the Cybernetic Dream. + * In Mirror + +* 1987 - Medical Ethics: A Call to De-bunk Bio-ethics. + * In Mirror + +* 1988 - Needs + +* 1988 - The Educational Enterprise in the Light of the Gospel + +* 1988 - Alternatives to Economics: Toward a History of Waste + * In Mirror + +* 1989 - Posthumous Longevity. An open letter to a cloistered community of Benedictine nuns, 1989. + +* 1989 - The Institutional Construction of a New Fetish: Human Life + * In Mirror + +* 1989 - The Shadow that the Future Throws + +* 1989 - Commentary on Robert J. Fox + +### 1990's + +* 1990 - A-mortality + +* 1990 - Introduction to A-mortality + +* 1990 - Drugs + +* 1990 - Declaration On Soil + +* 1990 - Health as One's Own Responsibility - No, Thank You! + +* 1990 - Mnemosyne: The Mold of Memory. 'The Object of Objects: An Elegy for the Anchored Text' + +* 1990 - The Loudspeaker on the Tower + +* 1990 - The Sad Loss of Gender + +* 1991 - Comment: The Last Modern Century + +* 1991 - Preface In: Arney, William Ray: Experts in the Age of Systems + +* 1991 - Mente letrada versus mente informática + * In: "Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura". No 7 + +* 1991 - Text and University - on the idea and history of a unique institution + +* 1991 - The Earthy Virtue of Place + +* 1992 - Autostop + +* 1992 - The loss of world and flesh + +* 1993 - Guarding the Eye in the Age of Show. + +* 1993 - Lectio divina. + +* 1993 - To Honor Jaques Ellul. + +* 1994 - An Address to "Master Jacques" + +* **1994 - Blasphemy: A Radical Critique of Technological Culture** + +* 1994 - Coping with sickness + +* 1994 - Brave New Biocracy: Health Care From Womb to Tomb + +* 1994 - La ilusión fundamental + * In: "Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura". No 18-19, Archipiélago: + +* 1994 - Pathogenesis, Immunity and the Quality of Health Care. + +* 1994 - The Wisdom of Leopold Kohr + +* 1994 - Unhappy paradoxes of medicine + +* 1995 - Death Undefeated: From Medicine to Medicalisation to Systematisation + +* 1995 - Statements by Jacques Ellul and Ivan Illich + * In: "Technology in Society". no. 2, 1995, volume 17, p. 231-235 + +* 1995 - The Scopic Past and the Ethics of the Gaze. A plea for the historical study of ocular perception + +* [[en:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives:index|1995 - Foreword to "Deschooling Our Lives"]] + +* 1996 - Education in the Perspective of the Dropout + * In: "Bulletin of Science, Technology andSociety". + +* 1996 - Health + * In: "Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society". no. 5/6, 1996, v + +* 1996 - Living Off the Waste of Development. + * In: "New Perspectives Quarterly" no. 3, June 1996, 13, p. 10-11 + +* 1996 - Philosophy... Artifacts... Friendship - and the History of the Gaze + +* 1996 - Speed? What Speed? + * Same: "From Fast to Quick" + +* 1997 - The Image of Objectivity + +* 1997 - To Hell with Life + +* 1997 - Beauty in Proportion + * In: "Resurgence: an international forum for ecological and spiritual thinking". Issue 185, + +* 1997 - Homo educandus lost. Education and Technology: Asking the Right Questions + +* 1997 - Slow Is Beautiful. In: "New Perspectives Quarterly" + * Gardels, Nathan ed.; issue 1, volume 14 + +* 1997 - The Immorality of Bioethics + +* [[en:article:1998-conspiracy:index|1998 - The Cultivation of Conspiracy]] + +* 1998 - La reindinvicación de la casa + * In: "Archipiélago: cuadernos de crítica de la cultura". No 34-35, Archipiélago + +* 1998 - And do not lead us into diagnosis, but deliver us of the pursuit of health + +* 1999 - The Conditional Human + + +## Other resources + + +* [[en:videos:index|Videos]] + +* 1969 - A conversation with Ivan Illich. Illich, Ivan, 1926-2002; WCNY-TV (Television station) Syracuse, N.Y. Interviewer: Carl Illenberg. + +* 1970 - The Institutionalization of Truth + * This is a videotape of a lecture (about 55 minutes) delivered in the spring of 1970 at York University in Toronto, Canada. + +### Audios + +#### Available + + +* 1968 - "Yesterday I Could Not Sleep Because Yesterday I Wrote My Name..." Sept. 30, 1968. Tape No. AS7915-7916/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 00:42:00 + +* 1968 - Education in Developing Countries, Sept. 30, 1968. Tape AS17029/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 1:30:00. + +* 1969 - A Privileged Place. Apr. 25, 1969. - Tape No. AS8075/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 21:09 + +* 1973 - Retooling Society, Feb. 26, 1973. Tape No. A20644/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:34:43 + +* 1976 - Reflections on Medical Nemesis, Apr. 20, 1976. Tape No. AS20944/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:05:53 + +* 1976 - Lecture: "The Art of Dying (Ars Moriendi)," Apr. 21, 1976. Tape No. A5838/R7. 1:34:40 + +* 1981 - In Conversation with Ivan Illich (2 tapes), Apr. 23-24, 1981. Tape No. AS21511-21512/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: 2:48:19 (Tape 1) and 2:22:32 (Tape 2). + +* 1989 - Cayley, David (1989): Part Moon Part Travelling Salesman: Conversations with Ivan Illich. + +* 2002 - Cayley, David; (Illich, Ivan) (2000/2002): The corruption of christianity. Ivan Illich on Gospel, +Church and Society. + + +#### Requested + +* 1971 - John Wilkinson - Discussions with Ivan Illich in Mexico [?], (4 tapes), 1971. Tape No. AS10964-10967/R7. Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions Collection. Duration: ? + +* 1971 - Telephone Conversation with Ivan Illich + * Requested to [[http://www.johnohliger.org/contact.html|Chris Wagner]] from John Ohliger Institue on 26/1/2022. + * Audio-tape of an amplified long distance telephone conversation with Illich made on April 16, 1971. For about 35 minutes students and faculty at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio questioned Illich in Cuernavaca, Mexico about his ideas on deschooling. (For information on availability write to John Ohliger at the address on the last page of this bibliography.) + +#### Missing + +* 1970 - Alternatives in Education + * Available here: https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106571535506196 + * Audiotape. About two hours. (Order at 775.00 from Reg Herman, Managing Editor, Conucenas, P.O. Box 250, Station F, Toronto 5, Ontario, Canada: This is a tape of a lecture delivered by Illich at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education on December 2, 1970. The chairman of the meeting announced that he hnd been informed by Illich that this was the last time he would talk on education and that he now hone: to move on to other things and leave the problems of education to other people or people he had managed to convert. Approximately the last half of the tare is devoted to a question and answer session with the audience. The tape is seven inch, 3 3/b i.p.s. half-track. + +* 1971 - Disestablishing education. Los Angeles, Calif. : Pacifica Tape Library. 2 cassettes (101 min.) + * Available at: https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106673061806196 + +* 1971 - Ivan Illich on educational alternatives. CBC. + * Available at: https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106005915006196 + +* 1975 - What Education Expresses. Pacifica Tape Library: Los Angeles; Audiocassette (Other/3553) + +* 1986 - On Literacy. Teach'em: Chicago; Audiocassette (Other/3549) + +* 1989 - The STS Curriculum. Infotainment Inc.: Ottawa, ON; Videocassette (Other/3550) + +* Illich, Ivan (19??): Askese des Blicks. In: Reihe Autobahn Universität. Vortrag auf Cassette. Carl-Auer-Systeme Verlag: Heidelberg; (Other/2504) + +* 1971 - Goodman, Paul; Illich, Ivan (19??): Authenticity and Change. Living Library Corporation: New York;Audiocassette (Other/3539) + * Available here: https://librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/14bjeso/alma991106590271806196 + + + +### Interviews (in text) + +* 1972 - Barry Schwartz: Deschooling, an interview with Ivan Illich. In: "Affirmative Education" + +* 1976 - De Santana, Hubert (1976): Interview with Ivan Illich. In: "Maclean's". p. 8-9 + +* 1977 - Illich, Ivan (1977): Revolting Development: An Exchange with Ivan Illich. In: "International Development +Review". no. 4, 19, p. 303-315 + +* 1987 - Interview with Douglas Lummis + +* 1996 - Land of Found Friends: Conversation among Ivan Illich, Jerry Brown, and Carl Mitcham. + +* 1997 - Twenty-Six Years Later: Majid Rahnema in conversation with Ivan Illich. (D/4042/135-0) + +* 1989 - Cayley, David (1989): Part Moon Part Travelling Salesman: Conversations with Ivan Illich. + +* 2002 - Cayley, David; (Illich, Ivan) (2000/2002): The corruption of christianity. Ivan Illich on Gospel, +Church and Society. diff --git a/data/pages/en/videos/1972/index.txt b/data/pages/en/videos/1972/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5327e82 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/videos/1972/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +# Un Certain Regard with Ivan Illich (1972) + +* Ivan Illich talks with Jean-Marie Domenach in Paris, in 1972 for the TV series _"Un Certain Regard"_ (In some perspective) +* Original title: Un Certain Regard dans Ivan Illich +* Duration: 52' +* Language: French +* Subtitles: [[.:en|English]] | [[.:es|Spanish]] +* Script: [[.:script|Transcripted script]] + +"Un certain regard" is a section of the Cannes Film Festival's official selection. Ivan Illich, talks with Jean-Marie Domenach in Paris, in 1972. + +The conversation ranges over the myth of Pandora, Epimetheus and Prometheus, the replacement of hope with expectation, compulsory schooling as the "organ of reproduction" of knowlege-capitalist societies, the need for a politics of consensually-determined upper limits on the applications of technology... and personal friendship as the bedrock of work in the world. + +---- + +<html> +<iframe src="https://archive.org/embed/1972-ivan_illich_un_certain_regard" width="100%" height="480" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="true" mozallowfullscreen="true" allowfullscreen></iframe> +</html>
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/videos/1972/script.txt b/data/pages/en/videos/1972/script.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0a66411 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/videos/1972/script.txt @@ -0,0 +1,587 @@ +## Transcription + +Le Service de la recherche de l'RTF présente dans la série Un certain regard Ivan Illich. + +Curieux du monde, inquiet du monde, amoureux des hommes et des dieux, Ivan Illich naît à Vienne en 1926 sur la terre d'Europe, fragile et instable. Il lui faut être un peu partout, là où le permet son origine juive. + +Il apprend huit langues, s'adresse aussi à Dieu et devient prêtre, évêque, puis renonce à la hiérarchie pour être toujours le voyageur en quête de justice et de vie. Comme les cristaux qu'il a aussi étudiés, sa parole est faite de paillettes anguleuses, géométriques où l'histoire, la philosophie et la science éclosent en un apparent désordre avant de prendre forme : des étoiles de pensées. + +On peut certes croire à d'autres soleils ou révérer des astres morts et les lumières d'Illich peuvent ne paraître que de lointaines nébuleuses. + +Un certain regard est, ce soir celui d'un astronome de l'humain. + +Entretien mené par Jean-Marie Domenach + +---- + +**Illich :** +Et tu connais l'histoire. Elle est venue, et il y avait deux frères : Prométhée, celui qui regarde en avant, le planificateur, et son frère Épiméthée, celui qui regarde en arrière. Prométhée a dit à Épiméthée : " La touche pas ". Mais Épiméthée est tombé amoureux de Pandore et resté avec elle. L'histoire dit, a ouvert son amphore. Et Hésiode ## [0:02:01.7 inaudible] raconte que tous les maux se sont échappés et Épiméthée est resté avec l'unique don qui n'a pas pu échapper, l'espoir. Et on le rencontre presque plus dans toute la mythologie classique ; toute la mythologie classique dès lors est orientée vers l'avenir, vers l'effort de mettre de nouveau dans une boîte les maux que la Pandore classique a laissé échapper. L'homme Épiméthée se développe en essayant de détourner la Pandore, concentrer sur les maux et cherchant de créer un monde dans lequel nous avons des institutions je les appelle, des asiles pour renfermer les différents maux qui originalement étaient échappés. + +Je crois que l'histoire de Pandore, pour me répéter, l'histoire de Pandore est la meilleure histoire du détournement de l'homme du Delphos de la terre, de l'interprétation des songes et des images vers l'homme qui planifie. Tu sais que Delphi plus tard est devenu le centre principal de planification parce que toutes les, comment dit-on - + +**Domenach :** +Les Grecs. + +**Illich :** +Oui, les cités grecques ont été implantées là où les prêtres de Delphos disaient qu'ils devaient être implantés. Ils savaient un peu plus parce que tout le monde venait à Delphi raconter ses histoires alors ils pouvaient donner les bons conseils comme les planificateurs aujourd'hui les donnent parce qu'ils écoutent ce qu'on dit dans le peuple et prédisent pour l'avenir ce qu'ils voient déjà dans le présent. + +Sur son sexe tu trouves le serpent avec une tête de mort. C'est la femme dont la matrice a été envoyée dans ses mains et devenue une tirelire. Pour moi, c'est une des figures les plus intéressantes, Pandore, dans l'histoire de l'Occident. Je crois que tout le développement du capitalisme, de ce que j'appelle moi le capitalisme dans son sens plus large, peut s'étudier en connaissant ## [0:04:15.6 cette dame?]. Si nous ne retournons pas dans ce moment-ci vers Pandora Gea qui vit, qui vivait, et je crois encore qui vit dans sa cave à Delphos, si nous ne devenons pas capables à nouveau d'être conscients du langage des songes qu'elle peut interpréter, nous sommes condamnés ; le monde ne peut pas survivre. + +Regarde ce qui s'est passé dans la cave quand elle est devenue une caisse. Les prêtres mâles d'Apollon qui venaient de l'Asie Mineure substituaient Pandore dans sa cave et installaient à son endroit sur le tripode une petite fille qu'ils prenaient prisonnière, qu'ils droguaient pour lui faire dire des choses, et après ça dans des hexamètres, dans des hexamètres, prédisaient l'avenir comme aujourd'hui les ingénieurs. J'ai l'impression qu'aujourd'hui dans une nouvelle forme, une nouvelle Pythia - on dit " Pythia " en français, non? + +**Domenach :** +Pythie. + +**Illich :** +Une nouvelle Pythie a été établie dans la forme du computer, la calculatrice, la machine électronique qui nous parle plus en hexamètres, mais en dodécamètres avec son rythme de douze bits par figure. C'est la fin du monde. C'est la dernière ultime conclusion à laquelle on est arrivé par la substitution de la Pythia, d'un monde qui voyait Pandore comme tenant une caisse, pour la vieille mère terre que nous voyons maintenant, notre génération, les jeunes au moins de nouveau, comme l'étoile bleue qu'on regarde avec nostalgie de la lune. + +Cette Vierge Marie dégénérée, dans sa forme dégénérée comme dispensatrice des grâces, est arrivée au Mexique avec les Espagnols, mais les Espagnols ont trouvé là une autre déesse, une terre de laquelle un autre peuple primitif avait une vision très différente, la Tonantzin, et ont identifié la Vierge Marie avec la Tonantzin comme les premiers chrétiens ont identifié la Vierge Marie avec la Gaia hellénistique, très souvent pas avec la vieille Pandore, Gea Pandora. Et la Tonantzin, c'est une déesse complètement différente. Je la vois toujours de notre balcon. + +**Domenach :** +À Cuernavaca. + +**Illich :** +Oui, nous avons les deux grands volcans, le Popocatepetl et sa femme, la Tonantzin Iztaccihuatl entre les pieds de laquelle le soleil monte tous les jours. Mais c'est un monde qu'ici en Europe on ne comprend pas parce que le soir, c'est Tonantzin qui mange le soleil et donne naissance aux étoiles ; elle le mange le soir et c'est la raison pour laquelle l'estomac de la Tonantzin est plein d'os des vieilles étoiles mangées. Tu vois toute la problématique aussi de l'extension de la culture occidentale vers les Amériques quand on cherche d'identifier à travers le symbole, en moyennant le symbole de la Vierge Marie, la Gea hellénisée avec la Tonantzin néolithique des Aztèques. Or, il faudrait parler beaucoup sur ça. + +**Domenach :** +Tu nous as parlé de ces déesses qui nous entourent et au cours de notre conversation, tu n'as pas mentionné le nom du Christ. Est-ce que c'est exprès? + +**Illich :** +Tu vois, je n'aime pas parler dans une manière superficielle de mes amis. Et quand on va un pas en avant, je crois que le nom de Dieu normalement dans ce moment-ci, on l'utilise en vain pour justifier quelque chose. J'espérerais de faire savoir que je l'aime sans en parler. C'est presqu'impossible aujourd'hui de le faire sans tomber dans des ambiguïtés très méchantes, très très méchantes. + +**Domenach :** +C'est qu'il y a l'institution aussi et l'inversion de l'institution. Qu'est-ce que ça veut dire quand cette institution se réclame du Christ? + +**Illich :** +Écoute, l'institution se conçoit sur le modèle politique, sur le modèle d'une administration, d'une bureaucratie, ## [0:09:33.1 même dans une?] Bible je sais. Que j'ai mes racines en elle, dans ce sens c'est ## [0:09:40.6 la mère?]. On est fichu avec elle pour la vie, comme toi avec ta femme. Et je sais aussi de la Bible qu'elle est une putaine et je cesserais d'être Romain, Chrétien Romain de l'église que le Seigneur a fondé, si je n'aurais pas le courage de m'identifier comme fils de putaine. Mais ça, ce sont des choses, tu vois, l'aliénation est telle qu'on voit tout de suite et avec du réalisme que si je parlerais de l'Église telle qu'elle est en décadence. + +En France ou à Rome ou dans bien des pays en Amérique latine, je m'identifierais avec un parti, des exploiteurs peut-être, des exploiteurs de gauche plutôt que de droite. Acceptons l'ambiguïté d'être des fils d'une mère indigne, mais pas de nous. Et dans un certain sens, ça te fait aussi voir quelle devrait être peut-être notre attitude vers l'institution. En fait, dans l'Occident, l'unique grande tradition d'étude, d'analyse d'une institution qui ne se définit pas comme état est l'ecclésiologie. Et c'est en appliquant la grande pensée de l'ecclésiologie, en la sécularisant profondément qu'on peut peut-être dire plus de choses sur ces nouvelles religions qui cherchent de produire des grâces temporelles qui s'appellent l'éducation, la santé, le bien-être, qu'on arrive à une vision plus claire de ce qui doit être une inversion institutionnelle. Des institutions présentes et même l'Église cherchent de produire la grâce lorsqu'elles devraient être des tables autour desquelles je te retrouve au nom du mystère. Et je récupère le sens intime toujours personnel de l'espérance plutôt que permettre que l'espérance devienne comme on a dit avant, aliénée et donner raison à ce que, en étudiant la langue française telle qu'elle est, Camus nous donne sur ce point. + +**Domenach :** +Et tu penses que l'Église fait beaucoup de choses, peut faire beaucoup de choses dans l'Amérique latine, où tu es surtout - elle est en train de faire ça. + +**Illich :** +Mais oui, elle est encore une institution qui a du pouvoir. Et pour cette raison-là, elle pourrait utiliser ce pouvoir du côté par exemple de ceux qui s'identifient aujourd'hui comme la gauche, et même la gauche assez radicale. Et certains le font. Mais inévitablement alors, elle se compromettrait de nouveau avec un nouveau pouvoir qui dans ce moment-ci recherche simplement d'augmenter la production, le GNP au nom de tous. Et je crois qu'il faut plutôt chercher dans le message évangélique l'inspiration, le courage, le sens d'humour, le sens de relativité des choses, la peur de Dieu. + +Je t'explique ce que je veux dire, ce que nous avons juste maintenant discuté. C'est la nécessité de fonder la survie du monde sur une nouvelle politique qui cherche des accords majoritaires sur ce qui est assez bon, assez vite, assez de vie. Je parle de la pauvreté d'esprit dans le sens le plus profond parce que ce sera des pauvres que sera cette terre nous dit l'Évangile. Il y a une étrange convergence entre la béatitude de la pauvreté si on la comprend dans ces termes politiques et que nous discutons ici et ce que la raison nous fait voir comme inévitable pour qu'on survive dans un monde dans lequel l'homme est devenu presque tout puissant. + +Et‚ ... un grand théologien du XVIe siècle, commentant sur la Somme de Saint Thomas, sur la relation entre les béatitudes et les dons du Saint-Esprit, fait voir comment Saint Thomas appelle la crainte de Dieu comme la base de la béatitude de la pauvreté, parce que la crainte qui n'est pas servile, parce que j'ai peur de toi parce que tu pourrais me battre, mais la crainte qui est amicale : je ne veux que rien entre toi et moi. La peur des choses qui pourraient m'empêcher d'être en contact avec toi est vraiment la base de cette pauvreté, de cette nécessité de limites supérieures qui doivent venir maintenant directrices pour une politique. Maintenant tu peux dire que c'est de l'utopie, je te dis non, mais que ce soit une croyance dans l'essentielle bonté de l'homme, même s'il est gravement blessé. Oui. + + +**Domenach :** +Ivan, j'ai encore une question à te poser. Tu as dit tout à l'heure que tu avais tes racines dans la Bible. J'ai l'impression que tu as des pairs dans presque tous les pays. Pourquoi t'es-tu installé dans la mesure où tu t'es installé, parce que parfois tu me fais penser au bohémien supérieur comme dit Wright Mills, tu sais les intellectuels qui vont de New York à Paris, de Paris à Tokyo. T'es-tu installé en Amérique latine et spécialement au Mexique? + +**Illich :** +Mais c'est toujours dit ma patrie, oui. Ma patrie dans le sens que je suis un fils adoptif, pas du Mexique. Je suis pas - par conviction déloyal à toute nation, à tout drapeau. Mais j'ai des amis ; tu en connais l'un ou l'autre, l'une ou l'autre. J'ai des amis et l'amitié me tient là, certainement pas des convictions. Mais enfin, tu sais que j'ai eu un peu le même sentiment quand je me suis trouvé au travail avec les Portoricains à New York, dans une paroisse ; +20 000 gens venus des Tropiques dans ce taudis misérable. Là, j'ai connu la pauvreté, là j'ai compris ce que c'est qu'être pauvre, dire être pauvre. J'ai connu le Nord-Est du Brésil plus tard. Mais je n'ai jamais plus revu la misère, l'indignité des Portoricains à New York et ça m'a conduit à Porto Rico, à Porto Rico. + +**Domenach :** +C'est à ce moment que tu as appris leur langue. + +**Illich :** +Oui, et c'est pour ça que je n'ai jamais appris bien l'Espagnol. Le Portugais, que j'ai appris bien dans notre école, le Portugais de Cuernavaca, que nous avions fondée à Rio de Janeiro, je l'ai appris de telle manière de me perdre dans le carnaval. Mais dans l'Espagnol, je parlerai toujours comme un Portoricain de New York. + +**Domenach :** +Tu parles presque huit langues. + +**Illich :** +Oui. + +**Domenach :** +Quelle est la tienne? Est-ce qu'il y en a une qui est la tienne? + +**Illich :** +Non, je suis un homme sans langue maternelle, je crois. C'est très dur, tu sais, parce que je me suis éveillé à la conscience en trois ou quatre langues simultanément et ça t'explique bien de choses. + + + +**Domenach :** +Et pourquoi es-tu allé, comment es-tu allé vers ces Portoricains dont l'expérience a été pour toi fondamentale - par hasard ou parce que tu voulais vivre avec les pauvres? + +**Illich :** +Oui, par hasard. + +**Domenach :** +Par hasard. + +**Illich :** +Par hasard. J'étais à New York pour faire des études dans une bibliothèque et j'ai rencontré les Portoricains à la 108e. J'étais arrivé à New York après - + +**Domenach :** +Des études sur quoi? + +**Illich :** +Disons, de profession - je suis cristallographe. + +**Domenach :** +Cristallographe. + +**Illich :** +Même si j'ai fait ma thèse en histoire plus tard, mais c'est, c'est, c'est‚ ... ce sont ces certifications du savoir. Mais je les ai rencontrés à New York, je me suis fasciné. Je demandais de pouvoir travailler dans une paroisse ou vivre dans une paroisse où il y avait des Portoricains. J'étais tout seul au milieu de l'addiction à la drogue. + +**Domenach :** +Tu étais déjà prêtre à ce moment-là? + +**Illich :** +Oui, j'étais prêtre. J'ai fait, ce sont mes quatre années de travail de prêtre si tu veux, mais au milieu d'une situation qui est très difficile à décrire. Mais j'avais, je sais pas pourquoi, mais j'étais rappelé des années de jouer en cachettes en face d'Hitler comme déclaré Juif d'un moment à l'autre pendant la guerre. C'est comme ça que je suis tombé de là ; la vie m'a porté à Porto Rico et Porto Rico m'a mis à la porte. + +**Domenach :** +À la porte. + + +**Illich :** +Oui. + +**Domenach :** +Le gouvernement? + +**Illich :** +Le gouvernement ensemble avec l'Église parce que je me moquais des folies. + +**Domenach :** +Des folies. Des folies ostentatoires tu veux dire. + +**Illich :** +Oui, oui, oui. De l'incorporation, de la charité à travers l'incorporation dans le marché nord-américain. + +**Domenach :** +Et alors tu es retourné à New York tout de suite - + +**Illich :** +Non, non, non, non, non. Avec un groupe d'amis, on a décidé qu'il faut créer une base indépendante, une république intellectuelle indépendante. À Cuernavaca, nous avons établi ce centre qui gagne sa vie et son indépendance en vendant une ressource naturelle qui est tout à fait remplaçable, la langue espagnole. Nous enseignons l'espagnol, exploitant aussi le français, mais tout le monde qui croit que nous sommes des génies à l'enseigner, c'est simplement la manière de survivre. Nous sommes cré - les coûts, une certaine indépendance intell - disons politique. Et maintenant nous avons ce club duquel tu sais qu'il y a 300-400 personnes qui y viennent, des pauvres et des riches, des gens de l'Amérique latine et même de l'Afrique pour y discuter l'un avec l'autre et chacun fait lo que le da la gana, comme on dit en Espagnol. + +**Domenach :** +Une sorte d'université. + +**Illich :** +Oui, mais il y a aucun universitaire y compris la directrice dans les 60 personnes qui la font marcher ou qui font marcher les publications, la bibliothèque. C'est populaire dans ce sens et c'est très difficile de décrire ## [0:21:17.5 si c'est?] pratique ou théorique parce que ça nous donne à certains d'entre nous, la possibilité d'être dans bien des endroits de l'Amérique latine profondément présent. + + + +**Domenach :** +Est-ce que tu penses que l'expérience du fonctionnement de Cuernavaca est positive et que c'est un modèle qui pourrait être exporté maintenant, imité disons? + +**Illich :** +Non, je ne me prononce pas. + +**Domenach :** +Pas encore. + +**Illich :** +Je ne me prononce pas. Je sais pas. Je crois que c'est tellement simple. + +**Domenach :** +Combien d'années? + +**Illich :** +Dix ans. Dix ans et ça fonctionne. Mais je crois que vraiment, toute personne qui perdrait ce sens d'infériorité que la damnée scolarisation, scolarité mentale donne et dirait, " Moi je vais réunir des amis pour discuter sur telle affaire et dans ce but, j'ouvre un petit café ", ferait la même chose. Et en effet, ça se passe maintenant, pas dans les capitales de l'Amérique latine, mais dans bien des endroits, les petits villages. + +**Domenach :** +C'est la véritable université populaire. + +**Illich :** +Oui, mais ça ne doit pas s'appeler université. + +**Domenach :** +Et maintenant qu'est-ce que tu veux faire? Quel est ton projet? + +**Illich :** +Je ne sais pas. Je ne sais pas. + +**Domenach :** +Étudier? + +**Illich :** +Vivre. Je ne suis pas Prométhéen, tu sais. + +**Domenach :** +Ni poète. +**Illich :** +C'est à toi à décider de cette‚ ... si je suis mauvais. + +**Domenach :** +Pourquoi t'ont-ils mis à la porte de Porto Rico, hein? Pourquoi? + +**Illich :** +Parce que, à ce moment-là, j'étais un des cinq membres du comité qui dirige toute l'éducation publique à Porto Rico et aussi Recteur de l'université catholique. J'insistais que le 42 % du budget national de Porto Rico dédié à la scolarité n'était pas suffisant. Je voulais encore plus d'argent pour la scolarité publique parce que je croyais que les collèges privés faisaient une compétition sale, les collèges catholiques, cherchant d'acquérir plus de prestige et de cette manière-là, réduisant l'école publique à une école de seconde classe. Et je me suis rendu impossible, soit avec l'établissement libéral qu'avec l'établissement ecclésiastique et de droite. Et bien, j'ai un peu honte de parler de ça parce que, plus tard, l'analyse de l'Amérique latine à travers lequel je me suis promené pendant une année dans le passage de Cuernavaca à Porto Rico, de Porto Rico à Cuernavaca - + +**Domenach :** +Tu t'es promené en profondeur, je crois que tu en as fait une bonne partie à pied. + +**Illich :** +Oui, je l'ai fait comme les vieux Espagnols, à pied d'un bout à l'autre et c'est assez long. Mais en tout cas, je me suis rendu compte que mon erreur, que je partageais avec bien des autres, était de croire que c'est à travers une réforme de l'école qu'on puisse changer la productivité de l'institution et la distribution. C'est seulement plus tard que je me suis rendu compte que tant que l'école reste école, son sous-produit non désirable est bien pire que le produit dans ses meilleures conditions que les gamins apprennent quelque chose. + +Parce que qu'est-ce que vous voulez‚ ... à l'école, l'enfant apprend avant tout que, apprendre est le résultat d'un processus d'institution officiel. Il apprend que, d'année en année, on devient d'une valeur plus grande personnelle parce qu'on accumule plus une nouvelle couche d'un bien spirituel, d'un bien non tangible. On apprend que ce qui est valable à apprendre, ce qui me servira plus tard, ou peut-être ce qui servira à la société plus tard, c'est ce qui peut être transmis par quelqu'un qui est professionnel. On apprend que, enseigner, si on n'est pas professionnellement instituteur, est en quelque forme, moins valable. + +Alors toute la critique de l'école est postérieure à l'année 60. Je crois que nous avons eu un certain succès à susciter la pensée sur la nécessité de la déscolarisation des sociétés, d'imaginer une société qui est plus simple avec une technologie plus transparente, ce qui suppose les limites desquelles on a parlé avant, et desquelles on va encore parler. Maintenant je crois que notre tâche à Cuernavaca serait - et nous y sommes mis totalement - à faire des analyses analogues dans le domaine de la santé, dans le domaine des mythes de la vitesse et dans le domaine habitationnel. En Amérique latine dans tous nos pays maintenant, les critères minimums qui déterminent si une maison est habitable ou peut être rasée s'il ne plaît pas à la ville sont si complexes qu'une maison qui correspond au minimum d'habitabilité coûte par mois un loyer supérieur aux entrées du 80 % de notre population. Dans tous ces domaines de l'éducation, de la santé, de l'habitation, ce qu'il faut faire, c'est de mettre dans les mains des gens des nouveaux instruments que la technologie nous donne pour qu'ils s'abritent, se soignent, apprennent. La vidéothèque même n'est pas tellement chère aujourd'hui. Ça veut dire retransformer notre langage ; dans notre langage présent, nous appelons, nous, nous utilisons comme substantifs des concepts qui avant étaient exprimés par des verbes actifs. On est dans un moment qu'on connaît très bien de la décadence de l'Empire romain, de la Gnose ## [0:27:58.2 inaudible] ; savoir est transformé dans le stock du savoir auquel on peut acheter des certificats ou obtenir des certifications. On est particulièrement capable de l'accumuler parce qu'on est fait pour être un capitaliste du savoir par caractère. + +**Domenach :** +Cette école que tu attaques, ça a été une des fonctions principales de notre progrès culturel et social et, comment peux-tu imaginer une société sans école? + +**Illich :** +Avant de comprendre ou de parler de la société sans école - qui était la société de toutes les époques historiques et qui est la société dans laquelle vivent encore les trois quarts de l'humanité qui ne vont pas à l'école ou sont exclus par l'école après un an ou deux ans, et dans ce sens, ils sont dans une condition pire parce qu'à l'école, ils ont appris seulement qu'ils sont inférieurs à ceux qui sont avancés dans l'école - il faut comprendre le mal que l'école fait. Maintenant, dans ce but, il faut distinguer clairement entre ce que l'élève ou son instituteur personnellement font dans certaines circonstances et ce que l'école structurellement inévitablement fait. + +Quelques fois, un élève apprend quelque chose d'un instituteur, et chacun de nous se rappelle que quelques fois, pendant sa jeunesse, il a eu une journée, une heure très illuminante avec un maître. Mais ça, c'est quelque chose de bien différent de ce que l'école enseigne dans le monde entier. Elle enseigne à l'enfant qu'il a besoin de l'institution pour apprendre. Il enseigne à l'enfant qu'il ne peut pas apprendre ce qu'un autre a jugé appartient à une place supérieure. Il enseigne à l'enfant de se sentir classé par un bureaucrate. L'école enseigne inévitablement à l'enfant que l'enseignement que la société respectera est le produit d'une institution, établie par cette institution et par des experts qui savent comment produire cette marchandise. L'école inévitablement introjecte le capitalisme, la capitalisation du savoir, parce que c'est le capitaliste en savoir qui peut démontrer avec des certificats ce qu'il a accumulé intérieurement auquel la société reconnaît une valeur sociale supérieure à celui qui a des certificats d'action de niveau inférieur. + +L'école, dès le moment où elle est devenue obligatoire - et comme je t'ai dit, dans la majorité des pays, elle est obligatoire, mais insuffisante pour la grande majorité même sur ce niveau obligatoire - dans le monde entier l'école a été établie comme l'organe reproductif de la société. La Russie se reproduit moyennant la même institution qu'utilisent les États-Unis : l'assistance cependant mille heures par année dans des groupements d'âges spécifiques d'une trentaine d'enfants autour d'un professeur pour des années successives pour accumuler intérieurement le savoir. L'école est à la racine d'une spiritualisation du capitalisme. Et il n'y a pas de possibilité d'alternative au capitalisme tant qu'on continue de capitaliser les gens en savoir pour une réalité qui devient toujours plus complexe pour pouvoir justifier la nécessité de cette capitalisation. + +**Domenach :** +En France où l'école publique a été liée à toute la lutte pour le progrès, quand tu parles de déscolariser les gens se disent : " Mais il veut nous faire retourner à l'époque du Moyen Âge! ". + +**Illich :** +Je sais, mais c'est tellement difficile de parler du capitalisme des biens non tangibles. Et les gens souvent ne comprennent pas qu'à travers l'école et particulièrement l'école obligatoire, on a transformé la croissance, l'apprendre, l'épanouissement en résultats de la consommation d'un produit d'une grande institution de type international : l'école. On a traduit croissance personnelle en éducation qui est égale à scolarité. Et ça devrait être logique qu'une fois qu'on fait cette traduction et la rendre obligatoire, l'éducation, le savoir même, devient une marchandise même si elle est produite comme dans la majorité des pays d'aujourd'hui sous contrôle d'état par un ministère ; l'éducation ou mieux encore le savoir devient rare dès le moment qu'il devient une marchandise. + +Le vrai problème, le vrai défi aujourd'hui pour le socialisme c'est de se rendre compte de la nature de marchandise des traitements social, des traitements, je crois c'est " traitement " la parole, non? Des thérapies qu'on définit comme produit institutionnel. Parce que tout ce bavardage sur la pollution - qui a des raisons très sérieuses d'être parce qu'on est en train de détruire la nature de Pandore - ne font pas de sens si on ne se rend pas compte qu'on peut détruire de la même manière la convivance sociale, la texture sociale, si on suit l'exemple de la Russie ou des États-Unis, cherchant de développer le secteur tertiaire, le secteur des services obligatoires, arrivant à transformer tous les besoins interpersonnels - le besoin d'être assisté quand je suis malade ou mourant, le besoin de m'ouvrir au monde et de m'illuminer sur ce qui se passe dans le monde quand je suis jeune, le besoin de passer d'un endroit à l'autre dans le transport - si on transforme tout ça en marchandise. + +Quand Marx écrivait son fameux premier chapitre du Capital, pour lui la marchandise était avant tout un morceau d'étoffe. Il était tangible. Mais si tu le lis avec attention, c'est très clair que ce vieux monsieur étrange voyait quand il parle du ## [0:35:18.1 Sprung über der Abgrund?], voyait ce qu'un jour pourrait se passer particulièrement dans ce beau chapitre où il dit : et de cette manière-là, on pourrait avoir toujours plus de choses utiles et de personnes inutiles. Il se rendait compte que le moment pourrait arriver quand tous les services pour l'homme deviendraient des marchandises. Je ne crois pas que le problème de la dégradation du monde présent, la triple dégradation du monde moderne laquelle je parle tout de suite puisse se solutionner si les politiciens et les idéologues ne se rendent pas compte de la nature marchandise que nous avons donnée au nom bien souvent du socialisme à tous les traitements. + +Maintenant quand je parle de triple pollution, de la triple dégradation dans le monde, je pense toujours l'élimination des ressources ultérieure, la dégradation ou dévaluation de la marchandise de laquelle on dépend et de laquelle on devient esclave et de la polarisation sociale. Restons dans le cas de l'école. Une fois que je traduis éducation ou savoir en scolarité, automatiquement il y aura certains qui pour certaines raisons seront sélectionnés pour en avoir beaucoup plus que les autres et qui justifieront leur privilège économique, social, politique par le fait qu'ils ont accumulé spirituellement une marchandise non tangible qui s'appelle le savoir. + +Ce qu'il faut comprendre c'est qu'un monde technologique dans lequel on n'a pas besoin de spécialistes est un monde dans lequel certaines dimensions de la technologie, possibles à travers la technologie, sont radicalement limitées au bien du peuple. Tout le monde au Pérou saurait comment se réparer son âme mécanique, si c'était une âme mécanique, et personne même Monsieur le Président ou l'ambulance ne pourrait pas venir à une vélocité supérieure à 15 kilomètres. Tout le monde au Pérou ou au Mexique pourrait apprendre comment faire les analyses de sang nécessaires pour identifier le 90 % des maladies desquelles aujourd'hui les jeunes meurent dans une question de deux semaines et d'administrer les médecines correspondantes. Mais pour ça, il faudrait éliminer la possibilité d'avoir dans un petit pays comme le Honduras, deux bombes cobalt en compétition l'une avec l'autre qui sert uniquement à ceux qui sont déjà devenus des capitalistes du savoir, ça veut dire ceux qui ont accumulé, introjectant une éducation qui est disponible sur un marché - ça ne fais aucune différence si c'est un marché de type occidental ou oriental - comme marchandise. + +**Domenach :** +La question qui me préoccupe et que je te pose, cet optimum social, économique, qui le définit et qui en fera une politique? + +**Illich :** +Écoute, je parle d'un maximum, pas d'un - relationné probablement à un optimum, et je dis que dans un monde dans lequel toute dimension devient possible scientifiquement, toute vélocité devient possible, toute prolongation de vie devient possible. Celui qui dirigeait le programme des fusées aux États-Unis maintenant, le mois dernier, a laissé son travail pour se dédier à la production de l'immortalité. Mais tout devient possible à certains tant que la grande majorité est prête à faire les esclaves pour envoyer un homme à la lune ; dans un tel monde, c'est inévitable que la politique s'oriente à créer un toit, un profil de ce que nous considérons dans certaines dimensions suffisant pour nous. + + +**Domenach :** +Prométhée, l'homme du travail et de la révolte contre les dieux, continue de vivre avec nous. Mais l'autre, Épiméthée, on n'en parle plus. Tu crois qu'il est encore vivant? + +**Illich :** +Il est la figure mythologique oubliée dans l'Occident. C'est l'homme qui reste avec Pandore, qui a fermé son amphore avant que l'espérance pouvait échapper. C'est l'homme qui reste avec l'autre. Et Épiméthée, c'est l'homme qui a inventé l'espoir, qui a inventé la planification, la création du monde pour l'homme lorsqu'Épiméthée reste avec l'autre dans le monde. Et je crois que le vrai problème aujourd'hui, c'est celui de récupérer une signification profondément humaniste dans cette terre, sur cette terre de l'espoir dans l'autre. L'espoir a été aliéné en devenant le produit d'institution supernaturel, surnaturel qui produisait à travers des rites un espoir dans un autre monde, et dans ce sens-là Camus a eu raison de soulever ce problème-là. + +**Domenach :** +Mais l'espoir justement, il faut le réintégrer à nous n'est-ce pas? À nos vies. + +**Illich :** +À nous, à nous. + +**Domenach :** +À nous, c'est-à-dire sous une forme de communauté ou comme tu dis, de convivialité. + +**Illich :** +Exactement. + +**Domenach :** +C'est-à-dire une manière de vivre ensemble qui ne soit plus de nous projeter vers les choses. + +**Illich :** +Oui, exactement. Il faut se rendre compte que la productivité des institutions arrive à un certain point où il commence à étouffer, rendre impossible notre disponibilité à la convivialité. On arrive à un certain point où toute une culture peut être tellement orientée vers la réalisation de la vie humaine à travers la consommation de biens et de services qu'on devient incapable, comme membre typique de cette culture, de dépendre de la surprise que l'autre, même s'il n'est pas un professionnel, même s'il n'est pas membre d'une institution, même s'il n'a pas appris quelque chose de spécial, peut me soigner, je peux apprendre de lui. Il faut opposer l'espérance récupérée à l'espoir dans le sens de l'anglais, expectation, rising expectation. Il faut de nouveau apprendre à opposer la disponibilité à la surprise par toi, à l'expectative, à l'espoir que l'institution me donnera le produit que j'ai appris à planifier et à déterminer d'avance. Je crois que cette récupération de la capacité de dépendre l'un de l'autre, même dans les sociétés technologiques qui sont les sociétés les plus malades dans l'Occident et dans l'Orient, est la grande tâche de ce moment-ci. + +Normalement on voit le problème de l'avenir, aujourd'hui quand on discute, comme nous avons discuté ces jours ici, comme un effort de rendre les institutions plus productives, de protection contre les maux que Pandora a laissé échapper et de distribuer mieux le résultat, le produit de ces institutions. Je crois que la vraie tâche, c'est une inversion des institutions. + +**Domenach :** +Oui. Tu sais bien ce qu'on dit de ces idées-là. On dit que c'est de l'utopie. + +**Illich :** +Je sais pas à quoi opposer l'utopie. On l'oppose comme tous les managers d'homme au réalisme, ce qu'eux appellent le réalisme. Je parle de simplification, je parle d'inversion institutionnelle et je parle de déprofessionnalisation et tous les trois me semblent des exigences inévitables si nous voulons survivre et pour cette raison-là, dans mon sens, réalistes. Je parle de simplification et très souvent les gens disent, ah c'est un autre de ces songeurs dans la grande tradition du retour à la nature primitive. Je n'ai rien contre l'identification avec les conservateurs néologiques, je n'ai rien contre l'idée qu'on m'appelle un conservateur néolithique. + +**Domenach :** +Néolithique. + +**Illich :** +Oui, c'est une désignation. + +Je parle de la nécessité de la simplification de la vie si nous voulons avoir une terre qui est bonne. Parce que ceux qui parlent contre la simplification pour le progrès continuel, progressus populorum, dans le latin médiéval, ça veut dire les peuples qui deviennent fous, disent qu'on ne sait jamais ce qui est bon et bien parce que le bon est toujours le plus. Je parle de l'inversion des institutions. Au lieu des institutions que nous avons qui sont des éventails, des emboutoires, des entonnoirs, pour donner le savoir à l'enfant, je demande des institutions qui mettent à la disposition de celui qui veut apprendre un monde assez simple pour pouvoir apprendre de la vie, plutôt que d'apprendre sur la vie. + +Je crois, en marchant à travers toute l'Amérique latine de Caracas jusqu'à Santiago, pendant des mois et des mois, j'ai eu tellement d'occasions de vivre dans des petits villages, que les gens savent comment vivre sainement plutôt que d'avoir besoin de médecins qui leur produisent des services de santé pour vivre sur le navire spatial terre comme les écologistes, mécanisistes s'expriment avec tel plaisir. Et finalement je crois dans la déprofessionnalisation ; je la vois au‚ ... On a su déprofessionnaliser l'écrire et le lire ; pourquoi pas déprofessionnaliser comme font les Chinois presque toute la médecine. Nous savons que dans les accidents, la majorité des gens meurent parce que celui qui est près d'eux dans ce moment-là ne sait pas quoi faire. Ça veut dire je parle de la repersonnalisation des valeurs, des échanges et des services sur un niveau de compétence qui n'aurait pas pu être songé avant la technique moderne. Je crois que la condition principale pour pouvoir rendre politiquement faisable ce dont je discute sont des accords majoritaires sur certaines dimensions base dans lesquelles nous visons telle vitesse est suffisante, tel outillage pour la santé est suffisant. Et même si tu veux l'avoir, au moins socialement, on ne produit pas plus pour toi que ce qui a été décidé comme assez bon pour tout le monde par accord communautaire. + +Dans le moment présent et depuis la Révolution française de plus en plus, on définit comme but d'une démocratie de définir en commun le minimum que tout le monde doit avoir. Je propose une inversion de ce concept, de faire but principal d'une politique saine la recherche du maximum sur lequel tout le monde peut se mettre d'accord que c'est suffisant pour chacun. Je parle pour cette raison-là en économie d'un passage, d'une économie fondée sur la circulation vers une économie d'un État stable qui reconnaît que le monde est limité, n'est pas un système ouvert, le monde physique, matériel, et qui reconnaît que l'invention, la poésie, l'imagination par définition s'ils sont vrais ne sont pas des marchandises et pour cette raison-là, illimités. + +Pour le dire encore une fois, si c'est plus [0:49:07.9 simple?], quand on me demande si je suis utopiste, je dis, je parle pour la simplification et pas pour le romanticisme. Je parle pour l'inversion de la fonction des institutions et pas contre toutes institutions. Et je parle pour la déprofessionnalisation et la repersonnalisation des valeurs, je parle pas contre la compétence. Mais pour chacun de nous qui vit dans un monde simple, on sait que de la boue les gens font, savent faire des choses d'une beauté et d'une complexité imaginaires extraordinaires. Laisse-moi te citer un poème que j'ai lu juste dans l'avion en venant à Paris pour cette occasion. + +C'est un poème néolithique aztèque écrit par un Espagnol en lettre espagnole, mais dans le Nahuatl. Ce poème dit : + +> " Pour un tout petit temps seulement, nous sommes prêtés l'un à l'autre. " + +[0:50:21.9 Parce que?] c'est adressé à un dieu. + +> " Nous vivons parce que tu nous dessines. Nous avons de la couleur parce que tu nous peins. Et nous respirons parce que tu nous chantes. Mais seulement pour un tout petit temps, nous sommes prêtés l'un à l'autre. " + +Et ça continue. + +> " Parce que nous nous effaçons comme dans le dessin même quand il est fait dans l'obsidienne. Nous perdons notre couleur comme même le quetzal, le bel oiseau vert perd sa couleur. Et nous perdons notre son et notre respire comme même le chant de l'eau. Pour un tout petit temps, nous sommes prêtés l'un à l'autre." + + +----- + +Le Service de la recherche de l'RTF vous a présenté dans la série Un certain regard Ivan Illich. + +Image Bernard Dumont +assisté de P. Bernard Jaume + +Son Xavier Vauthrin + +Script-girl Fabienne Choukroun + +Assistant réalisateur Christian Gomila + +Montage Jeanine Martin + +Régie générale Jean Lefaux + +Réalisation Bernard Rothstein + +## English translation + +The Service de la recherchŽ of the RTF presents Ivan Illich in its series Un certain regard. + +Curious about the world, worried for the world, lover of mankind and gods, Ivan Illich was born in Vienna in 1926 in a then fragile and unstable Europe. He lived in many different places, moving often due to his Jewish heritage. + +He learned eight languages and turned to God to become a priest, then a bishop before leaving hierarchy behind in order to be a perpetual traveller in search of justice and life. Like the crystals that he also studied, his speech is made up of geometric, angular fragments in which history, philosophy and science blossom in seeming disarray before taking form as star-like ideas. + +We can of course put our faith in other suns or worship dead stars, and the lights of Illich may seem like nothing more than faraway nebulas. + +Tonight, we look through the eyes of an astronomer of humanity. + +Interview conducted by Jean-Marie Domenach + +---- + +**Ivan:** +You know the story of Pandora. She came, and there were two brothers: Prometheus, the one who looks ahead, the planner, and his brother Epimetheus, the one who looks back. Prometheus said to Epimetheus, "Don't touch her." But Epimetheus fell in love with Pandora and stayed with her. The story says she opened her amphora. According to Hesiod, all the evils flew out, and Epimetheus remained with the only gift that didn't escape, hope. We rarely see him again in classical mythology. Classical mythology since that time focused on the future, on the attempt to put back into a box all of the evils let out by the classical Pandora. The man Epimetheus goes on by trying to abandon Pandora, focussing on the evils and by trying to create a world where we have institutions - to me, asylums - to hold the different evils that were originally released. + +I think that the story of Pandora - the story of Pandora - is the best story about the corruption of the man of Delphos, of the earth, interpreter of dreams and images, to become the man that plans. Delphi later became the center for planning because all of the - how do you say it? + +**Domenach:** +Greek cities + +**Ivan:** +Yes, the Greek cities were founded where the priests of Delphos said they should be founded. Delphi had more knowledge than most because everyone brought their stories there. So the priests could give advice - like planners do nowadays - by listening to what people were saying and predicting for the future what they'd already heard in the present. + +On her sex you can see the serpent with death for a head. This woman's womb was placed in her hands, and it became a moneybox. To me, Pandora is one of the most fascinating figures in Western history. I think that the entire rise of capitalism - what I call capitalism in the broadest sense of the word - can be studied by knowing this woman. In today's world, if we don't turn back to Pandora Gea, - who lives, who lived, and I believe still lives in her cave at Delphos - if we don't regain our ability to recognize the dream language she can interpret, we are condemned; the world cannot survive. + +Look at what happened in the cave when her womb became a box. The priests - male! - of Apollo who came from Asia Minor replaced Pandora in her cave with a little girl on the tripod, a girl that they took prisoner, that they drugged to make her say things, and then, in hexametric verse predicted the future, like modern-day engineers. I have the impression that today we're seeing a new form, a new Pythia a new Pythia has been established in the form of the computer, the calculator, the electronic machine that speaks to us not in hexameters, but in dodecameters with its rhythm of 12 bits per unit. It's the end of the world. It's the final, ultimate conclusion that we've reached by substituting the Pythia - the world that sees Pandora as the holder of a box - for the ancient Mother Earth, that we now see - our generation,at least young people - as the blue star that we gaze upon with nostalgia from the moon. + +This degenerate Virgin Mary in her degenerate form as Granter of Mercies, was brought to Mexico by the Spanish, but there the Spanish found a different goddess, Tonantzin, of another primitive people with a very different vision of the world. They identified the Virgin Marywith Tonantzin just as the first Christians associated the Virgin Mary with the Hellenistic Gaia, very rarely with the ancient Pandora, Gea Pandora. Tonantzin is a completely different goddess. I see her every day from our balcony. + +**Domenach:** +In Cuernavaca. + +**Ivan:** +Yes, we have the two great volcanoes, Popocatepetl and his wife, Tonantzin Ixtachiuatl. The sun rises each day between her feet. However, it's a world that Europeans don't understand, because at night, Tonantzin eats the sun and gives birth to the stars: she eats it at night, and that's why her stomach is full of bones, the bones of ancient eaten stars. You can see the whole problem as well with extending Western culture to the Americas when we try to unify goddesses through symbols, by merging the symbols of the Virgin Mary and the Hellenized Gea with the Neolithic Tonantzin of the Aztecs. Oh, there's so much to say about that... + +**Domenach:** +You've talked a lot about these goddesses surrounding us, but throughout our conversation, you haven't mentioned the name of Christ. Is that done on purpose? + +**Ivan:** +Well, you see... I don't like to speak... about my friends in a superficial way. And, to take it one step further, I think that nowadays, people tend to use the name of God in vain, usually to justify something. I would rather make it known that I love him without talking about it. It's almost impossible to do that these days without getting trapped in very dangerous ambiguities. + +**Domenach:** +There's the institution and also the inverse of the institution. What does it mean when this institution claims to follow Christ? + +**Ivan:** +Well, the institution is based on the political model, on the model of an administration, of a bureaucracy, even the Bible, I know. The fact that I have my roots in the church makes it a mother, in a sense. We're stuck with her for life, like you with your wife. And I also know from the Bible that she is a whore. And I wouldn't be a Roman, a Roman Christian in the church that the Lord founded, if I didn't have the courage to identify myself as the son of a whore. But, there are things that, you see... The alienation is such that if I were to speak about the Church as it is you would see immediately and clearly that it is in decline. + +In France or Rome or most Latin American countries, I would associate with a party, agitators perhaps, left-wing agitators rather than right. Let's accept the ambiguity of being sons of a mother who is unworthy, but not one of us. In a way, that helps clarify what should be our attitude towards the institution. In the West, there is one great tradition of study, of analysis of an institution other than the state: ecclesiology. By applying the broad theory of ecclesiology, by profoundly secularizing it, we could better speak about these new religions that seek to *produce* worldly blessings like education, health, wellbeing, and we would have a clearer idea of what an institutional inverse should be. Present-day institutions and even the Church are trying to *produce* grace, whereas they should be tables around which we can find each other, in a mysterious way. And we could regain an intimate, ever-personal sense of hope, rather than allow hope to become - as we discussed earlier - alienated, and prove right what Camus says about this in studying the current form of the French language. + +**Domenach:** +And you think that the church does a lot, can do a lot in Latin America where it's most... + +**Ivan:** +It's still a powerful institution. And for that reason, it could use its power to support, for example, those who consider themselves the left these days, even the radicals. Some people are doing that. But inevitably, it would be compromised again by a new power whose only goal right now is to increase *production*, the GNP, on behalf of everyone. I think that instead, we should be looking to the message of the gospel for inspiration, courage, a sense of humor, a sense of the relativity of things... the fear of God. + +Let me explain what I mean by what we've just discussed. The world's survival must be founded on a new political system where majority agreement establishes what is good enough, fast enough, alive enough. I'm talking about poverty of spirit in its deepest sense, because the poor are the ones who will inherit the earth. There's a strange convergence between the beatitude of poverty - if we understand it in these political terms that we're discussing here - and what we can logically see is essential for survival in a world where man has become almost all powerful. + +There's a great theologian from the 16th century who commented on Saint Thomas' Summa, on the relationship between the beatitudes and the gifts of the Holy Spirit. He shows how Saint Thomas considers the fear of God to be the core of the beatitude of poverty, because it's not a subservient kind of fear, like me being scared of you because you could hit me. Rather, it's a friendly kind of fear, it's me not wanting anything to come between us. The fear of whatever might stop me from being in contact with you is really the essence of this poverty, of this need for upper limits that must now guide politics. Now you might say this is utopia, but I say no; it's a faith in the essential goodness of man, even if he is gravely wounded. Yes. + +**Domenach:** +Ivan, I still have a question to ask you. You said earlier that you had your roots in the Bible. I'm sure that you could find like-minded people in almost every country. Why did you settle in the way that you did? Because you remind me sometimes of what Wright Mills calls the elite bohemians, you know, the intellectuals who go from New York to Paris, Paris to Tokyo. Have you settled in Latin America and Mexico specifically? + +**Ivan:** +Yes, I always call it my homeland. My homeland in the sense that I'm an adopted son, not from Mexico. I'm not disloyal in principle to any nation or flag. But I have friends; you know a few of them. I have friends, and it's friendship that keeps me there, definitely not principles. But you know, I felt the same way when I was working with the Puerto Ricans in New York, in a parish; 20,000 people from the tropics in that miserable slum. There I really knew poverty; there I really understood what it meant to be poor, to be called poor. Later, I explored northeastern Brazil, but I never again saw misery, indignity like that of the Puerto Ricans in New York. And that's what drove me to Puerto Rico... + +**Domenach:** +That's when you learned their language. + +**Ivan:** +Yes, and that's why I never learned Spanish well. Portuguese I learned well at our school - "Cuernavaca Portuguese", which we founded in Rio de Janeiro - well enough to get lost in the carnival. But in Spanish, I will always sound like a Puerto Rican from New York. + +**Domenach:** +You speak about eight languages. Is there one that you call your own? + +**Ivan:** +No, I'm a man without a mother tongue, I think. It's very hard, you know, because my mind developed in three or four languages at the same time... and that explains a lot. + +**Domenach:** +And why did you, how did you end up among the Puerto Ricans, which was such a fundamental experience for you? By chance or because you wanted to live among the poor? + +**Ivan:** +By chance. I was in New York to study at a library and I met the Puerto Ricans on 108th St. I had arrived in New York after Studying what? Well, studying as a professional crystallographer. A crystallographer! Even though I wrote my thesis in history later, they're just certificates of knowledge. But... I met them in New York. I was fascinated and I asked to work in a parish or live in a parish where there were Puerto Ricans. I was all alone in the middle of a drug addiction. + +**Domenach:** +Were you already a priest at that time? + +**Ivan:** +Yes, I was a priest. I did my four years of work as a priest I suppose, but in the middle of a situation that's very difficult to describe. But I had, I don't know why, but I was reminded of the years playing hide-and-seek from Hitler, being declared a Jew from one moment to the next during the war. That's how I ended up leaving; life took me to Puerto Rico, and Puerto Rico threw me out. + +**Domenach:** +Threw you out. + +**Ivan:** +Yes. + +**Domenach:** +The government? + +**Ivan:** +The government and the Church together because I was ridiculing the foolishness. + +**Domenach:** +Foolishness? You mean the foolish ostentatiousness? + +**Ivan:** +Yes, yes, yes. The incorporation, the charity through incorporation into the North American market. + +**Domenach:** +So you came back to New York right away? + +**Ivan:** +No, no, no, no, no. A group of friends and I, decided we needed an independent base of operations, an independent intellectual republic. In Cuernavaca, we established this center that earns its living and its independence by selling a natural resource that's completely sustainable: the Spanish language. We teach Spanish, sell a bit of French too, but everyone who thinks that we're geniuses of teaching, well, it's just how we get by. We created a certain independence, intellectually and politically. And now we have this club where, you know, there are 300-400 people who come there, poor and rich, people from +Latin America and even Africa to discuss with each other, and everyone does "lo que le da la gana", ["what wins for them "] as we say in Spanish. + +**Domenach:** +Like a university. + +**Ivan:** +Yes, but there are neither professors, nor a director, within the 60 people that work there or work on the publications, or in the library. So it belongs to the people, and it's hard to explain whether it's practical or theoretical. Because for some of us, it gives us the chance to be deeply present in many places throughout Latin America. + +**Domenach:** +Do you think that the way Cuernavaca is being run is positive and that it's a model that could now be exported, or perhaps replicated? + +**Ivan:** +No, I won't predict. Not yet. I won't predict, I don't know. Get it!? + +**Domenach:** +How long have you been there? + +**Ivan:** +Ten years. Ten years and it works. But... I really think that, anyone... If he were to lose that sense of inferiority produced by damned schooling, mental schooling and say, "I'm going to get some friends together to discuss this-and-that, andI'm opening a little cafe to do it." is doing just what we do. And that is actually happening now, not in the capital cities of Latin America, but in many places, in small villages. + +**Domenach:** +It truly is the people's university. + +**Ivan:** +Yes, but it shouldn't be called a university. + +**Domenach:** +So what do you want to do now? What's your plan? + +**Ivan:** +I don't know. I don't know. + +**Domenach:** +Study? + +**Ivan:** +Live. I'm not Promethean, you know. + +**Domenach:** +Nor a poet. + +**Ivan:** +It's up to you to decide that... whether I'm any good. + +**Domenach:** +Why did they throw you out of Puerto Rico? Why was that? + +**Ivan:** +Because at that time, I was one of five members of the committee that directs all public education in Puerto Rico as well as the Rector of the Catholic University. I was insisting that the 42% of Puerto Rico's national budget that went to education was not enough. I wanted more money for public education, because I believed that the private colleges, Catholic colleges, were creating unfair competition, trying to get more prestige and thereby reducing public schools to second-class education. I found myself at odds, whether with the liberal establishment or with the ecclesiastical, right-wing establishment. And, well, I'm a bit ashamed to speak of it now because later, the analysis of Latin America, where I travelled for a year going from Cuernavaca to Puerto Rico, - rather Puerto Rico to Cuernavaca... + +**Domenach:** +You travelled extensively, and you did a lot of it on foot, right? + +**Ivan:** +Yes, I did it like the Spanish did a long time ago, on foot from one end to the other, and it's quite far. But anyway, I realized that my mistake, which many others have made, was believing that through *reform* of the schools we can change institutional productivity and distribution. Only much later, +did I realize that as long as school stays school, it will have an unwanted by-product that is much worse than its product under the best conditions, that is, children learning something. + +Because what can you say... At school, the first thing a child learns is that learning is the result of an official, institutional process. He learns that year after year, we become personally more valuable because we continue to accumulate new layers of a spiritual product, an immaterial product. We learn that what is worth learning, what will be useful later, or perhaps what will be useful for society later is what we get from a professional. We learn that teaching, if not done by a professional instructor, is in some way less valuable. + +All this criticism of schooling has happened after 1960. I think that we've been fairly successful in getting people to think about the necessity of deschooling society, of imagining a simpler society with more transparent technology, which implies having the limits that we talked about earlier and that we're going to discuss more. I think that now, our task in Cuernavaca - and we've completely dedicated ourselves to this - is to conduct similar analyses for healthcare, the myths of speed, and housing. In Latin America in all our countries now, the minimum criteria for determining whether a house is habitable or should be torn down- if unwanted by the city - are so complex that a barely habitable house costs more per month in rent than income for 80% of the population. In all of these fields Ñ education, healthcare, housing Ñ what we need to do is give people new tools, provided by technology, so that they can shelter themselves, take care of themselves, learn. Even a video library is not that expensive these days. This means transforming our language again; currently, in our language we use nouns for concepts that used to be expressed as verbs, as action verbs. We're in a time now where we understand the fall of the Roman Empire, the Gnosis. Knowledge is transformed into a knowledge store where we can buy certificates or obtain certifications. We are good at accumulating them because we've been made into knowledge consumers by character. + +**Domenach:** +This schooling that you attack, it was one of the main functions of our cultural and social progress. How can you imagine a society without school? + +**Ivan:** +Before understanding or talking about society without schooling - which was the case in all historical eras and for three quarters of the population who don't go to school or who are excluded from school after a year or two, and in a way, they're in an even worse situation because in school, they learned only that they are inferior to those who receive more schooling - we must understand the harm that schooling does. In order to do that, we must distinguish clearly between what the student or his teacher does personally in certain circumstances and what schooling, as a structure, does inevitably. Sometimes, a student learns something from a teacher. We all remember those times in childhood when we had a truly enlightening day or hour with an instructor. But that is something completely different from what school teaches throughout the world. It teaches the child that he needs the institution in order to learn. It teaches the child that he may not learn what someone else has decided belongs to a higher level. It teaches the child to feel classified by a bureaucrat. School inevitably teaches the child that the kind of teaching respected by society is the product of an institution; is established by this institution and by experts who know how to produce this commodity. Schooling inevitably is shaped by capitalism, the capitalization of knowledge, because it's the knowledge capitalist that can use his certificates to show what he has accumulated internally, and society attributes a higher social value to him than to the person who has the less-valued certification of experience. + +From the moment that schooling became obligatory - and as I said, in most countries it is obligatory, but still insufficient for the vast majority even at that obligatory level - schooling was established throughout the world as the reproductive organ of society. Russia reproduces by way of the same institution used by the United States: attendance for a thousand hours a year, in age-specific groups, of about thirty children with a teacher, for years upon years, in order to internally accumulate knowledge. School is the root of the spiritualization of capitalism. And there's no possible alternative to capitalism as long as we continue to produce knowledge consumers in a reality that is becoming too complex to justify the need for this capitalization. + +**Domenach:** +In France, public education was associated with the whole fight for progress, so when you talk about deschooling, people say to themselves, "He's trying to take us back to the Middle Ages!" + +**Ivan:** +I know... but it's extremely difficult to talk about the capitalism of immaterial products. And often people don't understand that through schooling, and especially obligatory schooling, we transform growth, learning and development into the result of consuming the product of a large, international institution: school. We have transformed personal growth into education, which equals schooling. And it should be logical that once we've made this transformation and made it obligatory, education, knowledge itself becomes a commodity - even if it's produced, as in most countries today by a department controlled by the state - education or better yet, knowledge becomes rare as soon as it becomes a commodity. + +The real problem, the real challenge for socialism today is to account for the commodification of social treatments -"treatments" is the word? Ñ the therapies that we define as institutional products. Because all this talk about pollution - which is very valid since we're currently destroying the natural world of Pandora - doesn't make any sense unless we realize that we can, in the same way, destroy social conviviality, social texture, if we follow the example of Russia or the United States. By trying to develop the tertiary sector, the obligatory service sector we end up transforming all interpersonal needs - the need for help when I'm sick or dying, the need to be open to the world and to learn about what was happening in the world when I was young, the need to go from one place to another using transportation - we transform all of that into commodities. + +When Marx wrote his famous first chapter of Das Kapital, for him, the commodity was first and foremost a piece of fabric. It was tangible. But if you read closely, it's clear that this strange old man saw, when he spoke of "jumping into the abyss". He saw what could happen one day, - especially in that great chapter where he says: "in that way, we might forever have more useful things and more useless people". He realized that a time could come when all services for humanity would become commodities. I don't think it's possible that the problem of the degradation of today's world, - the threefold degradation of the modern world, which I'll explain in a second - can be solved unless politicians and ideologues recognize the way we have turned all treatments into commodities, often in the name of socialism. + +Now, when I talk about the threefold pollution, threefold degradation in the world, I'm referring to the eventual elimination of resources, the degradation or devaluation of the commodities that we depend on and become slaves to, and social polarization. Let's stick with the example of school. Once I transform education or knowledge into schooling, there are automatically some people who for some reason will be chosen to receive more of it than others, and who will justify their economic, social, and political privilege by the fact that they have spiritually accumulated an immaterial commodity which they call "knowledge". + +We need to understand that to have a technological world and not be ruled by experts, certain aspects of technology, made possible through technology, must be radically limited for the good of the people. Everyone in Peru would know how to repair their mechanical hearts, if they had mechanical hearts, and no one, not even the President or an ambulance, would be able drive faster than 15 kilometers an hour. Everyone in Peru or Mexico would be able learn how to do the blood analyses required to identify 90% of the diseases killing young people today - they could do itin a couple of weeks! - and how to administer the appropriate medication. But for that, we would have to eliminate the possibility of having, in a small country like Honduras, two cobalt bombscompeting with each other, which benefits only those who had already become knowledge consumers, that is, those who accumulated, absorbed an education available on the market - whether a Western or Eastern market - as a commodity. + +**Domenach:** +There's a question bothering me that I'll ask you: This social, economic ideal, who will define it and who will legislate it? + +**Ivan:** +Well, I'm talking about a maximum, probably related to a particular ideal. And I think that in a world where all things become scientifically possible, all speeds become possible, all ways to lengthen life become possible - the man who currently heads the United States space program quit last week to focus on producing immortality - everything is possible for certain people as long as the vast majority are prepared to become slaves to send a man to the moon. In such a world, it's absolutely necessary that legislation must focus on creating a ceiling, an outline of what we consider *enough* for ourselves in certain areas. + +**Domenach:** +Prometheus, the man of labor who revolted against the gods, is still present among us. But the other one, Epimetheus, we don't talk about him anymore. Do you think that he's still alive? + +**Ivan:** +He is the mythological figure forgotten in the West. The man that stayed with Pandora, who closed her amphora before hope could escape. He is the man who stayed with his fellow beings. And Epimetheus is the man who invented hope, who invented planning, the creation of the world *for* mankind. when he stayed with his fellows in this world. I think that our real problem today lies in regaining a deeply humanistic sense of hope in our fellow man, in this world, on this earth. Hope was alienated when it became the product of supernatural institutions that used rituals to produce hope in a different world. And so Camus was right to draw attention to that problem. + +**Domenach:** +But hope needs to be restored to us, correct? To our lives. + +**Ivan:** +To us, to us. + +**Domenach:** +To us, meaning through a kind of community, or as you call it, conviviality. + +**Ivan:** +Exactly. + +**Domenach:** +You mean a way of living together that's no longer about acquiring things. + +**Ivan:** +Yes, exactly. We need to recognize that institutional productivity reaches a certain point where it starts to smother us, prevent us from being open to conviviality. We reach a certain point where an entire culture can be so fixated on fulfilling human life through the consumption of goods and services that we become unable, as typical members of this culture, to have faith in the surprise that another person, though he's not a professional, not part of some institution, even with no special training, can take care of me, that I can learn from him. There must be a distinction between the hope that we regain and hope in the sense of, as we say in English, "expectation, rising expectation". We must relearn how to distinguish between openness to being surprised by another and the expectation, the hope that the institution will give us the product that we learned to plan for and to identify ahead of time. I think that rediscovering our ability to depend on each other, even in technological societies - which are in the worst condition of all societies, in the West and the East - is the greatest task of our time. + +Usually when people discuss the problems of the future - as we have, these past few days here - they try to make institutions more productive - to protect themselves from the evils that Pandora released - and to better distribute the product of these institutions. I think that the real task lies in inverting institutions. + +**Domenach:** +Yes. You know very well what people say about those ideas. People say that they're utopian. + +**Ivan:** +I don't know what the opposite of utopian is. It's usually considered, by most leaders of society, to be realism, or at least what they call realism. I'm talking about simplification, about inverting institutions, and about de-professionalizing. And all three seem to me to be unavoidable necessities if we want to survive. To me, therefore, they are realistic. When I talk about simplification, people often say, "Oh he's another one of those dreamers in the back-to-nature movement. A primitive!" I have nothing against being associated with the Neolithic Conservatives; I have nothing against the idea of being called a Neolithic Conservative. + +I'm referring to the need to simplify life if we want to have an earth that is good. Because those who are against simplification and for continuous progress - "progressus populorum" in medieval Latin, it means "people who go crazy" - say that we can never have what is "good and well" because "good" is always "more". I'm talking about inverting institutions. Rather than the institutions that we have, which are bottlenecks, funnels for giving knowledge to the child, I ask for institutions that give those who want to learn a world that is simple enough for them to be able to learn *from* life, instead of *about* life. + +Walking throughout Latin America from Caracas to Santiago for many months I often had the chance to live in small villages, and I think that people know how to live healthily instead of needing doctors that produce health services for them so they can live on "Spaceship Earth", as ecologists and mechanics love to call it. In the end, I believe in de-professionalization. We were able to de-professionalize writing and reading. Why not de-professionalize almost all medicine as the Chinese do? We know that in accidents, people die most often because the people nearby at the time don't know what to do. I'm talking about re-personalizing values, exchanges and services on a level of competence that couldn't have been dreamed of before modern technology. I think the main condition to be able to make this politically feasible, would be majority agreements on certain basic elements, where we would decide that such-and-such speed is enough, such-and-such healthcare tool is enough. And if you wanted to have something, we would not Ñ as a society, at least Ñ produce more for you than what has been decided to be enough for everyone by community agreement. + +Nowadays, and more and more since the French Revolution, we define the goal of democracy as reaching consensus on the minimum that everyone should have. I propose the inversion of this notion. The main goal of a healthy political system should be to establish the maximum that everyone can agree is enough for each person. I say this because the economy must change from an economy founded on circulation to an economy within a stable State that recognizes that the world is limited - the physical, material world isn't an infinite system - and which recognizes that true invention, poetry, imagination by definition are not commodities and are therefore unlimited. + +To say it once again, if it's simpler, when people ask me if I'm a utopian, I say that I am for simplification, not for romanticism. I am for inverting the function of institutions and not against all institutions. And I am for the de-professionalization and the re-personalization of values, not against competence. All of us who live in a simple world, we know that people mold mud into things that are beautiful, fantastic, and extraordinarily complex. + +Let me recite a poem that I just read in the plane on my way to Paris for this occasion. It's a Neolithic Aztec poem written by a Spaniard, using Spanish letters, but in Nahuatl. The poem says: + +> "For just a fleeting moment, we are lent to each other." + +Because it's directed towards a god. + +> "We live because you draw us. We have color because you paint us. And we breathe because you sing us. But for just a fleeting moment, we are lent to each other." + +And it continues. + +> "Because we erase ourselves, like a drawing, even one made in obsidian. We lose our color, as even the quetzatl, the beautiful green bird, loses its color. And we lose our sound and our breath, as does even the water's song. For just a fleeting moment, we are lent to each other." + + +---- + +English translation by Clarke Mackey and Marty Kent (mkent@xplicitplayers.com)
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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/videos/1976/index.txt b/data/pages/en/videos/1976/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a3ab971 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/videos/1976/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +# In the name of Progress: No respect for holy cows (1976) + +* A film by: Gordian Troeller and Marie-Claude Deffarge, in cooperation with François Partant +* Original title: Kein Respekt vor heiligen Kühen +* Duration: 43' +* Language: German +* Year: 1976 +* Subtitles: [[.:de|German]] +* Script: [[#|PDF]] | [[.:script|Transcripted script]] + +In the early 1960s, Ivan Illich from Austria and Valentine Borreman from Belgium founded the “Centro Intercultural de Documentacion” (CIDOC) in Cuernevaca, Mexico. The purpose of the centre was to question the values of the cultural and socio-political institutions of the industrial nations. Had mankind really benefited from so-called “progress” and the industrial means of production? What kind of effect education, vehicular traffic, technology and modern medicine had on human beings? Illich mainly criticizes the presumptuousness of the industrial nations in foisting upon the so-called Third World the same path of development upon which they had ventured. Illich felt that developmental aid was a form of neo-colonialism. The peoples of the Third World were no longer being forced at gun-point to serve the interests of the industrial nations; they were now getting addicted to the products and the institutions of the West. +Over the years, the centre evolved into a kind of “People’s University.” More than 20.000 men and women from all over the world and from all fields and walks of life participated in its seminars and courses. The film was made shortly before the centre was closed down. + +---- + +<html> +<iframe src="https://archive.org/embed/1976-kein_respekt_vor_heillgen_kuehen" width="100%" height="480" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="true" mozallowfullscreen="true" allowfullscreen></iframe> +</html> + +## External links + +* [[https://www.troeller-deffarge.com/en/movies/in-the-name-of-progress/no-respect-for-holy-cows/|Movie profile in producer's website]]
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/en/videos/1976/script.txt b/data/pages/en/videos/1976/script.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c43829 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/videos/1976/script.txt @@ -0,0 +1,895 @@ +# In the name of Progress: No respect for holy cows - Script + +This is a OCR version of the [[/videos/1976/1976-kein_respekt_vor_heillgen_kuehen.pdf|PDF scanned script]]. Proofreading is not yet done. + +## Page 01 + +``` +- Wenn eine Stadt um Autos und Motoren gebaut wird, danmn +werden den Leuten, die in der Stadt leben, die Beine +abgeschnitten, Und die Produktion von Verkehraswegen schaf£ft +IDißtanzcn, die weit größer sind, als die für die meisten +durch die Motoren überbrlückt werdén können, Wenn eine Welit +sich um die Medizin herum kristallisiert und Gesundheit + +"Medizinkonsum ist, dann wird die Gesunderhaltung unmöglich +l‘ . l +gemacht. ! + +I M NAMEN D ES FORTSCHRITTS + +H + +E e P al A E E D d D e E a B n P A f a Mn J a d Ba n r n + +Ivan Illichs Kritik an der Industriegesellachi: + +Ein Bericht von Gordian Troeller +und + +Claude Deffarge + +Der technische Fortschritt, der das goldeno Zeitalter +versprach, ist zum Alptraum geworden, Er verpulvert dioe +sich unaufhaltsam orschöpfenden Schätze unserer Erde + +Er frißt die Natur auf, Er bedroht die Geéundhnit dar +Menschen, die körperliche und die seelische,. + +Er schafft wirksame Werkzeuge des Todes, kann aber nicht +verhindern, daß jährlich mehrere Millionen Menschen iungera + +sterben müssehn, ıınd es immer mehr werden, ' + +Der sogenannte Fortschritt - die induotrielle Produk L ions- + +weise - verspricht nur noch sich selbst eine blühende Zukun? +``` + +## Page 02 + +``` +Schuld daran ist nur der Kapitalismus - sagen die +Kommunisten - und huldigen im gleichen Atemzug demselben + +‘ Fortschritt, in der Hoffnung eines Tages dank scinér +Perfektion siegen zu &können, . , ; ; + +Der Westen macht große Anstrengungen, um geinen technischen + +° Vorsprung zu halten,. + +Hüben wie drüben gedeihen gewaltige Machtapparate, die +diesen Fortschritt verwalten, ihn vorantreiben und letztLic +bis aufs Messer verteidigen müssen, um selbst bestehen zu +können. n + +Die Menschen werden süchtig gemachti nach ihrenDienst- +leistungen, ihren Waren und Werten. + +Die Zukunft der Menschheit sieht düstef aus. Darüber sind +sich £aét alle einig. - Aber was wird getan? . + +Die Einen versuchen, das Bevorstehende zu erforschen, um +die Menschen darauf vorzubereiten,. + +Andere bemühen sich, das scheinbar Unabwendbare aufzuhalten +jindem sgie die Ursachen bewußt machen, Zu diesen gehört die +Gruppe um Iban Illich und Valentine Borremans. + +Diese Gruppe hat sich 1960 in Cuernavaca - in Mexiko - +gebildet. + +Ivan Illich, ein gebärtiger Wiener, studierte Geschichte, +Philosophie und Theologiee; * Er wurde Priester und milt +3O Jahren Vize-Rektor der Universität von Puerto Rico, +ISpäter war er Seelsorgor'in den 5Slums von New—Yor&, +.Schließlich richtete er in Cuernavaca eine spaéische +Sprachschulei;für Missionare ein, die nach Lateinamerika , + +gehen wollten. Hier versuchte er sie von ihrem Hissionseif: + +zu heilen« +``` + +## Page 03 + +``` +Damals galt er neben Camillo Torres und Don Helder Camara +als der revolutionärste Priester Lateinamerikas. fiittlorwei +‚ halten ihn viele für den radikals?cn Gesellschaftskritiker +seit Karl Marx. @ 5 +Valentine Borremans, eine Belgierin, hatte in vielen Länder: +„jSüdamerikas gearbeitet, bevor sie nach Cuernavaca kam, Dort +ühertrug Illich ihr die Aufgabe, eine Bibliothek einzuricht +Sie machte daraus das "Zentrum interkultureller Dokumoentati, +- das CIDOC, +Im CIDOC würdefl die zur Entwicklung der Gesellschaft uner- +läßlich geltenden Institutionen:wie Schule, Medizin, Verkeh +und Industrie untersucht, Dabei fand man heraus, dass diese +zunächst nützlichen Einrichtungen durch ihre Eigengesetzlic: +keit und den Machtanspruch ;hrer Vertreter zum Feind_den +Menschen werden können. / +Illich und gseine Freunde weisen nach, daß dies + +in den Industrienationen bereits “eschehen ist.‘ +und sie warnen vor der totalen Entmündigung des Menschen +durch den totalen Apparat des Industriesystens. +Lange bevor Entwicklungshilfe allgemein in Frage gestellt + +wurde, kritisierte Illich die Funktion der Entwicklungshelf + +- "Ja, vor 15 Jahren gchien es mir absolut notwendig, den +Freiwilligen als solchen in Frage zvu stellen, - denn da +sandten plötzlich Kenned? und Castro, Johannes XXLILI und + +de Gaulle - Freiwillige, bewaffnet mit Bleistift, Injektion +sgpritze oder Revolver nach Lateinamerika, um es zu retten. +Und da kam es darauf an, die Motivationen - nein, nicht dio +Motivationen, nicht die Intentionen dieser Freiwilligen in +Frage zu stellen, sondern den Freiwilligen als Eolchen + +in Frage zu stelleny-wenn er von ‚irgendeiner Institution + +angestellt und ausgesandt wara'' +``` + +## Page 04 + +``` +-"Heißt das, er ist mißbraucht worden?" + +-"Nein, ich spreche nicht über den Mißbrauch des Freiwillir +sondern über die Tatsache, daß man den Freiwilligen für +Institutionen nicht verwenden kann, ohne notwendiger Weise +C +einen Köder für einen neuen Entwicklungsimperialigmus aus +ihm zu machen., - In soziologischer Sicht ist der Freiwilli{ +notwendiger Weise eine Weiterführung des europäischen +Dünkels - der Mission, Und in psychologischer Sicht ist +Entwicklungswut eine unheilbare Krankheit," +In der Entwicklungshilfe sieht Ivan Illich eine neue Form +von Kolonialismus, Früher schickte man Soldaten,heute +Techniker, die die Völker der Dritten Welt zwar friedliche’ + +aber auch fester in den Dienst der Industrienationen zwing + +als Kanonenboote und Sklavenjäger es vermochten. + +Für Illich ist jede Art von Entwicklungshilfe - auch die +sogenannte kulturelle, geistige oder zivilisatorische - +ein Köder., - Ein Köder, der süchtig machen 5oll nach + +unseren Erzeugnissen und Institutionen. + +Die moderne Technik schlägt die Regierungen der Dritten Wc +in ihren Bann. Illich warnt sie davor, sich durch induétri +Gewohnheiten derart verbilden zu lassen, daß sie Fortschr5 +nur noch als Industäialisierung und Konsumanstieg versteh: +Er sagt: die Mechanisierung der gesellschaftlichen Bezicht +die der sogenannte industrielle Fortschritt mitsichbringt, +führt zur Zerrüttung des Menschen. Illich sagt weiter: + +2/3 der Menschheit können die Auswüchse der Industriecgese:! +gchaft noch vermeiden. Nämlich, indem Bie eine dem Mensch‘ +gerechtere Prodfififiionsweise wöhlen —- eifle Produktionsweis: + +zu der auch die Industrienatiorsen hinfinden mügatene +``` + +## Page 05 + +``` +Die Länder der Dritten Welt köännen sich nur retten, meint + +Illich, wenn sie sich wirtschaftlich und politisch von den + +reichen Nationen lossagen. + +So fremd das alles klingt, Illichs Warnrufe finden durchau: +4 + +/ + +schon Gehör,. + +-"Ja Gott sei Dank schämen sich heute Leute nicht nur, wen) +sie sich als Entwicklungshelfer ausgeben. müssen, als +Missionare, als Freiwillige = weil man begonnen hat, über +ihren Dünkel zu Llachen, den Dünkel der Funktion, nicht des +bösen Menschen, - Heute schämen sich Leute langsam, wenn & +sich als Ärzte, als Lehrer, als Entwicklungstechniker, als +Ingenieure für Straßenbau ausgeben müssen, denn die Besten +in jedem von diesen Berufen verstehen schon, daß gsie weit +mehr Schaden anfügen für die große Masse der Menschen, als + +gie Gutes tun," + +-VlAber die Regierungen der Dritten Welt sind ebenso + +entwicklungswütig wie die Freiwilligen," + +—- Jay Entwicklungswut ist nicht nur eine unheilbare Krank- +heit, sie ist auch eine ansteckende Krankheit, Sie<firassio +im Treibhaus der Bürokratie, Da sind die Stellen, wio das +Hudson-Institut, oder das Max-Plank-Institut, wo die +Gegenwart in die Zukunft gedankenlos hineinprojiziert wird +wo eine bessere Zukunft von Verwaltern und Aufpassern +produziert wird., - Ganz im Gegenteil dazu stehen eben jene +kleinen Welten der Freiheit, wo Autonomie sprießt und wo +das Kommende, das ja schon da ist, heute im Modell gelebt +wird., Zeugenschaft für seine Mäglichkeit gegeben wird, + +Ich hoffe, daß viele'von uns das hier haben leben können,." + +Jene kleine Welt der Freiheit wurde 1960 in Cuernvaca +angesiedelt = in Mexiko. Geographisch eine ideale)?wischen +station, um Nordamerikanische Missionare und F;eiwillige +abzufangen, die nach Lateinamerika geschickt wurden, + +Sie kamen hierher, um in Schne})llkursen Spanisch zu lernen, + +Auch über die Menschen und die Gesßellschaft, die aie +``` + +## Page 06 + +``` +betreuen sollten, wurden 5sie aufgeklärt, So entdeckten sie +daß sie nicht nur ausgesandt waren, um das Wort Gottes zu +verkünden oder Armen zu helfen, sondern gleichzeätig als +Sendboten und Verkünder der Industriegesellschaft,. + +Im Laufe der Zeit wjrde hier so etwas wie eine mittelalter +liche Universität wiedererfunden, Eine Stätte der Nachdenk +und des Gedankenaustausches, wo Lehren nicht mehr galt als +Lernen. ! + +Lehrer und Studenten zahlten die gleichen Beiträge: 250 +Hark}%ä%g 3fi5@fiää“%%äflääib 25 Mark pro Woche, wenn 5ie an +Kursen und Seminaren teilnahmen, Teilnehmer aus der Dritite +Welt brauchtennichts zu zahlén. + +Ganz nebenbei, aus Tischgesprächen, entstand die Organisat +nordamerikanischer Akademiker zum Studium der multinationz2 +Konzerne. Auch die Bewegung der lateinamerikanischen Prie +die für den Sozialismus kämpfen, wurde hier géboren. +Insgesamt haben rund 20 000 Menschen jeden Alters und +aller Gesellschaftsschichten im CIDOC an Diskussionen und +Seminaren teilgenommen, / + +Hauptthema:_def gängige Fortschrittsbegriff., Die Unter- +guchungen des CIDOC machten deutlich, wie ständiges Wuchsc +von Produktion, Konsum, Gewinn, Zeitersparnis und Dienst- +leistungen die Quqflität des Lebens verringern. + +In diesem weißen Haus in Cuernavaca haben viele gelernt, +das angeblich Selbstverständliche über Bord zu werfen - +alle Lehrsätze und Institutionen in Frage zu stelken; die +unsere Gesellschaft prägen und zä heiligen Kühen géworden +sind. - Hier wurde mit dem Vorurteil aflfgorüufit, daß der +Industrialismus allen früheren Kulturen überlegen und für + +den Fortaschritt der Menschheit unentbehrlich sei. +``` + +## Page 07 + +``` +Damit wurde auch der Weg in die Zukunft in Frage gestellt, +den die reichen Industrieländer schon eingeschlagen haben,. + +Statt dessen vertrat man hier einen radikalen Humanismus, + +Mit einfachen Mittelh veröffentlichte das CIDOC jährlich +rund': 350 Bücher —- mehr als die éeisten kommerziellen +Verlage in der gleichen Zeit au{ den Markt bringen,. + +Man gscheute sich nicht, unvollständige Entwürfe in Umlauf +zu bringen. Dank der Kritik und der Beiträge anderer, +konnte so nach 2 bis 3 Zwischenveröffentlichungen ein Buch +daraus werden. + +Valentine Borremans, die eigentliche Schlüsselfigur des +CIDOC hat dies und vieles andere oft gegen den Willen + +Ivan Illichs durchgesetzt, + +- "Könnte ich hier auch eiflen Kurs geben?" + +- Natürlich, jeder kann hier Kurse geben," + +- "Unter der Bedingung, daß sich genügend Teilnehmer Tinde) +- WSie stellen ein Kursthema vor. Wenn Sie es schlecht vor- +stellen, oder das Thema nicht interessiert, wird niemand +kommen, und der Kurs findet nicht statt, Wenn Sie aberl +Interessenten finden, wird der Kurs abgehelten,." + +Um einen Kurs zu geben oder daran teilzunehmen, braucht +niemand ein Zeugnis Jorzulegen oder seine Qualifikation zu +beweisen, Gerade die etablierte Wisseä£ierarchie wurde im +Cidoc als lähmend angeprangert. Wenn jemand über Blumen, + +Landreform oder indianische Kultur sprechen wollte,, brauch‘ +er nur geine Einschreibegebühr bezahlt. zu haben und 5 + +Interessenten zu finden, um einen Raum zu bekonmen. Als + +Preis für den Kurs setzte er 100 :oder 200 Vollar-an, +``` + +## Page 08 + +``` +und wenn viele kamen, brauchte jeder nur wenig zu zahlen, +Hier spricht ein Nordamerikaner über Ifiperi£ismus. Selbat +wenn er Illichs Thesen bekämpfen sollte, kann er fortfahren +‘ solange die vorgeschriebene Anzahl. von Teilnehmern das + +Interesse an seinen Ausführungen bescheinigt, / + +- IWelches war das erste Ziel des CIDOC?" + +-NAnfänglich wollten wir Nordamerikaner@ und Europäern kla? +machen, daß die Probleme Lateinamerikas nicht gelöst werde) +können, indem man Fremde dorthin schickt, sondern daß die +Südamerikaner ihre Probleme allein lösenmlüissen, - Danach +haben wir begonnen, die Schule zu analysieren. Ich glaube, +daß es dem CIDOC zu verdanken ist, wenn kmukgx die Schule +heute überall in Frage gestellt wird., Vor zehn Jahren noch +glaubte man in den Ländern der Dritten Welt, daß es not- +wendig sei, Lehrer dorthin zu schicken und Schulen Zu baue +Für die Leute im CIDOC hatten Analyse und Kritik der Schu)l +gicherlich das größte Gewicht, Sie hat gezeigt, das es +genügt, eine Institution zu beschreiben, um augenscheinlic +zu machen, welches Unrecht sie anrichten kann, obwoh). doch + +jeder glaubt, daß sie nur Gutes bringt.," + +Erklärtes Ziel der Schule ist es, jedem die gleichen Chanc +zu persönlicher und gesellschaftlicher Entfaltung zu geben +Sie soll soziale Ungleichheit abbauen und mündige Staats- +bürger formen., - Ein‘großherziges Unternehmen, das die + +Unterstützung aller Bürger, der armen wie der reichen + +verdient, + +So ist denn auch das Erziehungssystem eine Dienstlecistung, +die von den Steuurn aller getragen wird. + +Aber was beschert sie ihnen? +``` + +## Page 09 + +``` +Es wird verfahren; als sei der Mensch nur ein leeres +Gefäß, in das bestimmte vorprogrammierte Inhalte ein- +gefüttert werden müssen, um ein brauchbares Mitglied + +der Gesellschaft aus ihm zu machen, + +Die Kinder des Bürgerstandes - die bereits Priviligierten +haben es leichter, bringen es weiter und profitieren +längér vom Erziehungssystem, + +Der teure Bildungsweg - den alle bezahlen —- dient +hauptsächlich den Kindern der oberen Gesellschafts- + +} +schichten. + +Schulerfolg und Schulversagen entsprechen weitgehend + +der gozialen Herkunft der Schüler, l / +Die Schule vertritt, daß ein Mensch sich nur erfolgreich +um Dinge kümmern kann, für die er ausgebildot und quali- +fiziert worden ist, - Damit disqualifiziert sie eigen- + +ständiges Lernen, Arbeiten und Leben,. + +Und da die Schule gleichzeitig vermittelt, daß man nur +ist, was man gelernt hat und mit Zeugnissen belegen kann, +führt sie letztlich zu verstärkter Ungleichheit, + +Sie dient der Reproduktion der Klassengesellschaft und +der Festipgung bestehender Nerrschaftsverhältnisse,. +Erzichung macht den Menschen, heißt es. Wissen ist Macht +Ausbildung ist Kapital, - Die Benachfoiligteh, die auf +der Strecke bieiben, gelten »68 minderwertig - für Aandeı + +aber auch vor siqh 8elbst —- und aie ordnen sich ein,. . +``` + +## Page 10 + +``` +Und das nicht nur in Afrika,. + +Illäch sagt: "Beschulung ist ein Ausleseprozeß, durch + +den Bürger in immer größere Unmündigkeit und Entfremdung + +befördert werden,#ein Trick, um die Einwohner jeden + +4 + +Staates auf 16 oder s@gar 20 verschiedenen Stufen einer + +Leistungspyramide anzusiedeln", + +- Eine wichtige Erfahrung war für mich die Zusammearbei +mit den Mexikanern., - Der Bibliothakar zum Beispiel +hat seine Arbeit hier bei uns gelernt, indem er sie +machte, Das gleiche gilt-für d&m Herausgeber unserer +Bücher., Alle, die hier gearbeitet haben, haben ihre +Kenhtnisse bei der Arbeit erworben, Und die Mehrzahl +dieser jungen Mexikaner hat die Bekundarschule nicht + +beendet — einige nicht einmal die Grundschule," + +- "Und was haben Sie selbst hier gelernt?" + +- "Was ich hier alles gelernt habe! +Meine gesamte Arbeit, Das hat in der Bibliothek ange- +fangen. Als man sie mir übertrug, sagte ich: aber +ich weiß doch nicht, wie das gemacht wird. Und man h: +mir geantwortet: dann lernst du es eben, Und ich habı +gelernt, eine Bibliothek zu verwalten., Dann habe ich +sie abgegeben, So bin ich durch alle Abteilungen des +CIDOC gewandert - und andere haben jedesmal meine +Arbeit übernonmmen, - So habe ich gelernt, üanuX das + +CIDOC zu verwalten," + +Daß jeder selbstständig lernen kann und keiner Fach- +Schule bedarf, um einen Beruf auszuübenr, haben +Ivan Illich und Valentine Borremans im CIDOC unter +Beweis gestellt, Sechzig ßBeste Mitarbeiter haben 50 + +einen Beruf erlernt und ” _ brauchen jetzt = + +da das CIDOC schließt — um ihre Zukunft nicht zu + +bangen- +``` + +## Page 11 + +``` +Die Schließung wurde von allen beschlossen, Eine Gebühren: +erhöhung stand zu Diskussion. Sie hätte das nötige Geld +geh racht, um das CIDOC am Leben zu halten, aber sie +wurde verworfen. D%£ "xleine freie Welt" sollte Picht + +zum Reservat der Elite werden, Schon viel zu viele +Politiker und Industrielle drängelten sich hier in den +letzten Jahren, viele nur, um sich ein moralisches Alibi +zu verschaffen., Einige waren bereit, das CIDOC zu finanzi, +- aber das hätte zum Verlust seiner Unabhängigkeit + +geführt und so der Institution ihren Sinn genommen, + +- "Ja, schen Sie, es ist uns 15 Jahre lang gelungen, die +akademischen Epauletten zum Grund des 1liebenswürdigen +Lächeln zu machen, das Standesbewußtsein der Seminar- +teilnehmer abzuschwächen - abklingen zu lassen - , jedem +die Möglichkeit zu geben, . hier seine Initiative anzuldindi; +dem deutschen Professor und dem Zuckerbäcker—äohn ausS - +Talaya, dem Ministerialrat aus Chile und dem Gewerkschaft: +ler - und dem Hippy. - Was das geheißen hat, ist, daß die +Leute sich um den Seminartisch heäéum als Menschen ange- +gprochen haben, ganz bewußt, daß gie hier, wie in einem +Elfenbeinturm als komische Vögel für einige Wochen +zugammenkommen, Aber das hat auch - klingt beinah komisch +Schule mgemacht, Im Laufe der letzten Jahre bin ich hier +und dort eingeladen gewesen, von Singapour nach Tübingen +und habe dieselbr Atmosphäre bei ehemaligen Teilnehnern +an CIDOC-Seminaren dort wiedergefunden. Und fühle mich + +sehr wohl da," + +„!Das CIDOC war also so etwas wie eine Universität im + +Mittelalter?" e + +- WJa, aber Inquisition wurde immer sehr weit.weppehalten +und verlacht, Ganz gleichpgültig ob sie Inquisition der + +Partei, des Statedepartmentan oder der Kirche war.'" +``` + +## Page 12 + +``` +Die Inquisition hat Illich nicht schrecken können, + +Als er die Missionare entzauberte- wie er sagßt - machtle +ihm der Vatikan den Prozeß. Er, der Prälat, sollte sich +vor der heiligen Inquisition verantworten., Illich lehute + +4 ; +das ab und verzichtgte auf seinen kirchlichen Status,. + +Diese Passions-Prozession illustriert, was er meint, + +wenn er die lateinamerikanische Kirche entkolonisieren WL + +Missionare machten aus Indianern römische Legionäre - + +aus ihren Kindern weiße Engelchen, + +' + +Die Missionare kamen einst, um diese Menschen zu gefügige + +Untertanen der spanischen Krone zu machen,. + +Illich zieht gegen den Dünkel zu Felde - gegen die +Anmaßung, andere nach den eigenen Vorstellungen entwickel +zu wollen, sie zu zwingen, 80 zu werden, wie man 5scelbst + +ist - weil man sich für den Besten hält, + +Diesen Menschen ist die Entfaltungsmöglichkeit ihrer +eigenen Anlagen, ihrer Wünsche und ihrer Kultur brutal +genommen worden, Sie waren verurteilt, die Eroberer +nachzuahmen, um nicht als Wilde dazustehen,. +Erst mußten die Indianer gich ihrer Kultur schämen + +\ +und sich anpassen, Nun gelten sie ihrer Armut wegen + +als minderwertig. Eine Armut aber, die sie der Zerstüörung + +ihrer Kultur verdanken, + +r + +Daß diese Menschen nicht des sogenannten Fortschritls +bedurften, der ihnen moderno Armut bescherte,’ beweist + +ihre Vergangenheit +``` + +## Page 13 + +``` +Auch über indianische Geschichte wurden im CIDOC Studien +vorpgelegt, ja sogar über die sePorisohen Fähigkeiten +gewisser Menschen uünd ihre Bedeutung in den verschiedener +Kulturkreisen., Die Vorahnung gehört zum Studicnbereich +eines gebürtigen Mailänders, + +„UHerr Professor Tibon, würden Sie sagen, daß Menschen wi +Ivan Illich eine prophetische Ader haben, daß sie zum +Beispiel voraussehen können, wohin diese Gesellschaft gel +- "Diesen Eindruck habe ich seit vielen Jahren, denn seit +vielen Jahren lebe ich wie Ivan Illich in Cuernavaca, und +ich habe das Gefühl, daß Ivan Illich ein Prophet ist, daf +er die Gabe hat, wirtschaftliche, geistige, politische +Phänomene vorzuahnen - eine Vorahnung zu haben, von den +was die Welt gegen Ende dieses Jahrhunderts sein wird, + +Also ich glaube, im Falle von Ivan I1llich, kann man von + +Vorahnung sprechen." + +Illich sagt beispielweise eine verhängnisvolle Verarztumn({ +unserer Gesellschaft vorau8s. + +Und er kommentiert für uns einige seiner Beobachtungen: + +„l Der Gesundheitsminister von Kanada hat vor zirka + +1 1/2 Jahren ein ganz ausgezeichnetes Dokument heraus- + +gegeben. In diesem‘Dokumcnt weist er nach: ganz gleich- +gültig, wieviel mehr oder wieviel weniger wir ausgeben, + +ganz gleichgültig, welche Methoden der medizinischen + +;r +``` + +## Page 14 + +``` +Betreuung wir anwenden, die Gesundheit wird dadurch +nicht . beeinflußt, + +- "ffie mißt man denn 50 etwas?' + +/ +- "Man berechnet mehr oder weniger willkürlich, daß + +die Lebensdauer eines Einjährigen in einem gewisssen +Land normaler Weise 70 Jahre sein 80ll und fragt sich +dann: Jer stirbt, bevor er 70 Jahre erreicht hat, und +wieviele und aus welchen Gründen werden Lcbensjahre + +verloren. + +25% der frühzeitig verlorenen Lebensjähre sind dem +Autounglück zuzuschreiben. - 2'% dem Herzanfall oder +dem Gehirnschlag. 23% - dag macht schon 3/lh der fürhese +verlorenen Jahre aus - anderen Unfällen, hauptsächlich +Industrieunfällen, 17% Krebs und Lungenkfankheiten + +Und 8% Mord 3% Selbstmord. + +Nun - Autounglück, Industräeunfall, Mord und Selbsrbhort +slnd bestimfit nichts, worauf der Doktor überhaupt einer +Finfluß haben kann. Und Lumgenkrebs aund andere Lungen- +krankheüten —- heutzutage - ebenso wie der Herzanfall —> +sind der allgemeinen LebensTührung zuzuschreiben, und +eigentlich völlig unabhängig vom dem, was cin Arzl + +für dich tun kann,. + +Nun Lalonde ist ausgegangen von der Idee, daß die +Kanadier begreifen müssen, daß eine Verbesserung der +Gesgundheit nur dadurch erreicht werden kann, daß ander«c +Lebensgewohnheiten eingeführt werden, Und ein Schritt +dazu wäre, die Änzte auf die Krankenpflege zurückzudräı +und Kesundheitspflege als eän anderes politische5 Frehl +aufzufassen. + +Was nun Lalonde passiert ist, = ist - daß während die +Ärzte lernen mußten, sich darauf zu beschränken, sich +mit den Kranken zu befaesenm, eine ganze Reihe von neue? +Berufszweigen sich entwickelt haben 1im Laufo von nur 1 +Jahren, die sich mit der Gesunderhaltung der Kanadier +befassen, anstatt diese Aufpabe dem einzelnen Kanadiier + +@n Secelbatverwaltung - autonom - übernehmen zu lassen, +``` + +## Page 15 + +``` +Laut Illich zwingt die Bürokratie des Gesundheitgswesens +den Menschen in die passive Rolle des Komsumenten +medizinischer Versorgung. Die totale InstitutionaAlisierunf +von Gesundheits- und Krankenpflege schwäche die Anpassung! +und Widerstandfähigkeit des Menschen erheblich, was +sowohl seine Gesundheit beeinträchtigt, als auch seine +Bereitschaft lähmt, auf die ihn krankmachende Umwelt +einzuwirken, Sich zur Wehr zu setzen. + +Die Medizinsuéht ist nur ein Ausdruck des totalitären +Anspruchs der In Adustriegesellschaft, den Menschen vom +Handelnden zum Behandelten zu machen, + +Ein fremdverwaltetes Leben vom Mutterleib bis zum Grab, + +An Hand medizinischer Fachzeitschriften beweist 1I1lich +die Hilflosigkeit des Arztes, wenn er teuer wird - und +der Medizin, wenn sie kompliziert wird, Letztlich profitiı +die Industrie weit;mehr vom Fortschritt der Hedizin 215 +der HMensch, Einfache Mittel wie Seife und allgemeine +Hygiene habem mehr zur Bekämpfung der Seuchen beißetragen + +als die Wunder der Hedizine + +Illich warnt eindringlich vor dem Mißbrauch moderner +Nedikamente‘ünd Chemikalien. +„"Ych komme gerade aus Pakistan zurück,. Pakistan hat 197 +der Welt verkündet, daß dank der Mithilfe der Weolt- +gesundheitsorganisation, die Malaria endgültig beéiegt +war. - Weniger als 140 000 Malariafälle in eihem Volk + +von 60 Millionen in einem Jahr,' +``` + +## Page 16 + +``` +1975 mußte Pakistan leider mittoilén, daß auf 60 +Millionen Einwohner, 10 Millionen neue Fälle von Malsri +berichtet wurden, In einenm Jahr, Daß das Mockito, das d +neuc Malaria verbreitet, widerstandsfähig ist gepen aAll +jenec Insektizide, die entweder billig genug sind, um +brauchbar zu secin, oder nicht wrenigerx giftiger cind +für den Menschen, als für das Moskito, Und daß® dan neuı +Plasmodium, den jetzt pgehräuchlichen Antimalarinmittel) +‚ +Widerstand entwicjjelt hat, Und das Ärgste ist: aus +Pakigtan kommt jetzt eine neuc Malaria nach Kurvva, +gerade wenn die Europäer mit ihren Kernkraftwerken die +Flüsse auf jene Temperatur anheizen, in denen die + +Mallayiamoskitos am lLichbsten ihr Iiecebesleben treiben" + +- "Ich habe noch Kigenartigeren dazu Zzu sapen, Bin +Toilnchmcr'me}gs Seminars war ein Veterinär aus Cuern: +vaca, Als er sah, daß mein Hund krank war, gchrich er +Erotromicin vor., Ich war sltandilisiert, Nicht wepen de +Preises in erster Linie, - In erster Linie, weil wir +ja doch dafür sorgen wollen, daß Antibiotika nicht + +' erantvortungslos angewendet. werden, + +araufhin. sagte er mir:' die Hunde sind heute /: alde +on Bakterien infiziert, die dem normalen AÄntibiotik;z +egenüber schon Widerstand entwickelt haben, Um meine +hese für die Fakultät zu schreiben, habe ich Z0 herre: +oße Hun.de in Yuernavaca gefangen, und Ai2s Abzecne An +hrer Prostata auf widerständsfähige Bakterien un%lersu, +nd herausgefunden, dA:% fa alle Abzesse von Blıkeorie +tammecn, die gegen Peninzillin und Teramizin schon +iderstandsfähig sind, + +a saß ich: Herr Dokltor, herrenlosen Hunden gibt doch +Lemand Medizin cin, + +agl er: nein, aber sie fressen Knochen, und die Baueoer +njizicren ihren Kühlhn große Quantitäten von Antibiot +m ihnen kün stlich einige Dutzend Kilo Fleisch anwauct + +ü lassen, + +Aber daraus muß man doch schließen, daß uns genau dar + +leiche passicrt, wie den herronlasen Hunden, + +- W Soviel ich weiß, ist in Doutschland die Kontrollı + +s Fleinches auf Antibiotlika weitaus weniger sirengt + +L5 in Kanada oder in den Vercinigten Stauten, + +Seit 197l hat sich das goändert. +``` + +## Page 17 + +``` +D + +» + +a ++ gesapt, was an aem JLEICH £o unertröglich ist, da or +chts8 z„itiert, was meine Leser nicht schon secit + +hren aus meiner Zecitschrift; wissen sollten, + +h hab's halt in die Perspektive des laien mestelil — +frerufen zur Technokritik: + +:{ + +konnen es unsi einfach nicht mehr lcinten, Tach- +J + +s55SseNschaftlern die Gesamtbeurteilung ihres Beitraunern + +r GenelLllschaft zu überlansen,. +"Sandern?" + +"Das ist eine Aufpabe, die der Mann auf der Stxaße +ernehmen muß, und deshalb ist cs weit wichtigßer,; +dermann dafür verantwortlich zu machen, was die Ar +r ihn tun, und das nicht irgendwelchen Spezinlisler + +üborlansen. + +Ia, auf dem Gebiet der Gesundheit geht das noch, =b + +‚uf dem Gebiet der Beschleunigung geht en Bopdr LO +‚ er. Wenn sich die Leute in Hamburg nur 8o vermnin +mmengetzen würden, wie die Nachb arn in diesenm Do +Büch fragen würden:! welchen Vorteil haben wir von +hleunigung der Verkehrsmittel? Und zum Schlufß ko: +ichrwir die Verkechrasmittel beschleunigen, umgso mol +den seines Lebens muß der Durchachnittsbülrper In + +5st, in der Si}laverei des Verkehrs verbringen, " + +a, aber dann wird man mit der Antowort kommen, * + +tes der gesamten deutschen Wirtschaft vom Auta ! + +' +nd daß zirka 30% der Lebenszeit eines Durchnehn’ +‚ ers in der Sklaverei des Autos verbraucht qird. +uen Sie - wir haben jöézt mit mehreren großen & +Koewiesen, was wir vorher nur o ungefähr andeaut +ten: Bis 1850 pgab es keine Gesellschaft, in dr +. als 5% der Lebenszeit den typischen Mitglieds +er Gesellschaft auf Reisen außerhalb seiner De‘ +en_Aet wurde., - In Deutschland heute, gehen Z + +der Loebenszeit auf: im Auto sitzen, im Auto f: +``` + +## Page 18 + +``` +aufs Auto warten, um die Steuern Zu zahlen fuüur die üir +die Vcrsicherünge für die Gesundheit, den Verkehrsyol.i- +zinten, + +30% - also zirka scechs Mal sovicl Zeit als der typischk + +Mensich aller verganpgenen Kulturen, + +M ' +Das Iustige ist, daß der typische Bürgßer Deutschland n +sechs H_al soviele Kilometer zurücklegt wie der Meniko +in Chapas, sondern nur 5 Mal soviel, Pro Stunde iw MMiei +des Verkehrs ist also seine Leistung in Kilometern + +abgesunken., - Das nennt man Fortschritt, + +„"ABer man wird Dir gleich wieder sagen: wie 50Ll mun +die gesamte Wirtschaft umstrukturieren, um überhaupt + +lebensfähig zu bleiben. + +- "Das weiß ich nicht, Ich glaubo nur, daß ich nachw? +kann, daß wir auf diesem Weg zu eciner vollständipen +Lähmung der Gesellschaft durch Beschleunigung, Erkr. ul +der Gesellschaft durch medizinincheo Leistung, Verdunnu, +der Gegellschaft durch intensive Programmierung vml + +Erzichung kornmen werden. + +„"Das CIDOC macht zu - werden Sie Jjetzt auf Wander- + +schaft gehen?" + +- V"Sie meinen, daß ich zum Wanderprediger avancier(! +odar degradiert worden bin, Keine Angst, Ich habe rmein +Freunde hier., Ich kann weiterhin die Sprachgschule in +Cuernavaca dazu benutzen, im Januar, im Juli und +August kleine Grupprn um mich zu organisieren, Ich bin +natürlich viel freier als früher, und ich kanmn mich +jetzt, mit 49 Jahren, auf ein paar Jahre daran machen, +ernsthaft zu studieren, 50 ernst, wie man aM halt 71© +20 oder 25 Bßgearbeitet hat, wenn man sich in ein Gebie + +hineinarbeiten wollte,. + +- VSie haben nicht gerade eine Kampagne vor?" + +- VFreunde, und Kreise von Freunden, die sich hier +gebildet haben sind hart an der Arbeit, Architektur, +Medienwesen und die anderen industriellen Institutione + +die Nutzwertschaffung unmöglich machen, zu analysieren +8 BAgeN mfiß*rn +-UWYonn Sio einem breiten FPxhokum Publ).lc*arfl‚g Wuylener der + +Kornpunkt ihrer Tdeen Beif, wie würden Sle das fovruli, +``` + +## Page 19 + +``` +. Begrenzung der industriellen Produktionnweise, Wenn | + +iLese Produktionsweine Nutzwertschaffung im Wege stcht," +. $" [ + +' / +AWas nennen Sie Mutzwertschaffung?" +"Tm Sinne vom ersten Kapitel des Kapital." + +MDarunter kann sich ein breites Publikum nichtes + +rorstellen." + +; Venn eine Stanl; um Autos und Motaoren pmebaut wird, dann +/‚erden dc? Lecuten, die in der Stadt leben, die Eeine +bgeschnitten., Und die Produktion von Verkehrsweßpen +;schafft Distanzen, die weit größer sind, als die für +lie meisten durch Motaren ühberhriückt werden können, {& +Jenn eine Welt sich um die Medijzin herum kristallisier +ınd Gegundheit HMedizinkonsun ist, dann wird Gesunderhal- + +zung unmöglich gemacht, +``` + diff --git a/data/pages/en/videos/index.txt b/data/pages/en/videos/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b0d75ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/en/videos/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +# Videos + +## Available + +* [[.:1972:index|1972 - Un Certain Regard]] +* [[.:1976:index|1976 - In the name of Progress: no respect for holy cows]] + +## Not available yet + +* 1970 - The Institutionalization of Truth + * This is a videotape of a lecture (about 55 minutes) delivered in the spring of 1970 at York University in Toronto, O.Inada. Tt is on 1/2 inch Shibaden tape. (For information on availability write to rr. Beg Herman, L"anaging Editor, Convergence, P.O. Box 250, Station F, 'Toronto 5, Ontario, Canada. This lecture places Illich's thoughts about schools within the context of his opposition to t'cle worldwide drive toward economic development.
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.txt b/data/pages/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8d4aebb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +# El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:text|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _The Message of Bapu’s Hut_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1978 +* **#@LANG_versions@#:** + * ... +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** + * Discurso inaugural para el Pratishthan del ashram de Sevagram Ouarda, Enero de 1978. + * Incluído en el libro "En el espejo del pasado" (1992) + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.txt b/data/pages/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..251adfb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/article/1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut/text.txt @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +# El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi + +Esta mañana, al estar en la choza donde vivió Mahatma Gandhi, traté de absorber el espíritu que presidió su concepción y empaparme de su mensaje. Hay dos cosas de este lugar que me impresionaron profundamente. Una es de orden espiritual y otra la que se refiere a sus enseres[^nota1]. Trataba de comprender el punto de vista de Gandhi cuando hizo la choza. Me gustaron muchísimo su sencillez, belleza y orden. La choza proclama el mensaje de amor e igualdad entre todos los seres. Como la casa en la que vivo en México se asemeja en muchas formas a esta choza, pude comprender su espíritu. Encontré que la choza tiene siete tipos de lugares. Al entrar hay uno en el que se colocan los zapatos y se prepara uno, física y mentalmente, para entrar en ella. Luego viene el cuarto central que es lo suficientemente amplio para alojar a una familia numerosa. Hoy, a las 4 de la mañana, mientras rezaba, había cuatro personas sentadas a mi lado, recargadas en una pared y, del otro lado, había suficiente espacio para otras cinco sentadas muy juntas. Éste es el cuarto al que todos pueden acudir para reunirse con los demás. El tercer espacio es donde Gandhi estaba y trabajaba. Hay otros dos cuartos, uno para visitas y el otro para enfermos. Hay una veranda abierta y también un espacioso baño. Todos estos espacios tienen entre ellos una relación intensamente orgánica. + +Siento que, si viniera gente rica a la choza, se burlaría de ella. Cuando veo las cosas desde el punto de vista de un indio común, no veo por qué una casa debería ser más grande que ésta. Está hecha de madera y de adobe. En su construcción no fue la máquina la que trabajó, sino las manos del hombre. La llamo “choza”, pero en realidad es un hogar. Hay una diferencia entre casa y hogar. La casa es donde un hombre guarda equipajes y mobiliarios. Se concibe para la seguridad y la conveniencia de los muebles más que para las del hombre mismo. En Delhi la casa donde me alojé tiene lo que se llama comodidad. El edificio está construido desde el punto de vista de lo que se requiere para alojar esos objetos cómodos. Está hecho de cemento y ladrillo y es como una caja en donde caben bien muebles y otros mobiliarios. + +Debemos entender que todos lo muebles y demás artículos que colectamos a lo largo de nuestras vidas nunca nos darán una fortaleza interior. Son, por decirlo así, como muletas. Mientras más objetos cómodos tengamos, mayor será nuestra dependencia de ellos y más restringida será nuestra vida. Por el contrario, el tipo de mobiliario que encontré en la choza de Gandhi es de un orden distinto y hay pocas razones para depender de ellos. Una casa instalada con todo tipo de objetos muestra que nuestro vigor nos abandona. En la medida en que perdemos la capacidad de vivir, dependemos más de los bienes que adquirimos. De la misma forma dependemos de los hospitales para conservar nuestra salud y de las escuelas para la educación de nuestros hijos. Desafortunadamente, tanto los hospitales como las escuelas no son un índice para medir el grado de salud ni la inteligencia de una nación. De hecho, el número de hospitales indica la mala salud de la gente y las escuelas hablan de su ignorancia. En forma similar, la multiplicidad de instalaciones de servicio para vivir reduce al mínimo la expresión de la creatividad de la vida del hombre. + +La triste paradoja de esta situación es que a los que tienen más comodidades se les considera como superiores. ¿No es inmoral la sociedad en la que la enfermedad tiene un estatuto eminente y donde se tiene en alto aprecio la ignorancia? Al estar en la choza de Gandhi sentí tristeza al ponderar esta perversión. He llegado a la conclusión de que nos equivocamos al pensar que la civilización industrial es el camino que conduce a la plenitud del hombre. Se ha demostrado que para el desarrollo económico no es necesario tener más y mayores herramientas para la producción ni tampoco más ingenieros, médicos y profesores; literalmente están en demasía. + +Estoy convencido de que son pobres de mente, cuerpo, estilo de vida los seres que desean un espacio más grande que esta choza en la que Gandhi vivió, y siento lástima por ellos. Se rindieron ellos mismos y su yo animado a una estructura inanimada. En el proceso perdieron la elasticidad de su cuerpo y la vitalidad de su existencia. Tienen escasa relación con la naturaleza y escasa cercanía con sus congéneres. + +Al preguntar a los planificadores de hoy por qué no comprenden el sencillo enfoque que nos enseñó Gandhi, dicen que su camino es muy difícil y que la gente no sería capaz de seguirlo. Pero la realidad es que, en virtud de que los principios de Gandhi no admiten la presencia de ningún intermediario o de un sistema centralizado, los planificadores, los gerentes y los políticos se sienten excluidos. ¿Cómo es que no se entiende ese principio tan sencillo de la verdad y de la no violencia? ¿Es porque la gente siente que la no verdad y la violencia los llevará al objetivo deseado? No, no es así. El hombre común comprende plenamente que los medios correctos lo llevarán al fin correcto. Únicamente quienes tienen intereses creados rehúsan comprenderlo. Es el caso de los ricos. Cuando digo “ricos” me refiero a todos los que tienen “artículos domésticos” en su comunidad, que no son accesibles a todos. Esos son “ricos” por su estilo de vida, su alimentación, sus desplazamientos; su modo de consumo es tal que están ciegos ante la verdad. Para estos ciegos, la enseñanza de Gandhi es una cuestión difícil de entender y de asimilar. La sencillez no tiene sentido alguno para ellos. Su condición no les permite ver la verdad. Sus vidas han llegado a ser demasiado complicadas para permitirse salir de la trampa en la que cayeron. Afortunadamente, la gran mayoría de la gente no tiene una situación tal de fortuna que los haga inmunes a la verdad de la sencillez, ni viven en tal penuria que carezcan de la capacidad de entender. Incluso cuando algunos ricos ven la verdad se niegan a plegarse a ella. Es porque perdieron el contacto con el espíritu de ese país. + +Sin embargo, es muy claro que la dignidad del hombre sólo es posible en una sociedad autosuficiente y que sufre ataques cuando se orienta hacia una industrialización progresiva. Esta choza encarna el gozo que es posible cuando se está a la par con la sociedad. Aquí la autosuficiencia es la regla del juego. Debemos captar que los productos de consumo y los bienes superfluos que posee un ser humano reducen su capacidad de sacar gozo de su entorno. Gandhi dijo en repetidas ocasiones que la productividad debe mantenerse en los límites de las necesidades. El modo de producción en la actualidad es tal que no tiene límites, y continúa aumentando sin freno. Todo esto ha sido tolerado hasta ahora, pero ha llegado el momento en que el hombre debe comprender que al depender más y más de las máquinas está avanzando hacia su propia destrucción. + +El mundo civilizado, en China o en México, ha empezado a comprender que, si queremos progresar, debemos actuar de otra manera. Los hombres deben captar que, para su bien personal y de la sociedad, es mejor que la gente conserve para sí sólo lo que es suficiente para sus necesidades inmediatas. Tenemos que encontrar un método en que este pensamiento pueda expresarse cambiando los valores del mundo actual. Este cambio no podrá producirse por los gobiernos o a través de instituciones centralizadas. Tiene que crearse una atmósfera de opinión pública que permita a la gente comprender aquello que constituye la sociedad de base. Hoy, el hombre que tiene un automóvil se considera superior al que tiene una bicicleta, pero cuando vemos esto desde el punto de vista de la norma común, la bicicleta es el vehículo de las masas. Por lo tanto, debe considerarse de primordial importancia que toda la planeación de carreteras y de transporte debiera hacerse con base en la bicicleta, mientras que el automóvil debiera ocupar un lugar secundario. + +No obstante, la situación es exactamente la inversa: todos los planes se hacen para beneficio de los automóviles y relegan a la bicicleta a un segundo plano. En esta forma se ignoran los requerimientos del hombre común en comparación con los de las clases superiores. Esta choza de Gandhi muestra al mundo cómo se puede elevar la dignidad del hombre común. También es un símbolo de la felicidad que nos llega cuando aplicamos los principios de sencillez, disponibilidad y autenticidad. Espero que en la conferencia que tendrán sobre las Técnicas para los pobres del Tercer Mundo ustedes conserven en mente este mensaje. + + +---- + + + +[^nota1:] Iván Illich emplea en este texto la palabra _amenities_ para referirse a lo que encontró dentro de la choza de Gandhi y _conveniences_ para aludir a los objetos que habitualmente se encuentran en las casas. No hay traducción del vocablo _amenities_ en este contexto. Hemos empleado _enseres_ por la resonancia de la palabra: es la realidad en la que el ser se objetiva, es una prolongación y expresión del ser, aunque conocemos que el término también está siendo usado para referirse a los “artículos para el hogar” industrialmente producidos. _Conveniences_ , que se refiere precisamente a ese tipo de objetos, ha sido traducido como “artículos domésticos”, con la idea de que la palabra “artículo” corresponde a un producto industrial y “doméstico” que alude a su uso en la “casa” y que Illich distingue del “hogar”. En la misma línea de pensamiento tradujimos _facilities_ como _instalaciones de servicio_ , para aludir a todas las construcciones que supuestamente “facilitan” la vida. (T.)] diff --git a/data/pages/es/article/1986-disvalue/index.txt b/data/pages/es/article/1986-disvalue/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..470b12c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/article/1986-disvalue/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +# Desvalor + +## El foro del profesor Tamanoi + +Esta primera reunión pública de la Entropy Society japonesa nos permite conmemorar al profesor Joshiro Tamanoi. La mayoría de nosotros fuimos sus amigos o sus alumnos. Las cuestiones que suscitó son las que congregan aquí a 600 participantes, físicos y biólogos, economistas y ecologistas. + +Cuando enseñaba economía en la universidad de Tokio, el profesor Tamanoi tradujo a Karl Polanyi en japonés. A través de su enseñanza y sus obras, le dio un sabor japonés único a la investigación ecológica uniendo dimensiones culturales y dimensiones físicas. Logró esto concentrándose en la interacción entre la ideología económica de una época y la matriz tierra-agua que corresponde a la vida social. Fue un militante activo de una política del medio ambiente y un maestro fuera de serie. Los que fueron sus amigos nunca olvidarán su delicadeza. + +## Designar un mal + +Casi no mantenía ilusiones. Con valentía, reflexionaba sobre la guerra moderna, la fealdad moderna y la injusticia social moderna, incluso confrontado a un horror casi insoportable. Pero nadie olvidará el equilibrio de Tamanoi-sensei. Su compasión, su humor sutil que nunca lo abandonaban. Me hizo conocer el mundo de los que sobrevivieron con las cicatrices de la bomba de Hiroshima, los _hibakusha_. Y en él veo a un _hibakusha_ mental. Vivió la “experiencia interior” bajo la sombra de Hiroshima y Minamata. Bajo esta nube forjó una terminología para vincular espacios históricos con lugares materiales. Para ello usaba la “entropía” como un _semeion_ , una señal de la amenaza inminente contra una percepción exquisitamente japonesa de la localidad que aparentemente no tiene un equivalente occidental, como por ejemplo el _fudo_. La entropía ocupaba el centro de nuestras conversaciones. En esta conferencia me propongo explorar los límites en los que la noción de entropía puede aplicarse con utilidad a fenómenos sociales comparándola con la noción de desecho. Sugeriré entonces la noción de “desvalor” que espero nos permita aprehender con mayor claridad el término “entropía” cuando se usa fuera de la física o de la teoría de la información. + +El término “entropía” se debe al físico alemán Clausius. En 1850, al estudiar la relación entre el calor y la presión en un sistema cerrado, buscó una palabra para designar esta función. Helenista aficionado, tomó del griego el término “entropía” en 1865. Desde entonces esta palabra designa el algoritmo que define un fenómeno que anteriormente no se había notado. Al elegir precisamente esta palabra, Clausius nos prestó un servicio. En griego clásico, _entrópeo_ significa ‘girar’, ‘torcer’, ‘pervertir” o ‘humillar’. Después de un siglo de su introducción en la física, el término griego sigue siendo capaz de traducir una desviación frustrante que anteriormente se desconocía, que pervierte nuestras mejores energías sociales e intenciones morales. + +En algunos años, esta palabra se volvió una llave maestra para designar una variedad de desviaciones paradójicas que tienen dos cosas en común: son tan nuevas que el lenguaje cotidiano no tiene un sentido tradicional preciso que darles, y tan exasperantes que la gente prefiere evitar mencionarlas. Para tabuizar su propia implicación en un consumo furioso de bienes y servicios, la gente se apropia de la no palabra “entropía” con el fin de que la degradación social aparezca como un caso, entre otros, de una ley natural general. + +Cuando la gente evoca el empobrecimiento cultural que se revela en la escuela embrutecedora, en la medicina iatrógena y en la aceleración devoradora de tiempo, habla de la perversión de las buenas intenciones, no de los flujos de energía o de información. A lo que apuntan es a los efectos nefastos de la búsqueda de metas sociales inapropiadas que no tienen nada de la inocencia del determinismo inexorable que asociamos en física con la entropía. La degradación de la diversidad cultural por la organización transnacional de los flujos monetarios no es una ley natural, sino el resultado de la codicia. La desaparición de las culturas de subsistencia ligadas con terruños es un aspecto histórico y dramático de la condición humana, _pero es reciente_. La desaparición de las “ideologías” que privilegian la matriz tierra-agua es el hecho de las empresas y de los esfuerzos del hombre. Lo que nos parece natural en este final del siglo XX no ha existido todo el tiempo. + +Tamanoi me hizo captar que es posible englobar el suelo, el agua y el sol en una antropología filosófica, hablar de una “filosofía de la tierra”. Después de nuestras conversaciones, redescubrí a Paracelso, que proponía el mismo enfoque. Una filosofía de la tierra parte de la certeza de que la razón es vana sin una elaboración recíproca de las normas y de la realidad tangible; que hay que _ver_ la entidad culturalmente elaborada al mismo tiempo que su “entorno”, tal y como se presenta en un tiempo y en un lugar concretos. Esta interacción procede tanto del modo moral y estético como de los “espíritus” que elaboran los rituales y las artes a partir de la matriz terrestre de un lugar. La desaparición de las matrices correspondientes de la tierra y de la sociedad es una cuestión que no podríamos explorar con demasiada atención. A este respecto, la comparación entre la devastación de la diversidad cultural y la degradación cósmica puede ser útil, pero sólo a condición de que entendamos claramente los límites en los que la ciencia todavía es susceptible de engendrar metáforas. En cuanto metáfora, la entropía puede ser reveladora. Pero, en cuanto análogo, sólo puede ser engañosa. + +## La entropía como metáfora en oposición a la entropía como análogo reductor + +La última plática que nos reunió al profesor Tamanoi y a mí tuvo lugar después de un recorrido por su isla natal de Okinawa. Me hizo visitar a sus amigos, campos de batalla, grutas refugio, refinerías. Desde un recodo sobre un camino de montaña contemplamos los equipos petroleros y la bahía actualmente abandonada. Las conchas, los jardines y la vida aldeana habían desaparecido. Nuestra conversación versó sobre el peligro de pasar, intelectualmente, de un árbol muerto a la contaminación del planeta. Ciertamente, la contaminación es un mal a escala mundial. Pero esta devastación y sus efectos tangibles nunca deben desviarnos de la tristeza que nos causa este árbol muerto, este paisaje, el parque de almejas, vacío, de este hombre. El lenguaje de los especialistas puede con facilidad debilitar nuestra muda cólera en relación con los pantanos que _conocimos_ y que desde hace poco están cubiertos con chapopote o con asfalto. Evocar la destrucción de la belleza como un ejemplo de entropía es difícil. La metáfora tiende a enmascarar la vil malignidad que, normalmente, deploraríamos, y en la que participa cualquier persona que conduce un automóvil o viaja en avión. Las palabras creadas a partir de nociones técnicas son notablemente impropias para un uso metafórico. Cuando los términos técnicos pasan a un discurso ético, eclipsan casi inevitablemente el significado moral. + +Las _palabras_ auténticas tienen un nimbo. Por el contrario, los _términos_ no tienen connotaciones. Un nimbo de connotaciones rodea las palabras, como la imagen del carillón de viento que la voz pone en movimiento. La “entropía” no está entre estas palabras, aunque muchos traten de usarla así. En este último caso, está limitada de dos maneras: pierde lo tajante que tenía en cuanto término, y nunca adquiere las armonías de una palabra fuerte. En un poema es una piedra, y en el discurso político, un garrote. + +Las palabras que la gente usa cuando quiere decir algo importante no se sacan arbitrariamente de una lengua muerta —por ejemplo, el griego antiguo— ni se cargan de sentido únicamente por su definición. Cualquier palabra auténtica tiene su cuna natal; está arraigada allí como una planta en una pradera. Algunos términos se despliegan como plantas rampantes, otros tienen la densidad del roble. Sin embargo, su efecto está bajo el control del locutor. Quien habla se esfuerza por hacer que sus palabras signifiquen lo que quiere decir. Pero ninguna definición clara se le da a la entropía cuando tiene otra acepción que no es la técnica. Nadie puede decir a la persona que pronuncia esta palabra que la maneja mal. No hay una manera justa de usar un término técnico en la conversación ordinaria. + +Cuando “entropía” se usa en el lenguaje corriente, pierde su poder de designar una fórmula; no encaja ni en la frase ni en el sistema. Pero también pierde el género de connotación que poseen las palabras fuertes. Desprende un halo evocador que, al contrario del sentido de las palabras fuertes, es vago y arbitrario. Cuando el término “entropía” aparece en una declaración política, falazmente toma un giro científico, mientras que de hecho probablemente no tiene sentido. Si convence, no es en virtud de su fuerza, sino de una seducción irracional. Enmascara una perversión moral que, de otra manera, descompondría al locutor, pues da la impresión de que lo que formula es científico y está cargado de sentido. + +Lo que veo, y me desconsuela y me turba en relación con esta isla degradada de Okinawa, es el resultado de la presunción, de la agresión y de la avidez de los seres humanos. La entropía evoca con fuerza una analogía estricta entre el reino de la dignidad y de la libertad humanas y las leyes del cosmos. Al hablar de agresión, de avidez y de desesperanza en este contexto de la entropía, disculpo el crimen y la despreocupación al invocar la necesidad cósmica. En lugar de confesar que, por mi modo de vida, promuevo un mal, sugiero que la eliminación de la belleza y de la diversidad es el trayecto ineluctable de la cultura y de la naturaleza. Ésta es la cuestión que ha tratado Tamanoi. Él definía la interacción local del hombre y de la tierra, moldeada ideológicamente, como el centro del cosmos. + +A pesar de esta ambigüedad, la “entropía” sigue siendo un término precioso. Usado como una metáfora evocadora y flexible, y no como un análogo reductor, sirve para alertar a algunos ante la degradación social, la pérdida de la belleza y la diversidad, la trivialidad y la sordidez crecientes. Nos ayuda a reconocer los ruidos parásitos, las ondas ineptas y desprovistas de significado que bombardean nuestros sentidos internos y externos. Si estuviera seguro que se conservan en la mente estas limitaciones, no quisiera renunciar a él. + +## El desvalor por oposición a la entropía + +Tomadas al pie de la letra, las metáforas son generadoras de absurdidades. Decir que el cerebro de mi hijo es una computadora expresa sólo la vanidad de un padre que pretende ser moderno. Sin embargo, la eficacia de una metáfora procede sobre todo del choque que provoca en el oyente una impropiedad intencional del lenguaje. La metáfora no opera más que cuando los dos terrenos entre los que navega esta metáfora son orillas accesibles al entendimiento del oyente. Ahora bien, cuando se usa el término “entropía” en un sentido metafórico se trata de ligar terrenos particularmente oscuros y alejados uno de otro. Para el oyente medio, el mundo de la ciencia es impresionante —por definición, su lenguaje matemático es ajeno al hombre de la calle—. Por otra parte, el terreno en el que la metáfora de la entropía se supone que sirve de guía —el universo de la contaminación organizada, de la seguridad apocalíptica, de la educación programada, de la enfermedad medicalizada, de la muerte informatizada y otras formas de sinsentido institucionales— es tan aterrador que sólo puedo considerarlo con el respeto que se debe al diablo; con el temor constante de perder la sensibilidad de mi corazón acostumbrándome al mal. + +Ahí está el peligro asociado con el término “entropía”, a causa de la desviación socioeconómica generalizada que pervierte moralmente casi la totalidad de los aspectos de la existencia posmoderna. Sin embargo, este término nos fue útil. Nos forzó a darnos cuenta de que nos quedamos sin voz ante una evolución social que da la impresión (falaz) de ser tan natural como el caos hipotético que resulta del curso irreversible del universo. + +El término que denomina esta desviación debería ser tal que denotara la naturaleza histórica y moral de nuestra tristeza, la perfidia y la depravación que causan la pérdida de la belleza, de la autonomía y de esta dignidad que da su valor al trabajo del hombre. La entropía implica que la devastación es una ley cósmica, que comenzó con el Big-Bang. Ahora bien, la degradación social que hay que designar no coexiste con el universo; es algo que, en la historia de la humanidad, tiene un inicio, y a la que entonces se le podría poner un fin. + +Propongo designar este fenómeno como “desvalor”. Puede ponerse en relación con la degradación del valor, así como la entropía se puso en relación con la degradación de la energía. La entropía es una medida de la transformación de la energía en una forma que ya no puede convertirse en “trabajo” físico. “Desvalor” es un término que traduce la destrucción de los ámbitos de comunidad y de las culturas, y que da como resultado que el trabajo tradicional se despoja de su capacidad de engendrar la subsistencia. En este punto, la analogía entre los dos conceptos es bastante cercana para justificar el salto metafórico que une la astronomía con los modos de vida modernos (e inversamente). + +La palabra “desvalor” no aparece en los diccionarios. Por su parte, al “valor” tenemos muchas ocasiones de encontrarlo. Algo puede ser devaluado o sobrevaluado; las acciones pierden valor; las monedas antiguas ganan en valor; el amor fingido no tiene valor. En todos estos usos, el “valor” se considera como algo evidente. En el lenguaje cotidiano, puede significar cualquier cosa o casi… De hecho, con frecuencia se usa para significar el bien. Procede de la disposición mental que, a mediados del siglo pasado, produjo igualmente “fuerza de trabajo”, “desecho”, “energía” y “entropía”. + +El concepto de desvalor permite mostrar las homologías y las contradicciones que existen entre la degradación social y la degradación física. Mientras que el “trabajo” físico tiende a aumentar la entropía, la productividad económica del trabajo descansa sobre la desvalorización anterior de las actividades tradicionales en el seno de una cultura. El desecho y la degradación se consideran habitualmente como efectos secundarios de la producción de valores. Precisamente la idea que avanzo es la idea inversa. Sostengo que el valor económico sólo se acumula a causa de la devastación anterior de la cultura, que también puede considerarse como una creación de desvalor. + +## La parábola de los desechos de méxico + +México ofrece al mundo un nuevo azote. Hoy es un lugar en el que las salmonelas y las amibas se transmiten normalmente por las vías respiratorias. Quien llegue al valle de Tenochtitlán, situado a 2 250 metros de altura y ceñido de montañas, busca su aliento en la atmósfera enrarecida. Hace medio siglo, en la ciudad de México el aire era vivo y puro. Actualmente, los pulmones sirven de depósito de un aire muy contaminado por un _smog_ que contiene una alta densidad de partículas sólidas, de las cuales muchas son agentes patógenos. Un conjunto particular de condiciones sociales incuba y dispersa las bacterias de la ciudad. Algunos ilustran la manera en que el derrumbe cultural, la ideología y los preconceptos tecnocráticos se conjugan para crear el desvalor. La evolución de la ciudad de México desde hace 30 años es un cuento moral que describe la sobreproducción del desvalor. + +En 40 años, la ciudad pasó de un millón de habitantes a más de 20 millones. La única experiencia que tienen en común, antes de su llegada, los que van ahí a aglomerarse, es el gozo de un espacio casi ilimitado. La agricultura precolombina no conocía el gran ganado doméstico. El buey, el caballo y el asno se trajeron de Europa. Las evacuaciones animales se apreciaban. El esparcimiento de los excrementos humanos era algo usual. Los recientes inmigrantes de la ciudad generalmente vienen de las zonas rurales. No tienen hábitos de higiene apropiados a una gran densidad de población. Y las nociones mexicanas relativas a la defecación jamás fueron modeladas por una atención comparable a la que presta a estas cuestiones el pensamiento hindú, musulmán o confuciano. No es entonces sorprendente que hoy, en la ciudad de México, entre cuatro y cinco millones de personas no tengan un lugar específico para depositar sus heces, su orina, su sangre. La ideología de los WC paraliza la urbanización cultural de las costumbres nativas de los inmigrantes. + +La ceguera elitista ante la naturaleza cultural de los excrementos, cuando éstos se producen en una ciudad moderna, se conjuga con las visiones extremadamente especializadas que las escuelas de pensamiento higienista internacionales implantaron en la mente de los burócratas mexicanos. El prejuicio anglosajón que bloquea fisiológicamente los movimientos peristálticos salvo si uno está sentado en el excusado, con el papel de baño a la mano, se volvió endémico en la élite gobernante de México. De ahí resulta que es singularmente ciega al verdadero problema que se plantea. Además, durante el _boom_ petrolero de inicios de los años setenta, esta élite se entusiasmó con proyectos megalómanos. Se emprendieron inmensos trabajos públicos que nunca terminaron, y las ruinas de los proyectos inacabados se consideran como símbolos de un desarrollo que arrancará muy pronto. Mientras que en las capas pobres de la población se las arreglan como pueden sabiendo que el final del desarrollo está ahí, el gobierno sigue hablando de una crisis económica temporal que momentáneamente detuvo el flujo de dólares y de agua. Su uso cotidiano de excusados, conjugado con la ilusión de atravesar una crisis de corta duración, vuelve ciegos a los planificadores y a los expertos en técnicas sanitarias frente a la evidencia de que los excrementos de sus cuatro millones de conciudadanos sin excusados seguirán expandiéndose, descomponiéndose y atomizándose en el aire rarificado de la alta planicie. + +## El terremoto de la ciudad de méxico + +Además, en septiembre de 1985, un sismo sacudió no sólo la capital del país, sino también la suficiencia de algunos profesionales. En países como México, los ingenieros y responsables de servicios de higiene forzosamente pertenecen a la clase que, por definición, usa excusados. Pero, en 1985, muchos de ellos se vieron privados de agua en su domicilio y en su trabajo durante varias semanas. Por primera vez en la prensa, editorialistas se preguntaron si la higiene significa inevitablemente la dilución de las heces y la producción de agua fangosa. Lo que debería haberse constatado desde hace largo tiempo se volvió bruscamente una evidencia para algunos: México no tiene la capacidad económica de proveer agua para varios millones de excusados suplementarios. Además, si hubiera incluso bastante dinero y si el uso de la caja de agua estuviera estrictamente reglamentado, la generalización de los excusados constituiría una seria y desastrosa agresión contra el México rural. El bombeo de millones de litros de agua necesarios devastaría a las comunidades agrícolas semiáridas en un radio de cerca de 200 kilómetros. Lo que forzaría a emigrar a la ciudad de México a millones suplementarios de individuos. Abandonadas, millones de hectáreas de suelos frágiles de las terrazas, de las cuales algunas se remontan más allá de la llegada de los españoles, serían barridas por los vientos y las lluvias. El centro de la meseta mesoamericana se volvería definitivamente desértico. Habría ahí un enorme desperdicio suscitado por una ideología que trata a los seres humanos como productores naturales de desechos. Animados con ideas diferentes, una nueva oposición política se constituyó, que eligió promover unidades de composta tanto para los ricos como para los pobres. + +Es interesante observar de qué manera un grupo restringido, pero potencialmente influyente, reaccionó sin retomar por su cuenta la ideología de los excusados. Para esos ciudadanos, el ideal de la _normalidad_,[^n01] que en español significa la perpendicularidad, voló en pedazos. Esta gente, que, aparte de algunos profesionales, forma parte de una capa muy pobre, prisionera de una de las más grandes megalópolis del mundo, rechazó los símbolos de la vida urbana, los rascacielos, las profundas vías subterráneas, los mercados gigantescos. Para ellas, el corazón de la ciudad de México en ruinas se volvió un signo de esperanza. Certidumbres en cuanto al agua y a los excrementos, hasta ese momento admitidas sin examen, se volvieron objeto de chistes. En las _pulquerías_,[^n02] volaban las bromas sobre el desarrollo. De forma manifiesta, el desarrollo no había llevado a una redistribución del valor acumulado, sino a la creación de un gigantesco mojón compuesto de cemento y plástico y que necesita mantenimiento por parte de servicios profesionales. Los desagües se volvieron el símbolo de los remedios requeridos en una ciudad erigida para el entrenamiento del _homo œconomicus_ en el uso de los excusados. + +## La historia del desecho + +La definición social de los excrementos, que en la mente de quienes los producen no pueden transformarse en composta, se volvió simbólica de la “depreciación” de la gente. La gente aprende que es tributaria de servicios incluso cuando actúa bajo la incitación de las necesidades más elementales. En esta óptica, el excusado es una máquina para instalar la costumbre de agacharse, de depreciarse, que prepara al ciudadano a depender de servicios escasos en otros terrenos. Hace nacer la percepción corporal del _homo_ generador de desecho. Cuando la gente capta que, varias veces al día, sus necesidades físicas de evacuación engendran una degradación del medio ambiente, es fácil convencerla de que, simplemente al existir, no puede dejar de contribuir a la “entropía”. + +El desecho no es una consecuencia natural de la existencia humana. El profesor Ludolf Kuchenbuch, que trabaja en una historia del desecho, reunió ampliamente las pruebas. El concepto que sin discusión tomamos por nuestra cuenta apareció sólo hacia 1830. Antes de esta fecha, el término inglés _waste_ [en español desecho, desperdicio], verbo y sustantivo, estaba ligado con la devastación, la destrucción, la desertificación, la degradación. Algo que no puede evacuarse. Los profesores Tamanoi y Murata construyeron su teoría sobre un presupuesto similar: si una cultura refuerza regularmente la interacción del sol, de la tierra y del agua, su contribución al cosmos es positiva. Las sociedades humanas que crean desechos son las que destruyen la matriz tierra-agua de su medio y se vuelven centros de expansión de la devastación de las sociedades que las rodean. La entropía constituye un resultado de la destrucción de las culturas y de sus ámbitos de comunidad. + +Es entonces injustificado atribuir a cualquier cultura la producción de desechos. Los miasmas y los tabúes no deben en absoluto considerarse como iguales a los contaminantes modernos: fundan reglas simbólicas que refuerzan la integración y protegen las culturas de subsistencia. El pretendido desarrollo es una desvalorización programada de estas protecciones. + +## El desvalor en oposición al desecho + +El desvalor permanece invisible mientras prevalecen dos condiciones. La primera reside en la creencia general de que las categorías económicas, cuya tarea es medir “valores”, pueden usarse en formulaciones en relación con comunidades cuyo “asunto” no es el valor, sino el bien. El bien forma parte de una “ideología” local ligada con una mezcla de elementos inherentes a un lugar específico —para hablar como Paracelso o como Tamanoi—, mientras que el valor es una medida que conviene a la ideología abstracta de la ciencia. La segunda fuente de ceguera ante el desvalor es la certeza obsesiva de la plausibilidad del progreso. Esta propensión a reducir la convivencialidad a la economía primitiva, junto a un horror de la tradición disfrazada como voluntad de contribuir al progreso de los otros, engendra la destrucción inconsiderada del pasado. Se llega a mirar a la tradición como una expresión histórica del desecho, de la que hay que deshacerse al mismo tiempo que de las inmundicias del pasado. + +Hace solamente 10 años todavía parecía posible hablar con seguridad del progreso del siglo XX. La economía se presentaba como una máquina que acrecienta el flujo monetario. La economía, la información y el dinero parecían obedecer a las mismas reglas —las leyes de la entropía se aplicaban por igual—. El desarrollo de la capacidad de producción, la multiplicación de trabajadores calificados y el aumento del ahorro se veían como elementos constitutivos del “crecimiento” que, tarde o temprano, repartiría más dinero a más gente. A pesar de una mayor desintegración social debida al crecimiento del flujo monetario, lo que se presentaba como la exigencia primera para satisfacer las necesidades fundamentales de más gente ¡era siempre más dinero! La entropía parecía entonces un análogo pertinente de la degradación social que resultaba de la circulación general del dinero. + +Mientras tanto, se anunciaba una cuestión nueva y radical de las verdades económicas. Hace sólo 20 años todavía no era ridículo imaginar una comunidad mundial fundada sobre una dignidad y una justicia iguales, que podría proyectarse siguiendo el modelo de los flujos de valor derivados de la termodinámica. Desde entonces no sólo la promesa de igualdad entre los hombres sino incluso la posibilidad de una oportunidad igual de sobrevivencia suenan vacías. A escala mundial es evidente que el crecimiento concentró los provechos económicos, desvalorizando simultáneamente a los seres y los lugares de manera tal que la sobrevivencia se volvió imposible fuera de la economía monetaria. Más gente está más desprovista e impotente como nunca en el pasado. Además, los privilegios que sólo pueden adquirir los que gozan de grandes percepciones son cada vez más apreciados, principalmente como un medio de escapar al desvalor que afecta la vida de todos. + +La ideología del progreso económico extiende una sombra de desvalor sobre casi todas las actividades modeladas culturalmente de manera separada del flujo monetario. Gente como los inmigrantes rurales de la ciudad de México, y nociones como las reglas de salud locales se devalúan mucho antes de que se les puedan dar excusados eficientes. La gente está obligada a entrar en una nueva topología mental en donde los lugares destinados a los movimientos peristálticos son escasos, al mismo tiempo que los recursos para crear estos lugares están fuera del alcance de la nueva economía en la que se encuentran. La ideología de la producción y del consumo en condiciones implícitas de escasez “natural” se apodera de su mente mientras que el dinero o el empleo remunerado están fuera de su alcance. La autodegradación, el autorrebajamiento, el autofracaso caracterizan la creación de las condiciones necesarias para el crecimiento legítimo de una economía monetaria. + +Aquí es donde Joshiro Tamanoi entra en escena. No sólo tradujo a Karl Polanyi, sino que también enseñó sus ideas. Retomó la distinción entre economía monetaria y economía de subsistencia que se remonta a Polanyi. Cuarenta años después de él, Tamanoi —de quien sólo conozco el pensamiento por nuestras conversaciones, pues sus obras están en japonés, lengua que ignoro— introdujo esta distinción en el Japón moderno. Puede usarse para resumir la tesis que expongo. La entropía es probablemente una metáfora eficaz para subrayar la depreciación en la economía monetaria. El flujo de la moneda o de la información puede, de cierta manera, compararse con el flujo del calor. Pero es evidente que la macroeconomía no nos dice nada de lo que la gente considera como bueno. La entropía no es pertinente para explicar la devastación de los contextos culturales de subsistencia gracias a los cuales la gente actúa fuera de la economía monetaria. En efecto, el “intercambio” de dones o las transacciones de bienes en la economía de subsistencia son, por su misma naturaleza, heterogéneos al modelo del flujo de valor postulado por la economía monetaria. Y, mientras que el modelo termodinámico del flujo se extiende, borra un modo de vida del que la entropía será para siempre ajena. + +----- + +Conferencia pronunciada durante la primera reunión pública de la Entropy Society, Keyo University, Tokio, 9 de noviembre de 1986. + +[^n01:] En español en el original. (T.)] + +[^n02:] En español en el original. (T.)] diff --git a/data/pages/es/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.txt b/data/pages/es/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..40861b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/article/1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +# Prólogo de "Desescolarizando nuestras vidas" + +Hojear las páginas de _Desescolarizar nuestras vidas_ me transporta al año 1970, cuando, junto con Everett Reimer en el Centro de Documentación Intercultural (CIDOC) de Cuernavaca, reuní a algunos de los más sesudos críticos de la educación (Paulo Freire, John Holt, Paul Goodman, Jonathan Kozol, Joel Spring, George Dennison y otros) para abordar la inutilidad de la escolarización -no sólo en América Latina, que ya era evidente- sino también en el llamado mundo desarrollado e industrializado. + +Los miércoles por la mañana, durante la primavera y el verano de ese año, distribuí borradores de ensayos que acabaron convirtiéndose en capítulos de mi libro, _La sociedad desescolarizada_. Mirando hacia atrás un cuarto de siglo, muchas de las opiniones y críticas que parecían tan radicales en 1970 parecen hoy bastante ingenuas. Aunque mis críticas a la escolarización en ese libro pueden haber ayudado a algunas personas a reflexionar sobre los efectos sociales secundarios no deseados de esa institución -y quizás a buscar alternativas significativas a la misma-, ahora me doy cuenta de que en gran medida estaba ladrando al árbol equivocado. Para entender por qué me siento así y tener una idea de dónde me encuentro hoy, invito a los lectores a acompañarme en el viaje que hice después de _La sociedad desescolarizada_. + +Mi cuaderno de viaje comienza hace veinticinco años, cuando _La sociedad desescolarizada_ estaba a punto de aparecer. Durante los nueve meses que el manuscrito estuvo en la editorial, cada vez estaba más insatisfecho con el texto, que, por cierto, no defendía la eliminación de las escuelas. Este malentendido se lo debo a Cass Canfield Sr., presidente de Harper's, que dio nombre al libro y con ello tergiversó mi pensamiento. El libro aboga por el desestablecimiento de las escuelas, en el sentido en que la Iglesia ha sido desestablecida en los Estados Unidos. Por desestructuración me refería, en primer lugar, a no pagar con dinero público y, en segundo lugar, a no conceder ningún privilegio social especial ni a los que van a la iglesia ni a los que van a la escuela. (Incluso sugerí que, en lugar de financiar las escuelas, deberíamos ir más allá de lo que hicimos con la religión y hacer que las escuelas pagaran impuestos, de modo que la escolarización se convirtiera en un objeto de lujo y fuera reconocida como tal). + +Pedí la desestructuración de las escuelas en aras de mejorar la educación y aquí, me di cuenta, radicó mi error. Mucho más importante que la disolución de las escuelas, empecé a ver, era la inversión de esas tendencias que hacen de la educación una necesidad apremiante en lugar de un regalo de ocio gratuito. Empecé a temer que la desestructuración de la iglesia educativa condujera a un renacimiento fanático de muchas formas de educación degradada y omnipresente, convirtiendo el mundo en una clase universal, una escuela global. La pregunta más importante se convirtió en: "¿Por qué tantas personas -incluso ardientes críticos de la escolarización- se vuelven adictas a la educación, como a una droga?" + +Norman Cousins publicó mi propia retractación en la Saturday Review durante la misma semana en que salió a la luz _La sociedad desescolarizada_. En ella argumentaba que la alternativa a la escolarización no era otro tipo de organismo educativo, ni el diseño de oportunidades educativas en todos los aspectos de la vida, sino una sociedad que fomente una actitud diferente de las personas hacia las herramientas. + +Amplié y generalicé este argumento en mi siguiente libro, _Herramientas para la convivencia_. + +En gran parte gracias a la ayuda de mi amigo y colega Wolfgang Sachs, llegué a ver que la función educativa ya estaba emigrando de las escuelas y que, cada vez más, se instituirían otras formas de aprendizaje obligatorio en la sociedad moderna. Se convertiría en obligatoria no por ley, sino por otros trucos, como hacer creer a la gente que aprende algo de la televisión, u obligar a la gente a asistir a cursos de formación continua, o conseguir que la gente pague enormes cantidades de dinero para que le enseñen a tener mejor sexo, a ser más sensible, a saber más sobre las vitaminas que necesita, a jugar, etc. Este discurso de "aprendizaje permanente" y "necesidades de aprendizaje" ha contaminado completamente la sociedad, y no sólo las escuelas, con el hedor de la educación. + +Luego vino la tercera etapa, a finales de los setenta y principios de los ochenta, en la que mi curiosidad y mis reflexiones se centraron en las circunstancias históricas en las que puede surgir la propia idea de las necesidades educativas. Cuando escribí _La sociedad desescolarizada_, los efectos sociales, y no la sustancia histórica de la educación, seguían siendo el centro de mi interés. Había cuestionado la escolarización como medio deseable, pero no había cuestionado la educación como fin deseable. Seguía aceptando que, fundamentalmente, las necesidades educativas de algún tipo eran un hecho histórico de la naturaleza humana. Hoy ya no lo acepto. + +Al reenfocar mi atención desde la escolarización hacia la educación, desde el proceso hacia su orientación, llegué a entender la educación como aprendizaje cuando tiene lugar bajo el supuesto de escasez en los medios que lo producen. La "necesidad" de la educación, desde esta perspectiva, aparece como resultado de las creencias y disposiciones sociales que hacen escasos los medios para la llamada socialización. Y, desde esta misma perspectiva, empecé a notar que los rituales educativos reflejaban, reforzaban y de hecho creaban la creencia en el valor del aprendizaje perseguido en condiciones de escasez. Llegué a ver que tales creencias, disposiciones y rituales podían sobrevivir y prosperar fácilmente bajo las rúbricas de desescolarización, escolarización libre o educación en casa (que, en su mayor parte, se limitan al encomiable rechazo de los métodos autoritarios). + +¿Qué tiene que ver la escasez con la educación? Si los medios para el aprendizaje (en general) son abundantes, en lugar de escasos, entonces la educación nunca surge -no es necesario hacer arreglos especiales para "aprender". Si, por el contrario, los medios para aprender son escasos, o se supone que son escasos, entonces surgen disposiciones educativas para "garantizar" que se "transmitan" ciertos conocimientos, ideas, habilidades, actitudes, etc., importantes. La educación se convierte entonces en una mercancía económica que se consume o, para usar el lenguaje común, que se "obtiene". La escasez surge tanto de nuestras percepciones, que son manipuladas por los profesionales de la educación que se dedican a imputar necesidades educativas, como de los acuerdos sociales reales que hacen que el acceso a las herramientas y a las personas cualificadas y con conocimientos sea difícil de conseguir, es decir, escaso. + +Si hubiera algo que pudiera desear a los lectores (y a algunos de los escritores) de _Desescolarizar nuestras vidas_, sería esto: Si la gente quiere pensar seriamente en desescolarizar sus vidas, y no sólo escapar de los efectos corrosivos de la escolarización obligatoria, no podría hacer nada mejor que desarrollar el hábito de poner un signo de interrogación mental al lado de todo el discurso sobre las "necesidades educativas" o "necesidades de aprendizaje" de los jóvenes, o sobre su necesidad de una "preparación para la vida". Me gustaría que reflexionaran sobre la historicidad de estas mismas ideas. Esta reflexión llevaría a la nueva cosecha de desescolarizadores un paso más allá de donde se encontraba el joven y algo ingenuo Iván, cuando nació el discurso de la "desescolarización". + + +Bremen, Alemania - Verano de 1995 + +---- + +Este artículo se incluyó originalmente como prólogo del libro _Desescolarizar nuestras vidas_ (1995) y también se incluyó en "Everywhere All the Time: A New Deschooling Reader" (2008). diff --git a/data/pages/es/article/1998-conspiracy/index.txt b/data/pages/es/article/1998-conspiracy/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..08ee7c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/article/1998-conspiracy/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +# El cultivo de la conspiración + +El 16 de noviembre de 1996, llegué al auditorio de la biblioteca de la Universidad de Bremen justo a tiempo para mi conferencia de la tarde. Durante cinco años, me había ocupado de comentar textos antiguos para trazar la larga historia de la _philia_ occidental, de la amistad. El tema de este semestre era la pérdida del sentido común, la pérdida de la proporcionalidad, el cambio decisivo en la proporción sensorial durante las vidas de John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz y Johann Sebastian Bach. Ese día me preparé para abordar el tema del sentido común como el órgano sensorial que se cree que reconoce lo «bueno», lo «adecuado» y lo «quinto» (desde la escala diatónica hasta las proporciones humanas). Lo contrastaba con el ideal emergente de la objetividad en la ciencia, en particular el paso de una objetividad perspectiva a una objetividad a-perspectiva; de la búsqueda de la verdad a la exigencia de la verificación y la prueba. Pero incluso antes de que pudiera empezar, tuve que parar: los doscientos auditores habían planeado celebrar una fiesta en lugar de una conferencia. Dos meses después de la fecha real, habían decidido celebrar mi septuagésimo cumpleaños, así que festejamos, reímos y bailamos hasta la medianoche. + +Los discursos inauguraron el asunto. Yo estaba sentado detrás de un ramo de flores, en primera fila, y escuché diecisiete intervenciones. Como prueba de reconocimiento, regalé una flor a cada uno de los panegiristas. La mayoría de los oradores eran mayores de cincuenta años, amigos que había hecho en cuatro continentes, algunos de los cuales aún guardaban recuerdos que se remontaban a la década de 1950 en Nueva York. Otros eran conocidos más recientes, gente que había conocido en los tiempos en que enseñaba en Kassel, Berlín, Marburgo, Oldemburgo y, desde 1991, en Bremen. Esforzándome por expresar mi gratitud adecuada a cada orador, me sentía como Hugo de San Víctor, mi amigo y maestro de París. En una carta, este monje del siglo XII se compara con un burro de carga: no se siente aplastado, sino elevado por el peso de las amistades reunidas durante el peregrinaje de la vida. + +Después de las _lauda_ _t_ _iones_ , cruzamos la plaza hasta el edificio de artes liberales, cuyos lúgubres pasillos de cemento tengo el hábito de evitar. Una metamorfosis se había producido en su atmósfera. Nos acomodamos en un café pintoresco con cerca de cinco docenas de mesas pequeñas, cada una con una vela encendida sobre una servilleta de color. Para la ocasión, el departamento de artes domésticas de la universidad había incluido en el presupuesto del semestre una olla lo suficientemente grande como para cocinar sopa de papa para toda una compañía. El canciller, ausente en ese momento por atender cuestiones oficiales en Pekín, había contratado un conjunto de klezmer. El profesor Ludolf Kuchenbuch, decano de los historiadores de una universidad cercana y saxofonista, se hizo cargo del jazz. Además, un par de payasos que actuaban en bicicleta nos entretuvieron con su parodia de mi libro _Energía y equidad_ de 1972. + +El alcalde-gobernador de la «ciudad-Estado» libre de Bremen había escogido una botella de Borgoña muy antiguo de los tesoros del _Rathskeller_. El alto y delgado funcionario me entregó el precioso regalo y expresó su placer «de que Illich a los setenta años —en sus propias palabras— hubiera encontrado en Bremen _einen Zipfel Heimat_ », algo así como «un rincón de hogar». De la boca del _Bürgermeister_ , la frase que yo mismo había usado me cautivó; ahora me parecía grotesca, pero aun así verdadera. Empecé a reflexionar: ¿qué podría haberme inducido a asociar la noción de hogar con los largos y oscuros inviernos con lluvia continua, donde camino a través de los pastos a lo largo del Wümme que son inundados dos veces al día por la marea del Atlántico Norte? Yo que, de niño, me había sentido exiliado en Viena, porque todos mis sentidos estaban ligados con nostalgia al sur, al azul del Adriático, a las montañas de piedra caliza de la Dalmacia de mi primera infancia. + +La ceremonia de hoy, sin embargo, es aún más sorprendente que las palabras del alcalde en las festividades del año anterior, porque su premio me hace sentir bienvenido por la ciudadanía y no sólo por las autoridades de la ciudad, dicho esto con el debido respeto a mi amigo el alcalde. La Villa Ichon es un testimonio de la civilidad de Bremen: un testimonio que no es ni de caridad privada ni de financiación pública. Ustedes, que son mis anfitriones en este lugar, se definen como ciudadanos comerciantes hanseáticos. El día de la solemne inauguración de la Villa Ichon, se negaron rotundamente a que un funcionario de la ciudad tocara las llaves de esta casa. Esto fue para subrayar la autonomía de la sociedad civil, basada en una respetuosa distancia con el gobierno de la ciudad, por más ejemplar que sea. Klaus Hübotter, quien inspiró la remodelación de esta casa del siglo XIX, se refiere a ella como una «casa flotante para los desamparados y los vulnerables entre nosotros». Me conmueve profundamente que su premio anual, destinado a honrar a un ciudadano de Bremen, se conceda hoy a un peregrino errante, pero que sabe apreciarlo. Como hijo mayor de una familia de comerciantes de una ciudad portuaria libre —atrapada entre las potencias adriáticas de Bizancio y Venecia—, nací en una tradición que, mientras tanto, se ha marchitado, pero no sin dejarme con una singular habilidad para saborear la hospitalidad hanseática que hoy recibo. + +La primera vez que oí hablar de Bremen fue a la edad de seis años, en las historias que me contaba mi profesora de dibujo, que venía de una de sus familias patricias y en Viena sentía nostalgia del norte. Adopté a la pequeña dama vestida de negro como Mama Pfeiffer-Kulenkampf. Un verano vino con nosotros a Dalmacia, a pintar; sus acuarelas todavía adornan el estudio de mi hermano, en Long Island. De ella aprendí a mezclar diferentes pigmentos para las atmósferas contrastantes de la costa mediterránea y la atlántica. + +Ahora, una larga vida después, me siento en casa en su clima gris salado. Y no sólo en casa; me imagino que mi presencia aquí ha añadido algo a la atmósfera de la Universidad de Bremen. Cuando el decano Johannes Beck me llevó desde la sala de conferencias a través de la plaza empapada de lluvia hasta el improvisado café, hizo un comentario que acepté como un regalo. «Ivan», dijo, «esto se siente como un desbordamiento de la casa de Barbara Duden». El decano Beck puso con éxito en palabras algo que había intentado decir por décadas: que la plétora de nuestra convivialidad en el comedor inspirara a un aula universitaria; el aura de hospitalidad en nuestra casa de la calle de Kreftingstraße se sentía más allá de su umbral. + +En 1991 Christian Marzahn, entonces vicerrector, vino a México para invitarme a la Universidad de Bremen. Antes de que empezara el semestre, Barbara Duden consiguió una casa en el barrio de Ostertor, más allá del viejo foso, justo al lado de la esquina de los drogadictos, el mercado de granjeros y el zoco turco. Con su alegre austeridad lo hizo hospitalario; todos nos maravillamos de la facilidad con la que, bajo su liderazgo, los jóvenes amigos, ya sea que se queden o estén de paso, se sienten como en casa y alimentan la conversación. Si, después de mi conferencia de los viernes, el tazón de espaguetis debe alimentar a más de las dos docenas que caben alrededor de la mesa hecha con parqués de madera, los invitados se ponen en cuclillas sobre los petates en la habitación de al lado. + +A lo largo de los años, Kreftingstraße ha fomentado una cercanía privilegiada en un trato respetuoso, disciplinado y crítico: amistades entre viejos conocidos que llegan de lejos y otros nuevos (tres o incluso cuatro décadas más jóvenes que mi compañero más viejo, Lee Hoinacki, que comparte su habitación con nuestras enciclopedias). La amistad hace que los vínculos sean únicos, pero algunos más que otros soportan la carga del anfitrión: Kassandra, que vive en otro lugar, con una llave de la casa, trae flores, y Matthias, el virtuoso baterista que vive abajo en una habitación con una puerta que se abre hacia el pequeño jardín. Ambos pertenecen a la docena de personas que graciosamente reciben al recién llegado en el umbral, agitan la sopa, orientan la conversación, lavan los platos y… corrigen mis manuscritos así como los de los demás. + +Considero que este obvio pero intangible clima civil es un regalo del _spiritus loci_ de Bremen, para el cual Barbara Duden ha creado el lugar apropiado. Veo esto como una oportunidad para reflexionar sobre la atmósfera y la cultura en la era de la Red y los teléfonos móviles. La hospitalidad aprendida y sosegada es el único antídoto para la postura de ingenio corrosivo que se adquiere en la búsqueda profesional de conocimiento objetivamente asegurado. Estoy seguro de que la búsqueda de la verdad no puede prosperar si no se alimenta de una atmósfera de confianza mutua, que sin este compromiso de amistad no se puede hacer la distinción misma entre búsqueda de la verdad y obtención o producción de un conocimiento objetivo. Por lo tanto, he tratado de identificar el ambiente que fomenta —pero también el aire «acondicionado» que impide— el aura de la amistad. + +Por supuesto que puedo recordar el sabor de las atmósferas fuertes de otras épocas de mi vida. En lugares tan distantes como Cuernavaca y State College, hemos cultivado la hospitalidad intelectual en nuestro círculo de amigos a través del respeto al Lugar, evitando el diagnóstico mutuo y tolerando las voces discordantes. Nunca he dudado —y es aún más cierto hoy en día— que un ambiente «monástico» es el prerrequisito para la independencia necesaria para un enjuiciamiento histórico de la sociedad. Sólo el compromiso gratuito de los amigos puede permitirme practicar el ascetismo necesario para enfrentar las cuasiparadojas modernas, como renunciar al análisis de sistemas mientras escribo en mi Toshiba. + +Mi temprana sospecha de que era necesaria una cierta atmósfera para el tipo de _studium_ al que me había dedicado se convirtió en una convicción a través de mi contacto con las universidades estadounidenses del periodo post-Sputnik. Después de sólo un año como vicerrector de una universidad en Puerto Rico, yo y algunos otros quisimos cuestionar la ideología del desarrollo a la que tanto Kennedy como Castro suscribieron. Puse todo el dinero que tenía —hoy el equivalente al premio que me acaban de dar— en la compra de una cabaña de madera de una habitación en las montañas que dan al Caribe. Con tres amigos, quería un lugar de estudio en el que cada uso del pronombre personal «nos-otros» se refiriera sinceramente a nosotros cuatro, y fuera accesible también a nuestros huéspedes; quería practicar el rigor que nos alejara del «nosotros» que invoca la seguridad que se encuentra a la sombra de una disciplina académica: nosotros como sociólogos, economistas, etc. Como dijo uno de nosotros, Charlie Rosario: «Todos los departamentos huelen a desinfectantes, en el mejor de los casos… y los venenos esterilizan el aura». La casita en el camino a las montañas de Adjuntas pronto se volvió tan desagradable que tuve que dejar la isla. + +Esto me liberó para iniciar un «pensatorio» en México, que cinco años más tarde se convirtió en el Centro Intercultural de Documentación o CIDOC. En su discurso inaugural para la celebración de hoy, el parlamentario del Bunderstag Freimut Duve les habló de ello. En aquellos lejanos años, Duve era editor en la editorial Rowohlt, se ocupaba de la publicación de mis libros en alemán y me visitó varias veces en Cuernavaca. Les habló del espíritu que prevalecía en ese lugar: un clima de tolerancia mutuamente atemperada. Fue esta aura, esta cualidad o aire, a través de la cual esta efímera aventura podía convertirse en una encrucijada mundial, un lugar de encuentro para aquellos que, mucho antes de que se pusiera de moda, cuestionaban la inocencia del «desarrollo». Sólo el estado de ánimo que Duve insinuó puede explicar la influencia desproporcionada que este pequeño centro ejerció al desafiar los beneficios del desarrollo socioeconómico. + +El CIDOC fue cerrado de común acuerdo el 1 de abril de 1976, diez años después del día de su fundación. Con música y bailes mexicanos celebramos su clausura. Duve les habló de Valentina Borremans, que había organizado y dirigido el CIDOC desde su fundación. Luego habló de su admiración por el estilo con el que ella terminó su trabajo con el consentimiento mutuo de sus sesenta y tres colaboradores. Se dio cuenta de que el alma de este pensatorio libre, independiente y ajeno al poder sería aplastado pronto por su creciente influencia. + +El CIDOC cerró sus puertas ante las críticas de sus amigos más serios, gente demasiado seria para comprender la paradoja de la atmósfera. Éstas eran principalmente personas para las que el clima hospitalario del CIDOC había proporcionado un foro único. Prosperaron en el aura del CIDOC, y rechazaron totalmente nuestra certeza de que la atmósfera invita a la institucionalización que terminará corrompiéndola. Nunca se sabe qué es lo que nutrirá y fortalecerá el espíritu de la _philia_ , pero pueden estar seguros de qué es lo que lo asfixiará. El espíritu emerge por sorpresa, y es un milagro cuando permanece; es asfixiado por cada intento de asegurarlo; es pervertido cuando se intenta aprovecharlo para obtener riquezas, poder o influencia. + +Pocos entienden esto. En México, recientemente abrí la botella de Borgoña del alcalde con Valentina para brindar por uno de ellos. Bebimos el vino en memoria de Alejandro del Corro, un jesuita argentino fallecido que vivió y trabajó conmigo a principios de la década de 1960. Con su Leica viajó por toda América del Sur, colaborando con los guerrilleros para salvar sus archivos para la posteridad. Alejandro era un maestro en la moderación del aura. Cuando presidía, su cuidadosa atención —ya fuera hacia un funcionario estadounidense, un recolector de basura, un guerrillero o un profesor— ayudaba a que cada uno se sintiera en casa con el otro alrededor de la mesa del CIDOC. Alejandro sabía que no se puede poseer el aura; sabía de la evanescencia, de la vulnerabilidad de la atmósfera. + +Hablo de una hospitalidad sencilla y generosa, sin nada fabricado ni moralizante. Pero sólo aquí en Bremen, en el curso de estos cuarenta años, el aura de la mesa del desayuno se ha extendido a la sala de la biblioteca donde, los viernes por la tarde, tengo el privilegio de hablar. Sólo aquí en Bremen se ha desarrollado una atmósfera en la que un puñado de hombres y mujeres de la mitad de mi edad se han embarcado en una investigación disciplinada sobre la historia de la proporcionalidad, una empresa que he comenzado, pero que nunca podré concluir, a pesar de las promesas que le hice a usted, Wolfgang Beck, cuando tomó la iniciativa de reeditar mis libros. En cierto modo, el _genius loci_ de Bremen me permitió verificar una vieja intuición: hoy más que nunca, el renacimiento de una búsqueda iluminada de la verdad se nutre de una amistad austera más que de sistemas. + +Tengo la intención de usar el dinero que acompaña al premio que se me ha concedido para hacer que nuestras discusiones sean más conviviales. Esto permitirá a una de nuestras estudiantes residentes, Silja Samerski, someter las actas y notas de nuestras reuniones a las críticas de los amigos ausentes. + +Hablo de atmósfera, _faute de mieux_. En griego, la palabra se usa para referirse a la emanación de una estrella, o la constelación que gobierna un lugar; los alquimistas la adoptaron para hablar de las capas que rodean nuestro planeta. Maurice Blondel refleja su uso francés mucho más tardío para _bouquet des esprits_ , el perfume que los presentes traen a una reunión. Utilizo la palabra para algo frágil y a menudo desestimado, el aire que teje, ondea y evoca recuerdos, como los que están unidos a esta botella de Borgoña mucho tiempo después de haber sido vaciada. + +Para percibir un aura, se necesita una nariz. La nariz, enmarcada por los ojos, se extiende debajo del cerebro. Lo que la nariz inhala termina en las entrañas; todo yogui y hesicasta lo sabe. La nariz desciende en una curva en medio de la cara. Todo judío piadoso es consciente de la imagen, ya que cuando los cristianos dicen «caminar ante los ojos de Dios», en hebreo se habla de «pasear bajo la nariz y el aliento de Dios». Para saborear la atmósfera de un lugar, uno debe confiar en su nariz; para confiar en otro, uno debe primero olerlo. + +En sus inicios, la cultura cívica occidental oscilaba entre la desconfianza cultivada y la confianza simpatética. Platón creía que sería peligroso para los ciudadanos atenienses dejar que sus entrañas se vieran afectadas por la pasión de los actores en el teatro; quería que la audiencia no fuera más allá de una reflexión sobre las palabras. Aristóteles modificó respetuosamente la opinión de su maestro. En la _Poética_ , pide a los espectadores que dejen que los gestos y la mímica, el ritmo y la melodía de la respiración, lleguen a sus entrañas. Los ciudadanos deben asistir al teatro, no sólo para entender, sino para ser afectados por los demás. Según Aristóteles, no puede haber ninguna transformación, ninguna catarsis purificadora, sin esa apasionante mímesis. Sin la experiencia visceral del otro, sin compartir su aura, uno no puede salvarse a sí mismo. + +Algo de ese sentido de mímesis aparece en un viejo adagio alemán: _Ich kann dich gut riechen_ , «puedo olerte bien». Es una expresión que todavía se usa y se entiende. Pero no es algo que se diga a cualquiera; es una expresión que sólo se permite cuando uno se siente cercano, cuenta con la confianza y está dispuesto a ser herido. Supone la verdad de otro dicho alemán: _Ich kann dich gut leiden_ , «puedo sufrirte bien». Aquí se puede ver que las palabras relacionadas con la nariz no han desaparecido por completo del habla coloquial, incluso en la era de los regaderazos diarios. + +Recuerdo mi vergüenza cuando, después de años de disciplina ascética, me di cuenta de que todavía no había establecido la conexión entre la nariz y el corazón, el olor y el afecto. Estaba en Perú a mediados de la década de 1950, camino de encontrarme con Carlos, que me acogió en su modesta cabaña por tercera vez. Pero para llegar a la cabaña, tuve que cruzar el río Rímac, la cloaca abierta de Lima. La idea de dormir durante una semana en este miasma me daba náuseas. Esa noche, con un shock, comprendí de repente lo que Carlos me había estado diciendo todo el tiempo: «Ivan, no te engañes; no te imagines que puedes ser amigo de gente a la que no puedes oler». Esa sacudida me descongestionó la nariz; me permitió sumergirme en el aura de la casa de Carlos y mezclar la atmósfera que llevaba conmigo en el ambiente de su casa. + +Este descubrimiento a través de mi nariz del aroma del espíritu ocurrió hace cuarenta años, en la época del DC-4, la creencia en los programas de desarrollo y el aparentemente benigno Cuerpo de Paz. Era la época en que el DDT era todavía demasiado caro para los habitantes de los barrios bajos de América Latina, cuando la mayoría de la gente tenía que aguantar las pulgas y los piojos en la piel, así como a los ancianos, los lisiados y los idiotas en sus casas. Esto fue antes de los días de las Xerox, el fax y el correo electrónico. Pero también fue antes del smog y el sida. En ese momento se me consideraba un derrotista o un excéntrico porque preveía los efectos secundarios no deseados del desarrollo, porque hablaba con los sindicatos sobre el desempleo tecnogénico y con los izquierdistas sobre la polarización creciente entre ricos y pobres a raíz de la expansión de la dependencia de las mercancías. Lo que parecía ser histeria ha sido confirmado desde entonces en forma de hechos bien documentados. Algunos de estos hechos son demasiado terribles para afrontarlos. Es necesario exorcizarlos, expurgarlos a través de la investigación, asignar su gestión a agencias especializadas y conjurarlos a través de programas de prevención. Pero mientras que el agotamiento de las formas de vida, la creciente inmunidad de los patógenos, los cambios climáticos, la desaparición de la cultura del trabajo y la violencia incontrolable constituyen ahora los efectos secundarios admitidos del crecimiento económico, la terrible amenaza que la vida moderna supone para la supervivencia de las atmósferas es apenas perceptible. + +Ésta es la razón por la que me atrevo a molestarlos con el recuerdo de ese paseo al atardecer con la nariz saturada de los olores de la orina y las heces que emanan del Rímac. Ese paisaje ya no existe; los coches ahora llenan una autopista que esconde las aguas residuales. La piel y el cuero cabelludo de los indios ya no son nidos de piojos; ahora las alergias producidas por los productos químicos industriales causan la comezón. Las casuchas improvisadas han sido sustituidas por viviendas públicas; cada departamento tiene sus redes de tubería y cada miembro de la familia una cama separada: el huésped es consciente de las molestias que causa. El hedor del Rímac se ha convertido en un recuerdo en una ciudad asfixiada por el smog industrial. Yuxtapongo el entonces y el ahora porque esto me permite argumentar que la inminente pérdida del espíritu, del alma, de lo que llamo atmósfera, podría pasar desapercibida. + +Sólo las personas que se encaran en confianza pueden permitir su aparición. El buqué de la amistad varía con cada respiración, pero cuando está ahí no necesita ser nombrado. Durante mucho tiempo creí que no había un sustantivo para decirlo, ni un verbo para expresarlo. Cada vez que probaba una palabra, me desanimaba; todos los sinónimos fueron sustituidos por falsificaciones sintéticas: modas producidas en masa y estados de ánimo ingeniosamente comercializados, sentimientos chic, presunciones soberbias y gustos de moda. La industria proporciona a la vida diaria un aura, con cosas que están llenas de atmósfera sintética. Al igual que las vitaminas, los hormigueos emocionales se distribuyen de forma similar, con _styling_ , diseño, sugestiones subliminales. No sólo las cremas para la piel, los cigarros y los viajes, sino también los programas escolares y el baño emiten vapores sintéticos. A partir de la década de 1970, las dinámicas de grupo y toda la parafernalia que las acompaña, los retiros y el entrenamiento psíquico, diseñados para generar una «atmósfera», se convirtieron en un enorme negocio. El silencio discreto sobre el tema que estoy planteando parecía preferible a causar un malentendido. + +Entonces, treinta años después de aquella noche sobre el Rímac, me di cuenta repentinamente de que sí hay un palabra muy simple que dice lo que aprecio y trato de alimentar, y esa palabra es _paz_. La paz, sin embargo, no en los significados en los que se comercializa internacionalmente hoy en día, sino la paz en su peculiar significado posclásico, europeo. La paz, en este sentido, es la única palabra fuerte para nombrar apropiadamente la atmósfera de amistad creada entre iguales; y entonces «pacífico» significa mucho más que no-violento. Pero para abrazarla, uno tiene que llegar a entender el origen de esta paz en la _conspiratio_ , un curioso comportamiento ritual casi olvidado hoy en día. + +Así es como esta intuición llegó a mí. En 1986, unas pocas docenas de grupos de investigación sobre la paz en África y Asia se preparaban para abrir un centro de recursos comunes. La asamblea de fundación se iba a celebrar en Japón, y los líderes buscaban un orador del Tercer Mundo. Sin embargo, por razones de delicadeza, querían a alguien que no fuera ni asiático ni africano, y me tomaron por un latinoamericano; luego me presionaron para que fuera. Así que empaqué mi guayabera en mi maleta y me fui a Oriente. + +En Yokohama me dirigí al grupo hablando como historiador. Sobre todo, quería desmantelar cualquier concepto universal de paz; quería subrayar la reivindicación de cada _ethnos_ de su propia paz, el derecho de cada comunidad a ser dejada en su paz. Me pareció importante dejar claro que la paz no es una condición abstracta, sino un espíritu muy específico que debe ser disfrutado en su particular e incomunicable unicidad por cada comunidad. + +Mi objetivo en Yokohama era doble: quería examinar no sólo el significado sino también la historia y la perversión de la paz en ese apéndice de Asia y África que llamamos Europa. Después de todo, la mayor parte del mundo en el siglo XX sufre de la aceptación entusiasta de las ideas europeas, incluido el concepto europeo de paz. La asamblea en Japón me dio la oportunidad de contrastar el espíritu único de paz que nació en la Europa cristiana con su perversión y falsificación cuando, en la jerga de la política internacional, se crea un vínculo ideológico entre el desarrollo y la paz; cuando el crecimiento económico, la instrucción escolar, el diagnóstico médico y la gestión global erradican lo que una vez se entendió por paz en la tradición europea. Argumenté que sólo desvinculando la _pax_ (paz) del desarrollo podría revelarse la gloria hasta ahora insospechada que se oculta en esta _pax_. Pero lograr esto ante una audiencia japonesa era difícil. + +Los japoneses tienen un ideograma para algo que nosotros no tenemos, ni decimos, ni sentimos: _fūdo_. Mi anfitrión y maestro, el profesor Yoshiro Tamanoy, me lo describió así: «la frescura inimitable que surge de la mezcla de un suelo particular con las aguas apropiadas». Confiando en mi docto guía pacifista, ahora fallecido, empecé con el concepto de _fūdo_. No fue difícil explicar que tanto la _philia_ ateniense como la _pax romana_ , por muy diferentes que sean la una de la otra, son incomparables con el _fūdo_. La _philia_ ateniense habla de la amistad entre los hombres libres de una ciudad, y la _pax romana_ habla del estatuto administrativo de una región en cuyo suelo la Legión había plantado sus estandartes. Con la ayuda del profesor Tamanoy, fue fácil elaborar las contradicciones y las diferencias entre estas dos nociones, y conseguir que el público comentara las heterogeneidades similares en el significado cultural de la paz en la India o entre grupos vecinos de Tanzania. Todas las encarnaciones caleidoscópicas de la paz se referían a una atmósfera particular y altamente deseable. Hasta aquí la conversación resultó sencilla. + +Sin embargo, hablar de la _pax_ en la época protocristiana resultó ser un asunto delicado, porque alrededor del año 300 _pax_ se convirtió en una palabra clave en la liturgia cristiana. Se convirtió en el eufemismo para un beso de boca a boca entre los fieles que asistían a los servicios. La _pax_ se convirtió en el camuflaje para el _osculum_ (de la palabra _os_ , boca), para la _conspiratio_ , una mezcla de respiraciones. Mi amigo sintió que no sólo me estaba exponiendo a un malentendido, sino quizá ofendiendo, al evocar públicamente tal contacto cuerpo a cuerpo. El gesto sigue siendo repugnante para los japoneses hoy en día. + +En latín la palabra _osculum_ no es ni muy antigua ni muy frecuente. Es una de las tres palabras que pueden ser traducidas por el castellano «beso». En comparación con el tierno _basium_ y el lascivo _suavium_ , _osculum_ fue un término tardío en el latín clásico, y fue usado en una sola circunstancia como un gesto ritual. En el siglo II, se convirtió en la señal que un soldado a punto de marcharse daba a una mujer, una forma de reconocer al hijo esperado como su descendencia. + +En la liturgia cristiana del primer siglo, el _osculum_ asumió una nueva función. Se convirtió en uno de los dos puntos culminantes de la celebración de la Eucaristía. La _conspiratio_ , el beso en la boca, se convirtió en el solemne gesto litúrgico por el que los participantes en la acción de culto compartían su aliento o espíritu con los demás. Llegó a significar su unión en el Espíritu Santo, la comunidad que toma forma en el aliento de Dios. La _ecclesia_ surgió a través de una acción ritual pública, la liturgia y el alma de esta liturgia eran la _conspiratio_. Explícitamente, corporalmente, la celebración cristiana central se entendía como una co-respiración, una co-inspiración: la producción de una atmósfera común, un entorno divino. + +El otro momento eminente de la celebración fue, por supuesto, la _comestio_ , la comunión de la carne, la incorporación del creyente en el cuerpo del Verbo Encarnado, pero la _communio_ estaba teológicamente vinculada a la _con-spiratio_ precedente. La _con-spiratio_ se convirtió en la expresión somática más fuerte, clara e inequívoca para la creación totalmente no jerárquica de un espíritu fraternal en la preparación de la comida unificadora. A través del acto de comer, los compañeros conspiradores se transformaban en un «nosotros», una reunión que en griego significa _ecclesia_. Además, creían que el «nosotros» es también el «yo» de alguien; se nutrían de la sombra del «yo» del Verbo Encarnado. Las palabras y las acciones de la liturgia no son sólo palabras y acciones mundanas, sino acontecimientos que ocurren después del Verbo, es decir, después de la Encarnación. La paz como una mezcla del suelo y las aguas es una imagen que me parece agradable; pero la paz como resultado de la _conspiratio_ exige una intimidad demandante, hoy casi inimaginable. + +La práctica del _osculum_ no estuvo exenta de controversia. Los documentos muestran que la _conspiratio_ causó un escándalo desde el principio. Tertuliano el africano y rigorista Padre de la Iglesia, consideraba que una matrona decente no debía ser expuesta a ninguna posible vergüenza por este rito y quería eliminarlo de la Cena del Señor. La práctica continuó, pero no bajo el mismo nombre; la ceremonia requería un eufemismo. A partir de finales del siglo III, el _osculum pacis_ se denominaba simplemente _pax_ , y el gesto se suavizaba a menudo hasta el punto de ser reducido a un roce ligero para significar la mezcla espiritual de las entrañas que crea una atmósfera fraternal. Hoy en día, la _pax_ que precede a la comunión, llamada «el beso de la paz», sigue siendo una parte integrante de la misa en los rituales romanos, eslavos, griegos y sirios, aunque a menudo se reduce a un fugaz apretón de manos. + +Al igual que en Yokohama, no puedo evitar contar esta historia hoy en Bremen. ¿Por qué? Porque la idea misma de la paz entendida como hospitalidad que se extiende al extranjero, y de una asamblea libre que surge en la práctica de la hospitalidad, no puede ser entendida sin la referencia a la liturgia cristiana del beso en la boca, que da a la comunidad local un carácter «espiritual». + +Sin embargo, así como los antecedentes de la paz entre nosotros no pueden entenderse sin referencia a la _conspiratio_ , la unicidad histórica del clima, la atmósfera o el espíritu de una ciudad también requiere esta referencia. La idea europea de paz, que es sinónimo de la incorporación somática de los iguales en una comunidad, no tiene análogos en otros lugares. En nuestra tradición europea, la comunidad no es resultado de un acto de fundación autorizado, ni un regalo de la naturaleza o sus dioses, ni siquiera el resultado de la gestión, la planificación y el diseño, sino la consecuencia de una _conspiración_ , un regalo deliberado, mutuo, somático y gratuito de unos a otros. El prototipo de esa conspiración reside en la celebración de la liturgia de los primeros cristianos en la que, sin importar su origen, hombres y mujeres, griegos y judíos, esclavos y ciudadanos, todos engendran una realidad física que los trasciende, un espíritu de amistad. El aliento compartido, la _con-spiratio_ , es la paz, entendida como la comunidad que surge de ella. + +Los historiadores han señalado a menudo que la idea del contrato social, que domina el pensamiento político en Europa desde el siglo XIV, tiene sus orígenes concretos en la forma en que los fundadores de las ciudades medievales concebían las civilidades urbanas. Estoy totalmente de acuerdo con esto. Sin embargo, al centrar la atención en la sociedad medieval tardía entendida como una composición de corporaciones que resultan de un contrato social, puede distraerse la atención del bien que tales corporaciones debían proteger, a saber, la paz resultante de una _conspiratio_. Puede pasarse por alto el absurdo pretencioso de intentar asegurar contractualmente una atmósfera tan fugaz y viva, tan tierna y robusta, como la _pax_. + +Los comerciantes y artesanos medievales que se establecieron al pie del castillo de un señor feudal sintieron la necesidad de convertir la conspiración que los unía en una asociación segura y duradera. No estaban dispuestos a construir sobre la base de un espíritu eternamente tenue. ¿Cuánto tiempo duraría? Para garantizar su seguridad general, recurrieron a un dispositivo, la _conjuratio_ , una promesa mutua confirmada por un juramento que toma a Dios como testigo, una forma de asegurar la durabilidad y la estabilidad de la atmósfera creada por la conspiración. La mayoría de las sociedades conocen el juramento, pero el uso del nombre de Dios para hacerlo valer aparece primero como un dispositivo legal en la codificación del derecho romano hecha por el emperador cristiano Teodosio. La conjuración, la coincidencia en un juramento común confirmado por la invocación a Dios, justo como el _osculum_ litúrgico, es de origen cristiano. La _conjuratio_ que usa a Dios a modo de resina para el vínculo social asegura presumiblemente la estabilidad y la durabilidad de la atmósfera engendrada por la _conspiratio_ de los ciudadanos. En este nexo entre _conspiratio_ y _conjuratio_ , se entrelazan dos conceptos igualmente únicos heredados del primer milenio de la historia cristiana, pero la formalidad contractual pronto eclipsó la sustancia espiritual. + +Nuestro universo político occidental contemporáneo se basa en un llamado a la paz que está en la base de la forma histórica profundamente nueva de la ciudad medieval de la Europa central. La _conjuratio conspirativa_ , un solemne tratado _cum_ espíritu, hace que la urbanidad europea sea distinta de los modos urbanos de otros lugares. También implica una tensión dinámica singular entre la atmósfera de la _conspiratio_ y su constitución legal, contractual. Idealmente, el clima espiritual es la fuente de la vida de la ciudad, que florece en una jerarquía, como una concha o armazón, para proteger su orden. + +El vínculo entre un juramento ( _conjuratio_ ) y la _conspiratio_ debe verse a la luz de mil años de historia eclesiástica, en la que los dos componentes no pueden confundirse entre sí. En la medida en que se entiende que la ciudad se origina en una _conspiratio_ , debe su existencia social a la _pax_ , el aliento, compartido por igual entre todos. Esta génesis es incomparable con el nacimiento de los atenienses de la matriz bajo la Acrópolis, incomparable con la ciudad concebida como el regalo de un dios a los inmigrantes jonios, incomparable con la descendencia común de un antepasado mítico. + +El vínculo entre _conspiratio_ y _conjuratio_ reúne dos conceptos igualmente únicos heredados del primer milenio de la cristiandad. Aquí hay un olor a rata. Mi nariz me dice que «algo está podrido» en el estado de Occidente. En el segundo milenio, el uso de Dios como testigo para sacrificar el contrato social crea el marco dentro del cual es posible abusar de la _pax_ como un ideal que justifica la imposición de nuestro tipo de orden en el mundo entero. + +Otras fuentes de esta teoría y práctica son numerosas: una conciencia de sí mismo mejor definida, como ilustra la doctrina de Abelardo; una nueva confianza en los instrumentos como medios para alcanzar un fin, como lo demuestra la proliferación de molinos de viento y el aumento de la producción agrícola y textil; una novedosa concepción del matrimonio como una relación contractual en la que dos seres humanos, un hombre y una mujer, se comprometen libremente. + +La parábola de Klaus Hübotter de la Villa Ichon como una casa flotante me hizo pensar en la esencia de la atmósfera, y al hacerlo llegamos a esta larga historia del origen de la ciudad gracias a la «paz» entre los ciudadanos que son hospitalarios entre sí de una manera única. Y no sólo entre ellos… ¡Han invitado a este vagabundo a deambular por aquí! Esta larga reflexión sobre los precedentes históricos del cultivo de la atmósfera en el Bremen de finales del siglo XX me parecía necesaria para defender su naturaleza intrínsecamente conspirativa. Quería mostrar por qué la crítica independiente del orden establecido de nuestra sociedad moderna, tecnógena y centrada en la información, sólo puede surgir de un entorno de intensa hospitalidad: el arte de la hospitalidad y el arte de ser invitado. + +Como estudioso, he sido moldeado por las tradiciones monásticas y la interpretación de los textos medievales. Desde muy temprano concluí que la principal condición para una atmósfera propicia para el pensamiento independiente es la hospitalidad cultivada por el anfitrión: una hospitalidad que excluye la condescendencia tan escrupulosamente como la seducción; una hospitalidad que por su simplicidad vence el miedo al plagio tanto como el del clientelismo; una hospitalidad que por su apertura disuelve la intimidación tan cuidadosamente como el servilismo; una hospitalidad que exige de los huéspedes tanta generosidad como la que impone al anfitrión. He sido bendecido con una gran parte de ella, con el sabor de un ambiente relajado, humorístico y a veces grotesco, entre compañeros mayormente ordinarios pero a veces extraños, entre personas que son pacientes entre sí. Más en Bremen que en cualquier otro lugar. + +Bremen, Alemania y Ocotepec, México + +---- + +Traducción: Miranda Martínez y Alan Cruz + +Discurso pronunciado en la Villa Ichon de Bremen, Alemania, cuando recibí el Premio de Cultura y Paz de la Ciudad de Bremen el 14 de marzo de 1998. Al preparar la versión inglesa, preparé y mejoré el original alemán. Los cambios que he realizado son esencialmente referencias al gran estudio de la historia del juramento de Paolo Prodi, que me permitió aclarar la oposición entre _conspiratio_ y _conjuratio_. ( _Cf_. Paolo Prodi, _Il sacramento del potere. Il giuramento politico nella storia costituzionale dell’Occidente_ , Bolonia, Il Mulino, 1992). + +_N. de TT_.: La presente traducción retoma las diferentes versiones supervisadas por Illich: «Das Geschenk der _conspiratio_ », reedición ampliada de 2001, «The Cultivation of Conspiracy», en Lee Hoinacki y Carl Mitcham (eds.), _The Challenges of Ivan Illich_ , Nueva York, State University of New York Press, 2002, pp. 233-242; y «La culture de la conspiration», en Ivan Illich, _La perte des sens. Inédit_ , París, 2004, Fayard, pp. 337-352. diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/awareness/en.txt b/data/pages/es/book/awareness/en.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..f321ee4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/awareness/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../en/book/awareness/en.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/awareness/es.txt b/data/pages/es/book/awareness/es.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5464ef4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/awareness/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1235 @@ +# Alternativas + +## Introducción + +No hay necesidad de una introducción a los siguientes artículos o al autor de los mismos. Sin embargo, si el doctor Illich me ha honrado al invitarme a escribirla y si yo acepté gustoso, la razón en nuestras dos mentes parece ser que esta introducción ofrece una oportunidad que permite clarificar la naturaleza de una actitud y una fe comunes, a pesar del hecho de que algunos de nuestros puntos de vista difieren considerablemente. Incluso algunos de los puntos de vista del propio autor de los artículos no son hoy los mismos que él mantenía cuando los escribió, en diferentes ocasiones y en el curso de los años. Pero él se ha mantenido coherente en lo esencial de su actitud y es esa esencia la que ambos compartimos. + +No es fácil encontrar una palabra justa que describa esa esencia. ¿Cómo se puede concretar en un concepto una actitud fundamental hacia la vida sin con ello distorsionarla y torcerla? Pero, dado que necesitamos comunicarnos con palabras, el término más adecuado —o, mejor dicho, el menos inadecuado— parece ser “radicalismo humanista”. + +¿Qué se quiere decir con radicalismo? ¿Qué es lo que implica _radicalismo humanista_? + +Por radicalismo no me refiero principalmente a un cierto conjunto de ideas sino más bien a una actitud, a una “manera de ver”, por así decir. Para comenzar, esta manera de ver puede caracterizarse con el lema: _de omnibus_ _dubitandum_; todo debe ser objeto de duda, particularmente los conceptos ideológicos que son virtualmente compartidos por todos y que como consecuencia han asumido el papel de axiomas indudables del sentido común. + +En ese sentido, “dudar” no implica un estado psicológico de incapacidad para llegar a decisiones o convicciones, como es el caso de la duda obsesiva, sino la disposición y capacidad para cuestionar críticamente todas las asunciones e instituciones que se han convertido en ídolos, en nombre del sentido común, la lógica y lo que se supone que es “natural”. + +Ese cuestionamiento radical sólo es posible si uno no da por sentados los conceptos de su propia sociedad o de todo un periodo histórico —como la cultura occidental desde el Renacimiento— y, más aún, si uno aumenta el alcance de su percepción y se interna en los aspectos de su pensar. Dudar radicalmente es un acto de investigación y descubrimiento; es comenzar a darnos cuenta de que el emperador está desnudo y de que su espléndido atuendo no es más que el producto de nuestra fantasía. + +Dudar radicalmente quiere decir cuestionar; no quiere necesariamente decir negar. Es fácil negar simplemente al aseverar lo opuesto de lo que existe; la duda radical es dialéctica en cuanto abarca el proceso del desenvolvimiento de los opuestos y se dirige hacia una nueva síntesis que niega y afirma. + +La duda radical es un proceso; un proceso que nos libera del pensamiento idolatrante; un ensanchamiento de la percepción, de la visión creativa e imaginativa de nuestras posibilidades y opciones. La actitud radical no existe en el vacío. No empieza de la nada, sino que comienza en las raíces, y la raíz, como dijo una vez Marx, es el hombre. Pero decir “la raíz es el hombre” no quiere significar un sentido positivista, descriptivo. + +Cuando hablamos del hombre no hablamos de él como una cosa sino como un proceso; hablamos de su potencial para desarrollar sus poderes; los poderes de dar mayor intensidad a su ser, mayor armonía, mayor amor, mayor percepción. También hablamos del hombre con un potencial para ser corrupto, con su poder _de_ acción que se transforma en la pasión de poder _sobre_ los demás, con su amor por la vida que degenera en pasión destructora de la vida. + +El radicalismo humanista es un cuestionamiento radical guiado por el entendimiento de la dinámica de la naturaleza del hombre y por una preocupación por el crecimiento y pleno desarrollo del hombre. En contraste con el positivismo contemporáneo, el radicalismo humanista no es “objetivo”, si por “objetividad” se entiende teorizar con pasión sin una meta manifiesta que impulse y nutra al proceso del pensamiento. Pero el radicalismo humanista es extremadamente objetivo si por ello se entiende que cada paso en el proceso del pensamiento está basado en evidencias críticamente analizadas y si además se le vincula al examen de las premisas del sentido común. Todo esto significa que el radicalismo humanista cuestiona cualquier idea y cualquier institución con el objeto de saber si ayudan u obstaculizan la capacidad del hombre para vivir en la plenitud y la alegría. Éste no es el lugar para analizar completamente algunos ejemplos del tipo de premisas de sentido común que son cuestionadas por el radicalismo humanista. Ni siquiera es necesario hacerlo, porque los artículos del doctor Illich tratan precisamente acerca de tales ejemplos; como la utilidad de la escuela obligatoria o la función actual del clero. Se podrían agregar muchos ejemplos más, algunos de los cuales están implicados en los artículos del autor. Quiero mencionar sólo unos cuantos: el concepto moderno de “progreso”, que significa el principio del constante aumento de la producción, del consumo, del ahorro de tiempo, de la maximización de la eficiencia y ganancias, del cálculo de todas las actividades económicas sin tomar en cuenta sus efectos sobre la calidad de la vida y el desarrollo del hombre; el dogma de que el aumento del consumo conduce a la felicidad del hombre, de que el manejo de las empresas a gran escala debe ser por necesidad burocrático y alienado; el que el objeto de la vida es tener (y usar), en lugar de ser; el que la razón reside en el intelecto y está divorciada de la vida afectiva; el que lo más nuevo es siempre mejor que lo más viejo; el que el radicalismo es la negación de la tradición; el que lo contrario de “ley y orden” es la falta de estructuras. En pocas palabras, el que las ideas y categorías que han surgido durante el desarrollo de la ciencia moderna y la industrialización son superiores a todas aquellas de culturas anteriores, e indispensables para el progreso de la raza humana. + +El radicalismo humanista cuestiona todas estas premisas y no se asusta de llegar a ideas y soluciones que puedan sonar absurdas. Veo el gran valor de los escritos del doctor Illich precisamente en el hecho de que representan el radicalismo humanista en su aspecto más pleno e imaginativo. El autor es un hombre de particular coraje, gran vitalidad, erudición y brillo extraordinarios, y fértil imaginación, y todo su pensamiento está basado en su preocupación por el desarrollo físico, espiritual e intelectual del hombre. + +La importancia de su pensamiento, tanto en éste como en sus otros escritos, reside en el hecho de que tienen un efecto liberador sobre la mente; porque muestran posibilidades totalmente nuevas; vitalizan al lector porque abren la puerta que conduce fuera de la cárcel de las ideas hechas rutina, estériles, preconcebidas. A través del impacto creador que comunican —salvo para aquellos que reaccionan con ira hacia tanto sinsentido— estos escritos pueden ayudar a estimular la energía y la esperanza para un nuevo comienzo. + +ERICH FROMM + +## Prefacio + +Cada capítulo de este volumen registra un esfuerzo de mi parte por poner en duda la naturaleza de una certidumbre particular. De ahí que cada uno de ellos encare una decepción —la decepción incorporada a una de nuestras instituciones—. Las instituciones crean certezas y, cuando se las toma en serio, las certezas amortecen el corazón y encadenan la imaginación. Confío en que cada una de mis afirmaciones —airada o apasionada, diestra o inocente— provoque también una sonrisa y, con ella, una nueva libertad, aunque sea una libertad que tuvo su precio. + +No fue por accidente que la mayoría de estos artículos obtuvo notoriedad al poco tiempo de su publicación original. Cada ensayo fue escrito en un lenguaje distinto, iba dirigido a un diferente grupo de lectores, tenía por intención dar en el blanco de una crisis particular de confianza. + +Cada uno de ellos irritó a algunos burócratas consumados en momentos en que se les hacía difícil racionalizar una posición según la cual sólo había que resolver una crisis interna en una situación estable. + +De ahí que los ensayos fueran literalmente escritos para una ocasión particular. El paso del tiempo hace necesario precisar algunos detalles ocasionales: las estadísticas, la situación que se discutía —e incluso mi propia actitud— pudieron haber cambiado desde entonces en cuestión de matices o de grados. Pero me he rehusado expresamente a poner al día dichos artículos para presentarlos en este volumen. Creo que deben sostenerse como lo que son, es decir, como puntos de vista sobre un fenómeno particular en su tiempo. El conjunto adolece inevitablemente de algunas repeticiones de ciertos hechos y expresiones que también quedan sin tocar —de haber pensado al escribirlas que algún día reuniría esos textos ocasionales en forma de libro, las habría entonces omitido—. + +“La alianza para el progreso de la pobreza” es el texto de un discurso que pronuncié en la Asamblea de la Canadian Foreign Policy Association para subrayar la trivialidad del “Informe Pearson” al Banco Mundial sobre la “Segunda Década del Desarrollo”, y provee un marco para los demás ensayos. “La metamorfosis del clero” es la ponencia con que contribuí en un círculo de teólogos en 1959 y que publiqué en 1967 para enjuiciar la superficialidad de las propuestas de reforma que estaban de moda entre los “católicos de avanzada”. Las reformas que ellos preconizaban no eran lo suficientemente radicales para que valiesen la pena (se limitaban a cambios litúrgicos, al casamiento de los curas, a un clero revolucionario y algunas otras cosas), ni tampoco se arraigaban en opciones tradicionales que me parecían indignas de sacrificar (tales como la valoración del celibato libremente escogido, la estructura episcopal de la Iglesia y la permanencia de la ordenación sacerdotal). Pretendo que sólo la desclericalización de la Iglesia le permitiría aquella renuncia al poder que es la única que puede concederle hablar en nombre de los pobres. + +“El reverso de la caridad” es un panfleto. Lo hice circular para acabar con el entusiasmo internacional que favorecía el envío de “misioneros” para el desarrollo de América Latina. + +“La vaca sagrada” fue publicado como artículo en _Siempre!_, en agosto de 1968. Es mi primer esfuerzo por identificar el sistema escolar como instrumento de colonización interna. + +“La desescolarización de la Iglesia” es el discurso de apertura que pronuncié en Lima en 1971 para la Asamblea del Consejo Mundial de Educación Cristiana. El Consejo se disolvió al finalizar este encuentro. + +“La alternativa a la escolarización” es el último de una serie de ensayos que escribí sobre educación. Con este texto traté de oponerme a la recuperación de mi tesis expuesta en el libro _La sociedad desescolarizada_ (Barral, Barcelona, 1974). Varias organizaciones internacionales se veían obligadas a reconocer los fundamentos de mi crítica al sistema escolar tradicional, y quisieron utilizar mis argumentos en favor de la proliferación de nuevas agencias para la educación recurrente, permanente, interminable. + +Desde 1971 me opuse a este exorcismo del diablo por Belcebú. + +“Conciencia política y control de la natalidad” es mi contribución a un encuentro de expertos en demografía que tuvo lugar en 1967 en Barranquitas, Puerto Rico. Propongo una “inversión” del problema que normalmente perciben los demagogos de la demografía. Mi tesis se elaboró ulteriormente en _La convivencialidad_ (Barral, Barcelona, 1974). + +“La aceleración paralizadora” aplica al caso del transporte mi teoría general sobre la crisis institucional contemporánea. En todo campo de valores existen dos tipos extremos de producción. Cuando prevalece —más allá de un cierto umbral— el tipo de producción industrial, entonces las desutilidades marginales en la producción cancelan el valor respectivo. El texto es la traducción de una ponencia que hice en la Universidad de Munich. Mi tesis se trata en extenso en _Energía y equidad_ (Barral, Barcelona, 1974). + +“La expropiación de la salud” demuestra que la institucionalización industrial de un valor de servicio puede paralizar su producción en la misma forma en la que, como se vio en el capítulo precedente, el transporte impide la movilidad cuando su potencia se desarrolla más allá de un umbral crítico. + +La ponencia fue presentada en la facultad de medicina de la Universidad de Edimburgo en 1974, para celebrar un centenario. + +“La elocuencia del silencio” concluye el volumen, aunque su composición precede a la de los demás ensayos. Es una meditación propuesta a unos religiosos yanquis que aprendían el castellano para “integrar” mejor a los puertorriqueños en sus parroquias de Nueva York. + +Les sugerí la necesidad de reconocer límites para sus buenas intenciones. + +IVÁN ILLICH + + _Cuernavaca, julio de 1974_ + + +## La alianza para el progreso de la pobreza + +Está de moda exigir que las naciones ricas transformen su maquinaria bélica en un programa de ayuda al desarrollo del Tercer Mundo. La amenaza que para el mundo industrializado representan la superpoblación y el subconsumo de nueve décimos de la humanidad podría aún conducir a esa improbable manifestación de autodefensa. Pero si ello sucede, llevaría también a una desesperación irreversible, porque los arados de los ricos pueden hacer tanto daño como sus espadas. A largo plazo, los camiones norteamericanos pueden ser tan dañinos como los tanques norteamericanos, puesto que es más fácil crear una demanda en masa para los primeros que para los segundos. Y una vez que el Tercer Mundo se haya convertido en un mercado masivo para los bienes, los productos y las formas de procesamiento diseñados por y para los ricos, el subdesarrollo progresivo se tornará inevitable. El automóvil familiar no puede transportar al pobre a la era de los jets, ni el sistema escolar proporcionarle una educación de por vida, ni el pequeño refrigerador familiar asegurarle una alimentación sana. + +Es evidente que en América Latina sólo un hombre de cada mil puede costearse un Cadillac, una operación del corazón o un título de licenciado. + +Esta restricción de las metas del desarrollo no nos hace desesperar acerca del destino del Tercer Mundo; la razón es simple. Aún no hemos concebido el Cadillac como un requisito para una buena locomoción, ni la cirugía del corazón como un cuidado indispensable para la salud, ni un título de licenciado como el umbral de una educación aceptable. De hecho, reconocemos que la importación de Cadillacs debe ser severamente gravada en Perú; que, en Colombia, una clínica para el trasplante de órganos es un juguete escandaloso que sirve para justificar la concentración de un número mayor de doctores en Bogotá; y que el Betatrón está más allá de los medios docentes de la Universidad de São Paulo. + +Por desgracia, no todos consideran evidente el hecho de que la mayoría de los latinoamericanos —no sólo de nuestra generación sino de la próxima y aun de la siguiente— no puede costearse ninguna clase de automóvil, ni de hospitalización, ni siquiera de escuela primaria. Preferimos no ser conscientes de esa realidad tan obvia; la verdad es que detestamos reconocer que nuestra imaginación ha sido arrinconada. Tan persuasivo es el poder de las instituciones que nosotros mismos hemos creado, que ellas modelan no sólo nuestras preferencias sino también nuestra visión de lo posible. No podemos hablar de medios modernos de transporte sin referirnos a los automóviles y a los aviones. Nos sentimos impedidos de tratar el problema de la salud sin implicar automáticamente la posibilidad de prolongar una vida enferma indefinidamente. Hemos llegado a ser completamente incapaces de pensar en una educación mejor salvo en términos de escuelas aún más complejas y maestros entrenados durante un tiempo aún más largo. El horizonte de nuestra facultad de invención está bloqueado por gigantescas instituciones que producen servicios carísimos. + +Hemos limitado nuestra visión del mundo a los marcos de nuestras instituciones y somos ahora sus prisioneros. + +Las fábricas, los medios de comunicación, los hospitales, los gobiernos y las escuelas producen bienes y servicios especialmente concebidos, enlatados de manera tal que contengan nuestra visión del mundo. Nosotros —los ricos— concebimos el progreso en términos de la creciente expansión de esas instituciones. Concebimos el perfeccionamiento del transporte en términos de lujo y seguridad enlatados por la General Motors y la Boeing bajo el aspecto de automóviles estándar y de aviones. Creemos que el bienestar cada vez mayor viene dado por la existencia de un mayor número de doctores y hospitales, que enlatan la salud como una prolongación del sufrimiento. Hemos llegado a identificar nuestra necesidad de una creciente educación con la demanda de un mayor confinamiento en los salones de clases. En otras palabras, la educación es hoy un producto enlatado, un conjunto que incluye guarderías, certificados para trabajar y derecho de voto, todo ello empaquetado con la indoctrinación en las virtudes cristianas, liberales o marxistas. + +En escasos 100 años, la sociedad industrial ha modelado soluciones patentadas para satisfacer las necesidades básicas del hombre, y nos ha hecho creer que las necesidades humanas fueron configuradas por el Creador como demandas para los productos que nosotros mismos inventamos. Esto es tan cierto para Rusia o Japón como para las sociedades del Atlántico Norte. Mediante una lealtad invariable a los mismos productores —quienes le darán siempre los mismos productos enlatados ligeramente mejorados o mejor presentados—, el consumidor es entrenado para enfrentarse a la desvalorización anual del artículo. Las sociedades industrializadas pueden surtir estos productos enlatados a la mayoría de los ciudadanos para su consumo personal, pero esto no prueba que esas sociedades sean sanas, o que promuevan un humanismo vital. Lo contrario es verdad. Cuanto más se ha entrenado al ciudadano para el consumo de estos paquetes de uso corriente, menos efectivo parece ser para modelar la totalidad de su medio ambiente. Así es como agota sus energías y sus finanzas en procurar continuamente nuevos artículos de primera necesidad, y el medio ambiente se convierte en un subproducto de sus hábitos de consumo. + +El diseño de estos productos enlatados de que hablo se halla en la base del alto costo para satisfacer las necesidades primarias. Mientras cada hombre “necesite” de su automóvil, nuestras ciudades continuarán soportando los embotellamientos de tráfico y los remedios absurdamente caseros que pretenden solucionarlos. Mientras la salud se entienda como el tiempo máximo de supervivencia, nuestros enfermos serán objeto creciente de intervenciones quirúrgicas fantásticas y de drogas que sirvan para aliviar el progresivo dolor subsiguiente. Mientras utilicemos las escuelas para que los niños dejen de exasperar a sus padres; para evitar que vaguen en las calles; para mantenerlos fuera del mercado de trabajo o para impedir que a los jóvenes se les tome en serio en la política; mientras eso suceda, la juventud será recluida en periodos de escolarización cada vez mayores y se necesitarán incentivos crecientes para soportar las penosas pruebas. Ahora, benevolentemente, las naciones ricas imponen a las pobres las camisas de fuerza de los embotellamientos de tráfico, el confinamiento en los hospitales y en las escuelas, y resulta que mediante un consenso internacional se llama a esto desarrollo. Los ricos, los escolarizados y los viejos pacientes del mundo desarrollado tratan de compartir sus dudosas bendiciones enfilando hacia el Tercer Mundo sus soluciones preenlatadas. + +Mientras en São Paulo crecen los enjambres de tráfico, casi un millón de campesinos del nordeste brasileño deben caminar 800 km para escapar de la sequía. Mientras que en las favelas, villas miseria y ranchitos, donde se concentra 90% de la población, la disentería amibiana sigue siendo un mal endémico, los doctores latinoamericanos reciben, en el New York Hospital for Special Surgery, un entrenamiento que luego aplicarán a unos pocos. + +Pagada casi siempre por los gobiernos de sus propios países, una insignificante minoría de latinoamericanos recibe, en Norteamérica, una avanzada educación en el campo de las ciencias básicas. Si alguna vez regresan, por ejemplo a Bolivia, pasan a ser maestros de segunda categoría u orgullosos residentes de La Paz o Cochabamba. + +El mundo rico nos exporta las versiones anticuadas de sus modelos desechados. La Alianza para el Progreso es un buen ejemplo de la benevolente producción del subdesarrollo. Contrariamente a lo que dicen los eslogans, tuvo éxito —como una alianza para el progreso de las clases consumidoras y la domesticación de las grandes masas—. La Alianza ha sido un paso mayúsculo en la modernización de los patrones de consumo de las clases medias sudamericanas —en otras palabras, ha sido un medio para integrar esa metástasis colonial a la cultura dominante en la metrópolis norteamericana—. Al mismo tiempo, la Alianza ha modernizado los niveles de aspiración de la gran mayoría de los ciudadanos y ha dirigido sus demandas hacia artículos a los que hoy no tiene ni tendrá mañana acceso. + +Por cada automóvil que Brasil echa a andar, se les niega a 50 brasileños el poder disfrutar de un buen servicio de autobús. Cada refrigerador particular que se negocia en el comercio reduce la posibilidad de construir un congelador comunitario. Cada dólar que se gasta en América Latina en doctores y hospitales cuesta 100 vidas —para adoptar una frase de Jorge Ahumada, el brillante economista chileno, quien solía añadir—: porque si cada dólar así gastado se hubiera invertido en un plan para proveer agua potable, habría salvado 100 vidas. Cada dólar que se gasta en escolarización significa un mayor privilegio para una minoría a costo de la gran mayoría; en el mejor de los casos aumenta el número de aquellos a quienes, antes de abandonar la escuela, se les ha enseñado que quienes permanecen en el colegio durante más tiempo se han ganado el derecho a un poder, una salud y un prestigio mayores. Basta un poco de escolarización para enseñar a los escolarizados la superioridad de los más escolarizados. + +Todos los países latinoamericanos se hallan frenéticamente volcados en gastar más y más dinero en sus sistemas escolares. Hoy en día, ni un solo país gasta en su educación —es decir, en su escolarización— menos de 18% de los impuestos derivados del ingreso público, y hay varios países que gastan casi el doble de ese porcentaje. Pero pese a esas gigantescas inversiones, ningún país ha tenido hasta ahora éxito en proporcionar cinco años completos de educación a más de un tercio de sus habitantes. La demanda y la oferta de escolarización crecen geométricamente en dirección contraria. Y lo que es verdad acerca de la escolarización lo es también en lo que se refiere a los productos de la mayoría de las instituciones en el proceso de “modernización” del Tercer Mundo. + +El continuo refinamiento tecnológico de los productos que ya se han incorporado al mercado no hace frecuentemente sino aumentar las ventajas del productor y no los beneficios para el consumidor. Los procesos de producción cada vez más complejos tienden a permitir que solamente los grandes productores puedan reemplazar continuamente los artículos, y enfocar así la demanda del consumidor hacia las mejoras marginales sin importarle —y, es más, haciéndole olvidar— los resultados concomitantes: precios más altos, duración menor, menor utilidad general, mayor costo de preparación. Piensen en la cantidad de usos posibles para un abrelatas común y corriente; en cambio, un abrelatas eléctrico, si funciona, sólo sirve para abrir un cierto tipo de latas, a pesar de costar 100 veces más. + +Lo dicho vale tanto para una maquinaria destinada a la agricultura como para un grado académico. La propaganda puede convencer a un granjero del medio oeste de Estados Unidos de que necesita un transporte de doble tracción que desarrolle una velocidad de 70 millas por hora en carretera, que tenga un limpiaparabrisas eléctrico y que en un año o dos pueda cambiarse por uno nuevo. Pero la mayoría de los agricultores del mundo no necesita ni esa velocidad ni esa comodidad, ni se preocupa tampoco en lo más mínimo porque el artículo pase de moda. Lo que ellos necesitan son vehículos que gasten poco, porque en su mundo el tiempo no es dinero, los limpiaparabrisas manuales son suficientes y un equipo pesado dura cuando menos una generación. Aquel tipo de vehículo requeriría una ingeniería y un diseño totalmente distintos de los empleados en ese rubro del mercado norteamericano: hoy, esa clase de vehículo no se produce. La mayoría de los sudamericanos necesita en realidad de un personal paramédico que pueda funcionar eficazmente durante largo tiempo sin necesidad de ser supervisado por un doctor. En lugar de establecer un proceso para entrenar a las parteras y a los asistentes médicos que saben cómo usar un arsenal limitado de medicamentos con bastante independencia, las universidades latinoamericanas crean cada año un nuevo departamento de enfermería especializada para preparar un personal que sólo sabe trabajar en un hospital, o farmacéuticos que sólo saben vender una cantidad cada vez mayor de recetas delicadas. + +El mundo se mueve hacia un atolladero, definido por dos procesos convergentes: un número mayor de personas tiene cada vez un número menor de alternativas básicas. El crecimiento de la humanidad es ampliamente publicitado y crea pánico. La disminución de alternativas fundamentales es consciente y constantemente despreciada por el productor, pues ellas causan una angustia profunda. La explosión demográfica excede las fronteras de la imaginación, pero la atrofia progresiva de la misma imaginación social es racionalizada como un aumento de la posibilidad de elegir entre dos marcas registradas. Los dos procesos convergen hacia un punto muerto: la explosión demográfica provee cada vez más consumidores para todo, desde alimentos hasta anticonceptivos, mientras que nuestra imaginación se encoge y no puede concebir otra forma de satisfacer su demanda como no sea a través de los productos enlatados que ya están a la venta. En lo siguiente me limitaré a esos dos factores, puesto que, a mi modo de ver, forman las dos coordenadas que juntas nos permiten definir el subdesarrollo. + +En la mayoría de los países del Tercer Mundo, la población crece, así como también la clase media —ingreso, consumo y bienestar se polarizan —. Aun cuando los índices de consumo per cápita aumentan, la gran mayoría de los hombres dispone de menos alimentos que en 1945, de menos salud pública, de menos trabajo significativo y de peores condiciones habitacionales. La creciente marginalidad es una consecuencia parcial del consumo polarizado y resulta parcialmente causada por la ruptura de la familia y de la cultura tradicionales. + +En 1969 más personas padecen hambre, dolor y frío a la intemperie que al final de la segunda guerra —no sólo en cifras absolutas sino también en términos comparativos de porcentaje de población mundial—. + +Confrontada con la realidad, la definición cualitativa del subdesarrollo medido según los indicadores de consumo se queda corta, pero aún así sirve para definir una de las dos mayores coordenadas del atolladero mundial. El carácter realmente crítico del subdesarrollo radica en que es un estado de ánimo y al mismo tiempo una categoría de la conciencia. En esta dimensión el proceso del subdesarrollo puede acelerarse intensamente a través de un esfuerzo planeado y dirigido hacia el mercado masivo de la modernización estandarizada. Pero al mismo tiempo, es dentro de ese marco donde se puede operar una inversión decisiva. El subdesarrollo como estado de ánimo aparece cuando las necesidades humanas se vacían en el molde de una demanda urgente por nuevas marcas de soluciones enlatadas que estarán continuamente fuera del alcance de la mayoría. En este sentido el subdesarrollo crece rápidamente, incluso en los países donde la oferta de salones de clase, calorías, autos y hospitales, va también en aumento. Estas instituciones ofrecen a una minoría servicios que satisfacen los requerimientos internacionales. Pero una vez que han monopolizado la demanda de todos, ya no pueden cumplir con las necesidades de las mayorías. + +Insisto: el subdesarrollo como un estado de ánimo —y de desaliento—, ocurre cada vez que las necesidades humanas básicas se presentan como demanda por productos enlatados específicos que han sido diseñados para la sociedad de la abundancia. En este sentido el subdesarrollo es un resultado extremo de lo que podemos llamar, en términos comunes a Marx y a Freud, _Verdinglichung_ o cosificación. + +Por cosificación entiendo la enajenación de las necesidades reales que ya se perciben como si sólo pudieran satisfacerse mediante una demanda explícita de productos manufacturados en masa. Por cosificación entiendo traducir la “sed” por “necesidad de tomar una Coca-Cola”. Este tipo de cosificación surge cuando las necesidades humanas primarias las manipula un aparato burocrático que ha impuesto un monopolio sobre la imaginación de los consumidores en potencia. + +Permítaseme volver a mi ejemplo tomado del campo de la educación. + +La propaganda intensa de la necesidad de escuelas lleva a todos a creer que la asistencia a clases y la educación son sinónimos, a tal grado que en el lenguaje cotidiano los dos términos son intercambiables. Una vez que la imaginación de todo un pueblo ha sido escolarizada o monopolizada a través de esa equivalencia, entonces a los analfabetos se les puede obligar a pagar impuestos para proporcionarles una educación gratuita a los hijos de los ricos y para una mayor expansión de la profesión magisterial. + +El subdesarrollo es un resultado del aumento de los niveles de aspiración de las masas, sujetas a la intensa circulación en el mercado de los productos patentados en el foro de la imaginación alienada. + +En ese sentido, el subdesarrollo dinámico es exactamente lo opuesto de lo que yo entiendo por educación, esto es: despertar la conciencia de que existen otros y nuevos niveles de posibilidades humanas, otras formas inexploradas de utilizar el saber tecnológico y de usar la imaginación creadora para evitar la capitulación de la conciencia social a manos de un monopolio que impone una solución prefabricada. El procedimiento mediante el cual la circulación en el mercado de productos importados desarrolla el subdesarrollo, es algo que frecuentemente se estudia sólo en términos superficiales. El hombre que siente indignación al ver una planta de Coca-Cola en una favela, un ranchito o una callampa, es a menudo el mismo que se siente orgulloso al ver una escuela que crece en el mismo lugar. Resiente la evidencia de que hay una patente extranjera vinculada con el refresco; le gustaría ver en su lugar algo como Coca-Mex o Coca-Perú. Y a la vez ése es el mismo hombre que trata de imponer a toda costa la escolarización de sus compatriotas, sin darse cuenta de la patente invisible que ata profundamente esta otra institución al mercado mundial. + +Hace algunos años vi a un grupo de trabajadores levantar un anuncio, de 20 metros, de la Coca-Cola en el valle desértico del Mezquital. La sequía y el hambre acababan de afectar seriamente la meseta mexicana. Un pobre indio de Ixmiquilpan, que fue quien me invitó, ofrecía a sus visitantes vasitos de tequila con un traguito de la oscura y costosa agua azucarada. + +Cuando recuerdo esa escena reacciono con furia. Pero me exaspero aún más al recordar los encuentros de la UNESCO, en los cuales los bien intencionados y bien pagados burócratas discuten con seriedad los currículos escolares en América Latina, o cuando pienso en las peroratas de entusiastas liberales que abogan por la necesidad de un número mayor de escuelas. El fraude perpetrado por los vendedores de escuelas es por cierto mucho menos obvio, pero mucho más fundamental que el arte del satisfecho representante de la Ford o de la Coca-Cola, puesto que el partidario de la escuela consigue hacer morder a la gente el anzuelo de una droga mucho más eficaz. + +La asistencia a la escuela primaria no es un lujo inofensivo, sino que con ella ocurre lo mismo que con el indio de los Andes a quien su hábito de mascar coca lo tiene enjaezado a su patrón. Cuanto mayor es la dosis de escolarización que ha recibido un individuo, tanto más deprimente resulta su experiencia en abandonar las clases. El muchacho que deja la secundaria en el primer año padece mucho más su inferioridad que el que deja la primaria después del tercer año. Las escuelas del Tercer Mundo administran su opio mucho más eficazmente que las iglesias de otras épocas. A medida que el espíritu de una sociedad es progresivamente escolarizado, sus miembros pierden paso a paso las excusas que los hacían sentirse inferiores a los demás. Las escuelas racionalizan el origen divino de la estratificación social con mucho más rigor que el que siempre han usado las iglesias. + +Hasta la fecha ningún país latinoamericano ha promulgado leyes contra los jóvenes que no consumen suficiente Coca-Cola o automóviles, pero todos los países latinoamericanos han aprobado leyes que definen a los desertores como ciudadanos que no han cumplido con sus obligaciones legales. Recientemente, el gobierno brasileño elevó casi al doble el número de años de escolarización gratuita obligatoria. Desde ahora cualquier desertor escolar que tenga menos de 16 años enfrentará por el resto de su vida el reproche de no haber aprovechado ese privilegio legalmente obligatorio para todos los ciudadanos. Lo curioso es que esa ley se promulgó en un país donde ni siquiera la predicción más optimista puede hacernos avizorar el día en que sea posible otorgar esas prerrogativas escolares por lo menos a 25%. La adopción de los estándares internacionales de educación condena para siempre a la mayoría de los latinoamericanos a la marginalidad o a la exclusión de la vida social —en una palabra, al subdesarrollo progresivo—. Esa traducción de “objetivos sociales” en “niveles de consumo de los productos” no es exclusiva de unos pocos países. Por encima de todas las fronteras culturales, ideológicas y geográficas, las naciones se mueven hoy en día hacia el establecimiento de sus propias fábricas de automóviles, de sus propios hospitales y de sus propias escuelas primarias, y en la mayoría de los casos se trata, cuando mucho, de pobres imitaciones de modelos extranjeros y, especialmente, norteamericanos. + +El Tercer Mundo necesita una profunda revolución de sus instituciones. + +Las revoluciones de la última generación fueron abrumadoramente políticas. Un nuevo grupo de hombres, con un nuevo conjunto de justificaciones ideológicas, tomó el poder para dedicarse luego a administrar fundamentalmente las mismas instituciones escolares, médicas y económicas, con el fin de satisfacer el interés de un nuevo grupo de clientes. Y puesto que las instituciones no habían cambiado radicalmente, la dimensión de la nueva clientela es aproximadamente igual a la anterior. + +Esto resulta claro en el caso de la educación. Los costos de escolarización por alumno son hoy prácticamente comparables en todas partes, puesto que se tiende a compartir los estándares empleados para evaluar la calidad de la escolarización. El grado de acceso a la enseñanza públicamente subsidiada, la cual se identifica con la posibilidad de ir a la escuela, depende en todas partes de su variable principal: el ingreso per cápita. Lugares como China y Vietnam del Norte pueden ser las excepciones significativas. + +En todo el Tercer Mundo —si tenemos en cuenta el propósito igualitario según el cual fueron fundadas— las instituciones modernas son absolutamente improductivas. Mientras la imaginación social de la mayoría no haya sido paralizada de manera irreversible mediante la fijación a estas instituciones, hay cada vez mayor esperanza de que la revolución de las instituciones pueda planearse en el Tercer Mundo y no en los países ricos. + +De ahí la urgencia de abocarnos a la tarea de desarrollar alternativas viables frente a las soluciones “modernas”. + +En muchos países el subdesarrollo se acerca a un estado crónico. La revolución a la cual me refiero debe echarse a andar antes de que eso suceda. Una vez más la educación ofrece un buen ejemplo de ello: el subdesarrollo educativo crónico tiene lugar cuando la demanda de escolarización tiende de tal modo a ser universal que la concentración total de los recursos educativos en el sistema escolar se convierte en una exigencia política unánime. En ese momento, desenlatar la educación de la escuela, disociar el binomio escuela-educación, se hace prácticamente imposible. + +La única respuesta viable frente al creciente subdesarrollo es planear una respuesta que sea una alternativa para las áreas de bajo capital. Es más sencillo hablar de alternativas para las instituciones y servicios que definir esas alternativas en términos precisos. No quiero añadir otro capítulo a las publicaciones acerca del año 2000 inspiradas por el señor Herman Kahn. + +No es mi propósito pintar una Utopía ni describir el escenario de un futuro de alternativas. Debemos contentarnos con algunos ejemplos que indiquen la posible dirección de las investigaciones. + +Algunos de esos ejemplos ya han sido expuestos. Los autobuses son una alternativa para los enjambres de automóviles particulares. Unos vehículos diseñados especialmente para un transporte un poco más lento, o sobre rieles, sirven de alternativa a los camiones estándar. El agua no contaminada es una alternativa frente a la costosa cirugía. Los ayudantes de los médicos son una alternativa para los doctores y las enfermeras. El almacenamiento comunal de los alimentos resulta una alternativa frente a los costosos equipos de cocina. Podrían discutirse otras alternativas. ¿Por qué no, por ejemplo, considerar las caminatas como una futura alternativa que puede sustituir a la locomoción motorizada y explorar al mismo tiempo las tareas que ese cambio demandaría de los arquitectos? ¿Y por qué no uniformar la construcción de habitaciones familiares con estructuras prefabricadas, de modo que a cada ciudadano se le obligue a aprender durante un año de servicio social cómo construir su propia casa? + +Hablar de alternativas en la educación es más difícil. Ello se debe, en parte, a que las escuelas han agotado enteramente los recursos que se destinan a la educación. Pero, incluso en este campo, podemos indicar las líneas generales para la investigación. + +Hoy en día la escolarización se concibe como la asistencia de los niños a clase, las calificaciones, los programas de estudio. Los niños deben ir a la escuela durante cerca de 1 000 horas por año, y durante un periodo ininterrumpido de varios años. Como regla general, los países latinoamericanos pueden proporcionar a cada ciudadano entre 30 y 40 meses de ese servicio. ¿Por qué no, por ejemplo, hacer obligatorio uno o dos meses de clases para todos los ciudadanos de menos de 30 años? + +Hoy en día la mayor parte del dinero se gasta en los niños. A un adulto se le puede enseñar a leer en una décima del tiempo y a un costo 10 veces menor que los insumidos por un niño. En el caso de la persona adulta existe una recuperación inmediata de la inversión, no importa que su aprendizaje se vea a través de una nueva perspectiva y conciencia políticas, o que se enfoque desde el punto de vista de una productividad creciente. En el caso del adulto el saldo es doble, puesto que no sólo contribuye a la educación de sus hijos, sino también a la de otros adultos. + +A pesar de esas ventajas, en América Latina —donde la mayor parte de los recursos públicos se destinan a las escuelas— los programas de alfabetización de adultos no sólo no son subsidiados, sino que son bárbaramente suprimidos, como sucede en Brasil y otros países donde el apoyo militar a las oligarquías feudales o industriales se ha quitado la máscara de su inicial benevolencia. + +Es difícil definir otra alternativa, puesto que no existe aún ningún ejemplo para demostrarla, pero eso no quiere decir que no exista. Debemos entonces imaginar que los recursos públicos destinados a la educación se distribuyan de tal manera que se ofrezca a cada ciudadano una oportunidad mínima. Se podría imaginar algo así como una ley de derechos universales, similar a aquella que concibieron los militares después de la guerra, de tal modo que se divida la cantidad de los recursos públicos destinados a la educación entre el número de niños que está en edad escolar, asegurándose de que un niño que no ha aprovechado esas ventajas a la edad de siete, ocho o nueve años, cuando llegue a los 10 las tendrá disponibles. + +Preguntamos entonces, ¿qué hacer con los compasivos recursos que cualquier república latinoamericana le ofrece a cada uno de sus niños? + +Respondemos: proveer casi todos los libros básicos, dibujos, cubos, juegos y juguetes que están totalmente ausentes de las casas y de los niños pobres y que le permiten a un niño de clase media aprender los números enteros, el alfabeto, los colores, las formas y otras clases de objetos y experiencias que aseguren su progreso educativo. Proveer anualmente a cada ciudadano menor de 30 años de varias semanas de vacaciones en un campamento de intenso trabajo educativo. Entre todas estas cosas sin escuelas o las escuelas sin ninguna de estas cosas, la elección es obvia. + +Pero el niño pobre, el único para quien desafortunadamente la elección se plantea en términos reales, jamás puede elegir. + +Definir las alternativas a los productos y a las instituciones que en la hora presente dominan nuestra visibilidad es difícil, no sólo, como he tratado de demostrarlo, por el hecho de que tanto esos productos como esas instituciones modelan nuestra concepción de la realidad, sino también porque la construcción de esas alternativas requiere de una concentración de voluntad e inteligencia poco frecuente. + +En el último siglo hemos acostumbrado llamar a esa combinación de voluntad e inteligencia al servicio de la solución de problemas particulares independientemente de su naturaleza, investigación. Quiero dejar claro, sin embargo, a qué clase de investigación me refiero. No hablo de investigación básica en el campo de la física, la ingeniería, la genética, la medicina o las letras. El trabajo de hombres como Pauling, Crick, Penfield y Hibb debe sin duda continuar ampliando nuestro horizonte científico en otros campos. Los laboratorios, las bibliotecas y los colaboradores especializados que estos hombres necesitan los llevan a congregarse cada vez más en las pocas capitales de investigación que existen en el mundo. Sus avances radicales proporcionan nuevos parámetros para el diseñador de cualquier producto. + +Tampoco hablo de los millones de dólares que se gastan anualmente en la investigación aplicada, puesto que ese dinero lo invierten las grandes instituciones que buscan perfeccionar y dar a la publicidad sus productos. + +La investigación aplicada es dinero gastado para hacer aviones más veloces y aeropuertos más seguros; dinero gastado para hacer medicamentos cada vez más específicos y poderosos y doctores más capaces de manejar los efectos secundarios de esas drogas; dinero gastado para enlatar más enseñanza en salones de clase; dinero gastado en métodos dedicados a administrar burocracias cada vez más grandes. Éste es el tipo de investigación al cual debemos oponer cierta clase de contracorriente, si deseamos llegar a presentar alguna alternativa a los automóviles, los hospitales, las escuelas y muchos de los tantos otros llamados “implementos necesarios para la vida moderna”. + +Hablo de un tipo de investigación peculiarmente difícil, que por razones obvias ha sido hasta ahora profundamente descuidada. Lo que estoy haciendo es un llamado para investigar las alternativas a todos los productos que hoy en día dominan el mercado: alternativas a los hospitales y las profesiones que se dedican a mantener vivos a los enfermos; alternativas a las escuelas y a los procesos de enlatar productos que se rehúsan a proveer educación a quienes no tienen la edad requerida, a quienes no han seguido los programas exigidos, a quienes no se han sentado en un salón de clase durante el número sucesivo de horas indicado, en fin, a quienes no van a pagar para estar sometidos a las guarderías, los exámenes de admisión y la constancia de materias o títulos, a más del adoctrinamiento en los valores de la élite dominante. + +Esta investigación contracorriente que intenta hallar alternativas fundamentales a las soluciones patentadas más comunes es el elemento crítico principal para la búsqueda de un futuro en el cual podremos vivir. + +Esta investigación contracorriente es distinta a la mayor parte del trabajo que se hace en nombre del año 2000: porque casi todo ese trabajo busca cambios en los modelos sociales, pero a través del desarrollo lineal de las consecuencias de la tecnología avanzada. La investigación contracorriente, a la cual hago referencia, debe tomar como uno de sus parámetros fundamentales la continua falta de capital en los países del Tercer Mundo. + +Las dificultades de ese tipo de investigación son obvias. El investigador debe, en primer lugar, dudar de todo aquello que a primera vista es evidente. Segundo, debe persuadir a quienes tienen el poder de decisión para que actúen contra sus intereses a corto plazo. Y, finalmente, debe sobrevivir como individuo en un mundo que él mismo está tratando de cambiar tan fundamentalmente, ya que sus amigos de la minoría privilegiada lo ven como un destructor de la realidad cotidiana en la que todos nos apoyamos. Él sabe, por supuesto, que si logra tener éxito beneficiando a los pobres, puede que un día los ricos quieran también imitar a los felices. + +Hay un camino normal para aquellos que dictan una política del desarrollo, ya sea que vivan en el Norte o en Sudamérica, en Rusia o en Israel. Ese camino es definir el desarrollo y establecer sus objetivos en términos que nos resulten familiares, según la manera habitual como ellos están acostumbrados a satisfacer sus necesidades, y de acuerdo con realidades que les permitan usar las instituciones sobre las cuales ejercen el poder o control. Esa fórmula no sólo ha fracasado, sino que fracasará siempre. No hay en el mundo suficiente dinero como para que el desarrollo pueda tener éxito según esas vías, ni siquiera en el caso en que las superpotencias combinaran para ese fin sus presupuestos bélicos. + +Un curso análogo lo siguen aquellos que intentan llevar a cabo las revoluciones políticas, especialmente en el Tercer Mundo. Como regla general, prometen hacer accesibles a todos los ciudadanos los privilegios más comunes de que gozan las élites del presente, es decir, la escolarización, la hospitalización, etc. Respaldan esa promesa con la vana creencia de que un cambio de régimen político les permitirá holgadamente ampliar las instituciones que producen esos privilegios. La promesa y el llamado de los revolucionarios están, por tanto, tan amenazadas por el tipo de investigación contracorriente que yo propongo, como lo está el dominante mercado de los productores. + +Vietnam, un pueblo armado con bicicleta y lanzas de bambú, ha llevado a un callejón sin salida a la mayor concentración de centros de investigación y producción que jamás haya conocido la historia. Debemos buscar nuestra supervivencia en el Tercer Mundo, en el que la ingenuidad humana es más lista que el poder mecánico. + +Por más difícil que sea, la única manera de revertir el progresivo subdesarrollo es aprender a reírnos de las soluciones aceptadas, para así poder cambiar las demandas que las hacen necesarias. Sólo los hombres libres pueden cambiar sus mentalidades y ser capaces de asombrarse, y mientras acontece que no todos los hombres son completamente libres, resulta también que algunos son más libre que los demás. + +## La metamorfosis del clero + +La iglesia romana que quiere ser el signo de la presencia de Cristo en el mundo, se ha convertido en la mayor administración no gubernamental del mundo. Emplea 1 800 000 trabajadores de tiempo completo: sacerdotes, religiosos y religiosas, laicos. Estos hombres y estas mujeres trabajan al servicio de un organismo que una empresa americana especializada ha clasificado entre las organizaciones más eficientes. La institución-Iglesia funciona conforme al tipo de la General Motors. Algunos católicos ven en esto un motivo de orgullo. Otros son conscientes de que la complejidad creciente de su administración amenaza su vitalidad y su capacidad de revelar a Dios a los hombres. + +El esfuerzo por modernizar y hacer más eficiente a la Iglesia queda neutralizado por un deterioro de la disciplina. Cuanto más se convierte la Iglesia en una empresa organizada y moderna, más abandonada parece por su personal de tiempo completo. + +Algunos reaccionan ante esta crisis con dolor, angustia y miedo. Otros trabajan heroicamente y se sacrifican inútilmente para conjurarla. Y otros, lamentándolo o mostrándose satisfechos, interpretan el desorden disciplinario como un signo de la desaparición de la misma Iglesia romana. + +Me permito preguntarme si esta modificación profunda de las estructuras de la institución no podría llenarnos de alegría porque anuncia a una Iglesia más consciente de su impotencia y a una Iglesia más presente en un mundo que se socializa. + +La estructura de la Iglesia está en crisis. Los mismos que emplean su lealtad y su obediencia en mantener su organización, y que podrían garantizar su eficacia, la abandonan en número creciente. Antes de 1960 las “defecciones” eran relativamente raras. Hoy son frecuentes. ¿Qué pasará mañana? En las dos Américas, como consecuencia de dramas personales vividos en el secreto de las conciencias, personas permanentes de la Iglesia en número cada vez mayor deciden renunciar a la seguridad afectiva, espiritual y frecuentemente económica de cuya provisión se encargaba el sistema graciosamente. Algunos se retiran a la vida cristiana: fatigados, desalentados e incluso desgarrados y amargados. Otros, con toda serenidad, toman un compromiso más profundo. Tanto si se quedan como si no se quedan en el interior de la estructura presente, quieren permanecer en la primera línea del esfuerzo creador para modificar esta estructura. + +Mi impresión es que, en los próximos años, la mayoría de los sacerdotes y religiosos tendrá que hacer frente a decisiones que en otro tiempo eran inconcebibles. La crisis de que hablo no proviene de un “mal espíritu del siglo”, ni de la ausencia de generosidad de eventuales “desertores”, sino más bien de un estado clerical que ha absorbido la función magisterial de la Iglesia. + +La Iglesia presenta a la sociedad moderna estructuras superadas que, a su vez, están basadas en un manual de procedimiento internacional llamado Código de Derecho Canónico. Una teología fundada en nociones sociológicas inaplicables al mundo de hoy en su especificidad y en su complejidad trata de justificar este Código. Tomemos el “ministerio clerical” como ejemplo de este equívoco. Sólo en la medida en que tengamos la valentía de prever, en un lapso más o menos largo, la desaparición del personaje del “señor cura”, del “eclesiástico”, podremos hacernos una idea de la Iglesia del mañana. En efecto, estas apelaciones son la expresión de una profunda confusión de cuatro realidades en las cuales se funda la estructura presente de la Iglesia: _1)_ el clérigo; _2)_ el ministro, ya sea diácono o sacerdote; _3)_ el “monje”; _4)_ el “teólogo” profesional. Creo que la imagen que nos hacemos del “cura” o del “eclesiástico” es una mezcla de estas cuatro realidades. Me permitiré hablar en seguida de estos diferentes conceptos: + +1. Es muy posible que 90% de los empleados que trabajan actualmente en la estructura funcional de la Iglesia, que viven de ella y a quienes debería reservarse en exclusiva el nombre de “clérigos”, son inútiles a la misma Iglesia. +2. En América Latina por lo menos, según todas las probabilidades, el “ministerio” pronto será ejercido sobre todo por no clérigos. +3. La secularización radical de la mayor parte de los ministros sagrados es paralela a la secularización de la vida religiosa que empezó con los institutos seculares. Esta secularización debe considerarse como una señal de la gratuidad y creciente vitalidad de la renuncia del “monje moderno”, para el que echamos de menos una apelación adecuada, como la echamos de menos para el sacerdote laico. +4. Me permitiré, finalmente, sugerir que el seminario es una institución indispensable si se quiere formar “curas” para su profesión, y una institución anacrónica e irreformable si debe servir para preparar laicos para el diaconado o para el sacerdocio en su plenitud. + +### Eclipse del clérigo + +El personal eclesiástico goza de notables privilegios. Todo adolescente deseoso de entrar a formar parte del “clero” puede dar por descontada una situación prácticamente garantizada, con una serie de ventajas psicológicas y sociales. Su promoción depende en general de la edad y no de la competencia. + +Los empleados eclesiásticos ocupan con frecuencia viviendas que pertenecen a la Iglesia, gozan de un trato de favor en los servicios de hospital y tienen toda la educación gratuita que deseen. La situación, la reputación y el rango social se los procura la sotana, y no la competencia o la fidelidad. A los laicos, empleados sin “tonsura” en las estructuras eclesiásticas, les son reconocidos algunos “derechos del hombre”, pero su promoción depende sobre todo de su habilidad para captarse los favores de los otros “permanentes de carrera”. + +La Iglesia posconciliar sigue el ejemplo de ciertas Iglesias protestantes, que transfieren numerosos eclesiásticos del trabajo parroquial a las funciones de papeleo en el “apostolado burocrático”. Se nos pide que roguemos a Dios para que envíe más empleados a las oficinas y para que inspire a los fieles el deseo de pagar la cuenta. No todo el mundo es capaz de desear tales “beneficios”. + +El desarrollo automático de las oficinas se realiza ciertamente sin asistencia divina: el mismo Vaticano es un ejemplo de esto. Desde el final del Concilio, las 12 venerables congregaciones han sido arropadas con numerosos organismos posconciliares que se entrecruzan e imbrican: comisiones, consejos, órganos consultivos, comités, asambleas, institutos y sínodos. Este laberinto se sustrae a todo gobierno. Y muy bien. Tal vez aprenderemos así que los principios de administración de empresas no son aplicables al Cuerpo de Cristo. El Vicario de Cristo no es ni un presidente director general de una sociedad de negocios, ni un monarca bizantino. La tecnocracia clerical se encuentra todavía más lejos del Evangelio que la aristocracia sacerdotal. Tal vez reconoceremos que el mito de la eficacia corrompe el testimonio cristiano más insidiosamente que el poder; que el papa ganaría en grandeza y en fidelidad evangélica en la medida en que perdiera la iniciativa e incluso el control del testimonio de los cristianos en el mundo. + +En el momento mismo en que el Pentágono trata de reducir su personal, estableciendo contratos por trabajos concretos, dirigiéndose al mercado libre de la industria, de la investigación y de la enseñanza, el Vaticano se orienta hacia la diversificación y proliferación de los organismos de la Iglesia. La nueva administración central superorganizada escapa de las manos de los sacerdotes de carrera italianos, en beneficio de los especialistas eclesiásticos reclutados en el mundo entero. La curia pontificia de los tiempos medievales toma el cariz de un cuartel general de planificación y de administración de una firma internacional centralizada, cuyas sucursales gozan de una autonomía bien calculada. + +La Iglesia antes hacía esfuerzos por hacerse reconocer por los Estados modernos como otro Estado; actualmente, trata en forma sutil de hacerse reconocer como un organismo de interés público internacional, análogo a la FAO o al Consejo de las Iglesias. Roma se convierte en algo similar a las fundaciones filantrópicas, a los consejos de investigación y a la comisión internacional atómica. Se crean muchos puestos nuevos y la jerarquía, habituada al control absoluto de sus subordinados, trata de cubrirlos con elementos dóciles a su iniciativa: la “gente de Iglesia”. La periferia de la Iglesia, como la misma Roma, está regida por las leyes de Parkinson: “el trabajo aumenta con el personal disponible” y “siempre hay personal dispuesto a servir en los grados superiores”. La superestructura de la Iglesia latinoamericana ofrece un ejemplo impresionante de esto. + +Los obispos latinoamericanos de la generación precedente se trasladaban a Roma, aproximadamente cada 10 años, para hacer su informe al papa. Fuera de esto, su contacto con Roma se reducía a las peticiones rutinarias de indulgencias o de dispensas, transmitidas a través de la nunciatura y a las venidas ocasionales de los visitadores apostólicos. Hoy, una comisión romana para América Latina (CAL) reúne a subcomisiones de obispos europeos y americanos a fin de mantener el equilibrio con la asamblea episcopal latinoamericana. La organización de ésta incluye un consejo (CELAM) y comisiones, secretariados, instituciones y delegaciones en gran número. El CELAM corona las asambleas episcopales nacionales, algunas de las cuales poseen una organización burocrática de extraordinaria complejidad. Todo este edificio ha sido construido con el fin de facilitar deliberaciones ocasionales entre obispos para que, una vez vueltos a sus diócesis, puedan obrar con más independencia y originalidad. Los resultados raramente responden a esta intención. La mayoría de los obispos adquiere la mentalidad burocrática necesaria para establecer una ronda de reuniones cada vez más frecuentes. Los organismos nuevos exigen un personal cada vez más numeroso para los servicios del Estado Mayor clerical. + +Una dirección central se cierne amenazadora sobre las iniciativas renovadoras y espontáneas de las iglesias locales. La multiplicación de los funcionarios, por otra parte, puede verse desde la base como un elemento que contribuye a su propia desclericalización: los “curas” se eliminan a sí mismos de la parroquia, convirtiéndose en “monseñores de la oficina”. Este proceso se encuentra aliado con otros dos factores que reducen el número de sacerdotes: la creciente oposición de los jóvenes atraídos por el sacerdocio a dejarse embarcar en la carrera clerical convirtiéndose en “curas”, y el número creciente de sacerdotes que obligan a la Iglesia a aceptar su dimisión. + +Lo que se ha dado en llamar reforma posconciliar del clero en todos estos planos, desde la curia romana a la parroquia rural, puede verse así como la condición previa, por una parte, para la renovación de una base “sin curas”, y por otra, para la aparición de un “clero” sin pretensiones apostólicas. + +¿Por qué no podríamos prever, en efecto, en la Iglesia una “carrera eclesiástica” profesional? Un “clero” muy limitado, profesionalmente bien formado y bien pagado, que podría colocarse en el Estado Mayor para funciones técnicas. No veo ninguna razón para dar las órdenes a estos sociólogos, teólogos y contables, ni para exigir a estos hombres o mujeres una carrera de por vida. Su profesión no sería anunciar la Palabra ni presidir la comunidad, sino más bien un servicio eficaz de la superestructura inevitable. + +### El culto de mañana + +Un laico adulto, que habrá recibido las órdenes, presidirá la comunidad cristiana “corriente” del futuro. El ministerio se convertirá en una obra realizada en tiempo libre, y no será un trabajo profesional. Imaginamos que la “diaconía” sustituirá a la parroquia, como unidad fundamental institucional de la Iglesia. El contacto periódico entre amigos tomará el lugar de la reunión dominical de extraños. Una persona independiente, un dentista, un obrero, un profesor, y no un empleado de la Iglesia, escriba o funcionario, presidirá la reunión. El ministro, normalmente, saldrá del seno de su propia comunidad y sólo excepcionalmente será un enviado que constituye en torno a él una nueva iglesia. Será un hombre madurado en la sabiduría cristiana por su prolongada participación en una liturgia íntima de su comunidad, y no uno que ha recibido un título en el seminario, instruido profesionalmente en una jerga “teológica”. La plenitud y la madurez del matrimonio en unos, y la gozosa renuncia en otros, serán reconocidos como un signo válido para la carga del ministerio. + +Más que la asistencia de una multitud anónima en torno a un altar, preveo el contacto personal de familias en torno a una mesa. Más que los edificios consagrados, destinados a santificar la ceremonia, será la celebración la que santificará el comedor de una casa. Esto no significa que todas las iglesias serán transformadas en teatros o en inmuebles invendibles. + +Evidentemente, no propongo que le quiten al obispo su catedral, ni que se le exija que se gane la vida. Creo que tomando el diaconado en serio, y sin ordenar por el momento a hombres casados para el sacerdocio en su plenitud, la Iglesia puede progresar en el momento mismo en que el número de sacerdotes disminuye. + +Las estructuras pastorales han quedado ampliamente determinadas por 10 siglos de sacerdocio clerical y celibatario. En 1964 el Concilio dio un paso significativo hacia la renovación al aprobar el diaconado de personas casadas. El decreto es ambiguo, puesto que podría favorecer la proliferación de un clero de segundo orden sin cambiar las estructuras. Pero puede también conducir a la ordenación de hombres adultos, materialmente independientes, y no clérigos. El gran peligro es la clericalización del diaconado, que el diácono viva de los recursos de la Iglesia, retrasando así la necesaria e inevitable secularización del ministerio sacerdotal. + +El futuro sacerdote “ordinario”, que se gana la vida, presidirá en su casa una reunión semanal de una docena de diáconos. Leerán juntos la Sagrada Escritura, estudiarán y comentarán la instrucción semanal del obispo. Si se ha celebrado la misa en el curso de la reunión, cada diácono llevará a su casa el Sacramento y lo conservará con su crucifijo y su Biblia. El sacerdote visitará las diversas “diaconías” y eventualmente presidirá en ellas la misa. + +Un cierto número de “diaconías” se reunirán de vez en cuando en otra sala alquilada, o en la catedral, para una misa más solemne. El obispo y sus sacerdotes, a media jornada liberados de sus tareas administrativas, encontrarán el tiempo necesario para concelebrar en ciertas ocasiones. El obispo, asistido por algunos permanentes, tendrá la posibilidad de preparar y de hacer circular su selección semanal de fragmentos de los Padres de la Iglesia y un esquema para su discusión. Asistido por su presbiterio, orientará la liturgia doméstica de las diaconías. + +Todos estos cambios obligarán a revisar el precepto de la misa dominical, y también a revalorizar las prácticas rituales de la Penitencia. + +#### El sacerdote secularizado + +El derecho canónico actual prevé la ordenación de personas cuya subsistencia corre de por vida a cargo de la Iglesia, y la de personas dotadas de bienes propios suficientes. Vincular la ordenación a esta forma burguesa de independencia económica nos parece, en nuestros días, una cosa anormal, por no decir indigna. Hoy un hombre se gana la vida realizando un trabajo cualquiera en el mundo, y no desempeñando un papel en una jerarquía. La Iglesia ha tenido razones válidas para oponerse al trabajo de los sacerdotes deformados por el seminario y por la vida clerical. Pero estas razones no se aplican al trabajador adulto, ordenado de diácono o de sacerdote, tanto si está casado como si es “monje”. Considerar las capacidades profesionales o la seguridad social adquirida por el trabajo como una señal de independencia suficiente para ordenarse no es ciertamente contrario a la intención del derecho canónico. El ministerio sacramental de “laicos ordenados” nos ayudará a ver con ojos nuevos la “oposición” tradicional entre el eclesiástico y el laico en la Iglesia. A medida que superemos estos dos conceptos, se volverá evidente su carácter transitorio. El Concilio, resumiendo el proceso histórico de la última centuria, ha tratado de definir al sacerdote y al laico en dos documentos distintos. Pero el futuro, a partir de la antítesis aparente, edificará una nueva síntesis que irá más allá de las categorías presentes. + +El lenguaje cotidiano no tiene palabras para definir esta nueva realidad, y la imaginación católica se asusta al querer dar un nombre bautismal a este “hijo legítimo”, ¿un laico-sacerdote? ¿Un no clérigo ordenado de diácono o de sacerdote? ¿Un sacerdote de los domingos? ¿Un sacerdote a media jornada? ¿Un ministro sacramental secularizado? + +La historia de la institución clerical desde el Concilio de Trento ha hecho que la expresión “sacerdote secular” sea impropia. + +Este nuevo tipo de cristiano será sobre todo el presidente de la celebración, y no el sacerdote para toda clase de actividades, que se presta muchas veces sin competencia para una variedad pasmosa de tareas sociales y psicológicas. Su aparición librará finalmente a la Iglesia del sistema restrictivo de los beneficios y de los regalos. Más aún, la Iglesia en este momento habrá renunciado al número infinito de responsabilidades que han hecho del sacerdote un accesorio artificial de funciones sociales establecidas. El laico ordenado hará que sea superflujo, desde el punto de vista pastoral, el “cura eclesiástico”. La transformación de la existencia actual permite a todo hombre una libertad, reservada con anterioridad a los nobles y a los clérigos, que le deja disponible para aceptar funciones espirituales a media jornada. El tiempo libre aumenta paralelamente a la reducción de las horas de trabajo, a la jubilación precoz y a las ventajas más amplias de la seguridad social. + +El trabajador que libremente renuncia al tiempo de esparcimiento ya no encuentra límites para su educación. Para una creciente mayoría de hombres maduros e independientes existe tiempo disponible de preparación para el ejercicio del ministerio cristiano en una sociedad pluralista y secular. Las mismas razones que hacen de todo cristiano entregado una persona capaz de prepararse para la presidencia de la comunidad eclesiástica, hacen que sea superflujo el clero parroquial. Los ciudadanos católicos formados no piden al señor cura consejo para una acción profana. El político ateo o el técnico laico poseen tal vez mejores títulos para la función de consejeros en valores humanos. La gente capaz de reflexión teológica no va ya a pedir al padre una dirección moral. Piensa por su cuenta. Su formación teológica es a veces superior a la del sacerdote. Los padres que tienen una buena educación dudan cada vez más en confiar a sus hijos al sistema de enseñanza clerical. Se dan cuenta de que ellos mismos son capaces de evangelizarlos, de que en el mundo moderno esta tarea no puede delegar solamente al consiliario, y de que tienen + +#### Sacerdotes a título interino + +Es verdad que existen dificultades para la ordenación de hombres sobre los cuales la Iglesia tiene poco dominio. El laico ordenado podría querer dejar el ministerio; podría ser reo de pecado público; él o su mujer podrían convertirse en factores de discordia en la comunidad cristiana. ¿Y entonces, qué? El derecho canónico actual contiene en germen la solución: que se le suspenda de sus funciones. La “suspensión” la debe decidir tanto el individuo como la comunidad, y no debe entenderse solamente como un castigo en manos del obispo. El ministro ordenado puede creerse llamado a tomar una posición criticable y discutida: si así ocurriera, dejaría de ser un símbolo de la unidad sacramental, ya que juzgaría necesario convertirse en un signo de contradicción. Que él mismo, la comunidad o el obispo decidan con toda libertad si debe retirarse de la presidencia de la comunidad, de la cual será entonces un simple miembro. La comunidad que reconoció su carisma y lo presentó al obispo para que lo ordenara, debe respetar su libertad de conciencia y permitirle que renuncie al ejercicio de la función para la cual había sido habilitado. El ejercicio ritual del orden recibido no es un derecho inalienable ni un deber perpetuo. El no clérigo no tiene que defender ventajas especiales, ni rentas, ni situaciones que dificultarían la suspensión de sus funciones ministeriales: ejerce estas funciones sin pertenecer a un estado clerical. + +#### La estrategia de la transición + +Hemos visto que el crecimiento de la superestructura clerical podría en el momento presente acelerar la ordenación de laicos, despoblando las filas de los antiguos “curas”. El “sacerdote laico”, por su parte, haría posible poner fin a la “falta de clero” que preocupa extraordinariamente a los obispos. + +Pero los obispos, cuya mentalidad ha sido moldeada por las estructuras heredadas del pasado, se oponen a que el título que justifica la existencia del clero como “clase aparte” (me refiero a las órdenes sagradas) pase a manos de los que se niegan a formar parte de esta clase. + +En este callejón sin salida, “la crisis del clero en América Latina” podría transformarse en fuente de renovación para la Iglesia universal. La misma gravedad de esta crisis permite allí un diagnóstico que es imposible en otras partes, en donde los paliativos producen la ilusión de que el estado clerical podría sobrevivir. Hay hoy en día sacerdotes que comienzan a ver que están ahogados en la medida en que su sacerdocio se halla vinculado a los privilegios y a las responsabilidades de este estado. Por una parte, estos privilegios los encierran en un _ghetto_, incluso en el interior de la Iglesia, y por otra, las responsabilidades del orden establecido no les permiten comprometerse en ningún tipo de revolución. + +Muchos sacerdotes están descontentos de sus ocupaciones, bien porque no se sienten libres de realizar el trabajo para el que se saben dotados, o porque carecen de preparación para la tarea que les es asignada. En el primer caso buscan una definición nueva de la función del “cura” que les permita emprender nuevas tareas. En el segundo, hay que tratar de dar una formación más adecuada. Ambas soluciones se limitan con frecuencia a ser paliativos. Lo que habrá que hacer es más bien plantearse la cuestión siguiente: ¿por qué obligar a un hombre a estar en el clero para siempre? + +¿Por qué mantener bajo el control de la Iglesia las funciones que le han sido asignadas? + +En la medida en que la Iglesia se apega al sistema existente, que hace del sacerdote un permanente “clerical”, nuestro actual problema queda enteramente en pie: el del “cura” cada vez más especializado, insatisfecho y frustrado, y el del cristiano que rechaza el “ministerio” por aprecio de su “estado laico”. + +Con el objeto de responder a esta crisis, los próximos años verán cómo proliferan los programas de puesta al día del clero. Estos programas pueden clasificarse en tres tipos: la mayor preparación del clero, el volver a encontrar los motivos que hacen válido para el sacerdote su estado clerical y, finalmente, la preparación para escoger periódicamente su futuro con toda libertad. + +_a)_ Cada vez más, las diócesis y las congregaciones religiosas piden a expertos consejeros de la industria que les enseñen los actuales métodos profesionales. La Iglesia se convierte así en una “empresa de servicios” entre muchas otras. Se parte del principio de que hay que renovar _(recycler)_ el “producto” desusado del noviciado y del seminario, para hacer que funcione después del Concilio: se habla entonces en una nueva jerga y se celebra según un nuevo rito. La repetición de estos cursos de pastoral es inevitable si se quiere hacer funcionar una máquina cada vez más complicada. + +_b)_ El retiro espiritual, por otra parte, ya no sirve para robustecer el compromiso personal del sacerdote en la aventura y en los riesgos evangélicos; por el contrario, los superiores lo utilizan con frecuencia para confirmar la fe vacilante de los sujetos en una estructura que se presenta como si estuviera fundada en la voluntad de Dios. Se insiste en que la ordenación para la función sacerdotal implica el deber perentorio de ser fiel al estado clerical. + +_c)_ Tenemos que prever una renovación _(recyclage)_ de adultos que periódicamente desean plantearse su vocación. Yo, que me he puesto totalmente al servicio de la Iglesia, ¿debo seguir siendo clérigo? ¿Debo abandonar esta estructura para vivir en adelante el tipo de sacerdote del futuro? Si debo seguir siendo un funcionario eclesiástico, ¿es para colaborar en el progreso del clero hacia la nueva estructura de que la Iglesia tendrá mañana necesidad, o es para provocar la subversión de la estructura presente? + +El futuro de la Iglesia no se planifica: se imagina, se vive en la obediencia, y sólo entonces se descubre. Mi presente es siempre el pasado de alguien y el futuro de algún otro. + +Tenemos necesidad hoy de algunos sacerdotes, formados en los seminarios de antes, que estén decididos a romper ciertas estructuras heredadas, sin abandonar la disciplina fundamental, incluida la del celibato. + +Éstos podrán convertirse en pioneros del “sacerdote-monje” de la Iglesia de mañana, aunque por el momento se expongan a la incomprensión y a la “suspensión”. Tenemos también necesidad de estas vocaciones de sacerdotes animados de esperanza, capaces de dejar el “clero” sin endurecimientos, sin amargura y sin cobardía. + +Tenemos igualmente necesidad de sacerdotes, asimismo libres y desprendidos, que continúen en su puesto, aunque lo consideren contrario a su ideal de la Iglesia. + +Tal vez habrá otros que se creerán libres para abandonar la disciplina del celibato o para obligar a la Iglesia que los dispense, pero que renunciarán a esta libertad para no frenar su renovación. También éstos tendrán necesidad de una puesta al día _(recyclage)_ para decidirse con toda libertad. + + +#### La costumbre creadora de confusión + + +Es difícil separar lo que el hábito o la costumbre ha unido. La unión del estado clerical, del sacramento del orden y del celibato voluntario en la vida del “cura” ha dificultado la comprensión de cada una de estas realidades, y ha impedido que fuera posible intentar su separación. El clero se ha afincado en su estatuto socioeconómico y en su poder, defendiendo su derecho exclusivo al sacerdocio. Es muy raro que se propongan argumentos teológicos contra la idea del laico ordenado, si se exceptúa la referencia a la impropiedad de la misma expresión. Sólo los eclesiásticos católicos que desean casarse y los pastores protestantes que temen perder su posición clerical desean extender los privilegios clericales a los ministros católicos casados. + +El vínculo entre el celibato y el orden es fuertemente atacado, a pesar de las declaraciones de la autoridad que lo defiende. Se ponen sobre el tapete argumentos exegéticos, pastorales y sociales que no demuestran nada. Son cada vez más los sacerdotes que realizan actos en que niegan el celibato, y, lo que es más grave, abandonan al mismo tiempo celibato y ministerio. El problema es calificado, de común acuerdo, como complejo; efectivamente, convergen en él dos realidades que son sólo comprensibles a la luz de la fe: el ministerio sacramental del sacerdocio y el misterio personal de una renuncia extraordinaria. Nuestro lenguaje secular se confiesa impotente ante el análisis sutil de sus relaciones mutuas. Enunciar y discutir cada una de las tres cuestiones por separado nos ayudará tal vez a diferenciarlas entre sí y a comprender la naturaleza de las relaciones entre: _a)_ el compromiso del celibato voluntario; _b)_ la constitución de comunidades religiosas; _c)_ la prescripción legal del “celibato eclesiástico”. + +#### La elección voluntaria de una vida impotente + +Siempre ha habido en la Iglesia hombres y mujeres que han renunciado libremente al matrimonio “en vista del Reino”. De conformidad con tal acto, fundan simplemente su decisión en la llamada interior de Dios. La experiencia, que es el motivo de la decisión, debe distinguirse de la exposición discursiva mediante nociones abstractas y razones que la justifican. Para muchos estas nociones han quedado actualmente vacías de sentido, lo cual les induce a renunciar al compromiso del celibato. Los defensores del celibato interpretan este gesto como la manifestación de un debilitamiento de la fe en los católicos modernos. Este gesto podría aportar igualmente la prueba de que es una purificación de la propia fe, y de que es una renuncia a fundar el propio testimonio en argumentos especiosos. En los motivos alegados, los hombre ven hoy día más claramente motivos sociológicos, psicológicos y mitológicos en favor del celibato, y reconocen su carácter inadecuado ante la verdadera renuncia cristiana. + +La renuncia al matrimonio ya no es necesaria, desde el punto de vista económico, para el servicio de los pobres; ni tampoco es ya una condición legal para el ministerio ordenado; ni una situación extraordinariamente propicia para los estudios. El celibato no puede ya contar, para su defensa, con la aprobación de la sociedad. + +Los motivos psicológicos invocados en otro tiempo para justificar las ventajas de la continencia, apenas son hoy aceptables. Numerosos célibes comprenden ahora que rechazaron el matrimonio por desgana, miedo, egoísmo, falta de preparación o sencillamente de atractivo. Y ahora escogen el matrimonio, o bien en virtud de una mejor comprensión de sí mismos, o bien en virtud del deseo de probar su error inicial. Ya no se presentan como héroes delante de sus padres, por su fidelidad, ni se sienten parias por su “defección”. + +El estudio comparado de las religiones descubre en la historia de la humanidad muchas “razones” de la continencia. Estos motivos son de orden ascético, mágico o místico. Son ciertamente “religiosos”, aunque apenas sean “cristianos”. El asceta renuncia tal vez al matrimonio con objeto de ser libre para la oración; el “mago”, para salvar mediante su sacrificio a un chinito; el “místico”, en favor de la intimidad nupcial exclusiva con el “Todo”. Nuestros contemporáneos saben que la continencia no intensifica la oración, ni hace el amor más ardiente, ni aumenta las gracias recibidas. + +Hoy el cristiano que renuncia al matrimonio y a los hijos “en vista del Reino” no aduce, en favor de su decisión, ninguna razón abstracta. Quiere vivir ahora el estado de pobreza absoluta que todo cristiano espera encontrar en la hora de la muerte, y que todo hombre encontrará. Su vida no prueba nada, ni siquiera la trascendencia de Dios. Su renuncia no sirve para nada, excepto a su propia verdad. Su resolución de renunciar a una esposa tiene el mismo carácter de intimidad, de incomunicabilidad y de gratuidad que la preferencia única de un hermano suyo por su esposa. El “monje” (como lo llamaría yo para distinguirlo) arriesga su personalidad en una disponibilidad, una apertura y una soledad que podrían conducirlo al orgullo, a la insensibilidad y al aislamiento. Su hermano arriesga su futuro humano de otra manera, escogiendo una mujer, para lo mejor y para lo peor. El “monje” elige vivir su vida en la impotencia voluntaria revelada por el Todopoderoso en el momento culminante y paradójico de su amor. Sigue el ejemplo del crucificado impotente. Esta conducta, y no la intervención de la Iglesia, es la que constituye al “monje”. + +Esta conducta se vive en las profundidades del corazón: no importa que el monje la elija gratuitamente haciendo los votos en una orden religiosa, o que la acepte como una condición impuesta por la Iglesia para servir dentro del clero, o que se someta simplemente a una vocación percibida a través de los acontecimientos de su vida sin haberla escogido mediante votos o aceptado como condición de un cargo. + +#### La vida religiosa + +La Iglesia se ha servido de dos signos para dar una expresión visible a la decisión de ciertos cristianos de seguir hasta el final a Cristo en la impotencia de la cruz. Ha dado una organización social y jurídica a las comunidades religiosas y ha instituido la celebración ritual de los votos que son la manifestación del compromiso del individuo en una de estas comunidades: estos dos signos visibles están en vías de desaparición. + +Las órdenes religiosas ofrecen una estructura comunitaria en la que cada miembro se supone que profundiza el compromiso de santidad de su bautismo, y que ocupa al mismo tiempo su propio lugar entre el personal administrado por su superior. Las obras de las órdenes religiosas desaparecerán sin duda todavía más rápidamente que las instituciones parroquiales o diocesanas, a medida que sus miembros más evolucionados, en número creciente y con permiso de su superior, empiecen a seguir fuera del convento su vocación personal. + +Los cristianos deseosos de practicar radicalmente los consejos evangélicos ya no experimentan tanto la necesidad de entrar en comunidades establecidas, ni siquiera en los institutos seculares. Reconocen con todo la eficacia de una unión, temporal o permanente, con otros cristianos a quienes anima el mismo deseo, con el fin de encontrar en ella un mutuo sostén en una común aventura espiritual. Para la próxima generación es de desear la floración de lugares de oración intensa, de casas de retiro, de centros de formación espiritual, de monasterios y de “desiertos” para sostener a la Iglesia entera en su renovación. + +Antes los votos eran signos mediante los cuales el cristiano se vinculaba a su comunidad religiosa. A medida que las razones tradicionales de conservar estas comunidades particulares jurídicas se evaporen, se buscarán otras formas para celebrar públicamente la presencia misteriosa de la renuncia en la Iglesia entera. En estas condiciones el compromiso personal debería caracterizarse públicamente más por la celebración litúrgica de un acontecimiento que pertenece a la línea del misterio que por un acto jurídico al que van anejas unas obligaciones legales hacia una comunidad particular. + +Mediante este rito la Iglesia afirmaría públicamente que cree en la autenticidad del carisma individual. El gesto personal sería realizado entonces como un signo de la misma Iglesia. La admisión a realizar este “gesto” quedaría reservada a los adultos que durante muchos años hubieran practicado la renuncia en el siglo. La Iglesia manifestaría así su voluntad de confiar el testimonio del misterio, el testimonio del anonadamiento de la cruz, a la fidelidad personal de estos nuevos “monjes”. Una evolución que se orientara en este sentido mantendría dentro de la Iglesia la tradición monástica y eliminaría múltiples “dispensas” que a los ojos del mundo causan una lamentable impresión. Entonces volveríamos a encontrar la analogía real e íntima del matrimonio cristiano y de la renuncia: en el rito público y litúrgico del matrimonio, y en el rito público y litúrgico de la renuncia, el cristiano tendría ocasión de celebrar un compromiso que él habría escogido, maduro y ya vivido. + +La desaparición progresiva de las comunidades religiosas y de los votos jurídicos se mira así desde un punto de vista positivo: podría dar paso a una elección mucho más gratuita y evangélica; podría provocar a determinados jóvenes a una vida “monástica” temporal como preparación, ya sea al matrimonio, ya a la soledad; podría, finalmente, ayudar a la Iglesia a superar el callejón sin salida de las múltiples dispensas jurídicas, y dar al compromiso litúrgico un carácter definitivo de tipo sacramental. + +#### El celibato clerical + + +De momento, la Iglesia ordena solamente a aquellos hombres que, mediante el rito de la tonsura, han sido admitidos al estado clerical. Y mantiene la ley del celibato eclesiástico. La Iglesia, con buenas razones, se niega a admitir en este estado, tal como se presenta actualmente, a funcionarios casados. El papa, gracias a Dios, insiste en este punto. El celibato eclesiástico contribuye a la desaparición del clero. Abre la puerta a la ordenación de laicos, ya sea laicos casados, ya seculares. + +A la baja de las vocaciones y a los abandonos eclesiásticos se les proponen muchos remedios. Un clero casado, religiosas y laicos promovidos a las funciones pastorales, la creciente intensidad de las campañas de vocaciones, una mejor distribución mundial del clero existente: todo esto no son más que tentativas tímidas para reavivar un organismo moribundo. + +Durante nuestra generación, por lo menos, la ordenación sacerdotal de hombres casados no es un hecho que se impondrá. Los no casados son más que suficientes en número. En este momento la ordenación de sacerdotes casados retrasaría una verdadera reforma pastoral. Pero hay además una segunda razón, más sutil. En nuestros días hay millares de sacerdotes que rechazan el celibato; ofrecen el deprimente espectáculo de hombres formados para la continencia, que se comprometen tardíamente en matrimonios llenos de riesgos. La Iglesia les concede en secreto una dispensa arbitraria y desganada. Habría que clarificar y hacer más realista este proceso mediante el cual la Iglesia permite el matrimonio a los “curas”. + +Pero no hay que cambiar las condiciones que implica. La Iglesia exige que el “ex cura” renuncie a la seguridad de su estado y al ejercicio de su ministerio. Ha sido cobarde y no puede servir de modelo. Servir de modelo es tan difícil al sacerdote que “quiere salirse” sin aceptar las consecuencias inevitables de su acto, como al obispo que quiere “conservar cueste lo que cueste” a su sacerdote. Hay que consolarse: el éxodo masivo del clero cesará con la desaparición del sistema clerical actual. Durante este intervalo la ordenación para el sacerdocio de hombres ya casados sería un error lamentable. La confusión que esto acarrearía no podría dejar de provocar un retraso en las reformas radicales necesarias. + +### Es el sacerdocio una profesión + +La Iglesia, al limitar el sacerdocio a los “curas”, lo vincula a los miembros del estado clerical, a la condición de célibe y, finalmente, a una preparación profesional en los seminarios. Nos queda por analizar este último aspecto, el más peligroso para el porvenir según mi manera de ver. No hay peligro más temible que el de permitir que la palabra de Dios justifique la existencia de una profesión en el sentido moderno de la palabra. ¿No hay en muchas partes la propuesta de que el servicio de la palabra de Dios se considere como una profesión, por los mismos motivos que lo es la de maestro o la de psicólogo, y que en ella la ascensión se realice según la experiencia y la competencia de cada uno, y que un sindicato represente los intereses de los miembros ante el obispo-patrono? + +Este peligro existe, por lo menos en ciertos países, por el hecho de que una minoría distinguida del clero está empleada en los seminarios. + +Instintivamente, esta minoría trata de asegurar la supervivencia de estas instituciones. Si el seminario sobrevive a la desaparición del estado clerical postridentino engendrado por él, sólo justificará su existencia inventando una nueva profesión para el pastor en paro forzoso por él producido: la profesión de “pastor católico”. + +Proseguir el reclutamiento de muchachos generosos con el objeto de ponerlos en el molde del “cura” tal como lo describe todavía el Concilio Vaticano II, acabará por ser una ofensa a la moral pública. Es inadmisible hoy persistir en la preparación de jóvenes para un sacerdocio vinculado a un estado que está en vías de desaparición; pero sería todavía peor formarlos para una “profesión” moderna que monopolizaría el sacerdocio, y que por esta razón no debería nacer. Esperemos que la minoría selecta de la Iglesia, en vez de aferrarse a los seminarios, quedará disponible para ayudar a los obispos en su tarea más importante: la investigación teológica, por una parte, y la formación profesional de adultos preparados para el ministerio, por otra. + +Desgraciadamente, la expresión “formación cristiana” ha llegado a abarcar demasiadas cosas. Como tantos otros términos empleados dentro de la Iglesia, ha perdido casi todo su sentido. Es necesario volverla a precisar para comprender que no es la formación profesional en teología lo que hace al sacerdote. + +La madurez de la persona, la precisión teológica, la oración contemplativa y la caridad heroica no son propiedad exclusiva de los católicos. Hay ateos que pueden llegar a la madurez, hay no católicos que pueden alcanzar la precisión teológica, hay budistas que pueden llegar a ser místicos y hay paganos que pueden practicar la generosidad heroica. El resultado específico de la educación cristiana es el “sentido de la Iglesia”. El hombre que lo posee echa sus raíces en la autoridad viva de esta Iglesia, vive en la fecundidad de inversión de la fe y habla en términos inspirados por los dones del Espíritu. + +Este “sentido de la Iglesia” dimana de la lectura de las fuentes cristianas, de la participación recogida en la celebración litúrgica, de una particular manera de vivir. Es fruto del encuentro con Cristo, y da la medida de la real profundidad de la oración silenciosa. Es el resultado de la penetración del contenido de la fe por la luz de la inteligencia, por la apertura del corazón y por la sumisión de la voluntad. Este “sentido de la Iglesia” no es el resultado de un análisis abstracto de la doctrina, sino más bien un enraizamiento del espíritu en los datos de la tradición. Cuando se trate de designar a un adulto para el diaconado o para el sacerdocio, buscaremos en él este “sentido” más que los éxitos en teología o el tiempo pasado fuera del siglo. No le exigiremos la competencia profesional para enseñar a “su” público, sino la humildad profética adecuada para la animación de un grupo de cristianos. + +### Conclusión + +El futuro de la Iglesia lo vivimos ya, pero para percibirlo no es necesario hacerlo en el sentido del espíritu utópico. La utopía no es ni profecía ni plan: es un modo humorístico de ver el presente, que lo hace transparente a la fe. El falso profeta se equivoca porque se sitúa en el lugar de Dios. El mal planificador da por sentado “su” poder. La utopía cesa cuando comienza a tomarse demasiado en serio. La mayor administración mundial cuenta con la asistencia del Espíritu Santo, y éste se manifiesta en toda su historia en lo que llamamos la esperanza, la locura de Cristo y alguna vez la utopía. + + +## El reverso de la caridad + +En 1960 el papa juan XXIII encargó a todos los superiores religiosos estadunidenses y canadienses que enviaran 10% de sus fuerzas efectivas, entre sacerdotes y monjas, a América Latina en el curso de los 10 años siguientes. La mayoría de los católicos estadunidenses interpretaron esta solicitud papal como un llamado para ayudar a modernizar a la Iglesia latinoamericana de acuerdo con el modelo norteamericano. Había que salvar del “castrocomunismo” a un continente en el cual vive la mitad de los católicos del mundo. + +Me opuse a la ejecución de esa orden: estaba convencido de que dañaría seriamente a las personas enviadas, a sus protegidos y a los patrocinadores de los países de origen. Además, serviría inevitablemente a la propagación del desarrollismo. Había aprendido en Puerto Rico que son pocas las personas que no salen tullidas o completamente destruidas del trabajo de por vida “en beneficio de los pobres” en un país extranjero. Sabía que la transferencia de los estándares de vida y las expectativas norteamericanas no harían más que impedir los cambios revolucionarios necesarios y que estaba mal usar el Evangelio al servicio del capitalismo. Por último, sabía que si bien el hombre común en Estados Unidos necesitaba ser informado sobre la realidad revolucionaria de América Latina, los “misioneros” sólo deformarían la visión de esta realidad: sus informes son notoriamente caprichosos. Era necesario detener la cruzada proyectada. + +Junto con unos amigos, fundé un centro de estudios en Cuernavaca. + +Elegimos ese lugar debido a su clima, ubicación y logística. En la apertura del centro establecí dos de los propósitos de nuestra empresa. El primero era ayudar a disminuir el daño que la ejecución de la orden papal amenazaba causar. Nuestro programa educativo para los misioneros intentaría enfrentarlos de cara a la realidad y consigo mismos, de modo que, o rechazaban sus nombramientos o, de aceptarlos, estarían entonces un poco menos faltos de preparación. El segundo propósito era recabar suficiente influencia entre los núcleos que tomaban las decisiones en las agencias parroquiales de esa empresa misionera y tratar de disuadirlos de aplicar el plan. Durante la década de los sesenta, tanto nuestra experiencia y nuestra reputación en el entrenamiento intensivo de profesionales extranjeros que habían sido nombrados para desempeñarse en Sudamérica como el hecho de que éramos el único centro especializado en ese tipo de educación, aseguraron un flujo permanente de estudiantes a través del centro —a pesar del carácter básicamente subversivo de los propósitos citados—. + +Hacia 1966, en lugar del 10% que se había pedido en 1960, apenas 0.7% del clero norteamericano y canadiense se había desplazado hacia el sur. Los grupos avanzados de la Iglesia estadunidense albergaban ya serias dudas acerca de la necesidad de la empresa en su conjunto. Pero la información plañidera que llegaba desde América Latina y una intensa y costosísima campaña de relaciones públicas conducida desde Washington hicieron que muchos obispos y la gran mayoría de católicos ignorantes continuaran levantando los ánimos en pro de la causa para “ayudar a salvar a América Latina”. Bajo esas circunstancias era necesario respaldar una controversia intensiva y abierta y, por ello, en enero de 1967, escribí el siguiente artículo para la revista jesuita norteamericana _América_. La ocasión era más que propicia: al final de ese mes se habrían de reunir en Boston, con el fin de dar nuevo ímpetu a sus programas, 3 000 miembros de la Iglesia —católicos y protestantes—, de Estados Unidos y de América Latina. Sabía también que la revista _Ramparts_ estaba por publicar su _exposé_^[En francés, en el original. (E.)] acerca del financiamiento prestado por la CIA a los movimientos estudiantiles, principalmente en América Latina. + +Hace cinco años los católicos estadunidenses emprendieron una peculiar alianza para el progreso de la Iglesia latinoamericana. Se calculaba que para 1970 el 10% de los 225 000 sacerdotes norteamericanos, incluidos hermanos y hermanas, habrían sido voluntariamente enviados al sur de la frontera. En cinco años el “clero” masculino y femenino norteamericano ha contribuido con 1 622 personas en toda Sudamérica. La mitad del camino es un buen momento para determinar si un programa navega todavía según los cálculos previstos cuando se echó a andar y, lo que es más importante, si su destino vale todavía la pena. Numéricamente el programa fue un verdadero fracaso. ¿Debe ello ser fuente de disgusto o de alivio? + +El programa dependía de un impulso respaldado por una imaginación acrítica y por juicios sentimentales. Carteles con un “llamado a 20 000” y un dedo dirigido al observador convencieron a muchos de que “América Latina te necesita”. Nadie se atrevió a explicar claramente por qué, a pesar de que la primera propaganda pública incluía cuatro páginas de texto con varias referencias al “peligro rojo”, el Buró Latinoamericano de la _National_ _Catholic Welfare Conference_ añadió al programa, a los voluntarios y al propio llamado, la palabra “papal”. + +Ahora se propone una campaña para recabar más fondos. Ha llegado el momento de reexaminar tanto el llamado para reclutar a 20 000 personas como la necesidad de varios millones de dólares. Ambas peticiones deben someterse a un debate público entre los católicos estadunidenses, desde los obispos hasta las viudas, ya que a ellos se exhorta a proveer el personal y pagar las cuentas. Ante todo debe prevalecer el pensamiento crítico. Los eslóganes de las campañas elegantes y coloridas, y las súplicas emocionantes, no hacen más que enturbiar los verdaderos problemas. + +Examinemos fríamente el sarampión de frenética caridad que se propaga por la Iglesia estadunidense y que ha tenido como resultado la creación de los voluntarios “papales”, las “misiones de cruzada” estudiantiles, los plenos de las asambleas del Catholic Inter-American Cooperation Program, las innumerables misiones diocesanas y las nuevas comunidades religiosas. + +No me detendré en detalles. De ellos se encargan continuamente los programas mencionados. En lugar de eso me voy a atrever a señalar algunos de los hechos e implicaciones fundamentales del llamado plan papal — parte de un esfuerzo multifacético para mantener a América Latina dentro de las ideologías de Occidente—. Les corresponde a los que dictan la política eclesiástica estadunidense enfrentarse de lleno con sus bien intencionadas aventuras misioneras. Les toca a ellos revisar sus vocaciones de teólogos cristianos y sus acciones de políticos occidentales. + +Los hombres y el dinero enviados con motivaciones misioneras transportan una imagen cristiana extranjera, una postura pastoral extranjera, y un mensaje político extranjero. Llevan también consigo la etiqueta del capitalismo norteamericano de los años cincuenta. ¿Por qué no nos detenemos, siquiera una vez, a considerar el reverso de la moneda de la caridad? ¿Por qué no sopesamos las cargas inevitables que la ayuda extranjera impone a la Iglesia sudamericana? ¿Por qué no probamos la amargura del daño causado por nuestros sacrificios? Si, por ejemplo, los católicos estadunidenses sencillamente abandonaran el sueño de “10%” y pensaran honradamente en la implicación de su ayuda, entonces la creciente conciencia de las falacias intrínsecas podría llevar a una generosidad sobria y significativa. Seré más preciso. La alegría incuestionable del dar y los frutos del recibir deben ser tratados como dos capítulos distintos. Propongo delinear solamente los resultados negativos que producen el dinero, los hombres y las ideas extranjeras en la Iglesia sudamericana, de modo tal que se pueda preparar debidamente el futuro programa estadunidense. + +Durante los últimos cinco años el costo del funcionamiento de la Iglesia en América Latina se ha multiplicado varias veces. No hay precedentes que indiquen una tasa de crecimiento tal en los gastos de la Iglesia a escala continental. En la actualidad, el funcionamiento de una universidad católica, una misión social o una cadena radiofónica cuesta más que los gastos eclesiásticos del país hace una década. La mayor parte de los fondos para este tipo de crecimiento provino de afuera y fluyó de dos fuentes distintas. La Iglesia fue una de ellas. Recababa ese dinero de tres maneras: + +_1)_ Dólar por dólar, apelando a la generosidad de los fieles —como hicieron Adveniat, Miseror y Oostpriesterhulp, en Alemania y los Países Bajos—. Esas contribuciones superan el orden de los 25 millones de dólares al año. + +_2)_ Mediante contribuciones masivas, ya sea por parte de miembros individuales de la Iglesia —el ejemplo más sobresaliente es el del cardenal Cushing— o por parte de instituciones —tales como la National Catholic Welfare Conference, que transfirió un millón de dólares de las misiones locales al Buró Latinoamericano. + +_3)_ Mediante la asignación de sacerdotes, religiosos y laicos, todos entrenados a un costo considerable y a menudo apoyados financieramente en sus empresas apostólicas. + +Este tipo de generosidad extranjera ha tentado a la Iglesia latinoamericana a convertirse en satélite de la política y los fenómenos culturales del Atlántico Norte. El aumento de los recursos apostólicos intensificó la necesidad de ese flujo continuo, creando islas de bienestar apostólico que cada día están más lejos de la capacidad local de mantenerlas. El nuevo florecimiento de la Iglesia latinoamericana tiene lugar mediante un regreso a la marca que le impuso la Conquista: una planta colonial que florece mediante el cultivo extranjero. En lugar de aprender a arreglárselas con menos dinero o de plano a cerrar las puertas, los obispos caen en la trampa de precisar más y heredar al futuro una institución cuyo funcionamiento no será viable. La educación, que es una de las inversiones que podría dar ganancias a largo plazo, es concebida en su mayor parte como el entrenamiento de burócratas que conservan la estructura presente. + +Hace muy poco, un grupo considerable de sacerdotes latinoamericanos enviados a Europa para cursar estudios avanzados, me ofreció un buen ejemplo de lo anterior. Con el fin de poner a la Iglesia en contacto con el mundo, nueve de cada 10 de ellos se dedicaron a aprender métodos de enseñanza —catequística, teología pastoral o ley canónica—, sin avanzar por lo tanto directamente ni en sus conocimientos de la Iglesia ni del mundo. Sólo una reducida minoría estudió la historia o las fuentes de la Iglesia, o el mundo tal cual es. + +Es fácil recaudar grandes sumas para construir una iglesia nueva en la selva o una escuela secundaria en un barrio bajo y luego rellenar los planteles con misioneros nuevos. Se puede mantener artificialmente y a grandes costos un sistema pastoral a todas luces inaplicable y considerar que la investigación básica, que puede permitir la instauración de un sistema pastoral nuevo y vivo, es un lujo extravagante. Las becas para el estudio de humanidades no eclesiásticas, el dinero inicial destinado a la experimentación pastoral imaginativa, y las donaciones hechas para la documentación y la investigación dirigidas a formular una crítica constructiva específica, corren por igual el riesgo aterrador de constituirse en amenazas de nuestras estructuras temporales, planteles clericales y métodos de los “buenos negocios”. + +Hay una segunda fuente de recursos todavía más sorprendente que la generosidad eclesiástica hacia la propia Iglesia. Hace una década la Iglesia se parecía a una _grande dame_^[En francés, en el original. (E.)] empobrecida que trataba de mantener una tradición imperial de dar limosnas de su reducido ingreso. Durante algo más de un siglo, desde que España perdió a América Latina, la Iglesia perdió gradualmente donativos de los gobiernos, regalos de patronos y, por último, las rentas de sus antiguas tierras. De acuerdo con el concepto colonial de la caridad, la Iglesia perdió su poder de ayudar a los pobres. Pasó a ser considerada una reliquia histórica, inevitable aliada de los políticos conservadores. + +En 1966, y al menos a primera vista, lo contrario parece ser verdad. La Iglesia se ha convertido en un agente en quien se confía para ejecutar programas dirigidos al cambio social. Se halla suficientemente comprometida como para producir algunos resultados. Pero cuando se siente amenazada por el cambio verdadero, prefiere retirarse antes que permitir que la conciencia social se extienda como fuego griego. La supresión de las escuelas radiofónicas de Brasil por una alta autoridad eclesiástica constituye un buen ejemplo de ello. + +Así, la disciplina eclesiástica le asegura al donante que su dinero rinde el doble en manos del sacerdote. Ni se evaporará ni se le tendrá por lo que es: publicidad para la empresa privada e indoctrinación en un modo de vida que los ricos han decidido como el que mejor le viene a los pobres. El receptor inevitablemente entiende el mensaje: el cura está del lado de W. R. Grace Company, Esso, la Alianza para el Progreso, el gobierno democrático, los sindicatos del AFL-CIO y todo lo que sea sagrado en el panteón occidental. + +Las opiniones se dividen, por supuesto, cuando se discute si la Iglesia se metió de lleno en los proyectos sociales debido a que así podía obtener fondos “para los pobres” o si fue tras esos fondos porque de ese modo podía contener el castrismo y asegurar su propia respetabilidad institucional. Al convertirse en agencia “oficial” partidaria de un tipo de progreso, la Iglesia deja de hablar para los de abajo, que son ajenos a todas las agencias pero que constituyen una mayoría creciente. Al aceptar el poder de ayudar, la Iglesia debe necesariamente denunciar a un Camilo Torres que simboliza el poder de la renuncia. De esa manera el dinero le construye a la Iglesia una estructura “pastoral” que está más allá de sus medios y la convierte en un poder político. + +El compromiso emotivo superficial oscurece el pensamiento racional con que debe considerarse la “asistencia” norteamericana internacional. Un deseo extrañamente motivado de “ayudar” en Vietnam reprime los sanos sentimientos de culpa. Por fin, nuestra generación comienza a ver más allá de la retórica “lealtad” a la patria. A fuerza de golpes reconocemos la perversidad de nuestra política de poder y la dirección destructiva de nuestros torcidos esfuerzos por imponer a los demás “nuestro modo de vida”. No hemos empezado aún a enfrentar el reverso del compromiso de la mano de obra clerical y la complicidad de la Iglesia en el sofocamiento de un despertar universal demasiado revolucionario como para descansar mansamente en el seno de la “Gran Sociedad”. + +No sé de ningún sacerdote o monja extranjeros cuyos trabajos hayan sido tan artificiales como para que sus estancias en América Latina no hayan enriquecido alguna vida. Y no hay misionero tan incompetente como para que a través suyo América Latina no haya hecho una mínima contribución a Europa y Norteamérica. Pero ni nuestra admiración por la conspicua generosidad ni nuestro temor de hacer enemigos acérrimos de amigos indiferentes pueden llevarnos a darle la espalda a los hechos. Los misioneros enviados a América Latina pueden: _a)_ hacer de una Iglesia extraña una Iglesia más extranjera; _b)_ cargar de más sacerdotes a una Iglesia ya sobrepoblada, y _c)_ convertir a los obispos en mendigos abyectos. El reciente desacuerdo público ha hecho pedazos la unanimidad del consenso nacional estadunidense sobre Vietnam. Espero que cuando el público caiga en la cuenta de los elementos represivos y corruptores contenidos en los programas de ayuda eclesiástica “oficial” aparezca un verdadero sentimiento de culpa: la culpa de haber desperdiciado la vida de hombres y mujeres jóvenes dedicados a la tarea de evangelización en América Latina. + +La importación masiva e indiscriminada de clero ayuda a la burocracia eclesiástica a sobrevivir en su propia colonia que cada día se vuelve tanto más extranjera como agradable. La inmigración ayuda a transformar la hacienda de Dios —que era el estilo antiguo en el que el pueblo estaba formado sólo por advenedizos— en el supermercado del Señor —con abundante surtido de catecismos, liturgia y otros medios de gracia—. + +Transforma a los campesinos vegetativos en consumidores resignados, y a los antiguos devotos en clientes exigentes. Reviste los bolsillos sagrados, proporcionando refugio a los hombres temerosos de la responsabilidad secular. + +Los feligreses, acostumbrados como estaban a sacerdotes, novenas, libros y cultura de España (y muy posiblemente al retrato de Franco en la rectoría), se encuentran ahora con un nuevo tipo de financiero ejecutivo, administrador y talentoso, que promueve una cierta clase de democracia como ideal cristiano. El pueblo ve muy pronto que la Iglesia está alejada y alienada de él, habiéndose constituido en una operación importada y especializada que es financiada desde el extranjero y que habla con un acento, por lo extranjero, sagrado. + +Esta transfusión extranjera —y la esperanza de que aumente— dio a la pusilanimidad eclesiástica un nuevo contrato a su vida, una nueva posibilidad de echar a andar el sistema colonial y arcaico. Mientras Norteamérica y Europa envíen suficientes sacerdotes para llenar vacantes, no habrá necesidad de pensar en laicos que trabajen gratuitamente durante algunas horas diarias cumpliendo la mayoría de las tareas evangélicas, ni de reexaminar la estructura de la parroquia, la función del sacerdote, la obligación de los domingos y el sermón clerical, ni de probar el uso de un diaconato casado, la práctica de nuevas formas de celebración de la Palabra y de la Eucaristía y la implementación de íntimas reuniones familiares que celebren en el seno del hogar la conversión al Evangelio. La promesa de un aumento de clero es una sirena encantadora. Hace invisible el crónico excedente de clérigos que tiene América Latina e imposibilita el diagnosticarlo como una de las enfermedades más graves de la Iglesia. En la actualidad, esta evaluación pesimista resulta ligeramente alterada por un puñado de personas valientes e imaginativas, entre las que se cuentan algunas no latinas, que miran, estudian y luchan por una verdadera reforma. + +Una gran proporción del personal de la Iglesia latinoamericana se emplea actualmente en instituciones privadas que sirven a las clases media y alta, y que frecuentemente obtiene ganancias cuantiosas en un continente que necesita desesperadamente maestros, enfermeras y trabajadores sociales en instituciones públicas que presten servicio al pobre. Una gran parte del clero está metida en funciones burocráticas a menudo vinculadas con la venta de chucherías sacramentales y “bendiciones” supersticiosas. La mayoría de ellos vive en la mugre. Incapaz de emplear a su personal en tareas pastorales significativas, la Iglesia no puede siquiera sustentar a los sacerdotes y a los 670 obispos que los gobiernan. Para justificar ese sistema se echa mano de la teología, del derecho canónico para administrarlo y del clero extranjero para crear un consenso mundial acerca de la necesidad de su continuación. + +Un sano sentido de lo valores vacía los seminarios y las filas del clero mucho más eficientemente que la falta de disciplina y la generosidad. De hecho, el nuevo sentimiento de bienestar hace a la carrera eclesiástica más atractiva para los que andan en pos de sí mismos. Obispos convertidos en mendigos serviles se sienten tentados a organizar safaris e ir a la caza de sacerdotes extranjeros y recursos económicos para construir anomalías tales como los seminarios menores. Mientras esas expediciones tengan éxito será más difícil, si no imposible, tomar el sendero emocionalmente más pesado y preguntarnos honestamente si necesitamos ese juego. + +La exportación de empleados eclesiásticos a América Latina enmascara el temor universal e inconsciente que se le tiene a una nueva Iglesia. Las autoridades norteamericanas y sudamericanas, con motivaciones distintas pero con un mismo temor, se hacen cómplices en el mantenimiento de una Iglesia fuera de propósito. Al sacralizar la propiedad y los empleos, esa Iglesia se ciega cada vez más a la posibilidad de sacralizar a la persona y a la comunidad. + +Es difícil ayudar rehusándose a dar limosna. Recuerdo una ocasión cuando hice detener la distribución de alimentos en las sacristías de un área asolada por el hambre. Todavía siento el aguijón de una voz acusadora que me dice: “Duerme bien el resto de tu vida con la muerte de docenas de niños en tu conciencia”. Algunos doctores prefieren incluso la aspirina en lugar de la cirugía radical. No sienten ninguna culpa si el paciente muere de cáncer, pero temen el riesgo de aplicar el cuchillo. Hoy es necesaria una valentía como la expresada por el jesuita norteamericano Daniel Berrigan, quien escribió sobre América Latina: “Sugiero que cesemos de enviar personas o cosas durante tres años, que pongamos los pies en la tierra, que enfrentemos nuestros errores y que busquemos la manera de no canonizarlos”. + +Después de seis años de experiencia en el entrenamiento de cientos de misioneros asignados a América Latina, sé que cada vez es mayor el número de voluntarios auténticos que quieren enfrentarse a la verdad para poner a prueba su fe. Los superiores deciden administrativamente rotar el personal y no tienen que vivir con las decepciones consecuentes, se hallan emocionalmente en desventaja para hacer frente a esa realidad. + +La Iglesia estadunidense debe encarar el reverso doloroso de la generosidad: la carga que una vida gratuitamente ofrecida le impone al recipiente. Los hombres que van a América Latina deben aceptar humildemente la posibilidad de que, por más que den cuanto tengan, pueden ser allí inútiles o dañinos. Deben aceptar el hecho de que un programa de ayuda eclesiástica tullido los usa como paliativos para amortiguar el dolor de una estructura cancerosa, con la única esperanza de que el remedio le dará al organismo tiempo y calma suficientes para iniciar una curación espontánea. Es mucho más probable que la píldora del farmacéutico aleje al paciente de los consejos de un cirujano y lo convierta en un adicto. + +Los misioneros norteamericanos se dan cada vez más cuenta de que atendieron a un llamado para remendar agujeros en un barco que se hunde porque los oficiales no se atrevieron a lanzar los botes salvavidas. A menos que esto sea visto claramente, los hombres que ofrecieron obedientemente los mejores años de sus vidas se encontrarán engañados en una lucha estéril por mantener a flote un barco sentenciado que navega sin rumbo. Debemos reconocer que los misioneros pueden convertirse en peones de una lucha ideológica mundial y que es blasfemo emplear el Evangelio para apuntalar a este o aquel sistema político o social. El dinero y los hombres enviados a una sociedad como parte de un programa llevan consigo ideas que les sobreviven. Se ha señalado, en el caso de los Cuerpos de Paz, que la mutación cultural catalizada por un grupo extranjero puede ser mucho más efectiva que todos los servicios inmediatos que ese grupo preste. Lo mismo puede ser cierto de los misioneros norteamericanos que —no lejos de casa, con grandes medios a su disposición y cumpliendo a menudo un cometido muy corto— penetran en un área intensamente colonizada, cultural y económicamente, por Estados Unidos. Ese misionero es parte de esta esfera de influencia y a menudo de intriga. A través del misionero estadunidense su país sombrea y colorea a gusto la imagen pública de la Iglesia. El influjo de los misioneros estadunidenses coincide con los proyectos de la Alianza para el Progreso, el plan Camelot y la CIA y se parece a un bautizo de los tres. La Alianza aparece dirigida por la justicia cristiana y no se ve en lo que es, independientemente de sus varias motivaciones: una decepción designada para mantener el _statu quo_. Durante los primeros cinco años de dicho programa se triplicaron los capitales netos que escapan de América Latina. El programa es demasiado pequeño como para permitir siquiera el logro de un umbral de crecimiento sostenido. Es un hueso que se le echa al perro para que no alborote el corral de Estados Unidos. + +En esas circunstancias el misionero estadunidense tiende a cumplir el papel tradicional que tenía el capellán lacayo de un poder colonial. Cuando la ayuda la administra un “gringo” para tranquilizar a los “subdesarrollados”, los peligros implícitos en el uso de dinero extranjero con fines eclesiásticos adquieren proporciones caricaturescas. Por supuesto sería mucho pedir a la mayoría de los norteamericanos que hicieran una crítica abierta, clara y contundente a la agresión sociopolítica de Estados Unidos en América Latina; y más difícil todavía pedir que lo hicieran sin la amargura del expatriado o el oportunismo del que cambia de partido. + +Los grupos de misioneros norteamericanos no pueden evitar proyectar la imagen de “puestos de avanzada de Estados Unidos”. Esta distorsión sólo la podrían impedir individuos norteamericanos mezclados con personas locales. El misionero es por necesidad un agente “solapado” que sirve — por más inconsciente que esté de ello— al consenso social y político norteamericano. Pero es consciente y deliberado en su deseo de trasplantar los valores de su Iglesia a Sudamérica; la adaptación y la selección natural rara vez alcanzan el nivel para cuestionar los propios valores. + +La situación no era tan ambigua hace 10 años, cuando las sociedades misioneras eran canales de buena fe para el flujo de la quincallería tradicional de la Iglesia estadunidense hacia América Latina. No había mercancía que no fuera vendible en el mercado latinoamericano que apenas se abría —desde los collarines romanos hasta las escuelas parroquiales, desde los catecismos norteamericanos hasta las universidades católicas—. + +Tampoco se necesitaba mucha mercadotecnia para convencer a los obispos latinoamericanos que probaran la etiqueta con el sello _Made in USA_. + +Entretanto la situación ha cambiado considerablemente. La Iglesia estadunidense se sacude todavía a raíz de los resultados de su primera autocrítica científica y masiva. No sólo los métodos y las instituciones, sino también las ideologías que ellos implican, son objeto de exámenes y ataques. De ahí que también se tambalee la confianza del vendedor eclesiástico estadunidense en sí mismo. Así es que vemos la extraña paradoja de un hombre que trata de implantar en una cultura realmente diferente estructuras y programas que hoy son rechazados en su propio país de origen. (Hace poco me enteré de que el personal norteamericano planea establecer una escuela primaria católica en una parroquia de una ciudad centroamericana que ya tiene una docena de escuelas públicas.) Está también el peligro opuesto. Latinoamérica ya no puede seguir tolerando ser un puerto para los liberales norteamericanos que no pueden acertar en su país, una salida para apóstoles demasiado “apostólicos” como para que encuentren en su propia comunidad sus vocaciones de profesionales competentes. El vendedor de quincallería amenaza con inundar el resto del continente con imitaciones de segunda clase de parroquias, escuelas y catecismos, que han pasado ya de moda en el mismo Estados Unidos. El escapista vagabundo va más allá y amenaza con confundir a un mundo extranjero con protestas superficiales que ni siquiera son viables en su casa. + +La Iglesia estadunidense de la generación de la guerra de Vietnam encuentra difícil comprometerse en ayuda al extranjero sin exportar sus soluciones y sus problemas. Para las naciones en desarrollo ambos lujos son prohibitivos. Los mexicanos, para evitar ofender a los remitentes, pagan fuertes sumas en derechos para sacar de las aduanas regalos inútiles o jamás solicitados que les envían amigos estadunidenses bien intencionados. Los que hacen regalos no deben pensar en el presente y en la necesidad actual, sino en los efectos futuros sobre toda una generación. Los planificadores de la caridad se deben preguntar si el valor global del regalo, en hombres, dinero e ideas, amerita el precio que el destinatario tendrá que pagar en última instancia. Como sugiere el padre Berrigan: los ricos y los poderosos pueden decidirse a no dar; el pobre difícilmente puede rehusarse a aceptar. + +Y como la limosna condiciona al espíritu del mendigo, los obispos latinoamericanos no están enteramente extraviados cuando piden una ayuda extranjera errada y dañina. Gran parte de la culpa la tiene la eclesiología subdesarrollada de los clérigos estadunidenses que dirigen la “venta” de las buenas intenciones estadunidenses. + +El católico estadunidense quiere comprometerse en un programa eclesiológicamente válido y no en programas subsidiariamente políticos y sociales designados para influir en el crecimiento de las naciones en vías de desarrollo de acuerdo con la doctrina social de cualquiera, aunque se la describa como la del papa. El meollo de la discusión no está por ello en _cómo_ enviar más dinero y más hombres sino en _por qué_ hacerlo. Mientras tanto, la Iglesia no está en peligro crítico. Estamos tentados a salvar las estructuras en lugar de cuestionar su propósito y verdad. Deseosos de glorificarnos con el trabajo de nuestras manos, nos sentimos culpables, frustrados y airados cuando una parte del edificio comienza a crujir. En lugar de creer en la Iglesia intentemos frenéticamente construirla de acuerdo con nuestra nublada imagen cultural. Queremos construir la comunidad dependiendo de las técnicas, y somos ciegos al deseo latente de unidad que lucha por expresarse entre los hombres. Aterrados, planeamos _nuestra_ Iglesia con estadísticas, en lugar de buscar esperanzadamente a la Iglesia viva que está aquí entre nosotros. + +## La vaca sagrada + +### El mito liberal y la integración social + +Durante las dos últimas décadas, el concepto “crecimiento demográfico” estuvo presente en toda conversación relacionada con el desarrollo de América Latina. En 1950, alrededor de 200 millones de personas vivían entre México y Chile, cifra equivalente a la población total de Estados Unidos y Canadá, en donde sólo 15 millones lograron producir suficiente comida para todos sus conciudadanos y, además, para una buena parte del mundo. Dado el nivel tecnológico de América Latina, tenemos que 120 millones de campesinos subyugados por una agricultura primitiva no lograron abastecer siquiera las necesidades de su población total. + +Si damos por sentada la eficacia de los programas de control de la natalidad y de desarrollo de la tecnología rural, seguramente para 1985 no existirán más de 40 millones de agricultores que producirán alimentos para una población total de 340 millones. Los 300 millones restantes quedarán marginados de la economía si no se les incorpora a la vida urbana o a la producción industrial. + +Por otra parte, durante estos últimos 20 años los gobiernos latinoamericanos y la ayuda técnica extranjera aumentaron su confianza en la eficacia de la escuela —elemental, industrial y superior— como un instrumento de incorporación de los habitantes de barrios, rancherías y poblados, al mundo de la fábrica, del comercio, de la vida pública. Se mantiene la ilusión de que pese a que se posea una economía precaria, la escuela podrá producir una amplia clase media, con virtudes análogas a las que predominan en las naciones altamente industrializadas. Hoy ya se hace evidente que la escuela no está alcanzando estas metas, y su ineficacia ha motivado un aumento en las investigaciones tendientes a mejorar el proceso de enseñanza que se sigue en las escuelas y a adaptar los planes de estudio y la administración escolar a las circunstancias concretas de una sociedad en desarrollo. Pero dicha investigación no es suficiente; se hace necesaria una revisión radical. En vez de estancarnos en un esfuerzo por mejorar las escuelas, lancémonos a analizar críticamente la ideología que nos presenta al sistema escolar como un dogma indiscutible de cualquier sociedad industrial. Y al efectuar la revisión no deberemos escandalizarnos si descubrimos que posiblemente no sea la escuela el medio de educación universal en las naciones en vías de desarrollo. Por el contrario, tal vez esto sirva para dejar libre nuestra imaginación y crear un escenario de futuro en el que la escuela resulte un anacronismo. + +Tal ha sido, durante 1967-1968, el tema de la mayor parte de los coloquios que tuvieron lugar en el Cidoc (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca. + +El problema es difícil e inquietante. La angustiosa carencia de alternativas que presenta el sistema tradicional escolar, hizo que las discusiones tuviesen un matiz demasiado abstracto y a ratos frustrante. Sin embargo, ellas nos hicieron más conscientes de la ineficacia de la escuela tal como funciona hoy. Llegamos a la conclusión de que en América Latina la escuela acentúa la polarización social, concentra sus servicios —de tipo educativo y no educativo— en una élite, y está facilitando el camino a una estructura política de tipo fascista. Por el solo hecho de existir, tiende a fomentar un clima de violencia. + +Tomando en cuenta que la escolarización es un subsistema dentro del sistema social, durante los próximos años nos concentraremos en el Cidoc en analizarlo no desde otro subsistema, sino desde fuera del sistema social. + +No existe reforma social sin signo político. Cualquier cambio real en el método de admisión, en el plan de estudios y en la expedición de certificados y títulos, es políticamente discutible. Pero aquí proponemos mucho más: el rechazo de la ideología que exige la reclusión de los niños en la escuela. Esta afirmación no sería esencialmente discutible si no fuera considerada políticamente subversiva. + +### La alianza para el progreso de las clases medias + +Hace siete años los gobiernos americanos constituyeron una “Alianza para el Progreso”; o tal vez para frenar el progreso, aunque más bien parece una “alianza” al servicio del “progreso” de las clases medias. En la mayoría de los países, la Alianza ha impulsado la sustitución de una élite cerrada, feudal y hereditaria por otra que se dice “meritocrática”. + +Esta “nueva” élite se encuentra abierta solamente a los infelices privilegiados que han obtenido un certificado escolar. Simultáneamente el proletariado marginado urbano (compuesto en parte por vendedores ambulantes, vigilantes de autos, boleros o lustradores de zapatos, y otros que prestan servicios menores) tuvo una tasa de crecimiento inmensamente mayor que la de las masas rurales tradicionales o la de los trabajadores sindicalizados, lo que es señal de que cada día se ensancha más el abismo que separa a la mayoría marginada de la minoría escolarizada. + +La antigua y estable sociedad feudal latinoamericana está engendrando dos nuevas sociedades separadas, desiguales y sólo presuntamente entrelazadas. La naturaleza de este distanciamiento representa un fenómeno nuevo, cualitativamente distinto a las formas tradicionales de discriminación social de la América hispana. Es un proceso discriminatorio en pañales que crece con el desarrollo mismo de la escolarización. La escuela es la niñera encargada de que no se interrumpa el ensanchamiento de ese abismo. Resulta ilusorio, por ello, invocar la escolarización universal como medio de eliminar la discriminación. Yo sostengo que la razón fundamental de la alienación creciente de las mayorías marginadas es la aceptación progresiva del “mito liberal”: la convicción de que las escuelas son una panacea para la integración social. + +Arraigado en una tradición, ya sólida en el tiempo de los enciclopedistas, el hombre occidental concibe al ciudadano como un ser que “pasó por la escuela”. La asistencia a clase sustituyó a la tradicional reverencia al cura. La conversión a la nación por medio del adoctrinamiento escolar sustituyó la incorporación a la colonia por medio de la catequesis. + +Con la ayuda del misionero, la colonización preparó a las Repúblicas latinoamericanas para la adopción de constituciones basadas en el modelo norteamericano, generalizando la convicción de que todos los ciudadanos tienen el derecho —y por lo tanto, la posibilidad— de entrar en la sociedad a través de la puerta de la escuela. El maestro, como misionero de la escuela, encontró en Latinoamérica más éxito en las capas populares que en otras zonas de similar atraso industrial. El misionero de la colonia había preparado la aceptación de su sucesor. + +Tal vez esto explique por qué fue fácil para las izquierdas liberales conseguir aumentar las inversiones nacionales e internacionales en escolarización. De hecho, tanto los presupuestos como las inversiones privadas destinadas a la educación han ido aumentando rápidamente y, a falta de una revisión radical, se prepara el terreno para un aumento ulterior totalmente desproporcionado en relación con el de otros sectores de interés nacional. Es el momento de analizar a fondo la cuestión. + +El sistema escolar ha venido a hacer de puente estrecho por el que atraviesa ese sistema social que se ensancha día a día. Como único pasaje “legítimo” para pasar de la masa a la élite, el sistema coarta cualquier otro medio de promoción del individuo y, mediante la falacia de su gratuidad, crea en el marginado la convicción de ser él el único culpable de su situación. + +### La escuela institución anticuada + +No es paradójico afirmar que Latinoamérica no necesita más establecimientos escolares para universalizar la educación. Esto suena ridículo porque estamos acostumbrados a pensar en la educación como en un producto exclusivo de la escuela, y porque estamos inclinados a presumir que lo que funcionó en los siglos XIX y XX necesariamente dará los mismos resultados en el XXI. De hecho, ninguna de las dos suposiciones es cierta. + +América Latina necesitó tanto sistemas escolares como ferroviarios. Ambos abarcaron continentes, ambos impulsaron a las naciones ricas (ahora ya establecidas) hacia la primera época industrial, y ambos son ahora reliquias inofensivas de un pasado victoriano. Ninguno de esos dos sistemas conviene a una sociedad que pasa directamente de la agricultura primitiva a la era del jet. Latinoamérica no puede darse el lujo de mantener instituciones sociales obsoletas en medio del proceso tecnológico contemporáneo. Debe dejar que se desmorone el bloque del sistema educativo imperante, en vez de gastar energías en apuntalarlo. Los países industrializados según los moldes del pasado pagan un precio desorbitante por mantener unido lo nuevo y lo viejo. Este precio significa, en último término, un freno a la economía, a la libertad, al desarrollo social e individual. Si América Latina se empeña en imitar esta conducta, la educación, no menos que el transporte, será privilegio de “la crema y nata” de la sociedad. La educación se identificará con un título, y la movilidad con un automóvil. Eso es precisamente lo que por desgracia está ocurriendo. Ni económica ni políticamente pueden nuestros pueblos soportar “la era del dominio de la escuela”. + +### El monopolio de la escuela sobre la educación + +Al hablar de “escuela” no me refiero a toda forma de educación organizada. + +Por “escuela” y “escolarización” entiendo aquí esa forma sistemática de recluir a los jóvenes desde los siete a los 25 años, y también el carácter de _rite de passage_^[En francés, en el original. (E.)] que tiene la educación como la conocemos, de la cual la escuela es el templo donde se realizan las progresivas iniciaciones. Hoy nos parece normal que la escuela llene esa función, pero olvidamos que ella, como organización con su correspondiente ideología, no constituye un dogma eterno, sino un simple fenómeno histórico que aparece con el surgimiento de la nación industrial. + +El sistema escolar se impone a todos los ciudadanos durante un periodo que abarca de 10 a 18 años de su juventud con un promedio de 10 meses al año con varias horas por día. El local escolar es el recinto encargado de la custodia de quienes sobran en la calle, el hogar o el mercado laboral. + +Cuando una sociedad se escolariza, acepta mentalmente el dogma escolar. + +Se confiere entonces al maestro el poder de establecer los criterios según los cuales los nuevos grupos populares deberán someterse a la escuela para que no se los considere subeducados. Tal sujeción, ejercida sobre seres humanos saludables, productivos y potencialmente independientes, es ejecutada por la institución escolar con una eficiencia sólo comparable a la de los conventos, _Kibbutzim_ o campos de concentración. + +Luego de distinguir a sus graduados con un título, la escuela los coloca en el mercado para que pregonen su valor. Una vez que la educación universal ha sido aceptada como la marca de buena calidad del “pueblo escogido del maestro”, el grado de competencia y adaptabilidad de sus miembros pasará a medirse por la cantidad de tiempo y dinero gastados en educarlos, y no mediante la habilidad o instrucción adquiridas fuera del curriculum “acreditado”. + +La idea de la alfabetización universal sirvió para declarar a la educación competencia exclusiva de la escuela. Ésta se transformó así en una vaca sagrada más intocable que la Iglesia del periodo colonial. Se declaró tan esencial para el buen ciudadano del siglo XIX saber leer y escribir, como ser bautizado lo había sido en el siglo XVII. Parece ser que a la par de la electricidad se descubrió la “ley natural” de que los niños deben asistir a la escuela. Las leyes correlativas se descubren más fácilmente en los países ricos. En marzo de 1968, el Consejo Superior de Enseñanza de la ciudad de Nueva York concluyó que en 1975 el cien por ciento de los habitantes de 22 años tendrán un mínimo de 14 años de escolarización. Incluso los que han rechazado el sistema social en que viven deberán aceptar el sistema escolar. + +Ni la prisión salvará al neoyorquino menor de 23 años de la imposición escolar. + +Se proyecta ya una sociedad en la que el título universitario reemplazará a la alfabetización. De hecho, en Estados Unidos se considera a las personas con menos de 14 años de escolarización como miembros subdesarrollados de la sociedad, confinados a los arrabales. Quien se rebele contra la evolución del dogma escolar será tachado de loco o subversivo. Esto último lo es, efectivamente. + +Es necesario entender la escuela monopolizadora de la educación en analogía con otros sistemas educativos inventados por sociedades anteriores. Pensemos en el proceso instructivo del aprendiz en el taller del gremio medieval, en la hora de la doctrina como instrumento evangelizador del periodo colonial, o bien pensemos en _Les Grandes Écoles_ con las que la Francia burguesa supo legitimar técnicamente el privilegio de sus élites posrevolucionarias. Sólo observando este monopolio en una perspectiva histórica es posible hacerse la pregunta de si la escuela conviene hoy a América Latina. + +Cada uno de los sistemas mencionados surgió para dar estabilidad y proteger la estructura de la sociedad que los produjo. Estados Unidos no ha sido la primera nación dispuesta a pagar un alto precio —subvencionando incluso sus propios misioneros— con tal de exportar su sistema educativo a todos los rincones de la Tierra, buscando en su caso imponer _The American_ _Dream_. La colonización hispana de América, con todo su aparato de catequización, es un predecesor digno de tenerse en cuenta. + +### La escuela como manía obsesiva + +Es difícil desafiar la ideología escolar en un ambiente en el que todos sus miembros tienen una mentalidad escolarizada. Es propio de las categorías que se manejan en una sociedad capitalista industrializada el medir todo resultado como producto de instituciones e instrumentos especializados. + +Los ejércitos producen defensa, las Iglesias producen salvación eterna, Ford produce transporte… ¿Por qué no concebir entonces la educación como un producto de la escuela? Una vez aceptada esta divisa proveniente de una mentalidad cuantitativo-productiva, tendremos que toda educación que pueda recibirse fuera de la escuela o “fábrica de educación” dará la impresión de algo espurio, ilegítimo y, ciertamente, no acreditado. + +La sociedad moderna tiende a creer en las soluciones masivas de sus problemas. Se trata de ganar guerras con una inmensa cantidad de bombas, de mover millones de personas con un sinnúmero de cochecitos y de educar con cantidades industriales de escuelas. Estados Unidos es “suficientemente” rico para mantener listas un número de bombas mucho mayor del que se necesita para exterminar tres veces todas las cosas vivientes; para congestionar de autos el creciente pulpo de las carreteras, y para obligar a cada niño a 16 000 horas de escolarización primaria y secundaria al precio de 1.27 dólares por hora en Estados Unidos. + +Probablemente las naciones de América Latina no sean lo suficientemente ricas para adoptar estos sistemas, aunque algunos de sus gobiernos actúan como si lo fuesen. El ejemplo de las naciones desarrolladas hace que los peruanos gasten un notable porcentaje de su presupuesto en comprar bombarderos Mirage (supongo que para exhibirlos en algún desfile militar), y que los brasileños promulguen el ideal del _family_ _car_ (naturalmente sólo para unos pocos). El mismo ejemplo consigue que absolutamente todos los gobiernos latinoamericanos (Cuba inclusive) gasten de una a dos quintas partes de su presupuesto en escolarizar, sin encontrar por eso oposición. + +Insistamos por un momento en la analogía entre el sistema escolar moderno y el auto particular. Una economía basada en la idea de tener un auto es ya un ideal latinoamericano, por lo menos entre los que en el presente formulan la política nacional. En los últimos 20 años, los gastos en carreteras, estacionamientos y toda esa otra clase de beneficios para los que poseen automóvil propio, han aumentado cuantiosamente. Estas inversiones sólo sirven a una minoría ínfima y, lo que es peor aún, obstaculizan la instalación de cualquier sistema alternativo, pues desde ahora predeterminan la orientación de presupuestos futuros. Mientras tanto, la proliferación de carros particulares, además de dificultar en las calles el tránsito de autobuses —único medio de transporte popular sin contar el subterráneo—, discrimina la circulación de éstos en las autopistas urbanas. + +Criticar estas inversiones en comunicaciones es permisible. Sin embargo, quien proponga limitar radicalmente las inversiones escolares y encontrar medios más eficaces de educación, comete un suicidio político. + +Los partidos de oposición pueden permitirse gestionar la necesidad de construir supercarreteras, pueden oponerse a la adquisición de armamentos que se oxidarán entre desfile y desfile, pero, ¿quién en su sano juicio se atreve a contradecir la irrebatible “necesidad” de dar a todo niño la oportunidad de hacer su bachillerato? + +### La escuela tabú intocable + +La escuela se ha vuelto intocable por ser vital para el mantenimiento del _statu quo_. Sirve para mitigar el potencial subversivo que debería poseer la educación en una sociedad alienada, ya que al quedar confinada a sus aulas sólo confiere sus más altos certificados a quienes se han sometido a su iniciación y adiestramiento. + +En sociedades infracapitalizadas, donde la mayoría no puede darse el lujo de una escolarización limitada —por más que para los pocos que la reciben sea gratuita—, el presente sistema implica la total subordinación de esa mayoría al escolarizado prestigio de la minoría. En esta minoría de los beneficiarios del monopolio escolar se encuentran los líderes políticos y los técnicos de planificación, independientemente de que sean conservadores, marxistas o liberales. También forman parte de ella las niñas mimadas de las universidades privadas y los cabecillas estudiantiles de las huelgas universitarias. Todos estos grupos están igualmente interesados en el mantenimiento del monopolio escolar. La única divergencia gira en torno a quién debe gozar del privilegio y quién no. + +### La escuela en el mundo de la electrónica + +Para el año 2000 el proceso de educación formal habrá cambiado, tanto en las naciones ricas como en las pobres. Las escuelas cesarán de dividir la vida humana en dos partes: la edad escolar para los discriminados por su inmadurez y la edad madura para los titulados por la escuela. La edad escolar durará toda la vida. A medida que un individuo se haga más maduro y capaz, se intensificará su educación formal, convirtiéndose ésta en una actividad de adultos, más que de jóvenes. Lo que se entiende hoy día por asistir a clase será entonces obsoleto. + +Todos los sistemas sociales, especialmente las incorporaciones industriales y administrativas, asumirán la tarea de entrenar y especializar a sus miembros; prestarán una especie de servicio de aculturación, concentrado en un aprendizaje relevante para el individuo, en vez de forzarlo a perder tantos años de su vida aprendiendo cosas que no utilizará jamás. La educación no será ya identificada con la escolarización, y será posible el adiestramiento fuera del monopolio escolar. + +Ya es posible entrever las tendencias hacia esas metas. En Berkeley o en la Zona Rosa de México, la nueva generación pide trabajo no alienante y poder de decisión a nivel de grupos pequeños donde tenga cabida la experiencia personal. En rebeldía contra el sistema que los mimó, estos jóvenes prefieren poder “celebrar” la experiencia de vivir, al _achievement_^[En inglés, en el original. (E.)] o logro, que es el dios de las generaciones pasadas. Es decir, se encuentran proclamando los mismos ideales que pretenden ser normativos tanto en China como en Cuba. + +El sistema escolar, al encargarse de producir seres infantiles, consigue que éstos se organicen para reaccionar contra el paternalismo de esa sociedad que insiste en mantenerlos niños declarándolos “escolares”. + +Constituyen dinámicamente una nueva clase universal —carente de toda base de poder legítimo— aún no reconocida como tal. Los ideales de esta clase son de penetrante contenido humanista. Ideal que por utópico no deja de ser vehementemente sugestivo. + +Toda sociedad que hace de la experiencia humana su centro de desarrollo —y es ésta la sociedad que esperamos y soñamos— necesita distinguir tajantemente entre el proceso de instrucción y la apertura de la conciencia de cada individuo, entre adiestramiento y desarrollo de la imaginación creadora. La instrucción es cada vez más susceptible de planificación y programación, lo que no ocurre con la comprensión. + +Concibamos la instrucción como la cantidad de socialización programada que un individuo necesita adquirir antes de ser admitido en un nuevo ambiente. Preveo un escenario de futuro en el que resurgirá el aprendizaje medieval. Cada ambiente o cada organización proporcionará la instrucción necesaria a sus actividades. Esto lo hacen ya los sindicatos, las Iglesias, los bancos, la industria, el ejército, y no la escuela. La persona se encuentra incitada a aprender porque se trata de cuestiones que le atañen personalmente. Es lo que Paulo Freire en Brasil llamó _conscientisação_. Es la única palabra aplicable. + +Sin embargo, podría y debería no ser así. La comprensión puede adquirirse de manera cómoda y no estructurada, haciendo que el individuo se vaya conociendo más a sí mismo a través del diálogo con las personas de su ambiente. + +El papel de la escuela en la evolución hacia la utopía de finales de este siglo es diametralmente opuesto tanto en las naciones ricas como en las naciones pobres. Las primeras invirtieron enormes cantidades de dinero en poblar sus tierras de escuelas, al mismo tiempo que construyeron redes ferroviarias. Gastaron mucho más aun cuando descubrieron que necesitaban universidades además de escuelas, las cuales construyeron al mismo tiempo que las autopistas. Piensan ser bastante ricas para terminar, en la próxima década, el proceso de poblar sus tierras de universidades construidas alrededor de un estacionamiento, ya que cada uno de sus jóvenes está por tener automóvil propio. Son tan ricas, que el aumento cuantitativo de escuelas no impide a primera vista el cambio social. Pero en mi opinión lo frena, principalmente por la despersonalización del individuo que tal escolarización implica. + +De intentar algo semejante, las naciones pobres sufrirán una desastrosa quiebra económica mucho antes de aproximarse a este género de saturación escolar. En América Latina es imposible lograr un promedio de 12 años de escolarización para todos los ciudadanos. Según el último censo, no hay país latinoamericano en el que 27% de los alumnos de un curso escolar correspondiente a una edad determinada vaya más allá del sexto grado ni en el que más de 1% se gradúe en la universidad. Y esto ocurre a pesar de que de 18 a más de 30% de los presupuestos oficiales se invierten en las escuelas. Esta sola consideración debería convencernos de la peligrosa ambigüedad del mito de la escolarización universal. La imitación del sistema escolar de la metrópoli capitalista constituye un peligro mortal para sus colonias no menos que para sus ex colonias. _1)_ Ni un control radical del crecimiento de la población, _2)_ ni el máximo aumento posible del porcentaje presupuestal dedicado a la educación, _3)_ ni ayudas extranjeras sin precedente, podrían asegurar a la próxima generación latinoamericana un promedio de 10 años de escolarización, mucho menos uno de 14. Esto por lo siguiente: + +_1)_ En una población joven como la de América Latina — particularmente en sus zonas tropicales—, ni los programas más radicales de control de la natalidad podrían reducir el presente nivel de población de las generaciones jóvenes. + +_2)_ No es posible aumentar arbitrariamente el porcentaje del presupuesto público que se invierte en escuelas. Las carreteras, el seguro social y el fomento industrial, son fuertes competidores. Además, para los próximos 15 años ya podemos prever las tasas máximas de crecimiento de los presupuestos. + +_3)_ Se habla mucho ahora de que el dinero gastado en Vietnam podría invertirse mejor en escuelas en Latinoamérica. Y lo proponen no sólo los idealistas que creen en el mito liberal, sino también los cínicos que saben muy bien que el monopolio escolar combate la insurgencia con mucha mayor eficacia que el napalm. Es importante observar, sin embargo, que un país latinoamericano que utiliza ahora 25% de su presupuesto en “escolarizarse”, necesitaría una ayuda extranjera de 150% de su presupuesto total. Es dudoso que esto pudiera ser políticamente recomendable. + +Más aún: el problema no es sólo que América Latina carece de los recursos necesarios para aumentar suficientemente las escolarización. Al mismo tiempo su costo per cápita aumenta: _1)_ con la expansión cuantitativa del sistema (la tarea de la escuela se hace más difícil y costosa a medida que penetra zonas más distantes: las escuelas no son “más baratas por docena”, para lo cual basta pensar que al aumentar el número sube también el costo administrativo y burocrático, sin aludir a las ganancias que extrae de ahí el sistema económico dominante), _2_) con tasas de perseverancia escolar creciente (por supuesto que cuesta más un año en la escuela superior que dos o tres en la elemental), _3)_ con un aumento en la calidad de la enseñanza (no cuesta lo mismo enseñar física utilizando un laboratorio en lugar de un pizarrón), _4)_ con las exigencias justificadas del personal docente (las asociaciones de maestros son ya, en muchos países, los gremios profesionales más poderosos, un poco análogos al clero de la colonia; pero su agitación es justificada: en 1963, el promedio de su salario en 14 países de nuestra América equivalía a 60 dólares mensuales). + +Por tanto, serán muy pocos los que podrían gozar del estatus simbólico y del uso del poder despótico que la escuela confiere. Es necesario considerar estos dos elementos. + +### La escuela como símbolo de estatus + +Ese portentoso papelito llamado título o diploma se ha convertido en la posesión más codiciada. Recompensa principalmente a quien fue capaz de soportar hasta el final un ritual penoso; a la vez, representa una iniciación al mundo del “ejecutivo”. El ideal de que cada persona tenga su auto y su título ha producido una sociedad de masas tipo clase media. A medida que se van haciendo realidad, estos ideales se transforman en mecanismos que aseguran el sistema que ellos produjeron. Tanto el auto como el título son símbolos de los esfuerzos correspondientes al periodo de industrialización liberal. Representan un logro y posesión individual. + +Toda sociedad necesita pagar un precio para conservar sus ritos. Brasil tiene su carnaval, México su Guadalupe, algunos países su “revolución”. Y Estados Unidos tiene su graduación. A pesar de su popularidad, los ritos son normalmente obsoletos. La sociedad tiene que hacer sacrificios para que esos ritos, dioses e iglesias hereditarias satisfagan parte del hambre del ser contemporáneo. Los ricos pueden practicar ritos más costosos y tienden a imponerlos a todos aquellos que quieran compartir el juego político, industrial e intelectual. + +Es absurdo que el simple hecho de que Estados Unidos no pueda liberarse del costosísimo ritual para el título y el coche, sea argumento para universalizar esta religión en América Latina. + +Como todos los países que llegan tarde a la industrialización, Latinoamérica puede aprovechar las invenciones de las naciones industrializadas, pero no debe dejar que éstas le impongan el sistema social de su tecnología avanzada porque será imposible financiarlo. Incluyo ahí a la endiosada escuela. No vale la pena que nuestra naciones provean de automóviles y de títulos a sus burguesías asimiladas a la burguesía internacional. Nuevos procesos eliminarán ambos símbolos en Estados Unidos mucho antes de que 10% de los latinoamericanos logre obtenerlos. + +### La escuela creadora de déspotas + +La escuela, que ayudó en el siglo pasado a superar el feudalismo, se está convirtiendo en ídolo opresor que sólo protege a los escolarizados. Ella gradúa y, consecuentemente, degrada. Por fuerza del mismo proceso, el degradado deberá volver a sometérsele. La prioridad social se otorgará entonces de acuerdo con el nivel escolar alcanzado. En toda América Latina, más di-nero para escuelas significa más privilegios para unos pocos a costa de muchos. Este altivo paternalismo de la élite se formula incluso entre los objetivos políticos como igualdad (gratuidad, universalidad) en la oportunidad escolar. Cada nueva escuela establecida bajo esta ley deshonra al no escolarizado y lo hace más consciente de su “inferioridad”. El ritmo con el cual crece la expectativa de escolarización es mucho mayor al ritmo con el cual aumentan las escuelas. + +El hecho es que cada año disminuye el número de clientes satisfechos que se gradúan en un nivel que se considere “satisfactorio” y aumenta el de los marcados con el estigma de la deserción escolar. A estos últimos su título de desertores los gradúa para ejercer en el mercado de los marginados. La aguda pirámide educacional asigna a cada individuo su nivel de poder, prestigio y recursos, según lo considera apropiado para él. + +Lo convence de que esto es ni más ni menos lo que merece. La aceptación del mito escolar por los distintos niveles de la sociedad justifica ante todos los privilegios de muy pocos. + +No hay mucha diferencia entre los que justifican su poder con base en la herencia y los que lo hacen con base en un título. En gran parte son los mismos. Las escuelas frustran, sí, a la mayoría, pero lo hacen no sólo con todas las apariencias de legitimidad democrática sino también de clemencia. + +A alguien que no esté satisfecho con su falta de educación se le aconseja “que se supere”. El remedio de la escuela nocturna o la educación de adultos están siempre disponibles: medidas ambas ineficaces para generalizar la educación, pero sumamente eficaces para demostrar al individuo que es culpable de la discriminación que sufre. + +La perpetuación del mito escolar y su expansión hacia nuevas capas de la sociedad son tareas de la misma escuela. De este modo ella asegura su propio porvenir. En el caso de la escolarización no es verdad que “algo es mejor que nada”. Pocos años de escuela inculcan una convicción en el niño: el que tiene más escolarización que él, tiene una indiscutida autoridad sobre él. + +Las escuelas aumentan el ingreso nacional por dos razones opuestas pero igualmente explotadoras del individuo: _1)_ capacitan a la minoría graduada para una producción económica mayor, pero sometida siempre a la mentalidad escolar, _2)_ esta minoría se vuelve tan productiva que se hace preciso enseñar a la mayoría a consumir disciplinadamente (lo que se logra dándole alguna escolarización). Así la escuela limita la vitalidad de la mayoría y de la minoría, capando la imaginación y destruyendo la espontaneidad. La escuela divide a la sociedad en dos grupos: la mayoría disciplinadamente marginada por su escolarización deficiente, y la minoría de aquellos tan productivos que el aumento previsto en su ingreso anual es muchísimo mayor que el promedio anual del ingreso de esa inmensa mayoría marginada. El ingreso de ésta también aumenta, pero, por supuesto, mucho más despacio. La dinámica de la sociedad ensancha el abismo que separa a los dos grupos. + +Cualquier cambio o innovación en la estructura escolar o en la educación formal, según la conocemos, presupone: _1)_ cambios radicales en la esfera política; _2)_ cambios radicales en el sistema y la organización de la producción, y _3)_ una transformación radical de la visión que el hombre tiene de sí como un animal que necesita escolarización. Aun cuando se proponen devastadoras reformas del sistema escolar se ignoran estos supuestos. De aquí que fallen, puesto que se toma como base el marco social que las sostiene, en vez de gestionarlo radicalmente. + +Las escuelas vocacionales —consideradas como remedio al problemas de la educación en masa— proveen un buen ejemplo de la limitada visión ante el problema de reformas escolares: _1)_ el que egresa de una escuela vocacional o técnica se encuentra ante el problema de encontrar empleo en una sociedad cada vez más automatizada en sus medios de producción; _2)_ el costo de operación de este tipo de escuela es varias veces más alto que el de la escuela común; _3)_ su matrícula se nutre de estudiantes que ya han aprobado el sexto grado, estudiantes que, como ya hemos visto, son la excepción. Pretenden educar haciendo una imitación barata de una fábrica dentro de un edificio escolar. + +En vez de cifrar las esperanzas en las escuelas vocacionales o técnicas, hay que comenzar por visualizar la transformación subvencionada de la fábrica o planta industrial. En relación con esto debe existir la posibilidad de: _1)_ hacer obligatorio el uso de las fábricas en sus horas no productivas como centro de adiestramiento; _2)_ que la gerencia emplee parte de su tiempo en la planificación y supervisión de dicho adiestramiento; _3)_ la reestructuración total del proceso industrial para lograr un proceso educativo. Si parte de las asignaciones presupuestarias empleadas ahora en el sistema escolar se reorientasen para promover el aprovechamiento del potencial educativo presente en el sistema industrial, los resultados podrían ser enormes en relación con los obtenidos en el presente, tanto en lo educativo como en lo económico. Además, si tal instrucción estuviese disponible para todo aquel que la desease, sin tomar en consideración la edad o si la persona ha de ser empleada por esa fábrica, la industria habría comenzado a asumir un papel muy importante que es ahora exclusivo de la escuela. Con esto ya estaríamos bien encaminados a terminar con la idea equivocada de que la persona debe estar acreditada para el empleo antes de ser empleada y, por lo tanto, que la escolarización debe preceder al trabajo productivo. No hay razón alguna para continuar con la tradición medieval de que los hombres se preparan para la vida secular cotidiana a través de la encarcelación en un recinto sagrado, llámese monasterio, sinagoga o escuela. + +Otro remedio que frecuentemente se propone para compensar las fallas del sistema escolar es la educación fundamental de adultos. Paolo Freire ha demostrado en Brasil un nuevo método para lograr la instrucción de adultos; el grupo de éstos que logre interesarse en los problemas políticos de su comunidad puede aprender a leer y escribir en seis semanas de clases nocturnas. La eficacia de este programa se construye en torno a determinadas palabras clave que están cargadas de sentido político. Se entiende por qué dicho plan ha tropezado con dificultades. También se ha planteado que 10 meses separados de educación adulta cuestan tanto como un año de educación formal en la escuela; y, sin embargo, es mucho más efectiva que la mejor de las educaciones escolares. + +Desafortunadamente, la educación de adultos se visualiza como un medio para proveerle al indigente un paliativo para la escolarización que le falta. Habría que cambiar completamente la situación si queremos visualizar la educación como un ejercicio en madurez. Deberíamos considerar un cambio radical en la duración del año escolar, reduciendo la sesión de clases a dos meses por año, pero extendiendo el proceso educativo a los primeros 20 o 30 años de la vida de un hombre. Mientras que otras formas de aprendizaje práctico en fábricas y cursos programados e idiomas y matemáticas deben ocupar la mayor porción de lo que habíamos denominado como instrucción, dos meses al año de educación formal deben considerarse suficientes para permitir lo que los griegos denominaban _echole_, es decir, tiempo de ocio para la creación. No sorprende que se nos haga casi imposible concebir cambios sociales de tan gran alcance, como es el de distribuir en nuevos patrones la función educativa de las escuelas. Encontramos la misma dificultad al sugerir formas concretas por las cuales las funciones no educativas de un sistema escolar que va desapareciendo puedan redistribuirse. No sabemos qué hacer con aquellos a quienes denominamos “niños” o “estudiantes”, y que hacemos ingresar a las escuelas. + +Es difícil prever las consecuencias políticas que estos cambios tan fundamentales puedan traer, sin mencionar las consecuencias en el plano internacional. ¿Cómo podrán coexistir una sociedad con una tradición de escuelas corrientes, con otras que se han salido del patrón educativo tradicional y cuya industria, comercio, publicidad y participación en la política es, de hecho, diferente? Áreas que se desarrollan fuera del sistema universal convencional no tendrían el lenguaje común ni criterios de coexistencia respetuosa con los escolarizados. Dos mundos, tales como China y Estados Unidos, casi tendrían que aislarse el uno del otro. Un mundo que tiene fe en la iniciación ritual de todos sus miembros a través de una “liturgia escolar” tiene que combatir cualquier sistema educativo que escape a sus cánones sagrados. Intelectualmente, resulta difícil acreditar el partido de Mao como una institución educativa, que puede resultar más efectiva que las escuelas convencionales de más prestigio, por lo menos en lo que se refiere a enseñar lo que es ciudadanía. Las guerrillas en Latinoamérica son otro medio educativo que se malinterpreta y se usa indebidamente la mayor parte de las veces. El Che Guevara, por ejemplo, las veía como una última manera de enseñarle al pueblo lo ilegítimo que resulta el sistema político que padece. En países escolarizados donde la radio ha llegado a todo el pueblo, no debemos menospreciar las funciones educativas de grandes figuras disidentes y carismáticas como Dom Helder Camara en Brasil y Camilo Torres en Colombia. Fidel Castro describió sus primeras arengas como sesiones educativas. + +La mentalidad escolarizada percibe estos procesos solamente como adoctrinamiento político. No puede comprender el propósito educativo. La legitimación de la educación por las escuelas tiende a que se visualice cualquier tipo de educación fuera de ella como accidental, cuando no como delito grave. Aun así, sorprende la dificultad con que la mentalidad escolarizada puede percibir el rigor con el que las escuelas inculcan lo imprescindibles que son y, con esto, la inevitabilidad del sistema que patrocinan. Las escuelas adoctrinan al niño de manera que éste acepte el sistema político representado por sus maestros, incluso ante la insistencia de que la enseñanza es apolítica. + +En última instancia, el culto a la escolarización llevará a la violencia. El establecimiento de cualquier religión lleva a eso. Al permitir que se extienda la prédica por la escolarización universal, tiene que aumentar la habilidad militar para reprimir la “insurgencia” en Latinoamérica. Sólo la fuerza podrá controlar en última instancia las expectativas frustradas que la propagación del mito de escolarización ha desencadenado. La permanencia del actual sistema escolar puede muy bien fomentar el fascismo latinoamericano. Sólo un fanatismo inspirado en la idolatría por un sistema puede, en último término, racionalizar la discriminación masiva que es la resultante de insistir en clasificar con grados académicos a una sociedad necesitada. + +Ha llegado el momento de reconocer la gran carga que las escuelas suponen para las naciones jóvenes. Al hacerlo podremos liberarnos y contemplar el cambio de la estructura social que hace a las escuelas necesarias. Yo no apoyo una utopía como la comuna china para Latinoamérica. Pero sí sugiero que esforcemos nuestra imaginación para construir escenarios que permitan una denodada reestructuración de las funciones educativas en la industria y la política, cortos retiros educativos e intensa preparación de los padres sobre educación temprana. El costo de las escuelas no debe medirse solamente en términos políticos. Las escuelas, en una economía de escasez invadida por la automatización, acentúan y racionalizan la coexistencia de dos sociedades: una colonia de la otra. + +Una vez que se entienda que el costo de la escolarización es aún superior al costo del caos, nos colocaremos al margen de un compromiso desproporcionadamente costoso. Hoy en América Latina es tan peligroso dudar del mito de la salvación social por medio de la escolarización, como lo fue hace cientos de años dudar de los derechos divinos de los reyes católicos. + + +## La desescolarización de la iglesia + +Todos los hombres necesitan techo y comida, pero hay, por supuesto, necesidades no tan católicas. Un ejemplo: hace tres siglos un certificado de bautismo era necesario para vivir en una colonia española. Hoy ya no lo es. + +Algunas necesidades se van de la misma manera que vinieron. La educación es una de ellas. Si el mundo sobrevive, muy pronto ni la sentiremos. + +Hoy en día, un tercio de los seres vivos predica la necesidad de la educación. Admiten, eso sí, que algunas personas pueden sobrevivir sin ella, de la misma manera que otros sobreviven sin techo, pero resienten el despojo de ambos. Su presencia aquí me hace pensar que la mayoría de ustedes se encuentra entre estos nuevos evangelistas. + +Todo el poder terrestre va rumbo a las manos de esta minoría educada. + +La educación sirve de justificación para este privilegio que la minoría dominante detenta y reclama. Cuando se le desafía, el educado responde como el mayordomo que no podía cavar, se avergonzaba de pedir, y por ello hacía depender su futuro del valor de los certificados que obtenía. + +Al final de la Edad Media la gente le dio la espalda a la realidad y depositó su confianza en los certificados que les conferían indulgencias. + +Hoy, en una época de ilustración evanescente, el hombre se confía a la adquisición de algo llamado “educación”. + +Educación ha llegado a significar lo opuesto del proceso vital de aprendizaje que parte de un medio ambiente humano; un medio en el que, casi continuamente, la mayoría tiene acceso a todos los hechos e instrumentos que modelan sus vidas. Ha pasado a significar algo adquirible a espaldas de la cotidianidad, mediante el consumo de una mercancía y la acumulación del conocimiento abstracto sobre la vida. + +Subrepticiamente, nuestra sociedad ha convertido la educación en un proceso que fabrica capitalistas del conocimiento. Su valor se define en términos de las horas de instrucción que alguien ha comprado con los fondos públicos, mientras la pobreza se mide y explica por el fracaso del hombre en consumir. En esa sociedad, los pobres son quienes se quedan a la zaga en educación. El hombre rico, el capitalista del poder, apenas puede salvar la brecha que lo separa de Lázaro. Es más fácil para un camello pasar por el ojo de una aguja que para el hombre devoto de esa educación retomar la perspectiva realista de los pobres. + +Históricamente, esta fe en la educación creció a la sombra de la alquimia. La educación es hoy la versión contemporánea de la piedra filosofal: con tocarla se refinan los elementos básicos del mundo. Es el procedimiento mediante el cual los metales ordinarios se amasan a través de sucesivas etapas hasta que brillan como el oro puro. + +El obispo Amós Comenio es justicieramente conocido como uno de los fundadores de la educación moderna. Versado en alquimia, aplicó el concepto y el lenguaje de ese Arte Secreto al refinamiento y la ilustración de los hombres. Fue él quien proveyó de un significado pedagógico al vocabulario químico del progreso, el proceso y la ilustración. + +Hoy, la fe en la educación se ha convertido en una nueva religión mundial. La naturaleza religiosa de la educación pasa casi inadvertida; tal es el ecumenismo de la fe en la educación. La creencia alquimista de que la educación puede transformar a los hombres para que encajen en un mundo creado por el hombre mediante la magia del tecnócrata se ha hecho universal e incuestionable, y encima se le tiene por tradicional. Esa creencia la comparten marxistas y capitalistas, líderes de países pobres y de grandes potencias, rabinos, ateos y sacerdotes. Su dogma fundamental: un proceso llamado “educación” puede aumentar el valor de un ser humano; resulta en la creación de capital humano; llevará a todos los hombres una vida mejor. + +La gente más generosa de nuestra era entrega su vida para educar a los pobres. Inevitablemente, los educadores pueden contar con el respaldo de los poderosos, al igual que los misioneros españoles contaban con el de la Corona. Después de todo, el educador enseña a los pobres a sentirse incompetentes. + +Para seducir u obligar a los otros a aceptar su fe, el educador emplea el mismo rito en todas partes: la escolarización. La totalidad de los países que pertenecen a las Naciones Unidas demandan de sus ciudadanos un mínimo de 20 horas de asistencia semanal durante un periodo de por lo menos cinco años. La Escuela es la primera Iglesia en establecer tal exigencia. + +La liturgia escolar tiene las mismas características universalmente. A los niños se les reúne por edades. Se les hace asistir a los servicios en un recinto sagrado reservado con ese fin: “la clase”. Se les hace llevar a cabo tareas que producen educación porque están determinadas por un ministro ordenado: el maestro titulado. Se les hace progresar en la gracia que les concede la sociedad al moverlos de grado en grado. + +No tengo nada contra los maestros. Se cuentan entre los hombres más dedicados, generosos y amables. Cabalmente, sus cualidades humanas se comparan con ventaja a las de cualquier grupo anterior de siervos profesionales de la religión. Sus servicios son mucho más versátiles que los de cualquier sacerdote anterior. No hay enseñanza particular para la que falte un maestro. Pero lo que hoy llamamos “educación” no es lo que tiene lugar entre un pupilo y un maestro. Lo que denominamos educación es el servicio profesional que una institución proporciona a sus clientes a través del maestro profesional. + +El rito de la escolaridad constituye un poderoso currículum oculto. Un currículum que no depende de la intención del maestro. Un currículum que no varía con la materia enseñada; llámese comunismo, lectura, sexo, historia o retórica. + +Lo primero que el niño aprende del currículum oculto de la escolaridad es un viejo adagio, la corrupción inquisitorial de la fe: _extra scholam nulla_ _est salus_ —fuera del rito no hay salvación—. Por su mera presencia en la escuela, el niño suscribe el valor de aprender de un maestro y el valor de aprender acerca del mundo. O sea: desaprende a considerar a cada persona como un modelo en potencia: desaprende a aprenderlo todo de la cotidianidad. En la escuela, el niño aprende a distinguir dos mundos: el real, al que algún día ha de entrar, y el sagrado, en el que se le encierra para que aprenda. De la promoción o del progreso escolar, el niño aprende el valor del consumo interminable; la apetencia de grados que caducan anualmente. + +En la escuela, aprende que su propio crecimiento social vale la pena sólo porque es el resultado de su consumo de una mercancía llamada educación. + +Durante generaciones hemos tratado de mejorar el mundo mediante una escolarización creciente. Hasta ahora ese empeño ha fracasado. En cambio, hemos aprendido que forzar a los niños a trepar una escalera sin fin no puede realzar la igualdad sino favorecer a quienes empiezan más temprano, mejor alimentados, mejor preparados. Hemos aprendido que la instrucción obligada amortigua, en la mayoría, su deseo de un aprendizaje independiente. Aprendimos que al concebir el conocimiento como una mercancía, al empaquetarlo para su entrega al consumidor y al aceptarlo como propiedad privada de quien lo adquiere, estamos escaseándolo cada día más. Súbitamente la escuela va perdiendo su legitimidad política, económica, pedagógica. Súbitamente, va siendo reconocida como un rito necesario para hacer tolerables las contradicciones de nuestra sociedad. Proceso de socialización con miras a la conformidad con las demandas de una sociedad de consumo, la escuela sostiene el mito igualitario de nuestras sociedades al mismo tiempo que establece su estructura rigurosa de acuerdo con 16 niveles de desertores. + +La bancarrota escolar es una señal prometedora. Pero eso no significa aún que quienes critican a la escuela hayan abandonado el sueño del alquimista. De la historia de la Iglesia sabemos que la mera reforma litúrgica no garantiza una renovación teológica. El resquebrajamiento de las escuelas puede conducirnos a la búsqueda de nuevos dispositivos educativos. Sin duda, al igual que anteriormente sucedió con otras Iglesias, la escuela será pronto desestablecida. Pero ello puede acarrear una apoteosis de la Educación para el Progreso, y su estado final será peor que el inicial. + +Podría llevar a un gigantesco esfuerzo por alcanzar _fuera_ de la estructura escolar lo que obviamente ha fracasado _dentro_ de la estructura escolar, a saber: una manera más efectiva y universal de enlatar el “aprender para vivir” y ponerlo en el mercado mediante otros sistemas distintos al de la escuela. El resultado neto sería el mismo: el concepto según el cual las personas deben ser “educadas” para vivir y que ello debe hacerse adquiriendo información sobre la realidad antes de enfrentarla. + +A menos que el desestablecimiento de la escuela lleve a una sociedad donde la educación se reemplace también por una situación que otorgue a los hombres acceso ilimitado al auténtico aprendizaje para la vida, a menos que eso suceda paralelamente, la transferencia de la educación de los salones escolares a otras instituciones de una sociedad de consumo aparejará inevitablemente una enseñanza creciente acerca de un mundo aún más alienado. + +Debemos mirar más allá de la actual bancarrota escolar. En el presente, la escuela restringe al salón de clase la competencia del maestro. Se le impide que reclame posesión sobre la vida entera de un hombre. La defunción de las escuelas levantará esa restricción y dará un semblante de legitimidad a la eterna invasión pedagógica del mundo privado de cada uno. + +Abrirá las puertas a una contienda por el “conocimiento” en el mercado libre, que nos conducirá hacia la paradoja de una meritocracia vulgar, aunque aparentemente igualitaria. Salvo si transformamos nuestro concepto del conocimiento, el desestablecimiento de la escuela llevará al altar un creciente sistema de meritocracia que separará la enseñanza de la certificación, para casarla con una sociedad comprometida en proporcionar una terapia pedagógica hasta que cada uno esté maduro y listo para que se le coloque en su nicho. Sólo por nombre podremos distinguir una sociedad convertida en un inmenso salón de clases de un manicomio general o de una prisión universal. Hace 80 años, Soloviev ya predecía que el Anticristo sería un maestro. + +A menudo olvidamos que el término “educación” es de reciente cuño. + +Era desonocido antes de la Reforma. La educación de los niños se mencionó por vez primera en francés, en un documento que data de 1498. + +Por ese año, Erasmo se establecía en Oxford, a Savonarola lo quemaban vivo en Florencia, y Durero grababa su _Apocalipsis_, donde nos habla con vigor del sentido de ruina inminente que se ceñía hacia el final de la Edad Media. En lengua inglesa, la palabra educación apareció por primera vez en 1530. Es el año del divorcio de Enrique VIII y de la separación de la Iglesia luterana de la romana, en la dieta de Augsburgo. En España y sus territorios pasó un siglo más antes que la palabra y la idea de la educación fueran comunes. Todavía en 1632 Lope de Vega se refería a la educación como una novedad. Como ustedes recordarán, en ese año, aquí, en Lima, la Universidad de San Marcos celebraba su decimosexto aniversario. Los centros para el aprendizaje existían antes que el término educación se incorporara al lenguaje corriente. Se leían los clásicos o el derecho —no se educaba sobre la vida diaria—. + +Como cristianos, tenemos la tarea especial de cargar sobre nuestros hombros la responsabilidad que le cabe a nuestras Iglesias por la promoción de todos los tipos de capitalismo, pero, especialmente, por la promoción del capitalismo del saber. La religión de la educación universal y obligatoria se ha convertido en una corrupción de la Reforma. Es nuestro deber entenderlo y señalarlo. + +Gutenberg descubrió una tecnología que puso los libros al alcance de todos. Nosotros hemos descubierto la manera de interponer una monstruosa iglesia de maestros entre las personas y el libro. Ello ha traído como consecuencia una creciente inhabilidad para leer. Lutero nos puso la Biblia al alcance de la mano, pero también inventó un método de enseñanza masiva: el catecismo, un curso programado de preguntas y respuestas. La Iglesia católica lanzó la Contrarreforma al congelar su doctrina en un catecismo propio. Los jesuitas secularizaron la idea y crearon el _Ratio_ _Studiorum_ para sus universidades. Paradójicamente, este _Ratio_ pasó a ser el currículum en el que se formaron las élites de la Ilustración. Y, finalmente, en la actualidad, las naciones-Estado producen sus propias élites, a las que les está reservada la buena vida en la tierra; se les hace consumir educación. + +Al pobre, basta administrarle unas dosis menores del mismo consumo para ilustrarlo sobre su inferioridad predestinada. + +Permítaseme resumir mi argumento. Los reformistas trataron de extender el misterio de la revelación divina sobre el reino por venir. Hoy, los educadores hacen depender de sus ministerios institucionalizados el descenso a la Tierra del Reino del Consumo Universal. El mito de la educación universal, el rito de la escuela obligatoria y de una estructura profesional equilibrada para el progreso del tecnócrata, se refuerzan unos a otros. + +Una vez que esto se entienda, ya no será posible tolerar ninguna complicidad de las Iglesias cristianas con el culto de la Ideología del Progreso. + +Cada comunidad cristiana organizada está hoy forzada a elegir una de tres políticas posibles: aferrarse a las escuelas, o destruirlas y aferrarse a la seudorreligión de la educación, o sentirse llamada a ser radical o profeta. + +_1)_ Si la Iglesia insiste con sus escuelas, sus políticos se preocuparán de cómo aumentar el número de las mismas, de cómo mejorar su calidad, y de cómo proveerse de más limosnas para beneficio de los no escolarizados — tales como educación correctiva, escuelas radicales, entrenamiento técnico y demás—. + +Los hombres previsores que se encuentran dentro de una Iglesia que se embarca en esta política, debieran sentirse inquietos por el vaivén y la creciente frustración de sus trabajadores educativos. + +_2)_ Una Iglesia puede también escoger el reconocimiento de la bancarrota de las escuelas, pero de todas formas mantenerse comprometida con el mito de la educación general entendida como artículo de consumo. + +De ser así, esa Iglesia preconizará el desestablecimiento de las escuelas, una distribución más equitativa de los recursos educativos y la protección de los no escolarizados frente a la discriminación de la que son objeto en el mercado de trabajo o en la sociedad en general. Todas estas garantías son necesarias y la Iglesia que las endose será ciertamente acogida por otros movimientos más progresistas. Pero una Iglesia que haga esta elección, una Iglesia que reconozca la inevitable bancarrota escolar pero no el carácter seudorreligioso de la “educación”, una Iglesia tal se hará inexorablemente cómplice de un futuro “mundo feliz” del consumo, porque los instrumentos educativos desescolarizados son sólo nuevos métodos de empacar y distribuir más eficazmente la instrucción, nuevas formas de acumulación de vida enlatada para satisfacer las formas diseñadas por profesionales. Si la Iglesia que adopta esa política no va más allá de la demanda por desestablecer las escuelas, se hará cómplice del faraón que ahora enreda a los esclavos en un mundo en el que el progreso tecnocrático se vuelve impersonal, opaco, contaminado. + +_3)_ Tienen una última elección: leer las Escrituras, regresar a la más pura tradición de la Iglesia y anunciar la llegada del Reino que no es de este Mundo; del Reino cuyo misterio tenemos el privilegio de conocer. Ésta es una elección que cada uno de nosotros debe hacer si quiere seguir a Jesús, y debe hacerla incluso si la Iglesia en la que tiene sus raíces ha incorporado el “progreso de los pueblos” como neologismo en el venerable latín. + +Debemos, en el nombre de Dios, denunciar la idolatría del progreso y la contaminante escalada de la producción. Debemos poner al descubierto la seudoteología de la educación concebida como preparación para una vida de consumo frustrante. Debemos recordar al hombre que Dios ha hecho bien el mundo y nos ha dado el poder de conocerlo y apreciarlo sin la constante necesidad de un intermediario. Tenemos sí, después de todo, la experiencia de que el hombre crece y aprende en la medida en que se compromete en una interacción personal, íntima, siempre sorprendente, con los demás y en un medio ambiente significativo, en tanto que se encoge y arruga cuando es servido por funcionarios. Consecuentemente, debemos rehusarnos a cooperar en cualquier intento que busque crear un ambiente hecho por el hombre, pero en el que la vida de todos y de cada uno dependa del grado en que haya sido cliente de una organización de servicios. + +Se necesita valentía para ponerle precio a un mundo claro y transparente, para determinar a qué costo la tecnología puede ponerse al servicio directo de las mayorías mundiales, permitiéndole a cada uno curarse, educarse, albergarse y transportarse, en lugar de poner la tecnología al servicio del tecnócrata que se siente orgulloso de proveer eternamente una medicina, una educación, una habitación y una transportación cada vez menores y cada vez más caras. Un mundo que renuncie al espectáculo de la tecnología progresiva es un mundo que pone coto radical al consumo, de acuerdo con el consenso de una inmensa mayoría y para el provecho de todos. No tiene sentido proponer un ingreso mínimo hasta que no se tenga la valentía de aceptar que ello implica fijar un ingreso máximo. Nadie puede tener lo suficiente si no sabe cuánto es suficiente. No tiene sentido advocar un mínimo de servicios médicos, de instrumentos y de transportación, si no se afirma la necesidad de nivelar los máximos de servicios disponibles a cualquiera y por la razón que sea. + +Una forma de tal consenso antitecnocrático se traduce fácilmente en la necesidad de la pobreza voluntaria de los pobres, tal como lo predicara el Señor. La pobreza voluntaria, el desprendimiento del poder y la no violencia están en el corazón del mensaje cristiano. Puesto que son sus elementos más preciosos, son también los más fácilmente corruptibles, ridiculizables o descuidables. Se necesita valentía para hacer de la renuncia la condición fundamental para la supervivencia de la humanidad. Si predicamos el Evangelio inalterado y anunciamos la bienaventuranza de los pobres, entonces los ricos se reirán en nuestra cara y los ricos en ciernes se mofarán despreciativamente. Pero como nunca antes ha sucedido, el mensaje cristiano más radical es también la política más cuerda en un mundo que ve crecer vertiginosamente el abismo entre pobres y ricos. + +El Tercer Mundo tiene una responsabilidad crucial en la liberación del mundo de sus ídolos del progreso, la eficiencia, el PNB. Sus masas no son todavía presas del hábito del consumo, especialmente del consumo de servicios. La mayoría de las personas aún se curan y se albergan y se enseñan unas a otras y podrían hacerlo de mejor manera si tuvieran herramientas ligeramente mejores. El Tercer Mundo podría abrir el camino en la búsqueda de un estilo de aprender para vivir, un estilo que será la preparación de los hombres para el cumplimiento de las necesidades auténticas en un contexto genuinamente humano. Sin lugar a dudas, estas naciones podrían alumbrar el camino para el mundo tan desarrollado como decadente. + +Dos mundos se hallan frente a frente: la Babel de Rusia y el Egipto de Estados Unidos, ambos prisioneros de ídolos comunes. Un Tercer Mundo cubre el resto del orbe. Es el del desierto. Dentro de los propios imperios crecen las tierras baldías en las favelas. Egipto y Babel son impotentes para salvarse a sí mismos. De la tiranía de sus ídolos sólo pueden salvarlos quienes adoran en el desierto al Dios Vivo y Sin Nombre, quienes han renunciado a las ollas de Egipto. + +Pero de ninguna manera todos los que habitan en el desierto son miembros del Pueblo de Dios. Algunos bailan en torno al becerro de oro: fundan avanzadas del Imperio en las tierras yermas. Otros se rebelan contra Moisés y escogen a sus propios profetas para que los devuelvan a la esclavitud que sus padres abandonaron cuando expoliaron a los egipcios. + +Buscan una alianza para el progreso con Egipto. Y hay otros que no son capaces de permanecer fieles a la vocación divina. Desertan del Pueblo de Dios, se mueven hacia el Este y, como los judíos, ungen a su propio Rey para ser sus siervos al igual que otros moradores de la Tierra. + +Ha llegado la hora de hacer saber el mensaje que nos ha sido revelado. + +Ha llegado la hora de anunciar que la liberación de los ricos y de los ricos en ciernes depende del Pueblos de Dios. Depende de aquellos a quienes Dom Helder Camara ha llamado Minorías Abrahámicas, entre las cuales los cristianos, digámoslo con rubor, parecen una excepción. + +La liberación sólo puede provenir de quienes han elegido el desierto porque han sido puestos en libertad. + + +## La alternativa a la escolarización + +Durante generaciones hemos tratado de hacer del mundo un mejor lugar para vivir aumentando cada vez más el número de escuelas; pero hasta ahora hemos fracasado. Lo que hemos aprendido es que al obligar a todos los niños a subir por una escalera de educación abierta no realzamos la igualdad sino que favorecemos al individuo que empieza antes, al más sano o al mejor preparado; que la instrucción obligatoria apaga en la mayoría el deseo de obtener conocimientos independientes; y que el conocimiento tratado como mercancía, distribuido en paquetes, y aceptado como propiedad privada una vez adquirido, siempre será escaso. + +De repente la gente se ha dado cuenta de que la empresa de la educación pública mediante escuelas obligatorias ha perdido su legitimidad social, pedagógica y económica. En respuesta, los críticos del sistema educativo proponen ahora soluciones enérgicas y heterodoxas que van desde el plan de recibos (_voucher_), que permitiría a cada persona comprar la educación que desee en un mercado abierto, hasta el desplazamiento de la responsabilidad de la educación de la escuela a los medios y al aprendizaje en el trabajo. Algunos individuos consideran que la escuela tendrá que desestablecerse igual que sucedió con la Iglesia en todo el mundo durante los últimos dos siglos. Otros reformadores proponen reemplazar la escuela universal con distintos sistemas nuevos que, según ellos, prepararían mejor a todos para vivir en la sociedad moderna. Estas propuestas de nuevas instituciones educativas caen dentro de tres amplias categorías: la reforma del aula dentro del sistema escolar; la dispersión de aulas libres en toda la sociedad, y la transformación de toda la sociedad en una gran aula. Pero estos tres enfoques —el aula reformada, el aula libre y el aula mundial— representan tres etapas en un escalamiento de la educación en que cada peldaño amenaza con implantar un control más sutil y penetrante del que reemplaza. + +Considero que el desestablecimiento de la escuela se ha vuelto inevitable y que el fin de esta ilusión debe llenarnos de optimismo. Pero también creo que el fin de la “era de la escolaridad” podría introducir una era de la escuela mundial que sólo se distinguiría en nombre de un manicomio o prisión mundial en donde la educación, la corrección y la adaptación se convertirían en sinónimos. Por lo tanto, considero que el rompimiento de la escuela nos obliga a mirar más allá de su inminente deceso y encarar disyuntivas fundamentales en la educación. O trabajamos para encontrar instrumentos educativos temibles y nuevos que hablen de un mundo cada vez más opaco e impenetrable para el hombre, o fijamos las condiciones para una nueva era en que la tecnología se utilizaría para hacer la sociedad más sencilla y transparente, de manera que todos los hombres puedan volver a tener los conocimientos y utilizar las herramientas que moldean sus vidas. En resumen, podemos desestablecer escuelas o podemos desescolarizar la cultura. + +### El currículum oculto de las escuelas + +Para poder ver claramente las disyuntivas a que nos enfrentamos, debemos primero distinguir entre el aprendizaje y la escolaridad, lo que significa separar el objeto humanístico del maestro del impacto de la estructura invariante de la escuela. Esta estructura oculta constituye una forma de instrucción que el maestro o el consejo de la escuela nunca llegan a controlar. Transmite indeleblemente el mensaje de que sólo a través de la escuela el individuo podrá prepararse para la vida adulta en la sociedad, que lo que no se enseña en la escuela carece de valor, y que lo que se aprende fuera de la escuela no vale la pena aprenderlo. Yo llamo a eso el currículum oculto de la escolaridad porque constituye el marco inalterable del sistema, dentro del cual se hacen todos los cambios en el currículum. + +El currículum oculto siempre es el mismo, cualquiera que sea la escuela o el lugar. Obliga a todos los niños de cierta edad a congregarse en grupos de alrededor de 30, bajo la autoridad de un maestro autorizado, durante 500, 1 000 o más horas al año. No importa si el currículum está diseñado para enseñar los principios del fascismo, del liberalismo, del catolicismo, del socialismo o la liberación, mientras la institución reclame la autoridad de definir cuáles actividades son las que considera “educación” legítima. No importa si el propósito de la escuela es producir ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o doctores, mientras no se pueda ser un ciudadano o doctor _si no_ se ha graduado. No importa si todas las reuniones ocurren en el mismo lugar, mientras se consideren una asistencia: cortar caña es trabajo para los cañeros, corrección para los prisioneros, y parte del currículum para los estudiantes. + +Lo que importa en el currículum oculto es que los estudiantes aprendan que la educación es valiosa cuando se adquiere en la escuela a través de un proceso graduado del consumo; que el grado de éxito de que disfrutará el individuo en sociedad depende de la cantidad de conocimientos que consume, y que los conocimientos _sobre_ el mundo son más valiosos que los conocimientos adquiridos _del_ mundo. La imposición de este currículum oculto dentro de un programa educativo distingue la escolarización de otras formas de educación planeada. Todos los sistemas escolares del mundo tienen características comunes en relación con su producto institucional, y éstos son el resultado del currículum oculto en común de todas las escuelas. + +Debe entenderse claramente que el currículum oculto de las escuelas traduce la enseñanza de una actividad en una mercancía cuyo mercado lo monopoliza la escuela. El nombre que ahora damos a esta mercancía es “educación”, producto cuantificable y acumulativo de una institución profesionalmente diseñada denominada escuela, cuyo valor puede medirse por la duración y lo costoso de la aplicación de un proceso (el currículum oculto) al estudiante. El graduado de una universidad local y el que recibe un título de una universidad famosa podrán haber adquirido 135 créditos en cuatro años, pero están totalmente conscientes del valor diferencial de su acervo de conocimientos. + +En todos los países “escolarizados” el conocimiento se considera como artículo de primera necesidad para la supervivencia, pero también como una forma de moneda más líquida que los rublos o los dólares. Nos hemos acostumbrado, a través de los escritos de Karl Marx, a hablar de la enajenación del obrero por su trabajo en una sociedad clasista. Debemos ahora reconocer el alejamiento del hombre de su aprendizaje cuando éste se convierte en producto de una profesión que aporta servicios y él se convierte en el consumidor. + +Mientras más educación consume un individuo, mayor es el “acervo de conocimientos” que adquiere, y más se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del conocimiento. Así, la educación define una nueva estructura de clase para la sociedad dentro de la cual los grandes consumidores de conocimientos —aquellos que han adquirido un gran acervo de conocimientos— pueden alegar que tienen mayor valor para la sociedad. + +Ellos representan los valores de primera en la cartera de capital humano de una sociedad, y a ellos queda reservado el acceso a los instrumentos más poderosos o escasos de la producción. + +De esta forma, el currículum oculto define y mide lo que es la educación y el nivel de productividad a que tiene derecho el consumidor. + +Sirve como razón de la creciente correlación entre los trabajos y el privilegio correspondiente: que puede traducirse en ingreso personal en algunas sociedades, y en un derecho directo a servicios que ahorren tiempo, mayor educación y prestigio en otras. (Este punto es especialmente importante a la luz de la escasez de correspondencia entre la escolarización y la competencia ocupacional establecida en estudios como _Education and_ _Jobs: The Great Training Robbery_, de Ivar Berg.) El empeño en que todos los hombres atraviesen etapas sucesivas de ilustración está firmemente arraigado en la alquimia, el Gran Arte de una Edad Media decadente. A Juan Amós Comenius, un obispo moravo, pansofista de _motu proprio_ y pedagogo, se le considera con justicia como uno de los fundadores de la escuela moderna. Fue uno de los primeros que propusieron de siete a 12 grados de instrucción obligatoria. En su _Magna_ _Didactica_ describió a la escuela como un instrumento para “enseñar a todos todo” y delineó un plan para la producción en masa de conocimientos, que de acuerdo con su método haría que la educación fuera más barata y mejor, y permitiría que todos llegaran a su máxima realización humana. Pero Come-nius no sólo fue uno de los primeros expertos de la eficiencia, fue también un alquimista que adoptó el lenguaje técnico de su oficio para describir el arte de educar niños. El alquimista buscaba refinar los elementos base dirigiendo sus espíritus destilados a través de 12 etapas de procesos sucesivos, de manera que pudieran convertirse en oro para su propio beneficio y el del mundo. Los alquimistas nunca lo lograron pese a todos sus intentos, pero en cada ocasión su “ciencia” rendía nuevas razones para su fracaso, y volvían a ensayar. + +La pedagogía abrió un nuevo capítulo en la historia de la _Ars Magna_. La educación se convirtió en la búsqueda de un proceso de alquimia que construiría un nuevo tipo de hombre que encajara en un ambiente creado por magia científica. Pero por mucho que cada generación gastara en sus escuelas, siempre resultaba que la mayoría de la gente no estaba capacitada para que se le instruyera mediante este proceso y se la tenía que descartar como impreparada para la vida en un mundo de hechura humana. Los reformadores de la educación que aceptan la idea de que las escuelas han fracasado caen dentro de tres grupos. Los más respetables son sin duda los grandes maestros de la alquimia que prometen mejores escuelas. Los más seductores son magos populares que prometen hacer de cada cocina un laboratorio de alquimia. Los más siniestros son los nuevos Masones del Universo que desean transformar el mundo en un enorme templo del aprendizaje. + +Entre los maestros más notorios de la alquimia de hoy están ciertos directores de investigación, empleados o patrocinados por las grandes fundaciones, que consideran que si la escuela pudiera de alguna manera mejorarse, también podría volverse económicamente más viable que las que ahora tienen problemas, y al mismo tiempo podría vender un paquete de servicios más grande. Aquellos a quienes preocupa principalmente el currículum pretenden que está pasado de moda o es irrelevante. De esta forma el currículum se llena de nuevos cursos empaquetados sobre cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación de la mujer, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. El aprendizaje pasivo es equivocado —realmente lo es— de manera que amablemente permitimos que los estudiantes decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y cómo. Las escuelas son prisiones. Por lo tanto, los directores están autorizados a permitir clases fuera del edificio de la escuela, por ejemplo, moviendo los pupitres a una calle cercada de Harlem. El entrenamiento sensibilizado cobra actualidad. + +De manera que importamos la terapia de grupos al salón de clases. La escuela, que se suponía iba a enseñar todo a todos, se convierte ahora en todo para todos los niños. + +Otros críticos subrayan que las escuelas hacen un uso ineficiente de la ciencia moderna. Algunos administrarían drogas que facilitarían al instructor el cambio de la conducta del niño. Otros transformarían la escuela en un estadio para el juego educativo. Otros más electrificarían el salón de clase. Si son los discípulos simplistas de McLuhan, reemplazarían los pizarrones y los libros de texto por _happenings_ ayudados por todos los medios de difusión; si siguen a Skinner considerarían que pueden modificar la conducta más eficientemente que los practicantes pasados de moda del aula. + +No cabe duda de que la mayoría de estos cambios han tenido algunos efectos saludables. Los alumnos de las escuelas experimentales son menos holgazanes. Los padres tienen una mayor sensación de participación en un distrito descentralizado. A menudo, los estudiantes a los que el maestro asigna un aprendizaje, resultan ser más competentes que los que se quedan en el salón de clase. Algunos niños mejoran sus conocimientos de un idioma extranjero en el laboratorio de idiomas porque prefieren jugar con las manijas de la grabadora que hablar con sus mayores. Sin embargo, todas estas mejoras funcionan dentro de límites predeciblemente estrechos, ya que mantienen intacto el currículum oculto de la escuela. Algunos reformadores quisieran deshacerse del currículum oculto de la escuela pública, pero es raro que lo logren. Las escuelas libres que llevan a más escuelas libres producen un espejismo de libertad, aun cuando la cadena de asistencia se ve a menudo interrumpida por largos periodos de vagancia. La asistencia mediante la seducción inculca la necesidad de tratamiento educativo de una manera más persuasiva que la asistencia renuente enforzada por un vigilante escolar. Los maestros permisivos en un aula acojinada pueden impedir fácilmente que los alumnos sobrevivan una vez que la dejan. + +A menudo el aprendizaje en estas escuelas no es más que la adquisición de habilidades de valor social definidas, en este caso, por el consenso de una comuna en lugar de por el decreto de un consejo escolar. Nuevo presbítero no es más que viejo cura escrito con palabras más largas. + +Las escuelas libres, para que realmente lo sean, deben cumplir con dos condiciones: primero, deben dirigirse de manera que se evite la reintroducción del currículum oculto de asistencia graduada y estudiantes autorizados que estudien a los pies de maestros autorizados. Y, más importante, deben proporcionar un sistema en que todos los participantes, personal y alumnos, puedan liberarse de las bases ocultas de una sociedad escolarizada. La primera condición queda frecuentemente estipulada dentro de los objetivos de una escuela libre. La segunda, sólo se reconoce en raras ocasiones y es difícil definirla como objetivo de una escuela libre. + +### Los supuestos ocultos de la educación + +Resulta inútil distinguir entre el currículum oculto que acabo de describir, y las bases ocultas de la escolarización. El currículum oculto es un ritual que puede considerarse como la iniciación oficial a la sociedad moderna, institucionalmente establecida a través de la escuela. El propósito de este ritual es el de esconder a sus participantes las contradicciones entre el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad consciente de clases que certifica. + +Una vez que se reconocen como tales, los rituales pierden su poder, y esto es lo que ahora empieza a suceder con la escolarización. Pero existen varios supuestos fundamentales sobre el desarrollo —las bases ocultas— que ahora encuentran su expresión en el ceremonial de la escolarización, y que fácilmente podrían reforzarse por lo que hacen las escuelas libres. + +A primera vista, cualquier generalización sobre las escuelas libres parece aventurada. Especialmente en Estados Unidos, Canadá y Alemania en 1971, son las mil flores de una nueva primavera. Pero sobre estas empresas experimentales que pretenden ser _instituciones educativas_, pueden hacerse algunas generalizaciones. Sin embargo, debemos primero tener una idea más clara de la relación entre la escolarización y la educación. + +A menudo olvidamos que la palabra _educación_ es de reciente cuño. No se conocía antes de la Reforma. La educación de los niños, como ya lo he referido,^[Véase cap. V, “La desescolarización de la Iglesia”, p. 116. (E.)] se menciona por primera vez en francés en un documento fechado en 1498. Fue el año en que Erasmo se estableció en Oxford, cuando a Savonarola lo mataron en la hoguera en Florencia, y cuando Durero esbozó su _Apocalipsis_, que nos transmite el sentido de destrucción que existía al final de la Edad Media. En lengua inglesa la palabra _education_ hizo su primera aparición en 1530. El año en que Enrique VIII se divorció de Catalina de Aragón y en que la Iglesia luterana se separó de Roma en la Dieta de Augsburgo. En tierras de España, el uso de la palabra y la idea de _educación_ tardó otro siglo más. En 1632, Lope de Vega sigue refiriéndose a la educación como una cosa novedosa. Ese año, como ustedes recordarán, la Universidad de San Marcos en Lima celebró su sexagésimo aniversario. + +Los centros de aprendizaje existían antes de que el término _educación_ entrara en el lenguaje común. Se “leía” a los Clásicos o la Ley; no se educaba para poder vivir. + +Durante el siglo XVI, la necesidad universal de “justificación” fue el meollo de las polémicas teológicas. Racionalizaba la política y servía como pretexto para los magnicidios. La Iglesia se dividió y pudieron sostenerse opiniones ampliamente divergentes sobre el grado en que todos los hombres nacieron en pecado, corrompidos y predestinados. Pero para principios del siglo XVII comenzó a haber un nuevo consenso: la idea de que el hombre nacía incompetente para la sociedad si no se le proporcionaba “educación”. La educación llegó a significar lo inverso de la competencia vital. Llegó a significar un proceso, más que el solo conocimiento de los hechos y la capacidad para utilizar las herramientas que moldean la vida de un hombre concreto. La educación llegó a significar una mercancía intangible que debía producirse para beneficio de todos, e impartirse a todos igual que antes la Iglesia visible impartía la gracia invisible. La justificación frente a la sociedad se convirtió en la primera necesidad de un hombre nacido en la estupidez original, análoga al pecado original. + +La escolarización y la “educación” están relacionadas como la Iglesia y la religión o, en términos más generales, como el ritual y el mito. El ritual crea y sostiene al mito; es un mito-poyético, y el mito genera el currículum a través del cual se perpetúa. “Educación” como la designación de una categoría global de justificación social es una idea que no tiene (fuera de la teología cristiana) un analogía específica en otras culturas. Y la producción de “educación” a través del proceso de escolarización separa a las escuelas de otras instituciones de aprendizaje que existieron en otras épocas. Este punto debe entenderse si queremos aclarar las limitaciones de la _mayoría_ de las “escuelas” libres, no estructuradas o independientes. + +Para ir más allá de la simple reforma del aula, una escuela libre debe evitar que se incorpore el currículum oculto de la escolarización que he descrito arriba. La escuela libre ideal trata de proporcionar educación y al mismo tiempo intenta evitar que esa educación se utilice para establecer o justificar una estructura de clase, de que se convierta en razón para medir al alumno según alguna escala abstracta, y de reprimirlo, controlarlo y empequeñecerlo. Pero mientras la escuela libre trate de proporcionar una “educación general”, no podrá avanzar más allá de los supuestos ocultos de la escuela. + +Entre estos supuestos está lo que Peter Schrag denomina el “síndrome de la inmigración”, que nos mueve a tratar a todas las personas como si fueran extranjeras que deben atravesar por un proceso de naturalización. + +Sólo los consumidores certificados de conocimientos podrán recibir su ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen iguales sino que se hacen iguales a través de su gestación en el _Alma Mater_. + +Otro supuesto es que el hombre nace maduro y debe “madurar” antes de que pueda encajar en la sociedad civilizada. Este supuesto es, desde luego, contrario a la creencia de que el hombre es el mamífero cuyos ancestros fueron dotados de inmadurez para toda la vida por la evolución, lo que constituye su “gracia” peculiar. De acuerdo con esta fijación ideológica sobre la madurez, se debe alejar al hombre de su ambiente natural y pasarlo a través de un útero social en el que se endurece lo suficiente para poder encajar en la vida diaria. A menudo las escuelas libres pueden desempeñar esta función mejor que las escuelas de un tipo menos atractivo. + +Los establecimientos educativos libres tienen otra característica en común con los establecimientos menos libres: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la “educación”. Colocan una institución _in loco parentis_. + +Perpetúan la idea de que si la “instrucción” se efectúa fuera del seno familiar, debe hacerse mediante una institución donde el maestro es sólo un agente o funcionario. En una sociedad escolarizada hasta la familia queda reducida a “organismo de aculturación”. Las instituciones educativas que utilizan maestros para cumplir los mandatos de su junta directiva son instrumentos para la despersonalización de las relaciones íntimas. + +Es cierto que muchas escuelas libres funcionan sin maestros acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una grave amenaza para los sindicatos establecidos de maestros. Pero no constituyen una amenaza a la estructura profesional de la sociedad. Una escuela en la que el consejo nombra personas de su propia elección para desempeñar su tarea educativa aun cuando no tengan un certificado o licencia profesional o tarjeta sindical, no está amenazando por ello la legitimidad de la profesión docente, como tampoco se pone en peligro la _legitimidad_ social de la profesión más antigua cuando una prostituta, que opera en un país en que su trabajo _legal_ requiere una licencia de la policía, establece un burdel privado. + +La mayoría de los maestros que enseñan en las escuelas libres no tienen oportunidad de enseñar en nombre propio. Realizan la tarea de enseñar en nombre de una junta la función menos transparente de enseñar en nombre de sus alumnos o la función más mística de enseñar en nombre de la “sociedad” en general. La mejor prueba de esto es que la mayoría de los maestros en las escuelas libres pasan más tiempo que sus colegas profesionistas planeando, con un comité, la forma en que la escuela debe educar. Al verse frente a las pruebas de sus ilusiones, lo prolongado de las reuniones de comité lleva a muchos maestros generosos de la escuela pública a la escuela libre y después de un año más allá de ella. + +La retórica de todos los establecimientos educativos declara que forman hombres para algo, para el futuro, pero no los liberan de esta tarea antes de que hayan desarrollado un alto nivel de tolerancia a las formas de sus mayores: la educación _para_ la vida en lugar de _en_ la vida diaria. Pocas escuelas libres pueden abstraerse de hacer precisamente esto. Sin embargo, están entre los centros más importantes de los que irradia un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán sus graduados, sino, más bien, porque los mayores que eligen educar a sus hijos sin el beneficio de maestros adecuadamente ordenados con frecuencia pertenecen a una minoría radical porque su preocupación en relación con la educación de sus hijos los sostiene en su nuevo estilo. + +### La mano oculta en un mercado educativo + +El tipo más peligroso de reformador de la educación es el que argumenta que el conocimiento puede producirse y venderse con mucha mayor eficacia en el mercado abierto que en un mercado controlado por la escuela. + +Estas personas consideran que es fácil adquirir una habilidad de modelos-dehabilidad si el estudiante realmente está interesado en su adquisición, que los derechos individuales pueden proporcionar un poder de compra más equitativo para la educación. Piden una separación cuidadosa del proceso con que se mide y certifica. Me parece que estas afirmaciones son obvias. + +Pero sería una falacia creer que el establecimiento de un mercado libre de conocimientos constituiría una alternativa radical en la educación. + +El establecimiento de un mercado libre realmente aboliría lo que anteriormente denominé currículum oculto de la escolarización actual —su asistencia específica en una edad determinada a un currículum graduado—. + +De igual manera, en un principio el mercado libre daría la apariencia de contrarrestar lo que he denominado bases ocultas de una sociedad escolarizada: el “síndrome de la inmigración”, el monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el ritual de la iniciación lineal. Pero, al mismo tiempo, un mercado libre en educación proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables manos ocultas para encajar a cada hombre en los múltiples, estrechos y pequeños nichos que puede proporcionar una tecnocracia más compleja. + +Muchas décadas de dependencia en la escolarización han hecho que el conocimiento se convierta en mercancía, un bien especial susceptible de mercadeo. El conocimiento se considera ahora simultáneamente como bien de primera necesidad y como la moneda más preciosa de una sociedad. (La transformación del conocimiento en una mercancía se refleja en una transformación correspondiente del lenguaje. Palabras que antes funcionaban como verbos se están convirtiendo en sustantivos que designan propiedades. Hasta hace poco las palabras habitación, conocimiento y curación designaban actividades. Ahora, por lo general, se conciben como mercancías o servicios a entregarse. Hablamos de la fabricación de la vivienda o de la entrega de asistencia médica. Los hombres ya no se consideran aptos para curarse a sí mismos ni para construirse sus viviendas. + +En este tipo de sociedad, el hombre llega a creer que los servicios profesionales son más valiosos que la atención personal. En lugar de aprender cómo cuidar a la abuelita, el adolescente aprende a hacer una manifestación frente al hospital que no la admite.) Esta actitud fácilmente podría sobrevivir a la desinstitucionalización de la escuela, igual que la afiliación a una Iglesia siguió siendo una condición para ocupar un puesto público mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Reforma a la Constitución Norteamericana. Es aún más palpable que los exámenes que miden paquetes complejos de conocimientos podrían fácilmente sobrevivir a la desinstitucionalización de la escuela —y con esto acabaría la compulsión de obligar a todos a adquirir un paquete mínimo de las existencias de conocimientos—. Al fin coincidirían la medida científica del valer de cada hombre y el sueño alquimista de “poder educar a todos los hombres para realizarse plenamente en su humanidad”. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado “libre”, la aldea global se convertiría en un útero ambiental en el que los terapeutas pedagógicos controlarían el complejo ombligo por donde se alimenta el hombre. + +En la actualidad las escuelas limitan la competencia del maestro al aula. + +Evitan que haga de la vida entera del hombre su dominio. La muerte de la escuela acabará con esta restricción y dará una apariencia de legitimidad a la invasión pedagógica en la intimidad del individuo durante toda su vida. + +Abrirá el camino de una lucha por el “conocimiento” en un mercado libre, lo que nos llevaría a la paradoja de una vulgar, aun cuando aparentemente igualitaria, meritocracia. + +Las escuelas no son de ninguna manera las únicas o más eficientes instituciones que pretenden traducir la información, el entendimiento y la sabiduría en rasgos de conducta cuya medición es la clave del prestigio y el poder. Las escuelas tampoco son las primeras instituciones que se utilizan para convertir la educación en un derecho. Por ejemplo, el sistema mandarín de China fue durante siglos un incentivo estable y eficaz para la educación al servicio de una clase relativamente abierta cuyo privilegio dependía de la adquisición de conocimientos cuantificables. + +Se dice que alrededor de 2200 a. C. el emperador de China examinaba a sus funcionarios cada tercer año. Después de tres exámenes, los ascendía o los despedía para siempre del servicio. Mil años más tarde, en 1115 a. C., el primer emperador Chan estableció exámenes generales formales para entrar al servicio público: música, ballestería, equitación, escritura y aritmética. + +Los examinados se presentaban cada tercer año para competir con sus pares, en lugar de someterse a calificación de normas abstractas desarrolladas por científicos. Uno de cada 100 era ascendido a través de tres grados: de “genio en potencia” y “estudioso ascendido”, hasta el nivel de aquellos que estaban “listos para el servicio público”. El coeficiente selectivo de los exámenes para los tres niveles sucesivos era tan pequeño que losmismos exámenes no habrían tenido que ser muy exactos para ser útiles. Sin embargo, se tenía sumo cuidado para asegurar la objetividad. En el segundo nivel, donde la composición era importante, el examen del competidor lo copiaba un secretario y esta copia se sometía a un jurado para evitar que la caligrafía del autor se reconociera y llevara a los jueces a actuar con algún prejuicio. + +El ascenso a una posición de estudioso en China no daba derecho a ninguno de los trabajos más codiciados, pero sí proporcionaba un billete para una lotería pública en la que los puestos se distribuían entre los mandarines certificados. En China no se desarrollaron escuelas, ni mucho menos universidades, hasta que empezó a guerrear con los poderes europeos. La comprobación de conocimientos cuantificables adquiridos independientemente permitió que durante 3 000 años el imperio chino, que fue la única nación-Estado que careció de un verdadero sistema eclesiástico o escolástico, seleccionara su élite gobernante sin crear una gran aristocracia hereditaria; la familia del emperador y aquellos que aprobaban los exámenes tenían acceso a ella. + +Voltaire y sus contemporáneos alabaron el sistema de ascenso chino a través de conocimientos comprobados. En Francia se introdujo el Examen para el Servicio Público en 1791, examen que Napoleón abolió. Sería fascinante especular qué hubiera sucedido si el sistema mandarín se hubiese elegido para propagar los ideales de la Revolución francesa, en lugar del sistema escolástico que inevitablemente respalda el nacionalismo y la disciplina militar. Sucedió que Napoleón fortaleció la escuela politécnica residencial. El modelo jesuita del ritual, el ascenso secuencial en un pedigrí enclaustrado, predominó sobre el sistema mandarín como el método preferido para dar legitimidad a las élites en las sociedades occidentales. + +Los principales se convirtieron en los abates de una cadena mundial de monasterios en la que todos se empeñan en acumular el conocimiento necesario para entrar en el constantemente obsoleto cielo sobre la tierra. + +Igual que los calvinistas desinstitucionalizaron los monasterios sólo para convertir a toda Ginebra en uno, debemos temer que la desinstitucionalización de la escuela nos lleve a una fábrica mundial de conocimiento. Si el concepto de enseñanza o conocimiento no se transforma, la desinstitucionalización de la escuela nos llevará a un casamiento entre el sistema mandarín que separa el aprendizaje de la certificación y una sociedad comprometida en proporcionar terapia para cada hombre hasta que llegue a la madurez de la edad dorada. + +Ni la Alquimia ni la Magia ni la Masonería pueden resolver el problema de la actual crisis “en la educación”. La desescolarización de nuestra visión mundial exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa misma. Su _hybris_ descansa en el intento de hacer del hombre un ente social por haberse sometido a un tratamiento en un proceso manejado. Para aquellos que están de acuerdo con la moral tecnocrática, lo que es posible técnicamente debe ponerse a disposición al menos de unos cuantos, quiéranlo o no. Ni la privación ni la frustración de la mayoría cuenta. Si es posible el tratamiento de cobalto, entonces la ciudad de Tegucigalpa necesita un aparato en cada uno de sus dos hospitales principales, al costo que liberaría a una parte importante de la población de Honduras de parásitos. Si las velocidades supersónicas son posibles, entonces se deben acelerar los viajes de algunos. Si puede concebirse el viaje a Marte, entonces debe encontrarse una razón para que parezca una necesidad. En la moral tecnocrática, la pobreza se moderniza: no sólo se cierran las viejas alternativas con nuevos monopolios, sino que la falta de necesidades también aumenta por una diseminación creciente entre aquellos servicios que son tecnológicamente viables y aquellos que realmente están a disposición de la mayoría. + +Un maestro se convierte en “educador” cuando adopta esta moral tecnocrática. Entonces actúa como si la educación fuera una empresa tecnológica cuyo objeto fuera adaptar al hombre al ambiente que crea el “progreso” de la ciencia. Se ciega ante las pruebas de que el precio de la constante obsolescencia de todas las mercancías es alto: el costo creciente de entrenar personas para que las conozcan. Parece olvidar que el costo creciente de las herramientas se compra a un alto precio en términos de educación: disminuye la intensidad de mano de obra de la economía, hace que el aprendizaje en el trabajo sea imposible o, cuando mucho, un privilegio para unos cuantos. En todo el mundo el costo de educar al hombre para la sociedad aumenta con mayor rapidez que la productividad de toda la economía, y menos personas tienen la sensación de participar inteligentemente en el bienestar común. + +### La contradicción de las escuelas como herramientas del progreso tecnocrático + +Para una sociedad de consumo, educación equivale a entrenamiento del consumidor. La reforma del aula, la dispersión del aula y la difusión del aulason formas diferentes de moldear a los consumidores de mercancías obsoletas. La supervivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden redefinir constantemente la felicidad humana en función del consumo de su último producto depende de las instituciones educativas (desde las escuelas hasta los anuncios) que convierten a la educación en control social. + +En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, enormes inversiones en escolarización ponen de manifiesto las contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En estos países, la defensa ideológica del progreso ilimitado descansa en la pretensión de que los efectos igualadores de una escolarización abierta pueden contrarrestar la fuerza desigualadora de la constante obsolescencia. La legitimidad de la sociedad industrial misma llega a depender de la credibilidad de la escuela, y no importa si el partido en el poder es el comunista o el republicano. Bajo estas circunstancias, el público está ávido de libros como el informe de Charles Silberman o la Comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el título de _Crisis in the Classroom_. Este tipo de investigación inspira confianza por su bien documentada condena de la escuela actual, a la luz de la cual los intentos insignificantes por salvar al sistema manicurando sus faltas más obvias puede crear una nueva oleada de expectativas inútiles. Mayores inversiones en escuelas de todas partes hacen monumental la ineficacia de la escolarización. Paradójicamente, los pobres son las primeras víctimas de la mayor escolarización. La Comisión Wright en Ontario tuvo que informar a sus patrocinadores del gobierno que la educación post-secundaria está inevitable e irremediablemente gravando a los pobres en forma desproporcionada para una educación que siempre disfrutarán principalmente los ricos. + +La experiencia confirma estas advertencias. Durante varias décadas un sistema de cuotas en la URSS daba preferencia al ingreso a la universidad a los hijos de padres trabajadores sobre los hijos de graduados universitarios. + +Sin embargo, la desproporción de estos últimos es todavía mayor en las clases que se gradúan en Rusia que en Estados Unidos. + +El 8 de marzo de 1971, el magistrado de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, Warren E. Burger, presentó la opinión unánime de la corte en el caso de Griggs _et al_. frente a la Duke Power Company. Interpretando la intención del Congreso en la sección referente a la igualdad de oportunidades de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964, la corte de Burger determinó que cualquier grado académico o cualquier examen a que se sometan futuros empleados debe “calificar al hombre para el trabajo” y no al “hombre en abstracto”. Lacarga de demostrar que los requisitos educativos son una “medida razonable de la actuación en el trabajo” descansa en el patrón. En esta decisión, la corte sólo habló sobre los exámenes y diplomas como medio de discriminación racial, pero la lógica del argumento del magistrado se aplica a cualquier uso del pedigrí educativo como prerrequisito de un empleo. _The Great Training Robbery (El gran robo del entrenamiento)_, tan eficazmente expuesto por Ivar Berg, debe ahora enfrentarse al desafío de una conjura de compinches, de alumnos, patrones y causantes. + +En los países pobres, las escuelas racionalizan el rezago económico de toda una nación. La mayoría de los ciudadanos quedan excluidos de los escasos medios modernos de producción y consumo, pero arden en deseos de entrar en la economía por la puerta de la escuela. La legitimación de la distribución jerárquica del privilegio y el poder se ha desplazado de la alcurnia, la herencia, el favor del rey o del papa y la crueldad en el mercado o en el campo de batalla, a una forma más sutil de capitalismo: la institución jerárquica pero liberal de la escolarización obligatoria que permite al bien escolarizado imputar culpabilidad al consumidor rezagado de conocimientos por tener un certificado de menor denominación. Sin embargo, esta racionalización de la desigualdad nunca puede ir de acuerdo con los hechos, y los regímenes populistas cada vez se encuentran con mayores problemas para ocultar el conflicto entre la retórica y la realidad. + +Durante 10 años la Cuba de Fidel Castro se ha empeñado en el rápido crecimiento de la educación popular, dependiendo del material humano disponible, sin el respeto normal a las credenciales profesionales. Los éxitos espectaculares al principio de esta campaña, especialmente en lo que se refiere a la disminución del analfabetismo, se han citado como pruebas de que la lenta tasa de crecimiento de otros sistemas escolásticos latinoamericanos se debe a la corrupción, al militarismo y a una economía capitalista de mercado. No obstante, ahora, la lógica de la escolarización jerárquica está alcanzando a Fidel y a su intento de producir al Nuevo Hombre por medio de la escuela. Aun cuando los estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en los campos de caña y se adhieren totalmente a los ideales igualitarios del compañero Fidel, cada año la escuela entrena a una cosecha de consumidores de conocimientos autoconscientes dispuestos a moverse hacia nuevos niveles de consumo. Además, el _Dr_. Castro se enfrenta a las pruebas de que el sistema escolástico nunca producirá suficientes técnicos certificados. Aquellos graduados que obtienen las nuevas colocaciones destruyen con su conservadurismo los resultados obtenidos por los núcleos no certificados que han llegado a sus puestos a través de entrenamientos en el trabajo. No se puede culpar de ninguna manera a los maestros de los fracasos de un gobierno revolucionario que insiste en la capitalización institucional del potencial humano a través de un currículum oculto que garantiza la producción de una burguesía universal. + +### Recuperación de la responsabilidad de enseñar y aprender + +Una revolución en contra de aquellas formas de privilegio y de poder que se basan en el derecho de obtener conocimientos profesionales debe iniciarse con una transformación de la conciencia sobre la naturaleza del aprendizaje. + +Esto significa, sobre todo, un desplazamiento de la responsabilidad de enseñar y aprender. El conocimiento sólo puede definirse como una mercancía mientras se le considere el resultado de una empresa institucional o el cumplimiento de los objetivos institucionales. Sólo cuando el hombre recupere el sentido de la responsabilidad personal de lo que aprende y enseña podrá romperse el sortilegio y superarse el alejamiento entre el aprender y el vivir. + +La recuperación del poder de aprender o enseñar significa que el maestro que se arriesga a interferir en la vida privada de otro individuo también se hace responsable de los resultados. De manera similar, el estudiante que se expone a la influencia de un maestro debe hacerse responsable de su propia educación. Para ello lo ideal sería que las instituciones educativas —si se necesitan— adoptaran la forma de centros de servicios donde se pudiera adquirir un techo adecuado sobre su cabeza, tener acceso a un piano o a un horno y a discos, libros o diapositivas. Las escuelas, las estaciones de televisión, los teatros y similares están diseñados principalmente para el uso de profesionales. La desescolarización de la sociedad significa, sobre todo, la negación del estatus profesional para la segunda profesión más antigua del mundo, a saber: enseñar. La certificación de maestros constituye ahora una restricción indebida del derecho a la libertad de expresión; la estructura corporativa y las pretensiones profesionales del periodismo coartan indebidamente la libertad de prensa. + +Las reglas de asistencia obligatoria interfieren con la libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad no es más que una mutación cultural mediante la cual un pueblo recupera el uso efectivo de sus libertades constitucionales: el aprender y enseñar por hombres que saben que han nacido libres y no con una libertad que les ha sido otorgada. La mayoría de las personas aprenden casi siempre cuando hacen algo que les divierte; la mayoría tiene curiosidad y desea dar un significado a todo aquello con que entra en contacto; y la mayoría puede tener relaciones personales íntimas con otros si no están idiotizados por un trabajo inhumano o se cierran a causa de la escolarización. + +El hecho de que las personas en los países ricos no aprendan mucho de _motu proprio_ no es prueba de lo contrario. Más bien es consecuencia de vivir en un medio ambiente del cual, paradójicamente, no pueden aprender mucho precisamente porque está altamente programado. Constantemente se ven frustrados por la estructura de la sociedad contemporánea, donde los hechos en que se basan las decisiones se han vuelto más huidizos. Viven en un ambiente en el que los instrumentos que pueden utilizarse para propósitos creativos se han convertido en un lujo, un ambiente en que los canales de comunicación sirven a unos cuantos para hablar a muchos. + +### Una nueva tecnología más que una nueva educación + +Un mito moderno desea hacernos creer que el sentido de impotencia con el que vive la mayoría de los hombres de hoy es consecuencia de la tecnología que sólo puede crear sistemas enormes. Pero no es la tecnología la que hace enormes sistemas, instrumentos inmensamente poderosos, canales de comunicación unidireccionales. Todo lo contrario: si la tecnología estuviera adecuadamente controlada, podría capacitar a cada hombre para entender mejor su medio ambiente, moldearlo con sus propias manos, y permitirle la intercomunicación total a un grado nunca antes alcanzado. Este uso alternativo de la tecnología constituye la disyuntiva central en la educación. + +Para que una persona pueda desarrollarse necesita, antes que nada, tener acceso a cosas, lugares y procesos, a acontecimientos y datos. Necesita ver, tocar, asir, ocuparse con lo que existe en un escenario significativo. En la actualidad este acceso le está en buena medida negado. Cuando el conocimiento se convirtió en una mercancía adquirió la protección de la propiedad privada; así, un principio diseñado para resguardar la intimidad personal se transformó en una razón para declarar que los conocimientos no son para las personas que carecen de las credenciales apropiadas. En las escuelas los maestros se guardan los conocimientos si no encajan dentrodel programa del día. Los medios informan, pero excluyen lo que consideran inadecuado para imprimirse. La información se encierra en idiomas especiales, y los maestros especializados viven de su retraducción. Las empresas protegen las patentes, las burocracias guardan los secretos, y el poder de alejar a los demás de cotos privados —ya sean cabinas, despachos de abogados, basureros o clínicas— se guarda celosamente por las profesiones, las instituciones y los países. Ni la estructura política ni la profesional de nuestras sociedades, oriental y occidental, podrían soportar la eliminación del poder de impedir el acceso a conocimientos que podrían servir a muchas clases de personas. El acceso a los conocimientos por que abogo va más allá que la verdad etiquetada. El acceso debe construirse dentro de la realidad, mientras que todo lo que pedimos de la publicidad es la garantía de que no nos engañe. El acceso a la realidad constituye una alternativa fundamental en la educación para un sistema que sólo pretende enseñar _sobre_ él. + +La abolición del derecho a un secreto corporativo —aun cuando la opinión profesional sostiene que este secreto sirve al bien común— es, como pronto se verá, un objetivo político mucho más radical que la demanda tradicional de la propiedad pública o el control de los bienes de producción. La socialización de estos bienes sin una socialización efectiva del _know-how_ (saber cómo) de su uso, tiende a colocar al capitalista del conocimiento en la posición que antes tenía el financiero. La única pretensión de poder del tecnócrata es el acervo que tiene de algún tipo de conocimiento escaso y secreto, y la mejor manera de proteger su valor es creando una organización importante con intensidad de capital que hace que el acceso al _know-how_ sea formidable y prohibitivo. + +No pasa mucho tiempo antes de que el aprendiz interesado adquiera casi cualquier habilidad que desee usar. Eso tiende a olvidarse en una sociedad en la que los maestros profesionales monopolizan la entrada a todos los campos y etiquetan como charlatanería la enseñanza impartida por individuos que carecen de un certificado. Existen pocas habilidades mecánicas en la industria o la investigación que sean tan exigentes, complejas y peligrosas como manejar un automóvil; habilidad que la mayoría de la gente adquiere fácilmente de un instructor. No todas las personas están capacitadas para la lógica avanzada, y sin embargo aquellos que lo están progresan rápidamente si se les interesa en juegos matemáticos a una temprana edad. Uno de cada 20 niños en Cuernavaca me gana en un juego de _Wff’n Proof_ después de unas cuantas semanas de entrenamiento. + +En cuatro meses un gran porcentaje de los adultos motivados en el Cidoc aprenden el español con la suficiente corrección para llevar a cabo asuntos académicos en la nueva lengua. + +Un primer paso para abrir el acceso a las diferentes especialidades sería proporcionar distintos incentivos a los individuos calificados para que compartan sus conocimientos. Inevitablemente, esto iría en contra de los intereses de las guildas, las profesiones y los sindicatos. Empero, el aprendizaje múltiple es atractivo; proporciona a todos la oportunidad de aprender algo sobre casi cualquier cosa. No hay razón para que una persona no pueda combinar la capacidad de manejar un auto, componer teléfonos y excusados, ser partera y dibujante de arquitecto. Las grandes empresas y sus consumidores disciplinados pretenderían, desde luego, que el público necesita la protección de una garantía profesional. Pero este argumento lo ponen continuamente en tela de juicio las asociaciones de protección del consumidor. Tenemos que tomar más seriamente la objeción que los economistas hacen a la socialización radical de las habilidades: que no habrá “progreso” si los conocimientos —patentes, habilidades y todo el resto— se democratizan. Sólo podremos encarar sus argumentos si les demostramos la tasa de crecimiento de deseconomías inútiles generadas por cualquiera de los sistemas educativos que existen. + +El acceso a la gente que desea compartir sus habilidades no es garantía de aprendizaje. Este acceso se restringe no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos sobre el aprendizaje y de los sindicatos sobre su licitud, sino también por una tecnología de la escasez: las habilidades que hoy cuentan con el _know-how_ en el uso de herramientas que se diseñaron para ser escasas. Estas herramientas producen bienes o prestan servicios que todos quieren, pero que sólo unos cuantos pueden disfrutar, y que sólo un número limitado de personas sabe cómo utilizar. Sólo unos cuantos individuos privilegiados del total de personas que padecen una enfermedad dada se benefician de los resultados de la tecnología médica sofisticada, y todavía menos médicos desarrollan la habilidad para utilizarla. + +Sin embargo, los mismos resultados de la investigación médica también se han utilizado para crear un instrumental básico que permite a los médicos de la armada y la marina, con sólo unos cuantos meses de entrenamiento, obtener resultados en el campo de batalla que habrían sido un sueño imposible de los doctores titulados durante la segunda Guerra Mundial. En un nivel aún más sencillo, cualquier campesina podría aprender a diagnosticar y tratar la mayoría de las infecciones si los científicos de lamedicina prepararan específicamente dosis e instrucciones para un área geográfica dada. + +Todos estos ejemplos ilustran el hecho de que las consideraciones de tipo educativo por sí solas son suficientes para requerir una reducción radical de la estructura profesional que ahora impide la relación entre el científico y la mayoría de los que desean tener acceso a la ciencia. Si se escuchara esta demanda, todos los hombres podrían aprender a usar los instrumentos de ayer, que la ciencia moderna ha vuelto más efectivos y duraderos, para crear el mundo del mañana. + +Por desgracia, en la actualidad existe precisamente la tendencia contraria. Conozco una región costera en Sudamérica donde la mayoría de la gente vive de la pesca con pequeños botes. El motor fuera de borda es sin duda el instrumento que ha cambiado más dramáticamente las vidas de estos pescadores costeños. Pero en la región que yo he estudiado, la mitad de todos los motores fuera de borda se compraron entre 1945 y 1950 y se mantienen en uso por arreglos constantes, mientras que la mitad de los motores adquiridos en 1965 ya no sirven porque no se construyeron para repararse. El progreso tecnológico proporciona a la mayoría de las personas artefactos que no pueden comprar y las priva de las herramientas más sencillas que necesitan. + +Los metales, los plásticos y el cemento armado que se utilizan en la construcción han mejorado muchísimo desde la década de los años cuarenta y deben dar a más personas la oportunidad de construir sus propias casas. + +Pero mientras que en 1948 más de 30% de todas las casas unifamiliares de Estados Unidos las construyeron sus propietarios, para fines de los años sesenta este porcentaje había disminuido a menos de 20 por ciento. + +La reducción del nivel de habilidades a través del llamado desarrollo económico es todavía más palpable en América Latina. Aquí, la mayoría de la gente sigue construyendo su casa desde el piso hasta el techo. A menudo usan barro en forma de adobe y techados de paja de utilidad insuperable en su clima húmedo, caliente y ventoso. En otros lugares hacen sus viviendas de cartón, barriles de petróleo y otros desperdicios industriales. En lugar de proporcionar a la gente instrumentos sencillos y componentes altamente estandarizados, duraderos y fáciles de componer, todos los gobiernos se han pronunciado en favor de la producción masiva de viviendas de bajo costo. + +Es obvio que ningún país puede darse el lujo de proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas satisfactorias para la mayoría de la gente. No obstante, en todas partes esta política hace que cada vez sea más difícil que la mayoría adquiera el conocimiento y la capacidad que necesita para construirse mejores casas. + +### La pobreza + +Consideraciones de tipo educativo nos permiten formular una segunda característica fundamental que debe poseer cualquier sociedad posindustrial: una caja de herramientas que por su misma naturaleza compense el control tecnocrático. Por razones educativas debemos trabajar para lograr una sociedad en la que el conocimiento científico se incorpore a las herramientas y componentes que puedan utilizarse con buenos resultados en unidades suficientemente pequeñas para que estén al alcance de todos. Sólo este tipo de herramientas podrá socializar el acceso a las habilidades. Sólo estas herramientas favorecen asociaciones temporales entre aquellos que desean utilizarlas en ocasiones específicas. Sólo estas herramientas permiten el surgimiento de objetivos específicos en el proceso de su utilización, como bien sabe cualquier remendón. Sólo con la combinación de un acceso garantizado a los conocimientos y un poder limitado en la mayoría de las herramientas se podrá contemplar una economía de subsistencia capaz de incorporar los frutos de la ciencia moderna. + +El desarrollo de una economía científica de subsistencia como ésta es indudablemente ventajoso para la gran mayoría de las personas en los países pobres. También es la única alternativa a la contaminación progresiva, a la explotación y a la opacidad en los países ricos. Pero, como hemos visto, el derrocamiento del PNB no puede lograrse sin trastornar simultáneamente la ENB (Educación Nacional Bruta, generalmente concebida como capitalización del potencial humano). Una economía igualitaria no puede existir en una sociedad en la que el derecho de producir lo otorgan las escuelas. + +La viabilidad de la economía moderna de subsistencia no depende de nuevos intentos científicos. Depende principalmente de la capacidad de una sociedad para estar de acuerdo sobre restricciones fundamentales antiburocráticas y antitecnocráticas autoelegidas. + +Estas restricciones pueden adoptar muchas formas, pero no funcionarán si no tocan las dimensiones básicas de la vida. (La decisión del Congreso norteamericano en contra del desarrollo de un avión supersónico es uno de los pasos más alentadores en la dirección correcta.) La sustancia de estas restricciones sociales voluntarias sería algo muy sencillo que cualquier hombre prudente puede entender y juzgar plenamente. Los intereses en juego en la controversia del avión supersónico proporcionan un buen ejemplo. Todas estas restricciones se elegirían para fomentar el usufructo estable y equitativo de _know-how_ científico. Los franceses dicen que se tarda 1 000 años para educar a un campesino en el cuidado de una vaca. No se tardarían dos generaciones en ayudar a toda la gente de Latinoamérica o África a utilizar y reparar motores fuera de borda, coches sencillos, bombas de agua, botiquines y máquinas de cemento armado si su diseño no cambiara a cada rato. Y ya que una vida feliz es aquella en la que hay una sensata interrelación con los demás en un ambiente interesante, habría un gozo igual si se traduce en igual educación. En la actualidad es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre austeridad. La razón que generalmente se da para la impotencia de la mayoría se estipula en términos de clases económicas o políticas. Lo que generalmente no se entiende es que la nueva estructura de clase de una sociedad escolarizada está todavía más controlada por los intereses creados. No cabe duda que la organización imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad proporciona una estructura social en la que sólo una minoría puede influir desproporcionadamente sobre la opinión efectiva de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática el poder de una minoría de capitalistas del conocimiento puede evitar la formación de una opinión pública real a través del control del _know-how_ científico y de los medios de comunicación. Las garantías constitucionales de la libertad de expresión, la libertad de prensa y la libertad de reunión, tenían el propósito de asegurar un gobierno del pueblo. En principio, la electrónica moderna, las prensas de foto-offset, las computadoras y los teléfonos han proporcionado las herramientas que podrían dar un significado enteramente nuevo a estas libertades. Por desgracia estas cosas se utilizan en los medios modernos de comunicación para incrementar el poder de los banqueros del conocimiento para canalizar sus paquetes de programas a través de cadenas internacionales a más gente, en lugar de utilizarlos para aumentar las verdaderas redes que proporcionan iguales oportunidades para una reunión de los miembros de la mayoría. + +La desescolarización de la cultura y la estructura social requieren el uso de tecnología para que la política de participación sea posible. Sólo con base en una coalición de la mayoría podrán determinarse los límites a los secretos y al poder creciente sin dictadura. Necesitamos un nuevo ambiente en el que el desarrollo sea sin clases, o tendremos un “Mundo feliz” en el que el _Big Brother_ nos eduque a todos. + +## Conciencia política y control de la natalidad + +Los programas para controlar la natalidad que se pretenden imponer en América Latina fracasan porque subrayan más el temor a la pobreza que la alegría de vivir. Los que practican la planificación familiar son los mismos que orientan sus consumos conforme a las “necesidades” que crean los avisos de television y la propaganda en general. Tanto en México como en Brasil ellos forman esa minoría rara y marginal que ha dado en llamarse clase media. Su misma situación de privilegio económico los expone a que su intimidad sexual sea regulada desde afuera mediante un juego de demandas. + +Lograr éxito en la escuela, en el trabajo y en el sexo es una combinación de la que sólo goza en Latinoamérica una minoría que va de 1 a 5%. En ella se encuentran los “triunfadores” que se las saben arreglar para mantener el índice de sus entradas por encima del promedio nacional; allí también están los únicos que tienen acceso al poder político, que usarán como instrumento poderoso para favorecer a su estirpe. Incluso suponiendo que el pequeño número de los que han sabido aprovecharse de la Alianza para el Progreso de las clases medias practicase la planificación familiar, eso no afectaría en forma significativa los índices de crecimiento demográfico. Pero la posibilidad de planificar sus familias es algo que está fuera del alcance de los “otros” (que en América Latina quiere decir “los más”). ¿A quién le sorprende que una “igualdad” más se le reconozca al pobre en el papel y se le niegue de hecho? + +En un contexto político seudodemocrático es imposible inducir a la mayoría a practicar el control de la natalidad. Ni la seducción ni la educación producen efecto. Lo primero, porque es propio de tales regímenes aparentar que respetan a la persona y, por tanto, no pueden ser demasiado agresivos en la propaganda, como sería anunciar que se pagan 25 dólares a cada mujer que se haga aplicar una espiral y 100 a la que se deje esterilizar. Eso sería más económico —conforme a sus objetivos—, pero no les permitiría guardar las apariencias. Lo segundo, porque a estos gobiernos no les conviene dar a los adultos analfabetos un tipo de educación en estamateria, que los llevaría a la crítica y a la disensión en el plano político. Saben que hacer eso sería labrarse su propia subversión. + +### El fracaso de lo mágico + +Ese doble fracaso se explica también al ver la inadecuación que existe entre lo que se predica y el estilo de vida común a las mayorías campesinas de América Latina. Éstas no creen que controlar su impulso sexual las llevará a la abundancia material. Creen menos en eso que en la eficacia misma de los métodos anticonceptivos. Sin embargo, se las quiere convencer de que ambas cosas habrán de producirse por arte de magia. Si al pobre le repele el olor del remedio mágico, es porque huele allí el doblez de un rico magnate que le enseña “afablemente” cómo hacer para no seguir trayendo al mundo seres pobres y detestables como él. También se utiliza la agresividad para imponer los nuevos métodos, pero cobardemente, es decir, cuando se tiene enfrente a una criatura indefensa. Baste pensar en la mujer que, víctima de la “curación” hecha en su barrio, llega a la clínica donde será iniciada en el misterio de la contracepción como única alternativa para no tener que volver el año próximo. La demanda, el estilo y el método usados, insisten en cómo protegerse frente al mal, más que en cómo poder expresar más profundamente la vida y ser libres para actuar en ella. Al no tener la planificación familiar así planteada nada de atractivo, no es de maravillar que fracase. + +Mientras no se desmitologicen los programas para controlar la expansión demográfica, éstos no conseguirán reducir la fertilidad. El recurso a la magia, al mito y al misterio lo deben abandonar tanto los abanderados de la contracepción como sus opositores éticos. Pero es que la creciente pobreza del mundo embota la imaginación de quienes deben buscar las soluciones. Entonces se recurre al mito para escapar a esa angustia insoportable: se convierte a las personas hambrientas en un informe enemigo mitológico con la ilusión de poder controlarlo; se confiere a los programas para controlar la natalidad un poder mágico y se les invoca para mantener a raya los desbordamientos en las tablas estadísticas. Pero dado que el hombre no acepta ser tratado como una célula que se reproduce dentro de ese monstruo y lo hace crecer, las invocaciones al mito no hacen disminuir su fertilidad. Sólo los hombres de gabinete creen que se puede convencer a los individuos para que tomen como _motivos personales_ las _razones válidas_ de los economistas de la nación. + +“Población” es algo acéfalo, dirigible pero no motivable. Sólo las personas toman decisiones, y en la medida en que lo hacen son más o menos controlables. Por eso quien se decide libremente a controlar su fertilidad en forma responsable se sentirá también motivado para aspirar al poder político, porque en esa forma se asegura de no ser manejado según el gusto de otros. De ahí que los gobiernos militares de América del Sur no quieran aceptar los programas que buscan promover la paternidad responsable y la participación en el control político. + +En América Latina, como colonia occidental, la escolarización masiva ha sido la forma de someter pasivamente a los niños a una ideología que se encarga de mantenerlos “democráticamente” en su lugar. Su “orden” político no ha tolerado una educación que despierte la conciencia de las masas adultas no escolarizadas, que promueva su originalidad y los impulse al riesgo. Dar eso a los adultos es exhortarlos a liberarse de los tabúes y a destronar los ídolos que los defensores del _statu quo_ tan celosamente custodian. + +Todo tabú que se deja atrás significa un obstáculo menos para la liberación total del hombre. Caer en la cuenta de que el sexo no tiene por qué llevar a una fecundidad que no se desea, hace que la persona vea que la sobrevivencia económica no tiene por qué engendrar la explotación política. + +Ser más libre como consorte, significa serlo también como ciudadano y, por consiguiente, volverse una fuerza activa en el proceso de cambio social. + +### El contexto de la urbanización + +Todos los que procrearán antes de 1984 ya viven hoy día. Me pregunto si a los que aún son niños se les usurparán sus sentimientos por medio de la técnica, se les desposeerá de sus responsabilidades sociales, se les manipulará en su comportamiento sexual para adaptarlos a los intereses de otros, o si el traslado del campo a la ciudad los hará más libres y conscientes para controlar la historia de sus vidas. En otras palabras: ¿llegará la ciudad a tragarse sus vidas o lograrán vivir en ella con mayor libertad? La mayoría de los actuales habitantes de América Latina vive en un mundo donde el modo de pensar, las costumbres y los mitos están enraizados en un pasado rural. Ahora bien, menos de 30% de los 350 millones que se espera tendrá el continente en la próxima generación podrá considerarse “rural”. La diferencia se habrá trasladado a los centros poblados trayendo el bagaje que heredara de sus abuelos: aprecio por la tradición y por la prole numerosa (con la que el grupo hacía frente a la elevada mortalidad). Su lenguaje, símbolos, ideología y religión expresarán tales valores. + +Pero una vez que el campesino se instala en la ciudad, pierde la poderosa herramienta que su cultura le diera para llevar con dignidad su situación de carencia. Más aún, debe renunciar conscientemente a ella para poder sobrevivir. O acepta cambiar libremente la orientación de su vida y adaptar su conducta conforme eso se lo vaya exigiendo o la ciudad lo esclavizará cuando no lo aplastará. La urbanización le ofrece nuevas coordenadas, símbolos y eslogans con los que orientar sus más íntimos sentimientos y tendencias y labrar su carácter. + +La ciudad se vende al recién llegado con una serie de instrucciones para su uso. Allí se mistifica al que no acepta las creencias tradicionales, sino las del credo de la ciudad con sus nuevos dogmas: prolongación de los años de vida obtenida mediante adelantos médicos; exaltación del sistema escolar; habilidad para mejorar de puesto en el trabajo y conseguir mayor remuneración. Producción y consumo se convierten en el patrón medida de los valores, sin excluir el de la fertilidad. Cambio de orientación, conducta y creencia van juntos y solamente la minoría capaz de someterse a los tres podrá abrirse camino hacia las diminutas islas en que florece la abundancia. + +### Resistencia a la riqueza + +Es fácil percibir que un grado elevado de consumo, combinado con una fertilidad abundante, es un lujo que pocos pueden afrontar. Lo común es que quien rápidamente asciende en la pirámide social sea el que controla rigurosamente su número de hijos. Pero eso demanda una disciplina de por vida que no es fácil pedírsela a quien se ha criado en una choza y carece del entrenamiento que se requiere para ajustarse al ritmo que marca la escuela o al horario inflexible de una oficina. Salvo que se dé una rara combinación de carácter y circunstancias, la ciudad —mejor selectora que maestra— no enseñará al campesino las disciplinas que se precisan para triunfar en ella, en los negocios y en la vida de familia. Tampoco es la escuela quien mejor se las puede enseñar, pues ella también es más selectiva que pedagógica. Si bien se ha pensado que la alta escolaridad trae consigo la baja fertilidad, yo prefiero creer que lo que pasa es que las escuelas al hacer su selección sólo se quedan con aquellos mansos corderos capaces de seguir ahora sus órdenes y, más tarde, las del planificador. + +¿Quiénes son los que todavía dicen que si la gente no progresa es porque no quiere; y que las oportunidades son las mismas para todos? + +Miremos los hechos. En Caracas, y en el mejor de los casos, sólo tres de cada 100 están en camino de conseguir lo siguiente: título secundario, auto privado, seguro de enfermedad y un grado de higiene aceptable. + +Se dice que la planificación familiar ha sido adoptada rápidamente por ciertos grupos étnicos. Pero tomemos a los puertorriqueños que viven en Nueva York. Es verdad que la fertilidad del grupo decrece, pero sólo si tomamos en cuenta a los que, habiendo decidido ir a esa ciudad, lograron escapar de Harlem, pasar por la escuela y conseguir un empleo por más de 7 000 dólares al año. Ellos son los privilegiados que pudieron eludir a la policía, las drogas, la discriminación y las agencias de bienestar social. + +Entre los muchos que buscan El Dorado son ellos el grupito selecto que no muere antes de haberlo encontrado. + +En América Latina puede detectarse un fenómeno similar. Me refiero a esos pequeños grupos que a saltos de rana marchan hacia la riqueza. Lo propio de ellos es asociarse al Club de Leones, al Movimiento Familiar Cristiano, a los Caballeros de Colón o a grupos por el estilo, que les permiten organizarse para poder alcanzar nuevos privilegios. La Asociación para la Protección de la Clase Media, recientemente fundada en Caracas por los empleados de Esso, sirve para ilustrar lo que mencionábamos. El que los miembros de estos grupos controlen su fertilidad no prueba que la contracepción sea un resultado de confort. Más bien quiere decir que en Latinoamérica son muy pocos los que tienen acceso a la riqueza. + +El fracaso de la planificación familiar en las naciones en vías de desarrollo es comparable al fracaso que ha tenido en los guetos negros de Estados Unidos. La proliferación entre los norteamericanos pobres alcanza niveles próximos a los latinoamericanos. Con todo, el elemento común es más una disposición de ánimo que un factor numérico. Porque si bien por un lado en el gueto negro se han alcanzado promedios económicos y disponibilidad de servicios que están fuera del alcance de nuestra generación en América Latina, por otro nos encontramos que en ambos lados la participación política es baja, el poder de que se dispone es sumamente limitado y el humor se torna helado. Sorprende entonces que el mínimo público norteamericano que logró sensibilizarse con sus compatriotas de color que rechazaban la trampa que se les tendía para que dejasen de reproducirse, mire como necedad e histeria que el pobre de ultramar busque escapar de la misma trampa. Tal como se viene planteando, dar más información gratis a la gente es un truco que tiene que fracasar en Brasil de la misma forma que fracasó en el gueto: no importa cuál sea el escenario, ese truco anticonceptivo saldrá mal y no hará decrecer la fertilidad. + +El año pasado en Brasil, obispos y comunistas levantaron la indignación pública contra los supuestos favores extendidos por el gobierno militar a los misioneros que importasen a la Amazonia _serpentes_ producidas en Estados Unidos. Las _serpentes_ (espirales), decían los acusadores, habría que “aplicarlas al interior de las mujeres” para preparar la Amazonia a ser colonizada por “sobrantes” negros que se importarían de Estados Unidos. + +El demógrafo criado en torno al Atlántico Norte fácilmente interpreta eso como el arranque de una imaginación enfermiza, más que como una protesta simbólica contra la serpiente norteamericana que solicita a la Eva tropical para que guste la manzana de la abundancia. ¿Es que se busca acaso seducir a nuestros hombres para que acepten como “ley de la naturaleza humana” lo que no es más que idiosincrasia de un pueblo? + +### Alienación ideológica + +Procuraremos tratar el tema libres de cualquier tendencia “imperialista”, moralista o masivista que inconscientemente pueda determinar su intepretación. + +Un individuo puede recurrir a la contracepción como defensa contra la miseria angustiante —caso de tantos abortos— o como medio de mejorar económicamente lo que sólo puede verificarse en la ínfima minoría que ha aceptado los postulados capitalistas y sube rápidamente los escalones del “progreso”. Porque para 90% de la población de ciudades tipo Caracas o Sao Paulo tener pocos hijos no representa un mejoramiento significativo de nivel de vida. De ahí que los incentivos socioeconómicos (ganancia a corto plazo, ventajas paralelas para la pequeña familia…), a través de los cuales los programas tradicionales de educación contraceptiva buscan motivar a las masas de escasa capacidad de consumo, sean percibidos por ellas como un engaño. Se las podrá adoctrinar sutilmente en los “valores de la clase media” o luchar por conseguir su asentimiento irreflexivo, pero eso no conseguirá disminuir su fertilidad, sino tan sólo aumentar su alienación. + +El pobre no teme que se le cierren las puertas de una riqueza futura que nunca llegará a poseer, como tampoco el recurso al infierno ha tenido gran influencia en la conducta sexual de católicos fervientes. Pero es cinismo pedirle que se abstenga del placer para que otros puedan seguir alcanzando lo que a él se le niega. Ni la política de la Casa Blanca, con todas sus “razones”, ni los códigos morales que pueda proponer el papa, logran determinar la conducta sexual de la gente. Ambos son igualmente ineficaces porque usar la ideología para _imponer_ la planificación familiar u oponerse a ella es un llamado a la idolatría y, por lo tanto, es un llamado inhumano. + +La ideología puede encontrarle justificación al egoísmo, al temor al riesgo, a la envidia…; con tal de mover a las personas a usar contraceptivos, se las ingenia incluso para demostrar que todo eso contribuye a la estabilidad política y al aumento de la producción. Pero son sólo unos pocos y raros individuos los que se deciden a controlar su vida sexual engatusados por tales razonamientos. Ya hemos visto lo que pasa con la mayoría a quien se busca convencer con falsas razones: sigue tan prolífera como antes. En sentido contrario, la ideología es capaz de hacer que algunos —¿por un miedo mítico al infierno?— se lancen a procrear con “consciente irresponsabilidad”. Pero también aquí alegra pensar que no sean muchos los que padecen tal neurosis. De tal manera que usar la ideología para motivar el comportamiento individual es a la vez un modo falaz de hacer política dirigida. Porque el recurso a los “absolutos” para determinar a la gente, es más una buena excusa que una buena razón. + +Así como el maestro cree que los libros son la panacea para poder mejorar la situación de la vida, los agentes de Salud Pública prefieren ver en un pesario la alfombra mágica que habrá de llevar al paraíso soñado. El producto del farmacéutico, el del librero y el de la curandera se usan con el mismo estilo. Por lo tanto, las mujeres que tragan a ojos cerrados la píl-dora mágica no se diferencian psicológicamente de quienes depositan toda su confianza en los libros, en los filtros de amor o en San Antonio. + +Pero ni las escuelas ni las agencias de bienestar social han logrado mover a sus clientes con sus motivos. Las escuelas, a un alto precio, consiguen dar algo de alfabetización a unos pocos niños: en América Latina sólo uno de cada cuatro pasa del sexto grado. Las clínicas de bienestar social, por otro lado, logran resultados igualmente modestos: sólo uno de cada cuatro de los que allí se aconsejan, deja de tener hijos. La causa está en que ambas seleccionan mejor de lo que enseñan. + +Si los guardianes del _statu quo_ fueran consecuentes con sus intereses económicos, reconocerían públicamente que una nación ahorra más y a corto plazo por cada vida que se evita que el aumento en la productividadque trae consigo un nuevo niño escolarizado. Pero como decidirse por eso sería dejar al descubierto lo humanamente detestable que es el “orden” que se defiende, prefieren mantener las escuelas y las clínicas tal como funcionan, porque son políticamente necesarias y porque ayudan a mantener la envoltura del mundo occidental. Entonces se entiende por qué cuando se reduce el presupuesto para las escuelas se reinvierte en las clínicas o viceversa; pero las reinversiones nunca se hacen en favor de nuevos programas. + +Los gobiernos militares no pueden sino temerle a Sócrates: hay que encarcelarlo, exiliarlo, ridiculizarlo o forzarlo a la clandestinidad. Son pocos los promotores de la educación fundamental en América Latina que habiendo dado muestras de su capacidad, popularidad y dignidad siguen empleados en sus países. De unirse al gobierno, a la Iglesia o a una agencia internacional, los amenazaría el tener que transar. En nuestro continente los que dirigen la política y los que han terminado la escuela secundaria (sólo 3%) son los mismos. Por eso todo lo que signifique involucrar masivamente a los adultos no escolarizados en el razonamiento político implica un cambio que va más allá del gusto y de la imaginación de esa minoría. Si un nuevo programa educativo se propone alcanzar ese fin, pronto será declarado abortivo, ignorado como demagogia destinada al fracaso, reprimido como incitación al motín y, por supuesto, no financiado. + +Paulo Freire, educador brasileño exiliado, demostró que se puede enseñar a leer y escribir en seis semanas a aproximadamente 15% de los adultos analfabetos de un pueblo, con menos de lo que cuesta tener a un niño en la escuela durante un año. Freire hace que su equipo prepare para la comunidad con la que va a trabajar una lista de palabras profundamente significativas y que, fácilmente, se convierten en foco de controversia política. Las sesiones se centran en torno al análisis de esas palabras. Los atraídos por el programa suelen ser gente que dispone de potencial político. + +Asumiendo que les interesa el diálogo, aprender a leer y escribir las palabras claves les significa dar un paso hacia adelante en la intensidad y efectividad de su participación política. + +Es obvio que tal tipo de educación sea selectivo. También lo son las escuelas. Sólo que el potencial político y la sala de clase reúnen a gente distinta: de un lado los elementos potencialmente subversivos de la sociedad, y de otro los niños dóciles dispuestos a condescender con la dictadura del sistema. + +Los alumnos de Freire consumen una dieta diferente a los desechos con que se alimentan los fracasados de la escuela que consiguieron, sin embargo, aprender a leer. Nunca olvidaré una noche pasada con uno de esos grupos de campesinos hambrientos. Fue en Sergipe a comienzos de 1964. + +Un hombre se levantó, luchó por encontrar las palabras y luego expuso brevemente el argumento que trato de elaborar en este artículo: “Anoche no pude dormir… porque anoche escribí mi nombre… y comprendí que yo soy yo… que quiere decir que _nosotros_ somos responsables”. + +Ciudadanía responsable y paternidad responsable marchan juntas. + +Ambas resultan de haber experimentado la relación que existe entre uno mismo y los demás. Someter a disciplina el comportamiento espontáneo es algo efectivo, creador y sostenible, sólo si se acepta teniendo en vista a los demás. La decisión de actuar como consorte y padre responsable implica participar en la vida política y aceptar la disciplina que eso exige. Hoy día en Brasil, eso significa prontitud para la lucha revolucionaria. + +En esta perspectiva, mi sugerencia para que esos programas vastos para la educación de adultos se orienten hacia la planificación familiar, supone estar en favor de que se dé educación política. La lucha por la liberación política y la participación popular en América Latina podrá adquirir mayor profundidad y conciencia si brota del reconocimiento de que incluso en los dominios más íntimos de la vida el hombre moderno debe aceptar la técnica como una condición. Si la educación para la paternidad se condujera con ese estilo, podría volverse una forma poderosa de agitación que ayudaría a las masas desarraigadas a convertirse en “pueblo”. + +### La iglesia católica como agente publicitario + +Si la Iglesia católica se propusiera oponerse sistemáticamente a los programas que promueven la planificación familiar realista y responsable —posibilidad que no consideré al escribir originalmente este artículo— tendría por resultado el mantener sobre el tapete la controversia, a la vez que despertar el humor y la cordura de la gente. + +Polarizar la atención de los individuos en una determinada dirección provoca el deseo de su contrario, y en ese sentido lleva algo de positivo: el analfabetismo, al fijar al adulto en la ignorancia, mantiene vivo en él el deseo de saber —que no ha sido corrompido por las deformaciones del sistema escolar—. El oscurantismo, de modo semejante, hace consciente a la persona de que se le está ocultando el acceso a algo, logrando de ese modo despertar su curiosidad. Cuando éste descubre que lo que se le oculta nodaña —como se le había dicho con amenazas ideológicas— se desencanta y rechaza la polarización en la que se pretendía recluirlo. Eso es lo que la batalla en torno a los programas oficiales de control de la natalidad está logrando en nuestro continente. Mi impresión es que el clero y la jerarquía católica —pese a sus buenas intenciones—, al tomar partido en esa lucha, se vuelven una fuerza polarizadora que hace brotar lo que buscaba suprimir. Si ayudasen a instruir concientizando para que luego el hombre pudiese tomar sus decisiones, podrían constatar tal vez mejores resultados a su favor y dejarían de jugar el papel que les toca en este momento, es decir, el de agentes publicitarios del producto de sus contrincantes. + +Es curioso notar cómo están compuestos los bandos que se enfrentan en esa lucha. De un lado encontramos un grupo de extraños consortes que se unen y juntos apelan al “machismo” popular. Entre ellos se cuentan quienes se oponen a la planificación familiar por suponerla contra la ley natural, y quienes la rechazan por considerarla enemiga de sus intereses políticos. Los que proponen la explosión demográfica como única forma de defenderse contra el “imperialismo yanqui” llegan hasta citar al papa en su favor. La eficiencia de este grupo se resuelve en dar publicidad a los inventos baratos que están al alcance de quienes viven en una choza y no han ido a la escuela. + +En el bando ideológico contrario se da cita otra rara combinación de aliados: el doctor, el planificador y la solterona rica. Cada uno tiene sus razones para que se fuerce al pobre a que deje de reproducirse. + +A éstos también les sirve la controversia que despiertan las autoridades eclesiásticas, porque aprovechándose de ella dan a conocer sus argumentos. + +Durante medio siglo no hubo otro medio de poder discutir la contracepción que el confesionario o la clase de catecismo. Después de las recriminaciones ardientes oídas allí, han sido más las mujeres que han venido a la clínica pidiendo se les informe cómo hacer para cometer lo que el sacerdote les dijo que era pecado. + +La prédica y la conversación piadosa sobre las técnicas que no deben usarse en el lecho nupcial se vuelven, irónicamente, una gran contribución para que la gente se decida a usar aquellas que se le antojen. ¿Es eso lo mejor que puede hacer la Iglesia católica para cumplir su misión humanizadora? + +Tal vez glosando (o profanando) a Cervantes puede entenderse mejor lo que queremos decir: que no es fácil tener a todo el mundo en poco; ser el espantajo y el coco…; y acreditar nuestra ventura con morir cuerdos y vivir locos. + +## La aceleración paralizadora + +La llamada crisis de energía no es más que un eufemismo bajo el cual se pretende disimular la sujeción imprescindible de nuestra sociedad al uso de los combustibles fósiles. No es la falta de combustibles utilizables sino la propensión maniática al abuso de energía la verdadera razón de la presente crisis. Si pensamos en el futuro, habría que elegir desde ahora entre una burocracia monopólica de la administración de los combustibles fósiles y atómicos, y la limitación voluntaria del consumo mediante una técnica adecuada a fines sociales realizables. Si en los medios técnicos de producción la concentración de energía en favor del consumidor individual sobrepasa un punto crítico, las fuerzas materiales de producción imponen una estructura explotadora de las relaciones sociales. La lucha de clase no tiene solución que no descanse sobre el reconocimiento de estos umbrales técnicos. + +Un ejemplo: se ha calculado que el norteamericano pasa, en promedio, un cuarto de su vida, directa o indirectamente, movilizándose. Anualmente invierte 1 700 horas en ganar el dinero para comprar su coche, mantenerlo, pagar el seguro y las multas por infracciones, y recorrer —con él— la cantidad de 12 000 kilómetros. Si se suma el tiempo que está frente al volante al tiempo que pasa en su trabajo para ganar el dinero que le permita el honor de sentarse en su coche, resulta que una hora de su vida le alcanza para avanzar no mucho más de seis kilómetros. En países no motorizados, los individuos con una hora de vida consagrada al tránsito cubren esta misma distancia, pero en lugar de pasar —en promedio— 25% de su vida trasladándose, los campesinos invierten 3% de su tiempo, y los nómadas menos de 7%. Depender de los motores, fenómeno de exorbitante gravedad para las sociedades industriales, lleva al hecho de que 42% de la energía total de Estados Unidos se usa para construir y mantener coches y carreteras. Sólo por concepto de transporte de personas, 250 millones de norteamericanos usan más energía mecánica que 1 500 millones de asiáticos para todas sus necesidades; a pesar de todo, los yanquis no caminan menos horas, aunque no van a pie directamente a sus destinos: usan sus pies únicamente para llegar hasta sus coches. En países que utilizan menos cantidad de energía per cápita, la parte que se invierte por concepto de transporte es, muchas veces, proporcionalmente más alta que la de los países industrializados. Lo que distingue el transporte de los países “esclavos de la energía” del transporte de los países preindustriales no es una ganancia en la relación de horas de vida por kilómetro recorrido, sino un mayor gasto de tiempo. Eso significa que la mayoría de sus habitantes debe invertir forzosamente más tiempo de vida a causa del consumo de cantidades cada vez más altas de energía que requiere la industria del transporte y que se distribuyen, además, en forma desigual desde el punto de vista social. Elevar la velocidad vehicular de una sociedad más allá de un umbral crítico implica una acumulación material tan intensa que la misma intensidad de energía reduce la movilidad típica de sus miembros. + +Sería perfectamente posible una sociedad que limitara la técnica moderna del transporte de personas a una velocidad adecuada a un máximo de movilidad, pero la mayoría de las personas no pueden imaginarlo. Al contrario, por el hecho de haberse acostumbrado a una aceleración progresiva se les ha removido el suelo bajo los pies, del mismo modo que el proceso de industrialización les ha distorsionado la imaginación política. + +No quieren ver que si una sociedad se pudiera poner de acuerdo en la velocidad máxima decisiva de sus medios de transporte, el tiempo total que gastaría esa sociedad en el transporte podría reducirse, con generosidad e igualdad de oportunidades, sin necesidad de disminuir el total de las distancias que cubren sus miembros. Este umbral de energía crítica fue haciéndose invisible porque, de un lado, se sitúa en una velocidad demasiado baja para que la “gente transportada” la tome en serio y, del otro lado, es demasiado alta para las cuatro quintas partes de la humanidad que nunca la han experimentado. En dos estados mexicanos típicos, Chiapas y Guerrero, una encuesta dio como resultado que, en 1971, menos de una entre 100 personas había cubierto, en el lapso de ese año, la distancia de 15 kilómetros en una hora, a pesar de que en ambos estados hay varias autopistas. + +Hay un umbral crítico de energía que, si se sobrepasa, necesariamente aumentará, en cada sociedad, la dependencia, la impotencia, el despotismo, la explotación y los privilegios. Lo que aquí demuestro para el caso de la aceleración de la movilidad espacial tiene su paralelo en las demás instancias de aplicación de altos niveles de energía. Habría que meter esta verdad de Perogrullo en los ojos de los expertos. Frente a lo modesto de los niveles del umbral, su prestigio queda evidentemente en ridículo. + +Naturalmente, los países pueden optar por el “consumo conspicuo” de combustibles. Pero esta decisión impulsa una aceleración que roba el tiempo de las mayorías, fomenta distancias enajenantes y otorga a una pequeña élite el don de la ubicuidad heroica. Los medios de transporte que se exceden críticamente en el uso de la energía imponen, a la estructuración social del espacio y del tiempo, la jerarquización de los privilegios. Sólo si se toma conciencia del peligro que significa sobrepasar el punto crítico del nivel de energía per cápita, la técnica podría mantenerse dentro de límites “humanos” y el progreso —que consecuentemente implica— permanecer bajo el control político. Una sociedad puede perfectamente intoxicarse a causa de la electricidad excesiva que consumen sus máquinas, del mismo modo que el exceso de calorías lleva a la gente a la obesidad; sólo que la parálisis social es mucho más difícil de admitir que el resultado de la arterioesclerosis provocada por una dieta chatarra. Antes de que sea imposible sustentar el costo del aprovisionamiento de energía, y antes aún de que el exceso de energía contamine y destruya las condiciones ambientales, la energía, en grandes cantidades, corromperá la participación democrática que hubiera permitido un uso igualitario. Sobrepasando la frontera, tal vez sea posible una igualdad en la distribución, pero jamás una igualdad en cuanto a decisiones. La alternativa de la participación democrática se lograría solamente en el caso de llevarse a cabo una política restrictiva de la energía utilizada en los productos industriales. + +Mientras no elijamos, después de haber discutido públicamente el problema, entre el mayor gasto posible de energía y el gasto mínimo necesario al servicio de una comunidad moderna e igualitaria, seremos impotentes frente a la creciente paralización de nuestra sociedad. En el momento actual, la discusión se ha detenido en una controversia que oscurece estas alternativas fundamentales: los que pretenden controlar las inversiones, supervisar la producción, planificar la distribución y fijar los precios, se oponen a aquellos que dan más importancia a un mercado libre que se sustente sobre la posibilidad de encontrar nuevas fuentes de combustibles fósiles. Ambos partidos tratan de resolver la crisis mediante la inversión de grandes cantidades de energía para el uso de un vasto sector mayoritario, en lugar de salir de ella convenciendo a la opinión pública de las ventajas que se desprenden de un consumo mínimo necesario y de un control más amplio y democrático. + +El problema del transporte es sólo un ejemplo con el que puede demostrarse que existen determinadas cantidades de energía que desbaratan las relaciones sociales. El transporte de personas es el resultado de dos procesos diferentes. Uno se basa en el impulso muscular de la fuerza humana, e implica, por lo tanto, un trabajo intensivo; tiene valor de uso pero, en la mayoría de los casos, ningún valor de cambio, y es, por naturaleza, autosuficiente. Con sandalias casi todas las personas tienen a su alrededor un horizonte de movilidad de 15 kilómetros; en bicicleta se triplica el radio, y es 10 veces mayor la superficie de esta nueva circunferencia. El segundo proceso se basa en la propulsión motorizada; requiere un uso intensivo de capital, presupone una industria, tiene carácter de mercancía y, si no se controla, crea necesidades más rápido de lo que puede satisfacerlas. + +No tiene mayor importancia si son el dinero, los diplomas y honores personales o el cumplimiento fiel de la ortodoxia política los que aseguren a un norteamericano, a un ruso o a un chino, respectivamente, su butaca en la “maravillosa máquina de reducir el tiempo”. Más allá de una velocidad crítica, nadie puede economizar su tiempo en un vehículo motorizado sin forzar a otras personas a sacrificar el suyo. La persona “altamente acelerada” se roba tiempo de vida de los “menos acelerados”, y lo hace con el pretexto de una productividad mayor. Esta “transferencia de tiempo de vida” causa problemas éticos mucho mayores que aquellos que produce la elección de pacientes para un trasplante de corazón o para el uso de un riñón artificial. Tal vez este robo de tiempo, justamente por ser tan obvio, se agazapa en el punto ciego de las ideologías. Un solo salto hasta Mallorca enceguece al obrero alemán frente al hecho de que el tiempo que invierte para llegar a su trabajo crece mucho más rápidamente de lo que crece su sueldo o de lo que se acortan sus horas de trabajo. + +Es una ilusión suponer que pueden ser equivalentes progreso técnico y consumo creciente de energía. Hace exactamente 100 años que se fabricó el primer rodamiento, y con esto el roce disminuyó a una fracción de lo que había sido antes. Sin rodamientos no hay ni coche ni bicicleta, y estos dos vehículos pueden servir como símbolos de dos alternativas de la técnica moderna. El coche, y la ciudad planificada en torno a él, obligan al individuo a ser esclavo de una industria que se desborda de energía. En un espacio creado para la bicicleta, y al mismo tiempo adecuado a su velocidad, los productos industriales se repartirían a todos por igual. Los vehículos rápidos no sólo causan la impotencia y el gasto de la vida, también aumentan, y al mismo tiempo ocultan, la injusta distribución de las ventajas. Las distancias se alargan para todos, pero la solución pertenece a unos pocos. Gran parte del tiempo que se desperdicia en transporte se le quita a aquellos que, día a día, son condenados a viajar lentamente en ciudades cada vez más extensas. Pero 1% de los hombres, que son los que realizan la mitad del total de los viajes a larga distancia, reservan sólo para ellos el uso de la “alfombra mágica”. En consecuencia, la sociedad hace uso de la mayor parte de su tiempo, energía y espacio con el fin arbitrario de empequeñecer las distancias para muy pocos e imponer a la mayoría no solamente un costo cada vez más alto sino además un daño irreparable. + +Y sin embargo no es todo, porque el cliente habitual de medios de transporte costea impuestos y pasajes de su propio bolsillo mientras los directores, burócratas, científicos y líderes de partidos utilizan los fondos públicos en viajes gratuitos, generalmente de primera clase. El hombre común y corriente, que necesita trasladarse todos los días, atraviesa suburbios a paso de tortuga, mientras que los “señores del tiempo”, subvencionados con viáticos, llegan rápidamente a su destino, ya sea éste un organismo, algún lugar de veraneo o una simple oficina. + +La bicicleta permitió una nueva utilización de la fuerza humana. En terreno plano, un hombre puede movilizarse cuatro veces más rápido, gastando por kilómetro la quinta parte de las calorías, siempre que lo haga en bicicleta en lugar de a pie. El costo y el mantenimiento de este tipo de máquina requiere poca inversión de tiempo, y su volumen y desplazamiento no necesitan de gran espacio. Los chinos pueden comprarse una bicicleta que les dure toda la vida, y sólo con su escueto salario y una pequeña fracción de las horas de trabajo que necesitaría un europeo para adquirir un coche que, por lo común, pasa de moda apenas comprado. Cuarenta mil personas que cruzan un puente en una hora, necesitarán dos vías si utilizan trenes, cuatro pistas si viajan en autobús, 12, si lo hacen en automóvil, y menos de dos si lo hacen en bicicleta. + +Adecuados a la estructura y velocidad de una bicicleta, los motores sirven de complemento al poder muscular. Si se limita la energía a un _quantum_ razonable per cápita, el progreso técnico puede expandir los horizontes sin alejar a los vecinos; puede crear un tiempo libre para viajes sin apuro, en lugar de compensar la escasez por medio de viajes demasiado rápidos; puede permitirle a los hombres ganar su autonomía, sin que la sociedad recurra a diferencias de clase estructuradas por la velocidad. + +En nuestra sociedad —con velocidades cada vez mayores y, por lo tanto, con un uso creciente de la energía per cápita— el vehículo motorizado ha relegado a segundo plano al vehículo impulsado por la propia energía del ser humano. Sería un error creer que este efecto degradante lo tenga sólo el coche. Cualquier medio de transporte, más allá del umbral típico para él, ejerce el mismo tipo de selección social y de explotación de las mayorías. El resultado de las altas velocidades vehiculares es que la mayoría de las personas han perdido gran parte de la libertad, la igualdad y la eficacia de movimientos, para “ganar”, en cambio, en rigidez de horarios, restricción de tiempo y en menor rendimiento por hora recorrida. Esto quiere decir que a un gran sector mayoritario, y porque el medio ya fue distorsionado en favor de los vehículos veloces, se le roba la posibilidad de trasladarse por sus propios medios. El cada vez más absoluto “monopolio radical” de los procesos industriales no permite ninguna solución que no se ajuste bien a sus modos de producción y comercialización. De esta manera, sin importar si es la Ford o alguna empresa estatal la que suministra los servicios, el ser humano se denigra hasta el punto de no ser otra cosa que un consumidor de transporte. Se engendra, así, un nuevo tipo de individuo: el pasajero que no llega a tiempo por sus propios medios y que, a causa de ello, se va haciendo poco a poco un ausente perpetuo, siempre necesitado de estar en otro lugar. Este robo de poder es, generalmente, independiente del tipo de tecnología, planificación urbana o arquitectura utilizados. Siempre que la velocidad y la distribución sean iguales, el tiempo que invierte el condenado a transportarse es prácticamente el mismo si se usan automóviles o ferrocarriles subterráneos. + +Naturalmente, esta aceleración que se vuelve contra sí misma es un ejemplo más que nos demuestra que tanto en el Este como en el Oeste la humanidad ha sido forzada, por la estructura de los medios de producción, al uso enajenante de la energía. Lo que se ha dicho del transporte humano es igualmente válido para el transporte de las mercancías y para la construcción de edificios. Nuestra conclusión es que el uso creciente y destructivo de la energía se transforma cada vez más en otro síntoma del “monopolio radical” de los procesos industriales, que se manifiesta además en la torturante prolongación de la vida por medio de la medicina, y en el soporífico método de la actual pedagogía. Entendiendo las cosas de este modo, la crisis de energía nos permite llegar hasta el descubrimiento de los límites del proceso industrial de producción que, tanto en los países infratecnificados como en los superindustrializados, tienen la misma magnitud. + +## La expropiación de la salud + +En la última década el _establishment_ médico se ha convertido en la mayor amenaza para la salud. La depresión, infección, incapacidad y el mal funcionamiento que acompañaron su auge causan ahora más sufrimiento que el causado por todos los accidentes de la circulación vehicular y de la industria. Solamente el perjuicio orgánico provocado por la producción industrial de alimentos puede rivalizar con el deterioro de la salud que causan los doctores. Por añadidura, la práctica médica patrocina la enfermedad y fomenta a una sociedad morbosa que no sólo protege sus anormalidades sino que engendra un tipo de cliente ligado al terapeuta de modo cibernético. Finalmente, las llamadas “profesiones para fomentar la salud” tienen un repugnante poder indirecto, una eficacia estructuralmente negativa para la salud. Ellas transforman el dolor, la enfermedad y la muerte, de un desafío personal, en un problema técnico y, de ese modo, enajenan la eficacia de la gente para habérselas con plena autonomía con su condición humana. + +### El contragolpe del progreso + +Este contragolpe final del progreso higiénico supera toda la iatrogénesis técnica; sobrepasa la suma de los tratamientos erróneos o ilegales protegidos, las negligencias administrativas y la insensibilidad profesional contra las cuales el desagravio judicial llega a ser extremadamente difícil; está arraigado más profundamente que la inadecuada distribución de los recursos para la que todavía se buscan remedios políticos; es más global que todos los daños causados por los experimentos y errores de índole médica. El enajenamiento profesional del cuidado de la salud es el resultado de un esfuerzo desenfrenado de su manejo; de ello resulta que la vida se conserva con altos niveles de insalubridad, insalubridad que se experimenta como una nueva clase de horror que llamo Némesis médica. + +Durante los últimos 20 años, el índice de precios en Estados Unidos se ha elevado cerca de 74%, pero el costo de la atención médica ha aumentado hasta 330%. Mientras el _gasto público para el cuidado de la salud_ se ha decuplicado, los pagos con pérdida por servicios de salud se incrementaron al triple y el costo de los seguros privados aumentó 18 veces. El costo de los hospitales públicos desde 1950 ha aumentado 500%. Las cuentas por la atención de pacientes en los hospitales grandes se elevó todavía más, triplicándose en ocho años. Los gastos de administración se multiplicaron por un factor de siete y los costos de laboratorio por un factor de cinco. + +Instalar una cama en un hospital cuesta ahora 65 000 dólares, de los que dos terceras partes son para la adquisición de equipos mecánicos cuya depreciación se fija para 10 años o menos. No obstante, durante este mismo periodo de inflación sin precedente de los gastos médicos, la expectativa de vida para el hombre americano adulto _ha declinado_. + +El Decreto para la Salud en Inglaterra fija una contribución comparable al costo de la inflación, pero también evita algunas de las sorprendentemente malas asignaciones que dan pábulo a la crítica pública en Estados Unidos. La expectativa de vida todavía no ha declinado en Inglaterra, pero las enfermedades crónicas en los hombres de mediana edad han registrado un incremento, tal y como sucedió en la década anterior en Estados Unidos. En la Unión Soviética, el número de médicos y días-hospital per cápita se ha triplicado en el mismo periodo. En China, después de una breve luna de miel con la moderna desprofesionalización, el _establishment_ médico-tecnológico ha crecido más rapidamente. La proporción en que la gente se vuelve dependiente de los médicos parece no guardar relación con la forma de su gobierno. Estas tendencias no reflejan utilidades marginales decrecientes. Ellas son un ejemplo de la economía política de la dependencia en la que impedimentos marginales acompañan inevitablemente el incremento de la inversión. Pero, por sí misma, la dependencia no es todavía Némesis. + +En Estados Unidos, los remedios para el sistema nervioso central forman el sector de más rápido crecimiento en el mercado de los medicamentos, que comprende 31% de las ventas totales. En los últimos 12 años, el aumento en el consumo de licores per cápita fue de 23%, para los derivados ilegales del opio cerca de 50% y para las drogas tranquilizadoras recetadas por médicos, 290%. Algunas personas han tratado de explicar este ejemplo por la manera peculiar en que a los médicos en Estados Unidos se les entrena durante toda su vida en el servicio: en 1970, las compañías farmacéuticas en Estados Unidos gastaron 4 500 dólares en propaganda por cada doctor, entiéndase, por cada uno de los 350 000 médicos que ejercen en ese país. Sorprendentemente, en todo el mundo el uso de tranquilizantes per cápita es correlativo al ingreso personal, aunque en muchos países el costo de la “educación científica” del médico no está incluido en el precio del medicamento. Tan seria como podría ser la creciente dependencia hacia los doctores y los medicamentos, sólo es un síntoma de Némesis. + +La medicina no puede hacer mucho por las enfermedades asociadas con la edad avanzada. No puede curar enfermedades cardiovasculares ni la mayoría de los casos de cáncer, artritis, esclerosis múltiple, cirrosis avanzada o el resfriado común. Algo del dolor que los ancianos sufren puede disminuirse algunas veces. La mayoría de los tratamientos aplicados a personas ancianas que demandan la intervención profesional no sólo aviva su dolor —si se tiene éxito—, sino también lo prolonga. Por lo tanto, se sorprende uno al descubrir a qué grado se gastan recursos en el tratamiento de personas de edad avanzada. Mientras que 10% de la población de Estados Unidos tiene una edad superior a los 65 años, 28% del gasto está dedicado al cuidado de la salud de esa minoría. El número de las personas de edad avanzada está aumentando en forma tal que sobrepasa el incremento del resto de la población en proporción de 3%, mientras que el costo per cápita de la atención de estos ancianos está elevándose en una proporción de 6%. La gerontología se posesiona del producto nacional bruto. Esta mala asignación del poder del hombre, de los recursos y del cuidado social, generará un dolor inenarrable conforme las demandas aumenten y los recursos se agoten. No obstante, eso también es sólo un síntoma y Némesis sobrepasa hasta el desperdicio ritual. + +Desde que Nixon y Brejnev se pusieron de acuerdo sobre la recíproca colaboración científica en lo tocante a la conquista del espacio, el cáncer y las enfermedades cardiacas, las unidades para el cuidado intensivo de las coronarias se han convertido en símbolos del progreso pacífico y en un argumento para elevar los impuestos. Estas unidades requieren tres veces el equipo y cinco veces el personal que normalmente se necesita para la atención de los enfermos; 12% de las enfermeras graduadas encuentran empleo en tales unidades. Éstas demuestran también el desfalco conducido profesionalmente. Estudios efectuados a gran escala en los que se han comparado los resultados obtenidos en el tratamiento de pacientes en cuidados intensivos con el tratamiento doméstico proporcionado a enfermos con características similares, no han demostrado todavía ninguna ventaja. El valor terapéutico de las instalaciones para el control de padecimientos cardiacos es sin duda de la misma clase que el valor de los vuelos espaciales en la televisión, ambos equivalen a danzas de lluvia para millones que aprenden así a confiar en la ciencia y que dejan de preocuparse por ellos mismos. Me encontraba en Rio de Janeiro y en Lima cuando el doctor Christian Barnard visitaba esos lugares como turista. Tanto en Brasil como en Perú, el doctor sudafricano pudo llenar los mayores estadios de futbol dos veces el mismo día con multitudes que aclamaban histéricamente su macabra habilidad para intercambiar corazones humanos. + +Poco tiempo después vi testimonios bien documentados que probaban que la policía brasileña ha sido la primera en utilizar equipos para prolongar la vida en las cámaras de tortura. Inevitablemente, cuando el cuidado o la recuperación de la salud se transfiere a organizaciones o máquinas, la terapéutica se vuelve un ritual en cuyo centro está la muerte: pero Némesis supera hasta el sacrificio humano. + +### Remedios para las explosiones prematuras + +La prevención de las enfermedades por medio de la intervención de terceras personas profesionales se ha vuelto una manía. La demanda por ella está creciendo. Las mujeres embarazadas, los niños sanos, los trabajadores y las personas ancianas son sometidos a “chequeos” periódicos y a procedimientos para diagnósticos cada vez más complejos. Mientras tanto; los ciudadanos se dejan convencer de que ellos son máquinas cuya duración depende de un proyecto social. Una revisión de dos docenas de estudios muestra que esos procedimientos de diagnóstico no tienen impacto alguno sobre las tasas de enfermedad o de mortalidad. De hecho, transforman a la gente sana en pacientes ansiosos, y los riesgos para la salud asociados con este riesgoso diagnóstico automatizado pesan más que cualquier beneficio teórico. Irónicamente, los serios desórdenes asintomáticos que sólo esta clase de ocultamiento puede descubrir son frecuentemente enfermedades incurables en las que el tratamiento prematuro agrava la condición física del paciente: pero Némesis supera hasta la tortura final. + +Hasta cierto punto la medicina moderna estaba interesada en la ingeniería terapéutica —el desarrollo de estrategias para la intervención quirúrgica, química o de modificación del comportamiento en la vida de la gente enferma o propensa a enfermarse—. Como estas intervenciones no resultan más efectivas por el hecho de ser más costosas, un nuevo nivel de ingeniería terapéutica se está impulsando. Los sistemas para la salud ahora se ponen del lado de la medicina curativa y preventiva y se les dará preferencia en el control sanitario del medio ambiente. La obsesión por la inmunidad da lugar a una higiene de pesadilla. Ya que el sistema de salud falla en satisfacer lo que de él se requiere, las condiciones que ahora se clasifican como enfermedad bien podrían pronto clasificarse como desviaciones criminales. Así, la imposición de una intervención médica podría reemplazarse por una reeducación obligatoria o por una autoacusación a la manera soviética. La convergencia de la ingeniería higiénica individual y del control del medio ambiente amenaza ahora a la estirpe humana con una nueva epidemia en la que la explosión prematura de medidas preventivas agudiza la plaga. Esta repugnante sinergia de las funciones técnicas y no técnicas de la medicina es lo que yo llamo la atormentadora Némesis médica o higiénica. + +### Némesis industrial + +El sufrimiento desmedido siempre ha sido obra del hombre: en la historia está la constancia de la esclavitud y la explotación. En ella se habla también de la guerra y del pillaje, del hambre y de la peste. La guerra entre Estados y clases ha sido hasta ahora el principal agente de la miseria causada por el hombre. Así, el hombre es el único animal cuya evolución ha sido condicionada para su adaptación en dos frentes. Si no sucumbió a los elementos, tuvo que hacer frente al uso y abuso de otros seres de su misma especie: el carácter y la cultura reemplazaron al instinto en esta lucha en dos frentes. Un tercer frente ha sido reconocido desde Homero, pero a los mortales comunes se les consideró inmunes a su amenaza. Némesis, el nombre griego para el pavor que se vislumbra en esta tercera dirección fue el destino de unos cuantos héroes que cayeron devorados por la envidia de los dioses. El hombre común creció y pereció en su lucha contra la naturaleza y sus vecinos. Sólo la élite desafiaría los umbrales establecidos por la naturaleza para el hombre. Prometeo no era todos los hombres, sino uno que se desvió. Conducido por Pleonexia, la codicia radical, traspasó los linderos de la condición humana. Con arrogancia desenfrenada o desmedida presunción (_hybris_) trajo el fuego del cielo, con lo que atrajo a Némesis sobre sí mismo. Fue encadenado en una roca del Cáucaso. Un buitre devoró sus entrañas y dioses curativos sin piedad lo mantuvieron vivo injertando su hígado todas las noches. El encuentro con Némesis hizo del héroe clásico un recordatorio inmortal de ineludible represalia cósmica. Se volvió un tema de la tragedia épica, pero no ciertamente un modelo para el anhelo de todos los días. Ahora Némesis se ha vuelto endémica; es el retroceso del progreso. Paradójicamente se ha extendido tan lejos y con tanta amplitud como las franquicias, la enseñanza, la aceleración mecánica y la atención médica. Cada hombre ha caído devorado por la envidia de los dioses. Si la especie debe sobrevivir sólo podrá lograrlo aprendiendo a superarse en este tercer frente. + +La mayor parte de la miseria provocada por el hombre es ahora un subproducto de las instituciones que originalmente se diseñaron para dar protección al hombre común en su lucha contra las inclemencias del medio ambiente y contra la desenfrenada injusticia infligida por la élite. La fuente principal de dolor, incapacidad y muerte es ahora —aunque no intencional — el hostigamiento dirigido. Las dolencias, el desamparo y la injusticia que prevalecen son las consecuencias de las estrategias del progreso. Némesis es ahora tan predominante que muy pronto una parte de la condición humana la confundió. La idea de que la esfera de actividad de la acción humana estaba estrechamente circunscrita era común a toda la antigua ética. + +Techné fue un tributo de la medida a la necesidad y no el camino que escogió la humanidad para la acción. La desesperante incapacidad del hombre contemporáneo para percibir una alternativa a la agresión industrial sobre la condición humana, es una parte integral de la maldición por la cual sufre. + +El intento para sojuzgar a Némesis por el proceso político o biológico frustra cualquier diagnóstico de la actual crisis institucional. Cualquier estudio sobre la controversia de los llamados “límites al crecimiento” se vuelve fútil si reduce Némesis a una amenaza que puede enfrentarse en los dos frentes tradicionales. Némesis no pierde su pavor específico simplemente porque se le ha industrializado. La crisis contemporánea de la sociedad industrial no puede comprenderse sin distinguir entre la agresión intencionalmente explotadora de una clase contra otra y la inevitable predestinación a la ruina en cualquier intento desproporcionado para transformar la condición humana. Nuestro predicamento no puede comprenderse sin establecer distinciones entre la violencia creada por el hombre y la envidia destructora del cosmos; entre la servidumbre impuesta al hombre por el hombre y el avasallamiento del hombre por sus dioses que, por supuesto, son sus instrumentos. Némesis no puede reducirse a un problema que sea de la competencia de ingenieros o de dirigentes políticos. + +La enseñanza, el transporte, el sistema legal, la agricultura moderna y la medicina sirven igualmente bien para ilustrar cómo trabaja la frustración engendrada. Más allá de cierto umbral, la degradación del aprender es el resultado de la enseñanza intencional que inevitablemente engendra una nueva clase de impotencia en la mayoría pobre y un nuevo tipo de estructura de clase que la discrimina. Todas las formas planeadas de enseñanza obligatoria tienen esos efectos secundarios, no importa cuánto dinero se invierta o cuánta buena voluntad se gaste en retórica política, o pedagógica para llevarlas a la práctica; no importa tampoco que el mundo esté abarrotado de aulas o si se transforma en un salón de clases. + +Más allá de cierto nivel de energía usada para la aceleración de cualquier persona en la circulación, la industria del transporte inmoviliza y esclaviza a la mayoría de los pasajeros sin nombre, y brinda sólo discutibles ventajas marginales a una élite olímpica. Ningún nuevo combustible, tecnología o control público puede impedir que la creciente movilización social produzca siempre más apresuramiento, programación, parálisis e injusticia. + +Más allá de cierto nivel de inversión de capital en la agricultura y en la preparación de alimentos, la desnutrición llegará a ser endémica; la ilusión verde despedaza el hígado de los consumidores más efectivamente que los buitres de Zeus el hígado de Prometeo. Ningún control biológico puede evitar ese resultado. + +Más allá de cierto punto crítico, la producción y distribución de la atención médica producen más dolencias de las que pueden curar. El seguro social garantiza una miserable supervivencia más efectiva y democráticamente que los más despiadados dioses. + +El progreso ha llegado con una violencia tal que ya no puede llamarse costo. El primer pago se leía en la etiqueta y podía manifestarse en términos medibles. Pero los pagos a plazos aumentaron en forma de sufrimiento que rebasa todo sentido del “precio”. Han transformado sociedades enteras en prisiones de deudores en las que el nivel de tortura para la mayoría abruma y cancela cualquier posibilidad de recompensas que pudieran todavía beneficiar a unos cuantos. + +El labriego que deja de tejer su ropa, construir su casa y hacer herramientas y se vuelve comprador de trajes hechos, viguetas de cemento y tractores, ya no podrá estar satisfecho sin contribuir a la Némesis mundial. En tanto su vecino, que sigue tejiendo su ropa, construyendo su casa y atendiendo su milpa, no podrá vivir mucho tiempo en un mundo dominado por la Némesis industrial. Esta situación ambigua es el acontecimiento que yo quiero explorar. La exasperante codicia y el cegador atrevimiento dejaron de ser heroicos; se han vuelto parte de la obligación social de cada uno de los hombres industrializados. Al entrar en el mercado de la economía contemporánea, generalmente tomando el camino que pasa por la enseñanza, el ciudadano se incorpora al coro que convoca a Némesis. + +Pero él se incorpora también a una horda de furias desencadenadas sobre aquellos que permanecen fuera del sistema. Los llamados participantes marginales que no entran por completo en el mercado económico se ven privados de los medios tradicionales con los que podrían enfrentarse a la naturaleza y a sus vecinos. + +En algún punto de la expansión de nuestras instituciones mayores, sus clientes comienzan a pagar un precio cada vez mayor por un consumo constante, a pesar de la evidencia de que, además de pagar más, inevitablemente sufrirán más. En este punto del desarrollo, el comportamiento predominante de la sociedad corresponde al que define tradicionalmente a los adictos. La dependencia palidece en comparación con el incremento marginal de los impedimentos. El _homo economicus_ se convierte en _homo religiosus_. Los objetos de su anhelo se vuelven sublimes, aun si cada vez son menos útiles. La venganza de los dioses es doble: _1)_ su precio al consumidor es cada vez más alto; _2)_ sus consecuencias (simbólicos y culturales) pesan más que el daño conjunto hecho a la naturaleza y al prójimo. La Némesis clásica fue el castigo por el temerario abuso de un privilegio. La Némesis industrial es la retribución por la concienzuda participación en la sociedad. + +La guerra y el hambre, la peste y la muerte repentina, la tortura y la locura han acompañado siempre al hombre, pero ahora están moldeados dentro de una _Gestalt_ nueva bajo la égida de Némesis. Entre más grandioso el progreso económico de una sociedad, tanto mayor la parte que juega la Némesis industrial en el dolor, la discriminación y la muerte sufridas por sus miembros. Por lo tanto, el estudio disciplinado de los matices modernos de Némesis debería ser el tema clave de la investigación sobre el cuidado de la salud, de la curación y del consuelo. + +La Némesis industrial es el resultado de la política de desarrollo que produce inevitablemente desgracias contrarias a la intuición que las motivó. + +Es el resultado de un estilo de administración que es poco más que un crucigrama para los que lo proyectan. Mientras estas desgracias se describan con el lenguaje de la ciencia y de la economía política, seguirán apareciendo extrañas sorpresas. El lenguaje para el estudio de la Némesis industrial todavía debe fraguarse. Este lenguaje deberá ser capaz de describir las contradicciones inherentes al modo de pensar de una sociedad que privilegia la verificación del funcionamiento por encima de la evidencia intuitiva. + +### Tántalo + +La Némesis médica es sólo un aspecto de las más generales “desgracias contraintuitivas” características de una sociedad industrial. Es el monstruoso resultado de un muy específico sueño de sensatez especialmente “atormentadora” y de una arrogancia desenfrenada (_hybris_). + +Tántalo fue un famoso rey a quien los dioses invitaron al Olimpo para compartir una de sus comidas. Tántalo se robó a Ambrosía, el divino brebaje que daba a los dioses la inmortalidad. Como castigo fue hecho inmortal en los infiernos (Hades) y condenado a sufrir un hambre y una sed sin fin. Cuando Tántalo se inclinaba hacia el río en donde se encontraba de pie, el agua retrocedia, y cuando trataba de alcanzar la fruta que estaba sobre su cabeza, las ramas se movían fuera de su alcance. Los etólogos podrían decir que ahora la Némesis higiénica lo ha programado para tener un comportamiento obligatoriamente contraintuitivo. + +El anhelo por Ambrosía se ha extendido ahora al común de los mortales. + +El optimismo científico y político ha propagado la adicción. Para sostenerlo, Tántalo se ha organizado en un clero que ofrece una mejoría ilimitada de la salud humana bajo control médico. Los miembros de este gremio se hacen pasar por discípulos del curandero Asklepios, mientras que de hecho pregonan a Ambrosía. La gente exige de ellos que la vida se mejore, se prolongue, se vuelva compatible con las máquinas y capaz de sobrevivir a todos los grados de aceleración, distorsión y esfuerzo. Como resultado, la salud se ha vuelto escasa a tal grado que el hombre común hace que su salud dependa del consumo de Ambrosía. + +### Cultura y salud + +La humanidad evolucionó solamente porque cada uno de sus individuos vino a existir protegido por varios capullos visibles e invisibles. Cada uno conoció la matriz de donde había venido y él mismo se orientó por medio de las estrellas bajo las cuales fue traído al mundo. Para ser humano y volverse humano, el individuo de nuestra especie tiene que encontrar su destino en su singular lucha con la naturaleza y su prójimo. Tiene que bastarse a sí mismo en la lucha, pero las armas y las reglas y el estilo le son dados por la cultura en que ha crecido. Cada una de las culturas evolucionó de acuerdo con su propia viabilidad, y con la cultura creció la gente, aprendiendo cada uno a conservarse vivo en un capullo común. Cada cultura es la esencia de las reglas mediante las cuales el individuo pudo aceptar el dolor, la enfermedad y la muerte; pudo interpretarlas y practicar la compasión mezclado con otros que tendrían que enfrentarse a las mismas amenazas. Cada cultura puso el mito, los rituales, los tabúes y los estándares éticos necesarios para tratar con la fragilidad de la vida. + +La civilización médica cosmopolita niega la necesidad de que el hombre acepte estos males. La civilización médica está planteada para matar el dolor, para eliminar la enfermedad y para luchar contra la muerte. Éstas son nuevas metas que nunca antes fueron la pauta para la vida social y que son antitéticas para cada una de las culturas con las que la civilización médica se enfrenta cuando se lanza de súbito sobre lo que se llama pobre. + +El efecto negativo para la salud de la civilización médica es de ese modo igualmente poderoso en los países ricos y pobres, aun cuando estos últimos escapan todavía a algunos de sus lados más siniestros. + +### La destrucción del dolor + +Para que una experiencia sea dolor en el más completo sentido, debe adaptarse a una cultura. Precisamente porque cada cultura proporciona una manera de sufrir, la cultura es una forma particular de salud. El acto de sufrir está formado por la cultura de tal modo que se vuelve una cuestión que puede expresarse y compartirse. + +La civilización médica sustituye la competencia en el sufrimiento determinada culturalmente, por la creciente demanda de cada individuo por una administración institucional de su dolor. Un gran número de diferentes sentimientos, que expresan alguna clase de fortaleza, se homogeneiza y se vuelve centro de la presión política de los consumidores de anestesia. El dolor se convierte en un artículo en la lista de las quejas. Como resultado, un nuevo tipo de horror emerge. Conceptualmente todavía es dolor; pero el impacto en nuestras emociones de esta lastimadura impersonal, opaca y sin valor, es algo bastante nuevo. + +De esta manera, para el hombre industrial el dolor ha venido a plantear una pregunta estrictamente técnica: ¿qué necesito hacer para lograr que mi dolor sea administrado o amortiguado? Si el dolor continúa, la culpa no es del universo, de Dios, de mis pecados o del diablo, sino del sistema médico. + +El sufrimiento es expresión del reclamo del consumidor para el incremento de la producción médica. Al volverse innecesario, el dolor se ha vuelto intolerable. Con esta actitud, ahora parece racional escapar del dolor y no enfrentarlo, aun a costa de la adicción. También parece razonable eliminar el dolor aun a costa de la salud. Parece culto negar legitimidad a todas las ediciones no técnicas del dolor, aun a costa de desarmar a los pacientes frente al dolor residual. Por un tiempo puede discutirse que el total del dolor anestesiado en una sociedad es más grande que la totalidad del dolor generado. Pero en algún punto, grandes inconvenientes marginales surgen. + +El nuevo sufrimiento no sólo es imposible de administrar sino que ha perdido su carácter de referente. Se ha vuelto una tortura que no pregunta y que no tiene significado. Sólo recobrando la voluntad o el deseo y la habilidad para sufrir puede rehacerse la salud en el dolor. + +### La eliminación de la enfermedad + +Las intervenciones médicas no han afectado la proporción total de la mortalidad: en su mejor momento han transferido la supervivencia de uno a otro segmento de la población. Cambios dramáticos en la naturaleza de las enfermedades que han azotado a las sociedades occidentales durante los últimos 100 años están bien documentados. Primero, la industrialización exacerbó las infecciones, las que a la sazón se han apaciguado. La tuberculosis alcanzó su índice más alto comparándola con un periodo de 50-75 años y declinó antes de que el bacilo de la tuberculosis se hubiese descubierto o los programas antituberculosis hubiesen iniciado. En Gran Bretaña y en Estados Unidos síndromes de extrema desnutrición, raquitismo y pelagra tomaron el lugar de la tuberculosis que también alcanzaron su nivel máximo y después declinaron dando lugar a enfermedades de la primera infancia, las que a su vez dieron paso a las úlceras duodenales en los jóvenes. Cuando esto declinó, las epidemias modernas cobraron su cuota —enfermedades de las coronarias, hipertensión, cáncer, artritis, diabetes y enfermedades mentales—. Por lo menos en Estados Unidos la tasa de mortalidad por enfermedades cardiacas originadas por la hipertensión parece declinar ahora. A pesar de una investigación intensiva ninguno de los cambios en la distribución estadística de las enfermedades citadas puede atribuirse a la práctica profesional de la medicina. + +La abrumadora mayoría de los diagnósticos modernos e intervenciones terapéuticas que han demostrado hacer más bien que mal tienen dos características: los recursos materiales para ellas son extremadamente baratos y pueden empacarse y diseñarse para que uno mismo los use o para que los miembros de la familia los apliquen. El precio de la tecnología significativamente curativa que podría fomentar la salud en la medicina canadiense es tan bajo que los recursos que ahora la India dedica a la medicina moderna serían suficientes para poner esa tecnología a disposición de todo el continente. Por otro lado, las habilidades necesarias para la aplicación de los auxilios terapéuticos y de diagnóstico que más se usan son tan sencillas que la cuidadosa observancia de las instrucciones por personas que se preocupen personalmente por ello, garantizaría un uso más efectivo y responsable que el que la práctica médica profesional puede proporcionar. + +Ni el descenso en cualquiera de las mayores epidemias de enfermedades mortales ni los notables cambios en la estructura de las edades de la población, ni la disminución o el aumento del ausentismo en los centros de trabajo, influyen significativamente en el cuidado de los enfermos y ni siquiera en la adquisición de inmunidad. Los servicios médicos no merecen crédito por la longevidad ni a ellos debe achacarse la amenazante presión de la sobrepoblación. La longevidad le debe mucho más al ferrocarril y a la síntesis de los fertilizantes e insecticidas que a los nuevos medicamentos y a las jeringas. + +La práctica profesional es poco efectiva, pero cada vez más solicitada. Esta inflación no respaldada por resultados técnicos sólo puede explicarse en analogía con un ritual mágico cuyas metas están más allá del alcance técnico y político. Sólo puede combatirse a través de una acción legal, política y decidida a favor de la desprofesionalización del cuidado de la salud. + +La desprofesionalización de la medicina no implica ni debería entenderse como la negación de toda atención especializada, de la competencia, del criticismo mutuo o del control público. Implica ante todo una predisposición contra la mistificación, contra el dominio trasnacional de un modo de ver ortodoxo y contra la exclusión del debate de los curanderos escogidos por sus pacientes, pero no certificados por el gremio. + +La desprofesionalización de la medicina no significa tampoco el rechazo de fondos públicos para propósitos curativos. Significa una predisposición contra el desembolso de tales fondos bajo el control de los miembros del gremio, más bien que bajo el control del consumidor. Desprofesionalizar la medicina no significa eliminar las terapias modernas ni oponerse a la invención de otras nuevas, ni tampoco volver a programas, prescripciones, rituales y medios antiguos. Significa que ningún profesional debe tener el poder de malgastar en cualquiera de sus pacientes un paquete de recursos curativos más grande que el que cualquier otro podría reclamar. Finalmente, desprofesionalizar la medicina no significa descuidar las necesidades especiales que la gente manifiesta en momentos especiales de su vida, como al nacer, romperse una pierna, casarse y dar a luz, enfermarse o enfrentar la muerte. Sólo significa que la gente tiene derecho a vivir en un medio ambiente hospitalario que tome en cuenta el alto grado a que ha llegado la experiencia. + +### La lucha contra la muerte + +El efecto fundamental de la Némesis médica es la expropiación de la muerte. En cada sociedad la imagen de la muerte es la anticipación culturalmente condicionada de una fecha insegura. Esta anticipación determina una serie de normas de comportamiento durante la vida y la estructura de ciertas instituciones. + +Por dondequiera que la civilización médica moderna ha penetrado una cultura médica tradicional, ha fomentado un nuevo ideal cultural de la muerte. Este nuevo ideal se extiende por medio de la tecnología y del carácter profesional que a ella corresponde. + +En las sociedades primitivas, la muerte siempre se imagina como la intervención de un agente: un enemigo, una bruja, un antepasado o un dios. + +La Edad Media cristiana y la islámica vieron en cada muerte la mano de Dios. El ideal occidental de la muerte que viene a todos por igual por causas naturales tiene un origen bastante reciente. La muerte en Occidente sólo tuvo rostro hasta por el año 1420. Fue durante el otoño de la Edad Media cuando la muerte apareció como un esqueleto dotado de poder, y a partir del siglo XVI, los pueblos europeos desarrollaron “el arte y la habilidad para conocer tu deseo de morir” (_arte and crafte to knowe ye will to dye_). + +Durante los tres siglos siguientes, los labriegos y los nobles, los sacerdotes y las prostitutas se preparaban a lo largo de su vida a presidir su propia muerte. La muerte injusta, la muerte amarga se convirtió en el fin más bien que en la meta de la vida. La idea de que la muerte natural vendría sólo en la vejez hizo su aparición en el siglo XVIII como un fenómeno específico de la clase burguesa. La demanda para que los doctores lucharan contra la muerte y conservaran saludables a personas delicadas y enfermizas (valetudinarios) no tiene nada que ver con su habilidad para prolongar la vida. Philippe Ariès ha demostrado que los primeros costosos intentos de prolongar la vida fueron pagados por banqueros cuyo poder se había incrementado por los años que habían pasado ante un escritorio. + +No se puede comprender a fondo la organización social contemporánea si no se ve en ella un exorcismo polifacético de todas las formas de muerte maligna. Nuestras mayores instituciones constituyen un gigantesco programa de defensa de la “humanidad” contra todos aquellos agentes que pueden asociarse con lo que comúnmente se concibe como la injusticia social del trato con la muerte. No sólo las agencias médicas sino también los programas para el bienestar, la ayuda internacional y el desarrollo se han alistado en esta lucha. Las burocracias ideológicas de todos los colores se han unido a la cruzada. Hasta la guerra se usa para justificar la derrota de aquellos a quienes se considera culpables de la tolerancia desenfrenada de la enfermedad y de la muerte. Garantizar la “muerte natural” para todos los hombres está a punto de volverse una justificación fundamental para el control social. Bajo la influencia de rituales médicos, la muerte contemporánea vuelve a ser la justificación razonada de una cacería de brujas. + +### Sumario + +Un creciente daño irreparable acompaña la presente expansión industrial en todos los sectores. En medicina estos daños aparecen como iatrogénesis. La iatrogénesis puede ser directa, cuando el dolor, la enfermedad y la muerte son el resultado de la atención médica; o también puede ser indirecta, cuando los sistemas de salud refuerzan a una organización industrial dañina para la salud; puede ser estructural cuando el comportamiento promovido médicamente y el _bluff_ profesional mutilan la autonomía vital del pueblo, socavando su autonomía creativa, su autoestima y su arte de envejecer. La iatrogénesis nulifica el reto personal planteado por el dolor, la incapacidad y la angustia. + +La mayoría de los remedios propuestos para reducir la iatrogénesis son intervenciones dirigidas. Están terapéuticamente diseñadas para adaptar al individuo al grupo, a la institución o al medio ambiente. Al fomentar un nuevo prejuicio contra la autonomía del ciudadano, estos remedios generan padecimientos iatrogénicos de segundo orden. + +Sin embargo, los efectos iatrogénicos de la estructura técnico-médica son el resultado de sus funciones sociales no técnicas. Las repugnantes consecuencias técnicas y no técnicas de la institucionalización de la medicina se unen para generar una nueva clase de sufrimiento: la supervivencia anestesiada y solitaria en una sala de hospital ancha como el mundo. + +La Némesis médica no puede verificarse funcionalmente. Mucho menos puede medirse. La intensidad con la que se experimenta depende de la independencia, vitalidad y sociabilidad de cada individuo. En tanto concepto teórico es parte de una amplia teoría de las anomalías que plagan hoy los sistemas para el cuidado de la salud. Es un aspecto peculiar de un fenómeno aún más general que he llamado Némesis industrial: el contragolpe de la arrogancia industrial desenfrenada (_hybris_) e institucionalizada. Esta _hybris_ consiste en el descuido de los linderos dentro de los cuales el fenómeno humano permanece viable. La actual investigación científica está abrumadoramente orientada hacia la apertura de pasos inasequibles. Lo que yo he llamado la investigación para la gente es el análisis disciplinado a niveles en los que tales reverberaciones deben inevitablemente dañar al hombre. + +La percepción de una Némesis envolvente nos lleva a una opción social. + +O se reconocen los umbrales naturales de la acción humana y se traducen dentro de límites determinados políticamente, o la alternativa a la extinción será la supervivencia obligatoria, un Infierno planeado y dirigido. + +En varios países, el público está listo para efectuar una revisión de sus sistemas de salud. Las frustraciones de los usuarios de los sistemas controlados por empresas privadas se asemejan cada vez más a las que provocan los sistemas socializados. Las diferencias entre las quejas de los rusos, franceses, americanos e ingleses se han vuelto insignificantes. Hay, sin embargo, un serio peligro de que las evaluaciones de estos sistemas se efectúen dentro de las coordenadas fijadas por las ilusiones poscartesianas. + +Tanto en los países ricos como en los pobres las demandas para reformar los sistemas nacionales de salud están dominadas por las ilusiones de un acceso equitativo a las mercaderías del gremio, por el espejismo de la expansión profesional y de la de los curanderos. Es así como se cree lograr mayor verdad en las proclamas del progreso y el control del acceso al templo de Tántalo. Hasta la fecha la discusión pública de la crisis de la salud se ha usado para canalizar aún más poder, prestigio y dinero hacia los ingenieros y diseñadores biomédicos. + +Todavía es tiempo de evitar un debate que reforzaría al frustrante sistema. La discusión debe orientarse haciendo de la Némesis higiénica el acontecimiento central. La explicación de Némesis requiere la elucidación simultánea del lado técnico y del lado no técnico de la medicina; debe enfocarse tanto a la industria como a la religión. La denuncia de la medicina como una forma de _hybris_ institucional pone en tela de juicio esas ilusiones personales que paralizan al crítico dependiente del cuidado de la salud. + +La percepción y comprensión de Némesis tiene por lo tanto el poder de orientarnos hacia formas de acción que rompan el círculo vicioso de quejas que refuerzan la dependencia del demandante hacia las agencias de planeación sanitaria. El reconocimiento de Némesis puede ser la purga necesaria para una revolución no violenta de nuestras actitudes hacia lo perverso y el dolor. La alternativa a una cruzada contra estos males es la búsqueda de la paz de los fuertes. + +La salud denota un proceso de adaptación. No es fruto del instinto sino una reacción autónoma y viva a una realidad experimentada. Connota la habilidad para adaptarse a cambios del medio ambiente, al crecimiento y al envejecimiento, a sanar cuando se está enfermo, al sufrimiento y a la espera tranquila de la muerte. La salud abarca asimismo el porcentaje y por lo tanto incluye la angustia y la capacidad interior de vivir con ella. + +La fragilidad, la soledad y la sociabilidad vividas conscientemente por el hombre hacen de las experiencias del dolor, de la enfermedad y de la muerte una parte integral de su vida. La habilidad autónoma para hacer frente a este trío es fundamental para su salud. En el momento en que llegara a depender de la administración de su intimidad y renunciara a su autonomía, su salud declinaría inmediatamente. El verdadero milagro de la medicina moderna es diabólico. Consiste en hacer no sólo que individuos sino poblaciones enteras sobrevivan en niveles inhumanos de salud personal. Que la salud declina con el aumento en la distribución de los servicios de salud sorprende únicamente al gerente sanitario para el que las estrategias son el resultado de su ceguera que busca la inalienabilidad de la salud. + +El nivel de la salud pública corresponde al grado en que los medios y la responsabilidad para hacer frente a la enfermedad se distribuyen entre el total de la población. La habilidad para hacer frente a las enfermedades puede acrecentarse. pero nunca reemplazarse por la intervención médica en la vida de la gente o en las características higiénicas del medio ambiente. + +Aquella sociedad que pueda reducir la intervención profesional al mínimo, proveerá las mejores condiciones para la salud. Mientras más grande sea la capacidad autónoma de la adaptación a uno mismo, a otros y al medio ambiente, menos administración para la adaptación se necesitará o tolerará. + +Recobrar una sana actitud hacia la enfermedad no es ni luddita ni romántica ni utópica: es un ideal que servirá de guía y que si bien nunca podrá alcanzarse totalmente, sí podrá lograrse de manera parcial valiéndose de modernos inventos como nunca antes ha habido en la historia. El mismo ideal deberá orientar la política hacia la definición de límites que eviten que se inmiscuya Némesis. + +## La elocuencia del silencio + +La lingüistica nos ha provisto de nuevos horizontes para la comprensión de las comunicaciones humanas. Un estudio objetivo de la manera como se transmiten los significados ha demostrado que es mucho más lo que un hombre retransmite a otro a través del silencio que a través de las palabras. + +Las palabras y las cláusulas están compuestas de silencios mucho más significativos que los sonidos de las mismas. Se puede decir que las pausas entre los sonidos y las articulaciones están preñadas y pasan a ser dominios luminosos en medio de un vacío increíble, como los electrones en un átomo o los planetas del sistema solar. El lenguaje es una cuerda de silencio en el que los sonidos son los nudos —de la misma manera que en un _quipu_ peruano los espacios vacíos hablan—. En Confucio podemos ver el lenguaje como si fuera una rueda. Los rayos convergen hacia un centro, pero son los espacios vacíos los que hacen la rueda. + +Es así que lo que debemos aprender de otra persona para entenderla no son sus palabras sino sus silencios. No son tanto nuestros sonidos los que proveen el significado, sino que nos hacemos entender mediante las pausas. + +El aprendizaje de una lengua radica mucho más en el aprendizaje de sus silencios que de sus sonidos. Solamente el cristiano cree en la Palabra como el Silencio coeterno. Entre los hombres de todas las épocas el ritmo es una ley mediante la cual nuestra conversación se convierte en un _yangyin_ de silencio y sonido. De ahí que aprender una lengua de manera humana y madura consiste en aceptar la responsabilidad de sus silencios y de sus sonidos. El don que una persona nos otorga al enseñarnos su lengua es mucho más la comunicación del don del ritmo, el modo y las sutilezas de su sistema del silencio, que el de sus sonidos. Es un regalo íntimo por el que nos hacemos responsables ante quienes nos han confiado su lenguaje. Un lenguaje del que conozca solamente las palabras, pero no las pausas, es una ofensa permanente; la caricatura de un negativo fotográfico. + +Se requiere más esfuerzo, tiempo y delicadeza para aprender el silencio de un pueblo que para aprender sus sonidos. Algunas personas están mejor dotadas que otras para esto. De ahí, quizás, que algunos misioneros, a pesar de sus esfuerzos, nunca llegan a hablar otra lengua con propiedad, esto es, a comunicarse delicadamente mediante silencios. Aunque “hablen con el acento de los nativos” siempre están a miles de kilómetros de los mismos. + +El aprendizaje de la gramática del silencio es un arte mucho más difícil que el aprendizaje de la gramática de los sonidos. + +Así como las palabras se aprenden al escuchar con atención y al intentar penosamente imitar al nativo, los silencios se adquieren a través de una delicada franqueza hacia ellas. El silencio tiene sus pausas y sus vacilaciones; sus ritmos, expresiones e inflexiones; sus duraciones y sus tonos; sus razones de ser y sus fuera de lugar. Así como con nuestras palabras, hay también una analogía entre nuestro silencio con los hombres y con Dios. Para comprender el significado completo de uno, debemos practicar y profundizar el otro. + +Si clasificáramos los silencios, el primer lugar lo ocuparía el silencio del mero oyente, de una pasividad femenina; un silencio mediante el cual el mensaje de los otros se hace “él en nosotros”. El silencio del profundo interés está amenazado por otro silencio, el silencio de la indiferencia, que asume que no hay nada que yo quiera o pueda recibir de la comunicación del otro. Éste es el silencio ominoso de la esposa que, como si fuera una figura de palo, escucha a su marido relatarle fervorosamente una serie de pequeñeces. Es el mismo silencio del cristiano que lee el Evangelio con la actitud de conocerlo de cabo a rabo. Es el silencio de la piedra —que está muerto porque no se relaciona con la vida—. Es el silencio del misionero que nunca comprendió el milagro de un extranjero oyente y que es un mayor testimonio de amor que el del que habla. El hombre que nos muestra que conoce el ritmo de nuestro silencio está mucho más cerca de nosotros que aquel que cree que sabe hablar. + +Mientras mayor sea la distancia entre los dos mundos, mayor muestra de amor será este silencio del interés. Es fácil para la mayoría de los norteamericanos escuchar chismes sobre el futbol; pero es un signo de amor el que un hombre del Medio Oeste escuche los datos del jai alai. El silencio del cura urbano que escucha los datos de la enfermedad de un chivo en el autobús es un regalo, el fruto verdadero de una forma misionera de largo entrenamiento y paciencia. + +No hay distancia más grande que la que existe entre un hombre que reza y Dios. Sólo cuando esta distancia asoma en la conciencia puede desarrollarse el silencio agradecido de la disposición paciente. Ése debe haber sido el silencio de la Virgen ante el _Ave_, que le permitió convertirse en el modelo eterno de la claridad ante la Palabra. Gracias a ese profundo silencio la Palabra pudo recibir la Carne. Únicamente en la oración de quien escucha silenciosamente puede el cristiano adquirir el hábito de este primer silencio a partir del cual la Palabra nace en una cultura extranjera. Esta Palabra, concebida en el silencio, crece también en el silencio. + +El segundo lugar en una gramática del silencio está ocupado por el silencio de la Virgen después que concibió la Palabra —un silencio del que nació no tanto el _Fiat_ como el _Magnificat_—. No tanto un silencio que acerque al hombre a la concepción como un silencio que alimenta a la Palabra concebida. Un silencio que encierra al hombre en sí mismo permitiéndole así preparar la Palabra para los demás. Es el silencio de la sintonía; un silencio en el que aguardamos el instante propicio para que la Palabra nazca en el mundo. + +Ese silencio también se halla amenazado, no solamente por la prisa y la profanación de la multiplicidad de la acción, sino también por la costumbre del hábito verbal y de la producción masiva que no tiene tiempo para él. + +Está amenazado por un silencio abaratado según el cual una palabra es tan buena como cualquier otra y ninguna necesita crearse. + +El misionero, o el extranjero, que usa las palabras tal como figuran en el diccionario, no conoce este silencio. Es el hombre de habla inglesa que, al tratar de decir algo en español, busca dentro de sí mismo la palabra en inglés en lugar de procurar la sintonía o en lugar de encontrar la palabra o el gesto o el silencio que sea entendido aunque carezca de equivalente en su propio lenguaje o en su propia cultura. Es el hombre que no da tiempo a que la semilla del nuevo lenguaje crezca en el surco extranjero de su alma. Éste es el silencio _anterior_ a las palabras o _entre_ ellas; el silencio en el que las palabras viven y mueren. Es el silencio del rezo lento de duda; el de la oración en la que las palabras tienen la valentía de nadar en un mar de silencio. Es diametralmente opuesto a otras formas de silencio anteriores a la palabra —el silencio de la flor artificial que recuerda a las palabras que no crecen, la pausa entre las repeticiones—. Es el silencio del misionero que espera la dispensa de la siguiente perogrullada que tiene que memorizar porque no ha hecho el esfuerzo de penetrar en el lenguaje vivo de los demás. El silencio antes de las palabras se opone también al silencio de la agresión urdida —si es que a eso puede llamársele silencio—, el cual también es un intervalo empleado para preparar las palabras, pero palabras que en lugar de unir dividen. Éste es el silencio que tienta al misionero cuando se aferra a la idea de que en español no hay manera de significar lo que quiere decir. Un silencio en el que una agresión verbal —por más velada que sea— prepara la siguiente. + +En esta gramática del silencio el lugar próximo está ocupado por el silencio que está _más allá_ de las palabras. A medida que avanzamos en la clasificación de los silencios crece también la distancia que separa a un buen silencio de un mal silencio. Hemos llegado ahora al tipo de silencio que no anticipa ninguna conversación futura. Es el silencio que lo ha dicho todo porque ya no hay nada más que decir. Éste es el silencio que está más allá de un _sí_ o un _no_ terminantes. Es el silencio del amor más allá de las palabras, así como el silencio del no para siempre; el silencio de un paraíso o del infierno. Es la actitud decisiva de un hombre que se enfrenta a la Palabra que es Silencio, o el silencio de un hombre que se ha obstinado en darle la espalda. + +Este silencio es el infierno, un silencio fulminante. En este silencio, la muerte no es la frialdad de la piedra, indiferente a la vida, ni la insensibilidad de una flor seca, rememoración de la vida. Es la muerte después de la vida —el rechazo final de la vida—. Este silencio puede estar lleno de ruidos y de agitaciones y de palabras, pero tiene un solo significado que es común a todos los ruidos y a todos los lapsos que los separan: _No_. + +Hay una manera en la que este silencio infernal amenaza la existencia del misionero. De hecho, las posibilidades inusitadas de testimoniar a través del silencio abren al hombre cargado con la Palabra, en un mundo que no es el suyo, la habilidad inusitada de destruir con el silencio. El silencio misionero arriesga mucho más: convertirse en el infierno en la propia tierra. + +En definitiva, el silencio misionero es un don, un don de oración — aprendido en la oración por alguien infinitamente distante y extranjero, experimentado en el amor a los hombres, siempre mucho más distante y extranjero que un hombre en su propia casa—. Puede que el misionero olvide que su silencio es un don, en el más profundo sentido de lo otorgado gratuitamente, un don que nos transmiten concretamente quienes desean enseñarnos su lenguaje. Si el misionero olvida esto y trata de conquistar a través de su propio poder aquello que sólo los otros pueden ofrendar, entonces su existencia comienza a estar amenazada. El hombre que intenta comprar el lenguaje como si se tratara de una camisa, el hombre que trata de conquistar el lenguaje a través de la gramática para poder hablar “mejor que los nativos de por aquí”, el hombre que olvida la analogía entre el silencio de Dios y el silencio de los otros y no trata de hacerla crecer a través de la oración, es un hombre que básicamente trata de violar la cultura a la que ha sido enviado, y debe por lo tanto esperar las reacciones correspondientes. Si tiene una pizca de humano se dará cuenta de que está en una prisión espiritual, pero no admitirá que él mismo la ha creado; acusará a los otros de ser sus carceleros. La muralla que lo separa de aquellos a los que ha sido enviado se hará cada vez más impenetrable. + +Mientras se vea a sí mismo como “misionero” sabrá que está frustrado, que fue enviado pero no llegó a ninguna parte, que salió de su hogar pero nunca llegó a ninguna tierra firme, que dejó su casa y nunca entró en otra. + +Mientras continúa predicando aumenta en él la conciencia de que no lo entienden, porque dice lo que cree y habla su propio lenguaje en una farsa extranjera. Continúa “haciendo cosas para los demás” y los considera desagradecidos porque entienden que todo lo que hace tiene por objeto defender su ego. Sus palabras se convierten en una burla del lenguaje, en una expresión de un silencio de muerte. + +A esta altura se necesita una gran valentía para regresar al paciente silencio del interés o a la delicadeza del silencio en el que germinan las palabras. La sordera ha dado lugar al mutismo. A menudo, el miedo a enfrentar la dificultad de aprender un lenguaje nuevo, avanzada ya la vida, conduce a un estado de desesperación. Una versión típicamente misionera del silencio infernal nació en su corazón. + +En el polo opuesto de la desesperación está el silencio del amor, las manos entrelazadas de los amantes. La oración en la que la vaguedad anterior a las palabras cedió al vacío absoluto que las sigue. La forma de comunicación que abre la sencilla profundidad del alma. Viene por momentos y se puede convertir en una vida entera —tanto en la oración como entre las personas—. Quizás ése sea el único aspecto universal del lenguaje, el único medio de comunicación que no alcanzó la maldición de Babel. Quizá sea la única manera de estar con los otros y con la Palabra sin tener un acento extranjero. + +Hay todavía otro silencio que está más allá de las palabras: el de la Pietà. No es un silencio de muerte sino el silencio del misterio de la muerte. + +No es el silencio de la aceptación activa de la voluntad de Dios, que da lugar al nacimiento del _Fiat_; ni tampoco el silencio de la aceptación viril del Getsemaní en el que está enraizada la obediencia. El silencio que ustedes como misioneros buscan adquirir a través de este curso de español es el silencio que está más allá del azoro y de las preguntas; un silencio que está más allá de la posibilidad de una respuesta o siquiera de una referencia a la palabra precedente. Es el silencio misterioso a través del cual el Señor pudo descender al silencio del infierno, la aceptación sin frustraciones de una vida, inútil y desperdiciada en Judas, un silencio de impotencia deseada libremente a través de la cual se salvó el mundo. Nacido para redimir el mundo, el Hijo de María murió a manos de Su pueblo, abandonado por Sus amigos y traicionado por Judas, a quien amó pero no pudo salvar — contemplación silenciosa de la paradoja culminante de la Encarnación que no sirvió siquiera para redimir a un amigo personal—. La apertura del alma a este silencio fundamental de la Pietà es la culminación de la lenta maduración de las tres formas previas del silencio misionero. diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/awareness/index.txt b/data/pages/es/book/awareness/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa29537 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/awareness/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# Alternativas + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Alternativas_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1973 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** ... + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/en.txt b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/en.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..3485526 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../en/book/conviviality/en.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/es.txt b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/es.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..92078b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1,750 @@ +# La convivencialidad + +> Esta versión traducida de la obra esta basada en las siguientes ediciones pre-existentes: Barral Editores, España (1974); Editorial Posada, México (1978); Joaquín Mortiz / Planeta, México (1985). Se incorporan cambios y correcciones tomando como referencia el texto original. + + + +## Prefacio + +En enero de 1972 un grupo de latinoamericanos, principalmente chilenos, peruanos y mexicanos, se encontraron en el Centro Intercultural de Documentación (CIDOC), en Cuernavaca, para discutir la hipótesis siguiente: existen características técnicas en los medios de producción que hacen imposible su control en un proceso político. Sólo una sociedad que acepte la necesidad de escoger un techo común a ciertas dimensiones técnicas en sus medios de producción tiene alternativas políticas. La tesis discutida había sido formulada en un documento elaborado en 1971 con Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del CIDOC. + +Formulé las líneas fundamentales de este ensayo sucesivamente en español, inglés y francés; sometí mis ideas a grupos de médicos, arquitectos, educadores y otros ideólogos; las publiqué en revistas serias y en hojitas atrevidas. Agradezco profundamente a quienes quisieron criticarme y así me ayudaron a precisar mis conceptos. Sobre todo doy las gracias a los participantes en mi seminario en CIDOC en los años 1971-1973, quienes reconocerán en estas páginas no solamente sus ideas sino, con mucha frecuencia, sus palabras. + +Este libro tomó su forma definitiva a raíz de una presentación que hice para un grupo de magistrados y legisladores canadienses. Ahí utilicé por primera vez el paradigma del derecho común anglosajón, que desde entonces quedó incorporado en la estructura del ensayo. Me hubiese gustado poder ilustrar los mismos puntos refiriéndome a los fueros de España, pero mi tardío descubrimiento posterga intentarlo. + +Ivan Illich, Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978. + +## Introducción + +Durante estos próximos años intento trabajar en un epílogo a la era industrial. Quiero delinear el contorno de las mutaciones que afectan al lenguaje, al derecho, a los mitos y a los ritos, en esta época en que se condicionan los hombres y los productos. Quiero trazar un cuadro del ocaso del modo de producción industrial y de la metamorfosis de las profesiones que él engendra y alimenta. + +Sobre todo quiero mostrar lo siguiente: las dos terceras partes de la humanidad pueden aún evitar el atravesar por la era industrial si eligen, desde ahora, un modo de producción basado en un equilibrio posindustrial, ese mismo contra el cual las naciones superindustrializadas se verán acorraladas por la amenaza del caos. Con miras a ese trabajo y en preparación al mismo presento este manifiesto a la atención y la crítica del público. + +En este sentido hace ya varios años que sigo una investigación crítica sobre el monopolio del modo industrial de producción y sobre la posibilidad de definir conceptualmente otros modos de producción posindustrial. Al principio centré mi análisis en la instrumentación educativa; en los resultados publicados en _La sociedad desescolarizada_ (Illich, 1971), quedaron establecidos los puntos siguientes: + +_1._ La educación universal por medio de la escuela obligatoria es imposible. + +_2._ Condicionar a las masas por medio de la educación permanente en nada soluciona los problemas técnicos, pero esto resulta moralmente menos tolerable que la escuela antigua. Nuevos sistemas educativos están en vías de suplantar los sistemas escolares tradicionales tanto en los países ricos como en los pobres. Estos sistemas son instrumentos de condicionamiento, poderosos y eficaces, que producirán en serie una mano de obra especializada consumidores dóciles, usuarios resignados. Tales sistemas hacen rentable y generalizan los procesos de educación a escala de toda una sociedad. Tienen aspectos seductores, pero su seducción oculta la destrucción. Tienen también aspectos que destruyen, de manera sutil e implacable, los valores fundamentales. + +_3._ Una sociedad que aspire a repartir equitativamente el acceso al saber entre sus miembros y a ofrecerles la posibilidad de encontrarse realmente, debería reconocer límites a la manipulación pedagógica y terapéutica que puede exigirse por el crecimiento industrial y que nos obliga a mantener este crecimiento más acá de ciertos umbrales críticos. + +El sistema escolar me ha parecido el ejemplo-tipo de un escenario que se repite en otros campos del complejo industrial: se trata de producir un servicio, llamado de utilidad pública, para satisfacer una necesidad llamada elemental. Luego, nuestra atención se trasladó al sistema de la asistencia médica obligatoria y al sistema de los transportes que, al rebasar cierto umbral de velocidad, también se convierten, a su manera, en obligatorios. La superproducción industrial de un servicio tiene efectos secundarios tan catastróficos y destructores como la superproducción de un bien. Así pues, nos encontramos enfrentando un abanico de límites al crecimiento de los servicios de una sociedad; como en el caso de los bienes, estos límites son inherentes al proceso del crecimiento y, por lo tanto, inexorables. + +De manera que podemos concluir que los _límites_ asignables al crecimiento deben concernir a _los bienes y los servicios_ producidos industrialmente. Son estos límites lo que debemos descubrir y poner de manifiesto. + +Anticipo aquí el concepto de _equilibrio multidimensional_ de la vida humana. Dentro del espacio que traza este concepto, podremos analizar la relación del hombre con su herramienta. Aplicando _'el análisis dimensional'_ esta relación adquirirá una significación absoluta _'natural'_. En cada una de sus dimensiones, este equilibrio de la vida humana corresponde a una escala natural determinada. Cuando una labor con herramientas sobrepasa un umbral definido por la escala _ad hoc_, se vuelve contra su fin, amenazando luego destruir el cuerpo social en su totalidad. Es menester determinar con precisión estas escalas y los umbrales que permitan circunscribir el campo de la supervivencia humana. + +En la etapa avanzada de la producción en masa, una sociedad produce su propia destrucción. Se desnaturaliza la naturaleza: el hombre, desarraigado, castrado en su creatividad, queda encarcelado en su cápsula individual. La colectividad pasa a regirse por el juego combinado de una exacerbada polarización y de una extrema especialización. La continua preocupación por renovar modelos y mercancías produce una aceleración del cambio que destruye el recurso al _precedente_ como guía de la acción. El monopolio del modo de producción industrial convierte a los hombres en materia prima elaboradora de la herramienta. Y esto ya es insoportable. Poco importa que se trate de un monopolio privado o público, la degradación de la naturaleza, la destrucción de los lazos sociales y la desintegración del hombre nunca podrán servir al pueblo. + +Las ideologías imperantes sacan a la luz las contradicciones de la sociedad capitalista. No presentan un cuadro que permita analizar la crisis del modo de producción industrial. Yo espero que algún día, con suficiente vigor y rigor, se formule una teoría general de la industrialización, para que enfrente el asalto de la crítica. + +Para que funcionara adecuadamente, esta teoría tendría que plasmar sus conceptos en un lenguaje común a todas las partes interesadas. Los criterios, conceptualmente definidos, serían otras tantas herramientas a escala humana: instrumentos de medición, medios de control, guías para la acción. Se evaluarían las técnicas disponibles y las diferentes programaciones sociales que implican. Se determinarían umbrales de nocividad de las herramientas, según se volvieran contra su fin o amenazaran al hombre; se limitaría el poder de la herramienta. Se inventarían formas y ritmos de un modo de producción posindustrial y de un nuevo mundo social. + +No es fácil imaginar una sociedad donde la organización industrial esté equilibrada y compensada con modos distintos de producción complementarios y de alto rendimiento. Estamos en tal grado deformados por los hábitos industriales, que ya no osamos considerar el campo de las posibilidades; para nosotros, renunciar a la producción en masa significa retornar a las cadenas del pasado, o adoptar la utopía del buen salvaje. Pero si hemos de ensanchar nuestro ángulo de visión hacia las dimensiones de la realidad, habremos de reconocer que no existe una única forma de utilizar los descubrimientos científicos, sino por lo menos dos, antinómicas entre sí. Una consiste en la aplicación del descubrimiento que conduce a la especialización de las labores, a la institucionalización de los valores, a la centralización del poder. En ella el hombre se convierte en accesorio de la megamáquina, en engranaje de la burocracia. Pero existe una segunda forma de hacer fructificar la invención, que aumenta el poder y el saber de cada uno, permitiéndole ejercitar su creatividad, con la sola condición de no coartar esa misma posibilidad a los demás. + +Si queremos, pues, hablar sobre el mundo futuro, diseñar los contornos teóricos de una sociedad por venir que no sea hiperindustrial, debemos reconocer la existencia de escalas y de límites _naturales_. El equilibrio de la vida se expande en varias dimensiones, y, frágil y complejo, no transgrede ciertos cercos. Hay umbrales que no deben rebasarse. Debemos reconocer que la esclavitud humana no fue abolida por la máquina, sino que solamente obtuvo un rostro nuevo, pues al trasponer un umbral, la herramienta se convierte de servidor en déspota. Pasado un umbral la sociedad se convierte en una escuela, un hospital o una prisión. Es entonces cuando comienza el gran encierro. Importa ubicar precisamente en dónde se encuentra este umbral crítico para cada componente del equilibrio global. Entonces será posible articular de forma nueva la milenaria tríada del hombre, de la herramienta y de la sociedad. Llamo sociedad convivencial a aquella en que la herramienta moderna está al servicio de la persona integrada a la colectividad y no al servicio de un cuerpo de especialistas. Convivencial es la sociedad en la que el hombre controla la herramienta. + +Me doy cuenta de que introduzco una palabra nueva en el uso habitual del lenguaje. Me fundo para ello en el recurso al precedente. El padre de este vocablo es Brillat Savarin en su _Physiologie du gout: Med tat ons sur la gastronomie trascendentale_. Debo precisar, sin embargo, que en la aceptación un poco novedosa que confiero al calificativo, convivencial es la herramienta, no el hombre. + +Al hombre que encuentra su alegría y su equilibrio en el empleo de la herramienta convivencial, le llamo austero. Conoce lo que en castellano podría llamarse _la convivencialidad_; vive dentro de lo que el idioma alemán describe como _Mitmenschlichkeit_. Porque la austeridad no tiene virtud de aislamiento o de reclusión en sí misma. Para Aristóteles como para Tomás de Aquino la austeridad es lo que funda la amistad. Al tratar del juego ordenado y creador, Tomás definió la austeridad[^n01] como una virtud que no excluye todos los placeres, sino únicamente aquellos que degradan la relación personal. La austeridad forma parte de una virtud que es más frágil, que la supera y que la engloba: _la alegría, la eutrapelia, la amistad_. + +## Dos umbrales de mutación + +El año 1913 marca un giro en la historia de la medicina moderna, ya que traspone un umbral. A partir aproximadamente de esta fecha, el paciente tiene más de cincuenta por ciento de probabilidades de que un médico diplomado le proporcione tratamiento eficaz, a condición, por supuesto, de que su mal se encuentre en el repertorio de la ciencia médica de la época. Familiarizados con el ambiente natural, los chamanes y los curanderos no habían esperado hasta esa fecha para atribuirse resultados similares, en un mundo que vivía en un estado de salud concebido en forma diferente. + +A partir de entonces, la medicina ha refinado la definición de los males y la eficacia de los tratamientos. En Occidente, la población ha aprendido a sentirse enferma y a ser atendida de acuerdo con las categorías de moda en los círculos médicos. La obsesión de la cuantificación ha llegado a dominar la clínica, lo cual ha permitido a los médicos medir la magnitud de su éxito por criterios que ellos mismos han establecido. Es así como la salud se ha vuelto una mercancía dentro de una economía en desarrollo. Esta transformación de la salud en producto de consumo social se refleja en la importancia que se da a las estadísticas médicas. + +Sin embargo, los resultados estadísticos sobre los que se basa cada vez más el prestigio de la profesión médica no son, en lo esencial, fruto de sus actividades. La reducción, muchas veces espectacular, de la morbilidad y de la mortalidad se debe sobre todo a las transformaciones del hábitat y del régimen alimenticio y a la adopción de ciertas reglas de higiene muy simples. + +Los alcantarillados, la clorización del agua, el matamoscas, la asepsia y los certificados de no contaminación que requieren los viajeros o las prostitutas, han tenido una influencia benéfica mucho más fuerte que el conjunto de los 'métodos' de tratamientos especializados muy complejos. El avance de la medicina se ha traducido más en controlar las tasas de incidencia que en aumentar la vitalidad de los individuos. + +En cierto sentido, la industrialización, más que el hombre, es la que se ha beneficiado con los progresos de la medicina; la gente se capacitó mejor para trabajar con mayor regularidad bajo condiciones más deshumanizantes. Para ocultar el carácter profundamente destructor de la nueva instrumentación, del trabajo en cadena y del imperio del automóvil, se dio amplia publicidad a los tratamientos espectaculares aplicados a las victimas de la agresión industrial en todas sus formas: velocidad, tensión nerviosa, envenenamiento del ambiente. Y el médico se transformó en un mago; sólo él dispone del poder de hacer milagros que exorcicen el temor; un temor que es engendrado, precisamente, por la necesidad de sobrevivir en un mundo amenazador. + +Al mismo tiempo, si los medios para diagnosticar la necesidad de ciertos tratamientos y el instrumento terapéutico correspondiente se simplificaban, cada uno podría haber determinado mejor por sí mismo los casos de gravidez o septicemia, como podría haber practicado un aborto o tratado un buen número de infecciones. La paradoja está en que mientras más sencilla se vuelve la herramienta, más insiste la profesión médica en conservar el monopolio. Mientras más se prolonga la duración para la iniciación del terapeuta, más depende de él la población en la aplicación de los cuidados más elementales. La higiene, una virtud desde la antigüedad, se convierte en el ritual que un cuerpo de especialistas celebra ante el altar de la ciencia. + +Recién terminada la Segunda Guerra Mundial, se puso de manifiesto que la medicina moderna tenía peligrosos efectos secundarios. Pero habría de transcurrir cierto tiempo antes de que los médicos identificaran la nueva amenaza que representaban los microbios que se habían hecho resistentes a la quimioterapia, y reconocieran un nuevo género de epidemias dentro de los desórdenes genéticos debidos al empleo de rayos X y otros tratamientos durante la gravidez. Treinta años antes, Bernard Shaw se lamentaba ya: los médicos dejan de curar, decía, para tomar a su cargo la vida de sus pacientes. Ha sido necesario esperar hasta los años cincuenta para que esta observación se convirtiera en evidencia: al producir nuevos tipos de enfermedades, la medicina franqueaba un segundo umbral de mutación. + +En el primer plano de los desórdenes que induce la profesión, es necesario colocar su pretensión de fabricar una salud 'mejor'. Las primeras víctimas de este mal iatrogenético (es decir, engendrado por la medicina) fueron los planificadores y los médicos. Pronto la aberración se extendió por todo el cuerpo social. En el transcurso de los quince años siguientes, la medicina especializada se convirtió en una verdadera amenaza para la salud. Se emplearon sumas colosales para borrar los estragos inconmensurables producidos por los tratamientos médicos. No es tan cara la curación como lo es la prolongación de la enfermedad. Los moribundos pueden vegetar por mucho tiempo, aprisionados en un pulmón de acero, dependientes de un tubo de perfusión, o sometidos al funcionamiento de un riñón artificial. Sobrevivir en ciudades insalubres, y a pesar de las condiciones de trabajo extenuantes, cuesta cada vez más caro. Mientras tanto, el monopolio médico extiende su acción a un número cada vez mayor de situaciones de la vida cotidiana. No sólo el tratamiento médico, sino también la investigación biológica, han contribuido a esta proliferación de las enfermedades. La invención de cada nueva modalidad de vida y de muerte ha llevado consigo la definición paralela de una nueva norma y, en cada caso, la definición correspondiente de una nueva desviación, de una nueva malignidad. + +Finalmente, se ha hecho imposible para la abuela, para la tía o para la vecina, hacerse cargo de una mujer encinta, de un herido, de un enfermo, de un lisiado o de un moribundo, con lo cual se ha creado una demanda imposible de satisfacer. A medida que sube el precio del servicio, la asistencia personal se hace más difícil, y frecuentemente imposible. Al mismo tiempo, cada vez se hace más justificable el tratamiento para situaciones comunes, a partir de la multiplicación de las especializaciones y para profesiones cuyo único fin es mantener la instrumentación terapéutica bajo el control de la corporación. + +Al llegar al segundo umbral, es la _vida_ misma la que parece enferma dentro de un ambiente deletéreo. La protección de una población sumisa y dependiente se convierte en la preocupación principal, y en el gran negocio, de la profesión médica. Se vuelve un privilegio la costosa asistencia de prevención o de cura, al cual tienen derecho únicamente los consumidores importantes de servicios médicos. Las personas que pueden recurrir a un especialista, ser admitidas en un gran hospital o beneficiarse de la instrumentación para el tratamiento de la vida, son los enfermos cuyo caso se presenta interesante o los habitantes de las grandes ciudades, en donde el costo para la prevención médica, la purificación del agua y el control de la contaminación es excepcionalmente elevado. Paradójicamente, la asistencia por habitante resulta tanto más cara cuanto más elevado el costo de la prevención. Y se necesita haber consumido prevención y tratamiento para tener derecho a cuidados excepcionales. Tanto el hospital como la escuela descansan en el principio de que sólo hay que dar a los que tienen. Es así cómo para la educación, los consumidores importantes de la enseñanza tendrán becas de investigación, en tanto que los desplazados tendrán como único derecho el de aprender su fracaso. En relación a la medicina, mayor asistencia conducirá a mayores dolencias: el rico se hará atender cada vez más los males engendrados por la medicina, mientras que el pobre se conformará con sufrirlos. + +Pasado el segundo umbral, los subproductos de la industria médica afectan a poblaciones enteras. La población envejece en los países ricos. Desde que se entra en el mercado del trabajo, se comienza a ahorrar para contratar seguros que garantizarán, por un periodo cada vez más largo, los medios de consumir los servicios de una geriatría costosa. En Estados Unidos el 27% de los gastos médicos van a los ancianos, que representan el nueve por ciento de la población. Es significativo el hecho de que el primer campo de colaboración científica elegido por Nixon y Brejnev concierna a las investigaciones sobre las enfermedades de los ricos que van envejeciendo. De todo el mundo, los capitalistas acuden a los hospitales de Boston, de Houston o de Denver para recibir los cuidados más costosos y singulares, en tanto que en los mismos Estados Unidos, entre las clases pobres, la mortalidad infantil se mantiene comparable a la existente en ciertos países tropicales de África o de Asia. En Norteamérica es preciso ser muy rico para pagarse el lujo que a todo el mundo se le ofrece en los países pobres: ser asistido a la hora de la muerte (estar acompañado por familiares o amigos). En dos días de hospital un norteamericano gasta lo que el Banco Mundial de Desarrollo calcula que es el ingreso medio anual de la población mundial. La medicina moderna hace que más niños alcancen la adolescencia y que más mujeres sobrevivan a sus numerosos embarazos. Entretanto, la población aumenta, sobrepasa la capacidad de acogerse al medio natural, y rompe los diques y las estructuras de la cultura tradicional. Los médicos occidentales hacen ingerir medicamentos a la gente que, en su vida pasada, había aprendido a vivir con sus enfermedades. El mal que se produce es mucho peor que el mal que se cura, pues se engendran nuevas especies de enfermedad que ni la técnica moderna, ni la inmunidad natural, ni la cultura tradicional saben cómo enfrentar. A escala mundial, y muy particularmente en Estados Unidos, la medicina fabrica una raza de individuos vitalmente dependientes de un medio cada vez más costoso, cada vez más artificial, cada vez más higiénicamente programado. En 1970, durante el Congreso de la _American Medical Association_, el presidente, sin atraer ninguna oposición, exhortó a sus colegas pediatras a considerar a todo recién nacido como _paciente_ mientras no haya sido certificada su buena salud. Los niños nacidos en el hospital, alimentados bajo prescripciones, atiborrados de antibióticos, se convierten en adultos que, respirando un aire viciado y comiendo alimentos envenenados, vivirán una existencia de sombras en la gran ciudad moderna. Aún les costará más caro criar a sus hijos, quienes, a su vez, serán aún más dependientes del monopolio médico. El mundo entero se va convirtiendo poco a poco en un hospital poblado de gente que, a lo largo de su vida, debe plegarse a las reglas de higiene dictadas y a las prescripciones médicas. + +Esta medicina burocratizada se expande por el planeta entero. En 1968, el Colegio de Medicina de Shanghai tuvo que inclinarse ante la evidencia: + +> "Producimos médicos llamados de primera clase [...] que ignoran la existencia de quinientos millones de campesinos y sirven únicamente a las minorías urbanas [...] adjudican grandes gastos de laboratorio para exámenes de rutina [...] prescriben, sin necesidad, enormes cantidades de antibióticos [...] y, cuando no hay hospital, ni laboratorios, se ven reducidos a explicar los mecanismos de la enfermedad a gentes por quienes no pueden hacer nada, y a quienes esta explicación a nada conduce."" + +En China, esta toma de conciencia condujo a una inversión de la institución médica. En 1971, informa el mismo colegio, un millón de trabajadores de la salud han alcanzado un nivel aceptable de competencia. Estos trabajadores son campesinos. Durante la temporada de poca actividad, siguen cursos acelerados: aprenden la disección en cerdos, practican los análisis de laboratorio más corrientes, adquieren conocimientos elementales en bacteriología, patología, medicina clínica, higiene y acupuntura. Luego hacen su aprendizaje con médicos o con trabajadores de la salud ya ejercitados. Después de esta primera formación, estos _médicos descalzos_ vuelven a su trabajo original, pero, cuando es necesario, se ausentan para ocuparse de sus camaradas. Son responsables de lo siguiente: la higiene del ambiente de vida y de trabajo, la educación sanitaria, las vacunaciones, los primeros auxilios, la supervivencia de los convalecientes, los partos, el control de la natalidad y los métodos abortivos. + +Diez años después de que la medicina occidental franquease el segundo umbral, China emprende la formación, cada centenar de ciudadanos, de un trabajador competente de la salud. Su ejemplo prueba que es posible invertir de golpe el funcionamiento de una institución dominante. Queda por ver hasta qué punto esta desprofesionalización puede mantenerse, frente al triunfo de la ideología del desarrollo ilimitado y a la presión de los médicos clásicos, recelosos de incorporar a sus homónimos descalzos a la jerarquía médica y formar con ellos una infantería de no graduados que trabajan a tiempo parcial. + +Pero por todas partes se exhiben los síntomas de la enfermedad de la medicina, sin tomar en consideración el desorden profundo del sistema que la engendra. En Estados Unidos, los abogados de los pobres acusan a la _American Medical Association_ de ser un bastión de prejuicios capitalistas, y a sus miembros de llenarse los bolsillos. Los portavoces de las minorías critican la falta de control social en la administración de la salud y en la organización de los sistemas de asistencia. ¿Quieren creer que participando en los consejos de administración de los hospitales podrían controlar las actuaciones del cuerpo médico? Los portavoces de la comunidad negra encuentran escandaloso que los fondos para investigación se concentren en las enfermedades que afligen a los blancos provectos y sobrealimentados. Exigen que las investigaciones se dediquen a una forma particular de la anemia, que afecta solamente a los negros. El elector norteamericano espera que con el término de la guerra del Vietnam se destinen más fondos al desarrollo de la producción médica. Todas estas acusaciones y críticas descansan sobre los síntomas de una medicina que prolifera como un tumor maligno y que produce el alza de los costos y de la demanda, junto con un malestar general. + +La crisis de la medicina tiene raíces mucho más profundas de lo que se puede sospechar a simple vista del examen de sus síntomas. Forma parte integrante de la crisis de todas las instituciones industriales. La medicina se ha desarrollado en una organización compleja de especialistas. Financiada y promovida por la colectividad, se empeña en producir una salud mejor. Los clientes no han faltado, voluntarios para todas las experiencias. Como resultado, el hombre ha perdido el derecho a declararse enfermo: necesita presentar un certificado médico. Aún más, es a un médico a quien hoy corresponde, como representante de la sociedad, elegir la hora de la muerte del paciente. Igual que el condenado a muerte, el enfermo es vigilado escrupulosamente para evitar que encuentre la muerte cuando ella le venga a buscar. + +Las fechas de 1913 y de 1955 que hemos elegido como indicativas de dos umbrales de mutación de la medicina no son restrictivas. Lo importante es comprender lo siguiente: a principios de siglo, la práctica médica se dedicó a la verificación científica de sus resultados empíricos. La aplicación del resultado ha marcado, para la medicina moderna, la trasposición de su primer umbral. El segundo umbral se traspuso al comenzar a decrecer la utilidad marginal de la mayor especialización, cuantificable en términos del bienestar del mayor número; se puede decir que este último umbral se traspuso cuando la _desutilidad_ marginal comenzó a aumentar, a medida que el desarrollo de la institución médica llegó a significar mayor sufrimiento para más gente. En ese momento la institución médica fue más vehemente en cantar victoria. Los virtuosos de las nuevas especialidades exhibían como _vedettes_ a algunos individuos atacados de raras enfermedades. La práctica médica se concentró en operaciones espectaculares realizadas por equipos hospitalarios. La fe en la operación-milagro cegaba el buen sentido y destruía la sabiduría antigua en materia de salud y curación. Los médicos extendieron el uso inmoderado de drogas químicas entre el público general. En la actualidad el costo social de la medicina ha dejado de ser mensurable en términos clásicos. ¿Cómo medir las falsas esperanzas, el agobio del control social, la prolongación del sufrimiento, la soledad, la degradación del patrimonio genético y el sentimiento de frustración engendrados por la institución médica? + +Otras instituciones industriales han traspuesto también estos dos umbrales. En particular es el caso de las grandes industrias terciarias y de las actividades productivas, _organizadas_ científicamente desde mediados del siglo XIX. La educación, el correo, la asistencia social, los transportes y hasta las obras públicas, han seguido esta evolución. En un principio se aplica un nuevo conocimiento a la solución de un problema claramente definido y los criterios científicos permiten medir los beneficios en eficiencia obtenidos. Pero, en seguida, el progreso obtenido se convierte en medio para explotar al conjunto social, para ponerlo al servicio de los valores que una élite especializada, garante de su propio valor, determina y revisa constantemente. + +En el caso de los transportes, se ha necesitado el transcurso de un siglo para pasar de la liberación lograda a través de los vehículos motorizados, a la esclavitud impuesta por el automóvil. Los transportes a vapor comenzaron a ser utilizados durante la Guerra de Secesión. Este nuevo sistema dio a mucha gente la posibilidad de viajar en ferrocarril a la velocidad de una carroza real y con un confort jamás soñado por rey alguno. Poco a poco se empezó a confundir la buena circulación con la alta velocidad. Desde que la industria de los transportes traspuso su segundo umbral de mutación, los vehículos crean más distancia de la que suprimen. El conjunto de la sociedad consagra a la circulación cada vez más tiempo del que supone que ésta le ha de hacer ganar. Por su parte, el norteamericano tipo dedica más de 1.500 horas por año a su automóvil: sentado en él, en movimiento o estacionado, trabajando para pagarlo, para pagar la gasolina, los neumáticos, los peajes, el seguro, las contravenciones y los impuestos. De manera que emplea cuatro horas diarias en su automóvil, sea usándolo, cuidando de él o trabajando para sus gastos. Y conste que aquí no se han tomado en cuenta otras actividades determinadas por el transporte: el tiempo pasado en el hospital, en los tribunales o en garaje, el tiempo pasado en ver por televisión la publicidad automovilística, el tiempo consumido en ganar dinero necesario para viajar en vacaciones, etc. Y este norteamericano necesita esas 1.500 horas para hacer apenas 10.000 kilómetros de ruta; seis kilómetros le toman una hora. + +La visión que se tiene de la crisis social actual se ilumina con la comprensión de los dos umbrales de mutación descritos. En sólo una década, varias instituciones dominantes han traspuesto juntas, gallardamente, el segundo umbral. La escuela ya no es un buen instrumento de educación, ni el automóvil un buen instrumento de transporte, ni la línea de montaje un modo aceptable de producción. La escuela produce males y la velocidad devora el tiempo. + +Durante los años sesenta, la reacción característica contra el crecimiento de la insatisfacción ha sido la _escalada_ de la técnica y de la burocracia. La escalada del poder de autodestruirse se convierte en el rito ceremonial de las sociedades altamente industrializadas. La guerra de Vietnam ha sido en este sentido una revelación y un encubrimiento. Ha revelado ante el planeta entero el ritual _en ejercicio_, sobre un campo de batalla. Pero, al hacerlo, ha desviado nuestra atención de los sectores llamados pacíficos, en donde el mismo rito se repite más discretamente. La historia de la guerra de Vietnam demuestra que un ejército convivencial de ciclistas y de peatones puede revertir en su favor las oleadas del poder anónimo del enemigo. Por lo tanto, ahora que la guerra ha 'terminado', son muchos los norteamericanos que piensan que con el dinero gastado anualmente para dejarse vencer por los vietnamitas, sería posible vencer la pobreza doméstica. Otros quieren destinar los veinte billones de dólares del presupuesto de guerra a reforzar la cooperación internacional, lo que multiplicaría por diez los recursos actuales. Ni los unos ni los otros comprenden que la misma estructura institucional sostiene la guerra pacífica contra la pobreza y la guerra sangrienta contra la disidencia. Todos elevan en un grado más la escalada que tratan de eliminar. + +## La reconstrucción convivencial + +### La herramienta y la crisis + +Ya son manifiestos los síntomas de una crisis planetaria progresivamente acelerada. Por todos lados se ha buscado el porqué. Anticipo, por mi parte, la siguiente explicación: la crisis se arraiga en el fracaso de la empresa moderna, a saber, la sustitución del hombre por la máquina. El gran proyecto se ha metamorfoseado en un implacable proceso de servidumbre para el productor, y de intoxicación para el consumidor. + +El señorío del hombre sobre la herramienta fue reemplazado por el señorío de la herramienta sobre el hombre. Es aquí donde es preciso saber reconocer el fracaso. Hace ya un centenar de años que tratamos de hacer trabajar a la máquina _para el hombre_ y de educar al hombre para _servir a la máquina_. Ahora se descubre que la máquina no 'marcha', y que el hombre no podría conformarse a sus exigencias, convirtiéndose de por vida en su servidor. Durante un siglo, la humanidad se entregó a una experiencia fundada en la siguiente hipótesis: la herramienta puede sustituir al esclavo. Ahora bien, se ha puesto de manifiesto que, aplicada a estos propósitos, es la herramienta la que hace al hombre su esclavo. + +La sociedad en que la planificación central sostiene que el productor manda, como la sociedad en que las estadísticas pretenden que el consumidor es rey, son dos variantes políticas de la misma dominación por los instrumentos industriales en constante expansión. El fracaso de esta gran aventura conduce a la conclusión de que la hipótesis era falsa. + +La solución de la crisis exige una conversión radical: solamente echando abajo la sólida estructura que regula la relación del hombre con la herramienta, podremos darnos unas herramientas justas. La herramienta justa responde a tres exigencias: es generadora de eficiencia sin degradar la autonomía personal; no suscita ni esclavos ni amos; expande el radio de acción personal. El hombre necesita de una herramienta _con la cual trabajar_, y no de instrumentos que _trabajen en su lugar_. Necesita de una tecnología que saque el mejor partido de la energía y de la imaginación personales, no de una tecnología que le avasalle y le programe. + +Yo creo que se deben _invertir_ radicalmente las instituciones industriales y _reconstruir_ la sociedad completamente. Para poder ser eficiente y poder cubrir las necesidades humanas que determina, un nuevo sistema de producción debe también reencontrar nuevamente la dimensión personal y comunitaria. La persona, la célula de base, conjugando en forma óptima la eficacia y la autonomía, es la única escala que debe determinar la necesidad humana dentro de la cual la producción social es realizable. + +El hombre quieto o en movimiento necesita de herramientas. Necesita de ellas tanto para comunicarse con el otro como para atenderse a sí mismo. El hombre que camina y se cura con sencillez no es el hombre que hace cien kilómetros por hora sobre la autopista y toma antibióticos. Pero ninguno de ellos puede valerse totalmente por sí mismo y depende de lo que le suministra su ambiente natural y cultural. La herramienta es, pues, el proveedor de los objetos y servicios que varían de una civilización a otra. + +Pero el hombre no se alimenta únicamente de bienes y servicios, necesita también de la libertad para moldear los objetos que le rodean, para darles forma a su gusto, para utilizarlos con y para los demás. En los países ricos, los presos frecuentemente disponen de más bienes y servicios que su propia familia, pero no tienen voz ni voto sobre la forma en que se hacen las cosas, ni tienen derechos sobre lo que se hace con ellas. Degradados esencialmente al rango de meros consumidores-usuarios, se ven privados de la _convivencialidad_. + +Por _convivencialidad_ entiendo lo inverso de la productividad industrial. Cada uno de nosotros se define por la relación con los otros y con el ambiente, así como por la sólida estructura de las herramientas que utiliza. Éstas pueden ordenarse en una serie continua cuyos extremos son la herramienta como instrumento dominante y la herramienta convivencial. El paso de la productividad a la convivencialidad es el paso de la repetición de la falta a la espontaneidad del don. La relación industrial es reflejo condicionado, una respuesta estereotipada del individuo a los mensajes emitidos por otro usuario a quien jamás conocerá a no ser por un medio artificial que jamás comprenderá. La relación convivencial, en cambio siempre nueva, es acción de personas que participan en la creación de la vida social. Trasladarse de la productividad a la convivencialidad es sustituir un valor técnico por un valor ético, un valor material por un valor realizado. _La convivencialidad es la libertad individual, realizada dentro del proceso de producción, en el seno de una sociedad equipada con herramientas eficaces_. Cuando una sociedad, no importa cuál, rechaza la convivencialidad antes de alcanzar un cierto nivel, se convierte en presa de la falta, ya que ninguna hipertrofia de la productividad logrará jamás satisfacer las necesidades creadas y multiplicadas por la envidia. + +### La alternativa + +La institución industrial tiene sus fines que justifican los medios. El dogma del crecimiento acelerado justifica la sacralización de la productividad industrial, a costa de la convivencialidad. La desarraigada sociedad actual se nos presenta de pronto como un teatro de la peste, un espectáculo de sombras productoras de demandas y generadoras de escasez. Únicamente _invirtiendo la lógica de la institución_ se hace posible revertir el movimiento. Por esta inversión radical la ciencia y la tecnología moderna no serán aniquiladas, sino que dotarán a la actividad humana de una eficacia sin precedentes. Por esta inversión ni la industria ni la burocracia serán destruidas, sino eliminadas como impedimentos a otros modos de producción. Y la convivencialidad será restaurada en el centro mismo de los sistemas políticos que protegen, garantizan y refuerzan el ejercicio óptimo del recurso que mejor repartido está en el mundo: _la energía personal que controla la persona_. Oigo decir que desde ahora es necesario que aseguremos colectivamente la defensa de nuestra vida y de nuestro trabajo contra los instrumentos y las instituciones, que amenazan o desconocen el derecho de las personas a utilizar su energía en forma creativa. Oigo proponer que con este objeto debemos explicitar la estructura formal común a los procesos de decisión ética, legal y política: es ella _la que garantiza que la limitación y el control de las herramientas sociales_ serán resultado de un proceso de participación y no de los oráculos de los expertos. + +El ideal propuesto por la tradición socialista no se traducirá en realidad mientras no se inviertan las instituciones imperantes y no sea sustituida la instrumentación industrial por herramientas convivenciales. Y por su parte la reinstrumentación de la sociedad tiene todas las probabilidades de perdurar como piadoso propósito, si los ideales socialistas de justicia no lo adoptan. Por ello se debe saludar a la crisis declarada de las instituciones dominantes como al amanecer de una liberación revolucionaria que nos emancipará de aquellas instancias que mutilan la libertad elemental del ser humano, con el solo fin de atosigar cada vez a más usuarios. Esta crisis planetaria de las instituciones nos puede hacer llegar a un _nuevo estado de conciencia_, que afecte a la naturaleza de la herramienta y a la acción a seguir, para que la mayoría tome el control. Si, desde ahora, las herramientas no se someten a un control político, la cooperación de los burócratas del bienestar y de los burócratas de la ideología nos hará reventar de 'felicidad'. La libertad y la dignidad del ser humano seguirán degradándose, estableciendo una servidumbre sin precedentes del hombre a su herramienta. + +A la amenaza de un apocalipsis tecnocrático, yo opongo la visión de una sociedad convivencial. La sociedad convivencial descansará sobre contratos sociales que garanticen a cada uno el mayor y más libre acceso a las herramientas de la comunidad, con la condición de no lesionar una igual libertad de acceso al otro. + +### Los valores de base + +En nuestros días existe la tendencia a confiar a un cuerpo de especialistas la tarea de sondear y anunciar el futuro. Se entrega el poder a hombres políticos que prometen construir la megamáquina para producir el porvenir. Se acepta una creciente disparidad de niveles de energía y de poder, puesto que el desarrollo de la productividad requiere la desigualdad. Mientras más igualitaria es la distribución, más centralizado es el control de la producción. Las propias instituciones políticas funcionan como mecanismos de presión y de represión, que doman al ciudadano y vuelven a domar al desviado para conformarlos a los objetivos de producción. El Derecho se subordina al bien de la institución. El consenso de la fe utilitaria degrada la justicia al simple rango de una distribución equitativa de los productos de la institución. + +Una sociedad que define el bien como la satisfacción máxima, por el mayor consumo de bienes y servicios industriales, del mayor número de gente, mutila en forma intolerable la autonomía de la persona. Una solución política de repuesto a este utilitarismo definiría el bien por la capacidad de cada uno para moldear la imagen de su propio porvenir. Esta redefinición del bien puede ser operacional sólo si se aplican criterios negativos. Ante todo se trata de proscribir los instrumentos y las leyes que obstaculizan el ejercicio de la libertad personal. Esta empresa colectiva limitaría las dimensiones de las herramientas, a fin de defender valores esenciales que yo llamaría: _sobrevivencia, equidad, autonomía creadora_, pero que asimismo podrían designarse por los tres criterios matemáticos de viabilidad, curva de distribución de _inputs_ y curva de control de _outputs_. Estos valores son fundamento para toda estructura convivencial, aun cuando las leyes y la moral varíen de una cultura a otra. + +Cada uno de estos valores limita, a su manera, la herramienta. La supervivencia es condición necesaria, pero no suficiente, para la equidad: se puede sobrevivir en prisión. La _equidad_ en la distribución de los productos industriales es condición necesaria, pero no suficiente, para un trabajo convivencial: uno puede convertirse en prisionero de la instrumentación. La autonomía, como poder de control sobre la energía, engloba los dos primeros valores citados, y define el _trabajo convivencial_. Éste tiene, como condición, el establecimiento de estructuras que posibiliten esta distribución equitativa de la energía. Debemos construir --y gracias a los progresos científicos lo podemos hacer-- una sociedad posindustrial en que el ejercicio de la creatividad de una persona no imponga jamás a otra un trabajo, un conocimiento o un consumo obligatorio. En la era de la tecnología científica, _solamente una estructura convivencial de la herramienta puede conjugar la supervivencia y la equidad_. La equidad exige que, a un tiempo, se compartan el poder y el haber. Si bien la carrera por la energía conduce al holocausto, la centralización del control de la energía en manos de un leviatán burocrático sacrificaría el control igualitario de la misma a la ficción de una distribución equitativa de los productos obtenidos. La estructuración convivencial de las herramientas es una necesidad y una urgencia desde el momento en que la ciencia libera nuevas formas de energía. Una estructura convivencial de la herramienta hace realizable la equidad y practicable la justicia; ella constituye la única garantía de supervivencia. + +### El precio de esta inversión + +Sin embargo, la transición del presente estado de cosas a un modo de producción convivencial amenazará a mucha gente, incluso en sus posibilidades de sobrevivir. En opinión del hombre industrializado, los primeros en sufrir y morir, a consecuencia de los límites impuestos a la industria, serían los pobres. Pero la dominación del hombre por la herramienta ha tomado ya un giro suicida. La supervivencia de Bangladesh depende del trigo canadiense, y la salud de los neoyorquinos exige el saqueo de los recursos planetarios. La transición pues a una sociedad convivencial irá acompañada de extremos sufrimientos: hambre para algunos, pánico para otros. Tienen el derecho a desear esta transición sólo aquellos que saben que la organización industrial dominante está en vías de producir sufrimientos aún peores, so pretexto de aliviarlos. Para ser posible dentro de la equidad, la supervivencia exige sacrificios y postula una elección. Exige una renuncia general a la sobrepoblación, a la sobreabundancia y al superpoder, ya se trate de individuos o de grupos. Esto redunda en renunciar a la ilusión que sustituye la preocupación por lo prójimo, es decir _del más próximo_, por la insoportable pretensión de organizar la vida en las antípodas. Esto implica renunciar al poder, en servicio tanto de los demás como de sí mismo. La supervivencia dentro de la equidad no será producto de un _ukase_ de los burócratas, ni efecto de un cálculo de los tecnócratas. Será resultado del idealismo de los humildes. La convivencialidad no tiene precio, pero se debe saber muy bien lo que costará desprenderse del modelo actual. El hombre reencontrará la alegría de la sobriedad y de la austeridad, reaprendiendo a depender del otro, en vez de convertirse en esclavo de la energía y de la burocracia todopoderosa. + +### Los límites de mi demostración + +En lo que sigue, no pretendo otra cosa que ofrecer una metodología que permita detectar los medios que han sido transformados en fines. Me ciño a la rudeza de la herramienta, no a la sutileza de la intención. El rigor de mi propósito me impedirá tratar cuestiones laterales, complementarias o subordinadas. + +_1._ De nada me serviría ofrecer una ficción detallada de la sociedad futura. Quiero dar una guía para actuar y dejar libre curso a la imaginación. La _vida_ dentro de una sociedad convivencial y moderna nos reserva sorpresas que sobrepasan nuestra imaginación y nuestra esperanza. No propongo una _utopía normativa_, sino las condiciones formales de un procedimiento que permita a cada colectividad elegir continuamente su utopía realizable. La convivencialidad es multiforme. + +_2._ No he de proponer aquí _un tratado de organización_ de las instituciones, ni un _manual técnico_ para la fabricación de la herramienta justa, ni un _modo de empleo_ de la institución convivencial, desde el momento en que no pretendo vender una tecnología 'mejor', ni soy propagandista de una ideología. Sólo espero definir los indicadores que hacen guiños cada vez que la herramienta manipula al hombre, con el fin de poder proscribir la instrumentación y las instituciones que destruyen el modo de vida convivencial. Este manifiesto es pues guía, detector para utilizarlo como tal. La paradoja es que, actualmente, hemos alcanzado un nivel anteriormente impensable en nuestra habilidad de instrumentar la acción humana y que, por lo mismo, es justamente en nuestra época cuando resulta difícil imaginar una sociedad de herramientas simples, en donde el hombre pudiera lograr sus fines utilizando una energía puesta bajo su control personal. Nuestros sueños están estandarizados, nuestra imaginación industrializada, nuestra fantasía programada. No somos capaces de concebir más que sistemas de hiperinstrumentalización para los hábitos sociales, adaptados a la lógica de la producción en masa. Casi hemos perdido la capacidad de soñar un mundo en donde la palabra se tome y se comparta, en donde nadie límite la creatividad del prójimo, en donde cada uno pueda cambiar la vida. + +El mundo actual está dividido en dos: están aquellos que no tienen lo suficiente y aquellos que tienen demasiado; aquellos a quienes los automóviles sacan de la carretera y aquellos que conducen esos vehículos. Los pobres se sienten frustrados y los ricos siempre insatisfechos. Una sociedad equipada con el sistema de rodamientos a bolas (menor fricción en el rodaje) y que rodara al ritmo del hombre sería incomparablemente más autónoma que todas las sociedades programadas del presente. Nos encontramos en la época de los hombres-máquina, incapaces de considerar, en su riqueza y en su concreción, el radio de acción que ofrecen las herramientas modernas mantenidas dentro de ciertos límites. En su mente no hay un lugar reservado al salto cualitativo que implicaría una economía en equilibrio estable con el mundo. + +En su cerebro no hay un hueco para una sociedad liberada de los horarios y de los tratamientos que les impone el incremento de la instrumentalización. El hombre-máquina no conoce la alegría que tiene al alcance de la mano dentro de una pobreza querida; no conoce la sobria embriaguez de la vida. Una sociedad en donde cada cual apreciara lo que es suficiente sería quizás una sociedad pobre, pero sería seguramente rica en sorpresas y sería libre. + +_3._ Me atengo a la estructura de la herramienta, _no a la estructura del carácter del individuo y de la comunidad_. Ciertamente, la reconstrucción social, esencialmente en los países ricos implica que la mirada adquiera transparencia, que la sonrisa se haga atenta y que los gestos se suavicen: exige una reconstrucción del hombre y de la índole de la sociedad. Pero aquí no hablo como psicólogo, aunque estoy seguro de que dominar la herramienta permitirá disminuir la distorsión del carácter social. + +Cada ciudad tiene su historia y su cultura y, por lo mismo, cada paisaje urbano de hoy sufre la misma degradación. Todas las supercarreteras, todos los hospitales, todas las aulas, todas las oficinas, todos los grandes complejos urbanos y todos los supermercados se asemejan. Las mismas herramientas producen los mismos efectos. Todos los policías motorizados y todos los especialistas en informática se parecen; en toda la superficie del planeta tienen la misma apariencia y hacen los mismos gestos, en tanto que, de una región a otra, los pobres difieren. A menos de reinstrumentalizar la sociedad, no escaparemos a la homogeneización progresiva de todo, al desarraigamiento cultural y a la estandarización de las relaciones personales. Una investigación complementaria sería la que se ocuparía de los caracteres del hombre industrial que obstaculizan o amenazan la reinstrumentación. Yo no quiero dar recetas para cambiar al hombre y crear una nueva sociedad, y no pretendo saber cómo van a cambiar las personalidades y las culturas. Pero sí tengo una certeza: una pluralidad de herramientas limitadas y de organizaciones convivenciales estimularía una diversidad de modos de vida, que tendría más en cuenta la memoria, es decir la herencia del pasado, o la invención, es decir la creación. + +_4._ Cae fuera de mi propósito central el ocuparme _de la estrategia o de la táctica política_; a excepción tal vez de China bajo el presidente Mao Tse Tung, ningún gobierno actual podría reestructurar su proyecto para la sociedad siguiendo una linea convivencial. Los dirigentes de los partidos y de las industrias son como los oficiales de un barco, apostados al timón de mando de las instituciones dominantes: empresas multinacionales, estados, partidos políticos y movimientos organizados, monopolios profesionales, etc., pueden cambiar de ruta, de cargamento y de dotación, pero no de oficio. Hasta pueden producir una demanda que satisfaga la oferta de herramientas, o limitarla para maximizar las ganancias. El presidente de una empresa europea o el de una comuna china pueden facilitar la participación cómplice de los trabajadores en las directrices de producción, pero no tienen el poder de invertir la estructura de la institución que dirigen. + +Las instituciones dominantes optimizan la producción de los megainstrumentos y la orientan hacia una población de fantasmas. Los directivos de hoy forman una clase nueva de hombres; seleccionados por su personalidad, su saber y su gusto por el poder, son hombres entrenados para garantizar, al mismo tiempo, el incremento del producto bruto y el acondicionamiento del cliente. Detentan el poder y poseen la energía, dejando al público la ilusión de mantener la propiedad legal de los instrumentos. Es a ellos a quienes hay que liquidar. Pero de nada servirá eliminarlos, sobre todo si es para limitarse a reemplazarlos. El nuevo equipo en el poder, pretendería ser más legítimo, con mayor base para manipular ese poder heredado y bien estructurado. Así sólo hay una forma de liquidar para siempre a los dirigentes: demoliendo la maquinaria que los hace necesarios y, con ello, la demanda masiva que asegura su imperio. La profesión de gerente general no tiene porvenir en una sociedad convivencial, como no tiene cabida el profesor en una sociedad sin escuela. Una especie se extingue cuando ya no tiene razón de ser. + +Lo inverso es un medio propicio a la producción, obra de un pueblo anárquico. Pero el político que ha conquistado el poder es el último en comprender el poder de la renuncia. En una sociedad donde la decisión política encauzara la eficacia de la herramienta, no sólo se extenderían los destinos personales, sino que saldrían a la luz nuevas formas de participación política. El hombre hace la herramienta y se hace por la herramienta. La herramienta convivencial suprime ciertos escalones de poder, de limitación y de programación, aquellos precisamente que tienden a uniformar a todos los gobiernos actuales. La adopción de un modo de producción convivencial no prejuzga en favor de ninguna forma determinada de gobierno, como tampoco excluye una federación mundial, pactos entre naciones, entre comunas o conservación de ciertos tipos de gobiernos tradicionales. En el centro de una sociedad convivencial está la vida política, pero aquí me concreto a describir los criterios estructurales negativos de la producción y la estructura formal base para un nuevo pluralismo político. + +_5._ Una metodología que nos permita detectar la destrucción de la sociedad por la mega-instrumentación postula el reconocimiento de la supervivencia dentro de la equidad como valor fundamental e implica, por lo tanto la elaboración de una teoría de la justicia. Pero este primer manifiesto no puede ser _ni un tratado ni un compendio de ética_. En apoyo de mi argumento, es preciso que me contente con enunciar simplemente los valores fundamentales de esta teoría. + + +_6._ En una sociedad posindustrial y convivencial, los problemas económicos no desaparecerán de un día para otro, como tampoco se resolverán por sí solos. Reconocer que el PNB no evalúa el bienestar, no elimina la necesidad de una noción que cuantifique las transferencias injustas de poder; asignar límites no monetarios y políticamente definidos al incremento industrial, entraña someter a revisión muchas nociones económicas consagradas, pero no hace desaparecer la desigualdad entre los hombres. Limitar la explotación del hombre por la herramienta trae consigo el peligro de que ella sea sustituida por nuevas formas de explotación del hombre por el hombre. Pero de hecho, el individuo tendrá mayores posibilidades de integrarse a la sociedad, de provocar el cambio, que en la era industrial o preindustrial. + +Aún limitada, la herramienta convivencial será incomparablemente más eficiente que la herramienta primitiva, y, a diferencia de la instrumentación industrial, estará al alcance de todos. Pero habrá quienes le saquen más ventajas que otros. Se dirá que la limitación de los instrumentos no pasará de ser letra muerta mientras _una nueva teoría económica_ no haya alcanzado la etapa de operación que asegure la redistribución dentro de una sociedad descentralizada. Esto, que es absolutamente exacto, cae, sin embargo, _fuera del propósito_ que nos ocupa, que es el de una teoría sobre la eficacia y la distribución de los medios de producción, y no el de una teoría que se refiera directamente a la reorganización financiera. Propongo, pues, la identificación de seis cercos imponibles a la expansión de la producción. Cada uno de ellos representa una dimensión natural dentro de la cual las unidades de medida de la economía se reducen a una clase de factores sin dimensión. + +### La industrialización de la falta + +Una metodología que permita señalar la perversión de la herramienta al convertirse en su propio fin, encontrará necesariamente una fuerte resistencia entre quienes están habituados a medir el bien en términos de francos o de dólares. Platón decía que el mal hombre de estado cree poder medirlo todo y mezcla la consideración de lo inferior y de lo superior en busca de lo que conviene más al fin pretendido. Nuestra actitud hacia la producción ha sido moldeada, a lo largo de los siglos, por una larga sucesión de este tipo de hombres de estado. Poco a poco las instituciones no sólo han conformado nuestra demanda, sino que también han dado forma a nuestra lógica, es decir, a nuestro sentido de la medida. Primero se pide lo que produce la institución, pronto se cree no poder vivir sin ello. Y mientras menos se puede gozar de lo que ha llegado a convertirse en necesidad, más fuertemente se siente la necesidad de cuantificarlo. La necesidad personal se convierte así en falta medible. + +La invención de la 'educación' es un ejemplo de lo que expongo. Se tiene la tendencia a olvidar que la necesidad de educación, en su acepción moderna, es una invención reciente. Era desconocida antes de la Reforma, excepto en la crianza de la primera edad, que los animales y los hombres prodigan a sus crías. Se la distinguía con mucha exactitud de la instrucción necesaria al niño, y del estudio al cual más tarde se dedicaban algunos, bajo la dirección de un maestro. Para Voltaire, la palabra 'educación' era todavía un neologismo presuntuoso, empleado por fatuos maestros de escuela. + +La empresa que consiste en hacer pasar a todos los hombres por grados sucesivos de iluminación encuentra raíces profundas en la alquimia, el Gran Arte de finales de la Edad Media. Con muy justo título se considera Juan Amos Comenius, obispo moravo del siglo XVII --pansofista y pedagogo, como él mismo se nombraba--, uno de los fundadores de la escuela moderna. Fue uno de los primeros en proponer siete o doce grados de aprendizaje obligatorio. En su _Magna Didáctica_ describe la escuela como un instrumento para «enseñar a todos totalmente todo» ( _omnes_ , _omnta_ , _omino_ ) y esboza el proyecto de una producción en cadena del saber, que disminuye el costo y aumenta el valor de la educación, con el fin de permitir a cada cual alcanzar la plenitud de la humanidad. Pero Comenius no sólo fue uno de los primeros teóricos de la producción en masa, fue también un alquimista, que adaptó el vocabulario técnico de la transmutación de los elementos al arte de criar a los niños. El alquimista quiere refinar los elementos base, purificando sus espíritus a través de doce etapas sucesivas de iluminación. Al término de este proceso, para su mayor bien y el del universo, los elementos son transformables en metal precioso: el residuo de la materia, habiendo sufrido siete clases de tratamiento, da plata, y lo que subsiste, después de doce pruebas, da oro. Naturalmente los alquimistas fracasaban siempre, cualquiera que fuera la perseverancia en sus esfuerzos, pero siempre su ciencia les ofrecía nuevas buenas razones para volver a la carga con tenacidad. El fracaso de la alquimia culmina con el fracaso de la industria. + +El modo industrial de producción fue plenamente racionalizado, por primera vez, con motivo de la fabricación de un nuevo bien de servicio: la educación, la pedagogía agregó un nuevo capítulo a la historia del Gran Arte. Dentro del proceso alquimista, la educación se convierte en la búsqueda de aquello de donde nacerá un nuevo tipo de hombre, requerido por el medio, moldeado por la magia científica. Pero sea cual haya sido el precio pagado por las sucesivas generaciones, se reveló cada vez de nuevo que la mayoría de los alumnos no eran dignos de alcanzar los más altos grados de la iluminación, y era preciso excluirlos del juego, por ineptos para llevar la 'verdadera' vida, ofrecida en ese mundo creado por el hombre. + +La redefinición del proceso de adquisición del saber, en términos de escolarización, no sólo ha justificado a la escuela, al darle apariencia de necesidad, sino que también, simultáneamente, ha creado una nueva especie de pobres, los no escolarizados, y una nueva clase de segregación social, la discriminación de los que carecen de educación por parte de los orgullosos de haberla recibido. El individuo escolarizado sabe exactamente el nivel que ha alcanzado en la pirámide jerárquica del saber, y conoce con precisión lo que le falta para alcanzar la cúspide. Una vez que acepta ser definido por una administración, según su grado de conocimientos, acepta después, sin dudar, que los burócratas determinen sus necesidades de salud, que los tecnócratas definan su falta de movilidad. Una vez moldeado en la mentalidad de consumidor-usuario, ya no puede ver la perversión de los medios en fines, inherente a la estructura misma de la producción industrial tanto de lo necesario como de lo suntuario. Condicionado para creer que la escuela puede ofrecerle una existencia de conocimientos, llega a creer igualmente que los transportes pueden ahorrarle tiempo, o que en sus aplicaciones militares, la física atómica le puede proteger. Se apega a la idea de que el aumento de salarios corresponde al del nivel de vida y que el crecimiento del sector terciario refleja un alza en la calidad de la vida. + +En realidad, la industrialización de las necesidades reduce toda satisfacción a un acto de verificación operacional, sustituye la alegría de vivir por el placer de aplicar una medida. + +El servicio _educación_ y la institución escuela se justifican mutuamente. La colectividad sólo tiene una manera de salir de ese círculo vicioso, y es tomando conciencia de que la institución ha llegado a fijar ella misma los fines: la institución presenta valores abstractos, luego los materializa encadenando al hombre a mecanismos implacables. ¿Cómo romper el círculo? Es necesario hacerse la pregunta: ¿quién me encadena, quién me habitúa a sus drogas? Hacerse la pregunta es ya responderla. Es liberarse de la opresión del sin sentido y de la falta, reconociendo cada uno su propia capacidad de aprender, de moverse, de descuidarse, de hacerse entender y de comprender. Esta liberación es obligadamente instantánea, puesto que no hay término medio entre la inconsciencia y el despertar. La falta, que la sociedad industrial mantiene con esmero, no sobrevive al descubrimiento que muestra cómo las personas y las comunidades pueden, ellas mismas, satisfacer sus verdaderas necesidades. + +La definición industrial de los valores entorpece extremadamente la posibilidad del usuario de percibir la estructura profunda de los medios sociales. Le es difícil captar que existe una vía distinta, que no es la alienación del trabajo, la industrialización de la falta y la supereficiencia de la herramienta. Le es difícil imaginar que se puede ganar en rendimiento social lo que se pierde en rentabilidad industrial. El temor de que rechazando el presente se retorne a la esclavitud del pasado, le encierra en la prisión multinacional de hoy, llámese ésta fábrica Phillips o escuela. + +En tiempos pasados la existencia dorada de unos cuantos descansaba sobre la servidumbre de los demás. La eficiencia de cada uno era débil: la vida fácil de una minoría exigía el embargo del trabajo de la mayoría. Ahora bien, una serie de descubrimientos recientes, muy simples, pero inconcebibles en el siglo XVIII, han aumentado la eficiencia del hombre. El balero[^n02], la sierra, la reja de acero del arado, la bomba de agua o la bicicleta, han multiplicado el rendimiento horario del hombre y facilitado su trabajo. + +En Occidente, entre la alta Edad Media y el Siglo de las Luces, más de un auténtico humanista se extravió en el sueño del alquimista. La ilusión consistía en creer que la máquina era un hombre artificial que reemplazaría al esclavo. + +### La otra posibilidad: una estructura convivencial + +Una sociedad convivencial es la que ofrece al hombre la posibilidad de ejercer la acción más autónoma y más creativa, con ayuda de las herramientas menos controlables por los otros. La productividad se conjuga en términos de tener, la convivencialidad en términos de ser. En tanto que el incremento de la instrumentación, pasados los umbrales críticos, produce siempre más uniformación reglamentada, mayor dependencia, explotación e impotencia, el respeto a los límites garantizará un libre florecimiento de la autonomía y de la creatividad humanas. Claramente, yo empleo el término _herramienta_ en el sentido más amplio posible, como instrumento o como medio, independientemente de ser producto de la actividad fabricadora, organizadora o racionalizante del hombre o, como es el caso del sílex prehistórico, simplemente apropiado por la mano del hombre para realizar una tarea específica, es decir, para ser puesto al servicio de una intencionalidad. + +Una escoba, un bolígrafo, un destornillador, una jeringa, un ladrillo, un motor, son herramientas, a igual título que un automóvil o un televisor. Una fábrica de empanadas o una central eléctrica, como instituciones productoras de bienes, entran también en la categoría de la herramienta. Dentro del herramental, hay que ordenar también las instituciones productoras de servicios, como son la escuela, la institución médica, la investigación, los medios de comunicación o los centros de planificación. Las leyes sobre el matrimonio o los programas escolares conforman la vida social del mismo modo que las redes de carreteras. La categoría de la herramienta engloba todos los instrumentos razonados de la acción humana, la máquina y su modo de empleo, el código y su operador, el pan y el circo. Como se ve, el campo abierto al concepto de herramienta varía de una cultura a otra. Depende de la impronta que una sociedad determinada ejerza sobre su estructura y su medio ambiente. Todo objeto tomado como medio para un fin se convierte en herramienta. + +La herramienta es inherente a la relación social. En tanto actúo como hombre, me sirvo de herramientas. Según que yo la domine o ella me domine, la herramienta o me liga, o me desliga del cuerpo social. En tanto que yo domine la herramienta, yo doy al mundo mi sentido; cuando la herramienta me domina, su estructura conforma e informa la representación que tengo de mí mismo. La herramienta convivencial es la que me deja la mayor latitud y el mayor poder para modificar el mundo en la medida de mi intención. La herramienta industrial me niega ese poder; más aún, por su medio, es otro quien determina mi demanda, reduce mi margen de control y rige mi propio sentido. La mayoría de las herramientas que hoy me rodean no podrían ser utilizadas de manera convivencial. + +La herramienta es a la vez medio de control y elemento transformador de energía. Como se sabe, el hombre dispone de dos tipos de energía, la que genera de sí mismo (o energía metabólica) y la que extrae del exterior. El hombre maneja la primera y manipula la segunda. Es por eso que haré una distinción entre la herramienta manejable y la herramienta manipulable. + +_La herramienta manejable_ adapta la energía metabólica a una tarea específica. Es multivalente, como el sílex original, el martillo o el cortaplumas. Es univalente y altamente elaborada, como el torno del alfarero, el telar, la máquina de coser a pedal o la fresa del dentista. La herramienta manejable puede alcanzar la complejidad de una organización de transportes que saca de la energía humana el máximo de movilidad, como ocurre en un sistema de bicicletas y de triciclos, al que correspondería una red de pistas tal vez cubiertas y con estaciones de mantenimiento. La herramienta manejable es conductora de energía metabólica: la mano, el pie, la dominan; la energía que ella pide puede producirla cualquiera que coma y respire. + +_La herramienta manipulable_ es movida, por lo menos en parte, por energía exterior. Puede servir para multiplicar la energía humana: los bueyes tiran del arado, pero para guiarlos se necesita del labrador. Asimismo un montacargas o una sierra eléctrica conjugan la energía metabólica con la energía exógena. Sin embargo, la herramienta manipulable puede exceder la escala humana. La energía que proporciona el piloto de un avión supersónico ya no es parte significativa de la energía consumida en el vuelo. El piloto es un simple operador, cuya acción es regida por los datos que un ordenador dirige por él. Y aun hay alguien más en la cabina de mando, porque el ordenador es imperfecto, o porque el sindicato de pilotos es poderoso y organizado. + +_La herramienta es convivencial_ en la medida en que cada uno puede utilizarla sin dificultad, tan frecuente o raramente como él lo desee, y para los fines que él mismo determine. El uso que cada cual haga de ella no invade la libertad del otro para hacer lo mismo. Nadie necesita de un diploma para tener el derecho de usarla a voluntad; se lo puede tomar o no. Entre el hombre y el mundo ella es un conductor de sentido, un traductor de intencionalidad. + +Ciertas instituciones son, estructuralmente, herramientas convivenciales y ello independientemente de su nivel tecnológico. El teléfono puede servir de ejemplo. Bajo la única condición de disponer de las monedas necesarias para su funcionamiento, cualquiera puede llamar a la persona que quiera para decirle lo que quiera; informaciones bursátiles, injurias o palabras de amor. Ningún burócrata podrá fijar de antemano el contenido de una comunicación telefónica --si acaso, podrá violar el secreto, pero asimismo puede protegerlo--. Cuando los computadores infatigables mantienen ocupadas más de la mitad de las líneas californianas y, con ello, restringen la libertad de las comunicaciones personales, es la compañía telefónica la responsable, al desviar la explotación de una licencia concedida originariamente a las personas para el habla. Cuando una población entera se deja intoxicar por el uso abusivo del teléfono y pierde así la costumbre de intercambiar cartas o visitas, este error conduce al recurso inmoderado a una herramienta que es convivencial por esencia, pero cuya función se desnaturaliza por haber recibido su campo de acción una extensión errónea. + +La herramienta manejable llama al uso convivencial. Si no se presta a ello es porque la institución reserva su uso para el monopolio de una profesión, como lo hace, por ejemplo, al poner las bibliotecas en el recinto de las escuelas o al decretar la extracción de los dientes y otras intervenciones simples como actos médicos, practicables sólo por especialistas. Pero la herramienta puede también ser objeto de una especie de segregación, como es el caso de los motores, concebidos de tal manera que uno mismo no puede practicar pequeñas reparaciones con ayuda de una tenaza y un destornillador. El monopolio de la institución sobre este tipo de herramientas manejables constituye un abuso, pervierte el uso del mismo, pero sin que por ello éste se desnaturalice, como el cuchillo del asesino no deja de ser cuchillo. + +El carácter convivencial de la herramienta no depende, en principio, de su nivel de complejidad. Lo que se ha dicho del teléfono podría repetirse, punto por punto, respecto al sistema de correos, o al de transportes fluviales en Tailandia. Cada uno de esos sistemas es una estructura institucional que maximiza la libertad de la persona, aun cuando pueda ser desviada de su finalidad y pervertida en su uso. El teléfono es el producto de una técnica avanzada; el sistema de correos puede funcionar a diversos niveles técnicos, pero exige siempre mucha organización; la red de canales y de piraguas integra una programación mínima, dentro del cuadro de una técnica consuetudinaria. + +### El equilibrio institucional + +Al aproximarse a su segundo umbral la institución pervierte el uso de la herramienta manejable. Es entonces cuando se abre el reino de las manipulaciones. Cada vez más, se va adoptando el medio como fin. Reunidas en esa forma, las condiciones para la enseñanza cuestan más caras que la enseñanza misma, y el costo de la formación ya no se compensa con el fruto que produce. Los medios para el fin perseguido por la institución son cada vez menos accesibles a una persona autónoma o, dicho con más exactitud, se integran a una cadena de eslabones solidarios que hay que aceptar en su totalidad. En Estados Unidos no hay viaje en avión sin automóvil, y sin viaje en avión no hay congreso de especialistas. Las herramientas que alcanzarían los mismos fines, exigiendo menos del usuario, respetando su libertad de maniobra, son eliminadas del mercado. Mientras que las aceras van desapareciendo, la complejidad de la red de carreteras no hace sino crecer. + +Es posible que ciertos medios de producción, no convivenciales, parezcan deseables en una sociedad posindustrial. Es probable que, aun en un mundo convivencial, ciertas colectividades elijan tener más abundancia, a costa de menos creatividad. Es casi seguro que, durante el periodo de transición, la electricidad no sea en todas partes el resultado de una producción doméstica. Ciertamente, el conductor de un tren no puede salirse de la vía férrea ni elegir sus estaciones y su horario. Los postillones no estaban menos sujetos a una ruta precisa que los petroleros modernos lo están hoy, muy al contrario. La transmisión de mensajes telefónicos se hace sobre una banda de frecuencia determinada y debe ser dirigida por una administración central, aun cuando cubra una zona delimitada. En realidad, no hay ninguna razón para proscribir de una sociedad convivencial toda herramienta poderosa y toda producción centralizada. Dentro de la perspectiva convivencial, el equilibrio entre la justicia en la participación y la igualdad dentro de la distribución puede variar de una sociedad a otra, en función de la historia, de los ideales y del medio ambiente de esa sociedad. + +No es esencial que las instituciones manipuladoras o los bienes y los servicios susceptibles de intoxicar sean totalmente excluidos de una sociedad convivencial. Lo que importa es que semejante sociedad logre un equilibrio entre, por una parte, la instrumentación concebida para satisfacer la demanda que produce y, por otra, los instrumentos que estimulan la realización personal. Lo primero materializa programas abstractos concernientes a los hombres en general; lo segundo favorece la aptitud de cada uno para perseguir sus fines a su manera personal, inimitable. + +No es cuestión de proscribir una herramienta por el sólo hecho de que, de acuerdo con nuestros criterios de clasificación, se pueda calificar de anticonvivencial. Estos criterios son guías para la acción. Una sociedad puede utilizarlos para reestructurar la totalidad de su instrumentación, en función del estilo y del grado de convivencialidad que desee alcanzar. Una sociedad convivencial no prohíbe la escuela. Proscribe el sistema escolar pervertido en herramienta obligatoria, basada en la segregación y el rechazo de los fracasados. Una sociedad convivencial no suprime los transportes interurbanos a gran velocidad, a menos que su existencia impida garantizar al conjunto de la población la posibilidad de circular a la velocidad y al ritmo que quiera. Una sociedad convivencial ni siquiera pretende rechazar la televisión, aun cuando ésta deja a discreción de algunos productores y charlatanes seleccionar y fabricar lo que habrá de 'tragar' la masa de televidentes; sin embargo, una sociedad de ese tipo debe proteger a la persona contra la _obligación_ de convertirse en cautiva de la pantalla. Como se ve, los criterios de la convivencialidad no son reglas a aplicarse mecánicamente, sino indicadores de la acción política concerniente a todo lo que se debe evitar. Son criterios de detección de una amenaza, que permiten a cada uno hacer valer su propia libertad. + +### La ceguera actual y el ejemplo del pasado + +En el presente, los criterios institucionales sobre la acción humana son opuestos a los nuestros, incluso en las sociedades marxistas en donde la clase obrera se cree en el poder. El planificador socialista rivaliza con el vocero de la libre empresa, en su intento por demostrar que sus principios aseguran a una sociedad el máximo de productividad. En los países socialistas, la política económica con frecuencia se define por su preocupación de aumentar la productividad industrial. El monopolio de la interpretación industrial del marxismo sirve de barrera y de medio de chantaje contra toda forma de marxismo heterodoxo. Falta ver si China, después de la muerte del presidente Mao Tse-Tung, abandonará, ella también, la convivencialidad productiva, para volverse hacia la productividad estandarizada. La interpretación exclusivamente industrial del socialismo, permite a los comunistas y a los capitalistas hablar el mismo idioma, medir en forma similar el grado de desarrollo alcanzado por una sociedad. Una sociedad en donde la mayoría de la gente depende, respecto a los bienes y servicios que recibe, de las cualidades, de la imaginación, del amor y de la habilidad de cada cual, pertenece a la clase considerada como subdesarrollada. En cambio, una sociedad en donde la vida cotidiana no es más que una serie de pedidos sobre catálogo al gran supermercado universal, se considera avanzada. Y el revolucionario no es más que un entrenador deportivo: campeón del Tercer Mundo o portavoz de las minorías subconsumidoras, encauza la frustración de las masas a las que revela su _retraso_; canaliza la violencia popular y la transforma en _energía para dar alcance_. + +Cada uno de los aspectos de la sociedad industrial es componente de un sistema de conjunto que implica la escalada de la producción y el incremento de la demanda indispensables para justificar el costo social total. Es por ello que, cuando se concentra la crítica social sobre la mala administración, la corrupción, la insuficiencia de la investigación o el retraso tecnológico, no se hace más que distraer la atención del público del único problema que cuenta: la estructura inherente a la herramienta que se toma como medio, y que determina una creciente falta general. Otro error consiste en creer que la frustración actual se debe principalmente a la propiedad privada de los medios de producción, y que la apropiación pública de esos medios, a través de un organismo central de planificación, protegerá los intereses de la mayoría y conducirá a un reparto equitativo de la abundancia. Este remedio propuesto no cambiará la estructura antihumana de la herramienta. Mientras se ataque al consorcio Ford por la única razón de que enriquece al señor Ford, se mantendrá la ilusión de que las fábricas Ford podrían enriquecer a la colectividad. Mientras la población suponga que el automóvil le reporta ventajas, no tendrá queja contra Ford por construir automóviles. Mientras comparta la ilusión de que es posible aumentar la velocidad de desplazamiento de cada uno, la sociedad continuará criticando su propio sistema político, en vez de imaginar otro sistema de transportes. Sin embargo, la solución está al alcance de la mano: no reside en una forma determinada de apropiación de la herramienta, sino en el descubrimiento del carácter de ciertas herramientas, en saber que nadie podrá jamás _poseerlas_. El concepto de apropiación no se podrá aplicar a una instrumentación incontrolable. La cuestión urgente sería determinar qué herramientas pueden ser controladas en interés general, y comprender que una herramienta incontrolable representa una amenaza insoportable. Es secundaria la cuestión de saber cómo organizar un medio privado de control que responda al interés general. + +Ciertas herramientas son siempre destructoras, cualesquiera que sean las manos que las detenten: la mafia, los capitalistas, una firma multinacional, el Estado o incluso una colectiva obrera. Es así, por ejemplo, en el caso de las redes de autopistas de vías múltiples, de los sistemas de comunicación a larga distancia que utilizan bandas anchas de frecuencias y también de las minas o de las escuelas. El instrumento destructor incrementa la uniformación, la dependencia, la explotación y la impotencia; despoja al pobre de su parte de convivencialidad, para frustrar más al rico de la suya. + +Al hombre moderno le es difícil concebir el desarrollo y la modernización en términos de reducción y no de incremento del consumo de energía. Para él, una técnica avanzada rima con una profunda intervención en el proceso físico, mental y social. Si queremos aprehender la instrumentación con exactitud, debemos abandonar la ilusión de que un alto grado de cultura implica el más alto consumo de energía posible. En las civilizaciones antiguas, los recursos energéticos estaban repartidos equitativamente. Cada ser humano, por su constitución biológica, disponía de por vida de toda la energía potencial necesaria para transformar conscientemente el contorno físico según su voluntad, puesto que la fuente era su propio cuerpo bajo la sola condición de que se le mantuviera en buena salud. En estas condiciones, controlar grandes cantidades de energía física no era más que resultado de manipulaciones psíquicas o de una dominación política. + +Para edificar las pirámides de Teotihuacán en México, para formar las terrazas de arrozales de Ibagué, en Filipinas, los hombres no necesitaron para nada de herramientas manipulables. La cúpula de San Pedro en Roma y los canales de Angkor Vat fueron construidos sin bulldozeres, sólo a fuerza de brazos. Los generales de César recibían las noticias a través de _jinetes_, los Fugger y los jefes incas utilizaban corredores. Hasta el siglo XVIII, las galeras de la República Veneciana y todos los mensajeros viajaban a menos de 120 kilómetros por día. El ejército de Napoleón se desplazaba siempre con la misma lentitud que el de César. La mano o el pie impulsaban la bobina o el torno, la rueda de alfarero y la sierra de madera. La energía metabólica del hombre alimentaba la agricultura, la artesanía y la guerra. La ingeniosidad del individuo canalizaba la energía animal hacia ciertas tareas sociales. Los poderosos de la tierra no controlaban otra energía más que la suministrada, de grado o por fuerza por sus propios súbditos. + +Ciertamente, el metabolismo humano no bastaba para procurar toda la energía deseable, pero en la mayoría de las culturas se mantenía incluso como su fuente principal: el hombre sabía poner a su servicio ciertas fuerzas naturales. Utilizaba el fuego para cocer sus alimentos y más tarde para forjar las armas; sabía extraer el agua de la tierra, descender por los ríos, navegar a vela, utilizar la fuerza de la gravedad, domesticar al animal. Pero en su totalidad estos recursos fueron secundarios y de poco rendimiento. La sociedad ateniense del siglo VI o la del Cuatrocientos florentino, sabían utilizar en forma armoniosa las fuerzas naturales, pero la construcción de templos y palacios se hizo, en lo esencial, sólo por obra de la energía humana. Es cierto que el hombre podía reducir una ciudad a cenizas o hacer del Sahara un desierto, pero esta explosión de energía, una vez desatada, escapaba a su poder de control. + +Es posible dar un valor aproximado a la cantidad de energía física de que disponían las sociedades tradicionales. El ser humano quemaba un promedio de 2.500 calorías diarias, de las cuales cuatro quintos servían únicamente para mantenerle vivo, hacer latir su corazón y accionar su cerebro. El remanente se podía aplicar a diversas tareas, pero no todo era transformable en trabajo. No sólo se aplicaba a los juegos de la infancia, sino también, y sobre todo, a las actividades de sobrevivencia cotidiana: levantarse, preparar los alimentos, protegerse contra el frío o contra la amenaza de los otros. Privado del impulso de sus actividades, el hombre se ha vuelto inepto para el trabajo: la sociedad puede moldearlas, pero no puede suprimirlas, para destinar a otras tareas la energía que requieren. La costumbre, el lenguaje y el Derecho determinan la forma de alfarería que fabrica el esclavo, pero el amo no puede privar a su esclavo de techo, salvo privándose a sí mismo del esclavo. Sumando múltiples descargas pequeñas de energía individual, puestas a disposición de la colectividad, se construyeron templos, se trasladaron montañas, se tejieron vestimentas, se hicieron guerras, se transportó al monarca y se le honró. + +La energía estaba limitada, era función del nivel de la población, se abastecía del vigor del cuerpo. Su eficacia dependía del grado de desarrollo --y de distribución en la población-- de las herramientas manejables. La herramienta incorporaba la energía metabólica a la tarea. Jugaba con las fuerzas, ya fuera la de gravedad o la del viento, pero no ampliaba la fuerza de trabajo. Para disponer de más poder físico que el vecino había que avasallarle. Si el amo empleaba formas de energía humana, podía controlarlas únicamente si gobernaba sobre otros hombres. Cada yunta de bueyes requería un boyero para cuidarla y conducirla. Hasta el fuego de la forja requería de un guardián para cuidarlo. El poder político era el dominio de la voluntad de los demás, y el dominio de la fuerza física era la detentación de la autoridad. + +En las sociedades preindustriales, el poder político no podía controlar más que la energía _excedente_, proporcionada por la población. Cada ventaja en la eficiencia, obtenida gracias a una nueva herramienta o a un nuevo modo de organización, significaba para la población el riesgo de verse privada del control de ese excedente de energía. Todo aumento en la eficiencia permitía a la clase dominante apropiarse de una parte mayor de la energía total disponible. De modo que a la evolución de las técnicas correspondía una evolución paralela de las clases sociales. Se cobraban impuestos al individuo, quitándole una parte de su producto personal, o bien se le imponían trabajos obligatorios suplementarios. La ideología, la estructura de la economía, el armamento y el modo de vida favorecían esta concentración, en manos de unos cuantos, del dominio de la energía biológica aumentada. + +Sin embargo, este tipo de concentración no tiene los mismos efectos en una cultura u otra, sobre el reparto de los frutos del esfuerzo social. En el mejor de los casos, amplía el radio de acción para las energías personales. La sociedad campesina en Europa central, a finales de la Edad Media, es un buen ejemplo de ello. Tres invenciones recientes --el estribo, las herraduras para caballos y el arnés-- triplicaron el rendimiento del caballo. Equipado así, el arado tirado por un caballo hizo posible la rotación trienal de los cultivos, la explotación de nuevas tierras y, enganchado a una carreta, elevó al cuadrado el radio de acción del campesino, lo cual provocó el movimiento de concentración del _hábitat_ en poblaciones agrupadas en torno a una iglesia, más tarde a una escuela. En el peor de los casos, la concentración del poder, al disponer de la energía, condujo al establecimiento de grandes imperios, propagados por los ejércitos mercenarios y alimentados por los campesinos reducidos al vasallaje. + +Hacia finales de la Edad de Hierro, o sea desde el reino de Agripa hasta el siglo de Watt, la cantidad total de energía disponible aumentó rápidamente. De hecho, la mayoría de las grandes mutaciones técnicas anteriores al descubrimiento de la electricidad, se produjeron durante la alta Edad Media. La invención de los tres mástiles, sacando mejor partido de la fuerza del viento, hizo posible la navegación alrededor del mundo. La excavación de los canales europeos y la invención de la esclusa hicieron posibles los transportes regulares de cargamentos pesados. Los cerveceros, los tintoreros, los alfareros, los ladrilleros, los azucareros y los salineros se beneficiaron del perfeccionamiento y difusión de los molinos de viento y de agua. La forja a orillas del torrente sustituye a la fragua en el bosque; el martillo es reemplazado por los molinetes de pilón para triturar el mineral, y al canasto a espaldas del hombre, lo reemplaza la polea que permite levantar cargas. La fuerza hidráulica acciona sopletes para ventilar galerías y gracias a las norias se bombea el agua para drenar el fondo de la mina y el hombre se sumerge más adentro de la tierra. Aun se dice del campesino, detrás de su arado, que 'labora'; del minero se dice que 'trabaja'. Después, el carro, equipado de un tren delantero pivotante y de ejes móviles, permite duplicar la velocidad del desplazamiento, con lo cual, a partir del siglo XVIII, se benefician el correo y el transporte de pasajeros. Por primera vez en la historia del hombre es posible desplazarse a cien kilómetros por hora. Poblados y campos, unos más lentamente que los otros, fueron transformados, remodelados, poco a poco. + +En su libro _The Myth of the Machine: The Pentagon of Power_ , Lewis Mumford subraya las características específicas que convirtieron la actividad minera en prototipo de las formas ulteriores de mecanización: + +> "... indiferencia hacia los factores humanos, a la contaminación y a la destrucción del contorno, puesto el acento en el proceso fisicoquímico con miras a obtener el metal o el carburante deseado y, sobre todo, el aislamiento geográfico y mental del universo del granjero y del artesano, del mundo de la Iglesia, de la Universidad y de la Ciudad. Por su efecto destructor sobre el medio ambiente y su desprecio por los riesgos impuestos al hombre, la actividad minera se acerca mucho a la actividad guerrera --como la guerra, la mina produce con frecuencia un tipo de hombre duro y digno, habituado a afrontar el peligro y la muerte [...], el soldado en su mejor aspecto--. Pero el _animus_ destructor de la mina, su siniestra labor, su aura de miseria humana y la degradación del paisaje, todo eso lo transmite la actividad minera a las industrias que utilizan su producción. El costo social excede grandemente al beneficio mecánico". + +De manera que a la herramienta accionada al ritmo del hombre, sucedió un hombre actuando al ritmo de la herramienta, con lo cual, todas las modalidades humanas de actuar se vieron transformadas. + +### Un nuevo concepto del trabajo + +A finales de la Edad Media, el antiguo sueño del alquimista de fabricar un homúnculo en el laboratorio, poco a poco tomó la forma de la creación de robots para que trabajaran por el hombre, y de la educación del hombre para trabajar a su lado. Esta nueva actitud hacia la actividad productora se reflejaba en la introducción de una nueva palabra. _Tripaliare_ significaba torturar sobre el _trepalium_ , mencionado en el siglo VI como un armazón formado de tres troncos, suplicio que reemplazó en el mundo cristiano al de la cruz. En el siglo XII, la palabra trabajo significaba una prueba dolorosa. Hubo que esperar al siglo XVI para poder emplear la palabra 'trabajo' en lugar de obra o de labor. A la _obra_ ( _poiesis_ ) del hombre artista y libre, a la _labor_ ( _poneros_ ) del hombre apremiado por el otro o por la naturaleza, se agrega entonces el _trabajo_, al ritmo de la máquina. En seguida la palabra 'trabajador' desliza su sentido hacia 'labrador' y 'obrero': a fines del siglo XIX los tres términos apenas se distinguen. + +La ideología de la organización industrial, de la instrumentación y de la organización capitalista de la economía, aparece antes de lo que se ha dado en llamar Revolución Industrial. Desde la época de Bacon, los europeos comenzaron a realizar operaciones indicadoras de un nuevo estado mental: ganar tiempo, reducir el espacio, aumentar la energía, multiplicar los bienes, echar por la borda las normas naturales, prolongar la duración de la vida, sustituir los organismos vivos por mecanismos que los simulan o amplían una función particular. De estos imperativos se desarrollaron en nuestras sociedades los dogmas de la ciencia y de la técnica que tienen valor de axiomas porque no se les somete a análisis. El mismo cambio de mente se refleja en la transición del ritmo ritual a la regularidad mecánica, se pone el acento en la puntualidad, en la medida del espacio y en la contabilización de los votos, de manera que los objetos concretos y los sucesos complejos se transforman en _quanta_ abstracta. Esta pasión capitalista por un orden repetitivo mina el equilibrio cualitativo entre el obrero y su débil instrumentación. + +El surgimiento de nuevas formas de energía y de poder alteró la relación que el hombre mantenía con el tiempo. El préstamo a interés era condenado por la Iglesia como una práctica contra natura; el dinero era, por naturaleza, un medio de cambio para comprar lo necesario, no un capital que pudiera _trabajar_ o dar frutos. En el siglo XVII, la Iglesia misma abandona esta concepción, aunque a su pesar, para aceptar el hecho de que los cristianos se habían convertido en capitalistas comerciantes. El uso del reloj se generaliza y, con él, la idea de la 'falta' de tiempo. El tiempo se transforma en dinero: «he ganado tiempo»; «me sobra tiempo, ¿cómo voy a gastarlo?»; «me falta tiempo»; «¡no puedo permitirme el lujo de derrocharlo, ganar una hora, ya es ganancia!» + +Pronto se comenzó a considerar abiertamente al hombre como una fuente de energía. Se trató de medir la prestación diaria máxima que se podía obtener de un hombre, luego a comparar el costo de manutención y la potencia del hombre con la del caballo. El hombre fue redefinido como fuente de energía mecánica. Se observó que los galeotes no eran muy eficientes porque permanecían sujetos al movimiento simple del remo. En cambio, los prisioneros condenados al suplicio de la ardilla, utilizado aún en el siglo XIX en las prisiones inglesas, proporcionaban una potencia rotativa capaz de alimentar cualquier máquina nueva. + +La nueva relación del hombre con su instrumentalización echa raíces durante la Revolución Industrial; como, a su vez, el capitalismo, en el siglo XVI, reclamó nuevas fuentes de energía. La máquina a vapor es más un efecto de esta sed de energía que una causa de la Revolución Industrial. Con el ferrocarril, esta preciosa máquina se vuelve móvil y el hombre se hace usuario. En 1782, la diligencia franqueó los cien kilómetros por día entre París y Marsella; en 1855, Napoleón III se ufanaba de recorrer cien kilómetros por hora. Poco a poco, la máquina puso al hombre en movimiento: en 1900, un trabajador francés, no empleado en la agricultura, alcanzaba en promedio treinta veces más kilómetros que su homónimo en 1850. Llega entonces el fin de la Edad de Hierro y a la vez el de la Revolución Industrial. La capacidad de moverse se sustituye por el recurso a los transportes. El hacer en serie reemplaza al _savoir-faire_[^n03], la industrialización se convierte en norma. + +En el siglo XX, el hombre pone en explotación gigantescas reservas naturales de energía. El nivel energético así logrado establece sus propias normas, determina los caracteres técnicos de la herramienta, más aún, el nuevo emplazamiento del hombre. A la obra, a la labor, al trabajo, viene a agregarse el servicio de la máquina: obligado a adaptarse a su ritmo, el trabajador se transforma en operador de motores o en empleado de oficina. Y el ritmo de la producción exige la docilidad del consumidor que acepta un producto estandarizado y condicionado. + +A partir de entonces, disminuye la necesidad de jornaleros en el campo y el siervo deja de ser rentable. También el trabajador deja de ser rentable, desde que la automatización logra por medio de la industrialización, la franca transformación que la producción en masa ha perseguido. El encanto discreto del condicionamiento abstracto de la mega-máquina reemplaza el efecto del chasquido del látigo en el oído del labrador esclavo, y el avance implacable de la cadena sin fin desencadena el gesto estereotipado del esclavo. + +Así, pues, hemos revisado cuatro niveles energéticos que pueden marcar la organización de una sociedad, la estructura de sus herramientas y el estilo dominante de sus actividades productoras. Esas cuatro organizaciones circunscriben, respectivamente, el campo de la obra independiente y creadora, de la labor bajo la ley de la necesidad, del trabajo al ritmo de la cadena sin fin y del funcionamiento 'condicionado operacionalmente' dentro de la mega- máquina. La manera en que estos diferentes tipos de actividad participan en los cambios de la economía y afrontan las leyes del mercado es reveladora de sus mutuas diferencias. El creador de una obra no puede ofrecerse él mismo en el mercado, solamente puede ofrecer el fruto de su actividad. El labrador y el trabajador pueden ofrecer a otro su fuerza y su competencia. En fin, el puesto del funcionario y del operador se ha convertido también en una mercancía. El derecho a manejar una máquina y a beneficiarse con los privilegios correspondientes se obtiene como resultado del consumo de una serie de tratamientos previos: currículum escolar, condicionamiento profesional, educación permanente. + +Todos somos hijos de nuestro tiempo y, como tales, nos resulta bien difícil imaginar un tipo de producción posindustrial, y por lo mismo, humana. Para nosotros, limitar la instrumentación industrial significa el retorno al infierno de la mina y al cronómetro de la fábrica, o al trabajo del granjero que compite con la agricultura mecanizada. El obrero que sumerge un neumático en una solución hirviente de ácido sulfúrico debe repetir ese gesto absurdo y agotador a cada gemido de la máquina, y está así realmente atado a la máquina. Por otra parte, el trabajo del campo ya no es lo que fue para el siervo o para el campesino tradicional. Para éstos era laborar un campo en función del crecimiento de las plantas, del apetito de los animales y del tiempo que haría al día siguiente. El obrero agrícola moderno que no dispone de herramientas manipulables, se encuentra en cambio en una situación absurda. Cogido entre dos fuegos, o debe agotarse para rivalizar con los rendimientos de los que poseen tractores y máquinas de usos múltiples, o bien debe hacer funcionar esta maquinaria moderna, consciente de estar fastidiado, explotado y chasqueado, con la sensación de ser una simple pieza de recambio para la mega- máquina. Es incapaz de imaginar la posibilidad de usar herramientas manejables que son, a la vez, menos fatigadoras que el antiguo arado, menos alienantes que la trilladora y más productivas que uno y otra. + +Ninguno de los tipos de instrumentos fabricados en el pasado posibilitaba un tipo de sociedad y un modo de actividad marcados a la vez con el sello de la eficiencia y de la convivencialidad. Pero hoy en día podemos concebir herramientas que permitan eliminar la esclavitud del hombre frente al hombre, sin someterlo a la máquina. La condición para esta posibilidad es la reversión del cuadro de las instituciones que rigen la aplicación de los resultados de las ciencias y de las técnicas. En nuestros días, el avance científico se identifica con la sustitución de la iniciativa humana por la instrumentación programada, pero lo que, de esa manera, se toma por efecto de la lógica del saber, no es en realidad más que la consecuencia de un prejuicio ideológico. + +La convicción común es que la ciencia y la técnica apoyan el modo industrial de producción, y que, por este hecho, imponen el reemplazo de todos los instrumentos específicamente relacionados con un trabajo autónomo y creador. Pero semejante proceso no está implícito en los descubrimientos científicos, y no es una consecuencia ineluctable de su aplicación. Lejos de ello, es el resultado de la decisión absoluta en favor del desarrollo del modo industrial de producción: la investigación se esfuerza por reducir en todas partes los obstáculos secundarios que entraban en el crecimiento de un determinado proceso; bajo una programación a largo plazo, se adorna como si se tratara de un logro costoso, realizado con gran esfuerzo en interés del público. En realidad, la investigación está casi totalmente al servicio del desarrollo industrial. Pero una técnica avanzada podría reducir el peso de la labor y, de mil maneras, servir también a la expansión de la obra de producción personal. Las ciencias de la naturaleza y las ciencias del hombre podrían aplicarse a crear herramientas, a trazar su marco de utilización y forjar sus reglas de empleo para alcanzar una incesante recreación de la persona, del grupo y del ambiente --un despliegue total de la iniciativa y de la imaginación de cada uno--. + +Hoy podemos comprender la naturaleza de una manera nueva. Todo consiste en saber para qué fines. Ha llegado la hora de elegir entre la constitución de una sociedad hiperindustrial, electrónica y cibernética, y el despliegue en un amplio abanico de las herramientas modernas y convivenciales. La misma cantidad de acero puede servir para producir tanto una sierra y una máquina de coser como un elemento industrial: en el primer caso se multiplicará por tres o por diez la eficacia de mil personas; en el segundo, gran parte del _savoir-faire_ perderá su razón de ser. Se debe elegir entre distribuir a millones de personas, al mismo tiempo, la imagen a colores de un tipo agitándose sobre la pantalla, a conceder a cada grupo la posibilidad de producir y distribuir sus propios programas en centros de vídeo. En el primer caso, la técnica está puesta al servicio de la promoción del especialista, regida por burócratas. Cada vez, más planificadores harán estudios de mercado, elaborarán equilibrios planificados y moldearán la demanda de más y más gente en un número mayor de sectores. Habrá siempre más cosas útiles entregadas a los inútiles. Pero se vislumbra una posibilidad. La ciencia se puede emplear también para simplificar la instrumentación, para que cada uno sea capaz de moldear su medio ambiente inmediato, es decir, sea capaz de cargarse de sentido, cargando el mundo de signos. + +### La desprofesionalización + +#### La medicina + +A semejanza de lo que hizo la Reforma al arrancar el monopolio de la escritura a los clérigos, podemos nosotros arrancar el enfermo a los médicos. No es necesario ser muy sabio para aplicar los descubrimientos fundamentales de la medicina moderna, reconocer y atender la mayoría de los males curables, para aliviar el sufrimiento del otro y acompañarle cuando se aproxima la muerte. Nos es difícil creerlo, porque, complicado a sabiendas, el ritual médico nos encubre la simplicidad de los actos. Conozco una niña norteamericana de diecisiete años que fue procesada por haber atendido la sífilis primaria de 130 camaradas de escuela. Un detalle de orden técnico, señalado por un experto, le valió el indulto: los resultados obtenidos fueron, estadísticamente, mejores que los del Servicio de Salud. Seis semanas después del tratamiento ella logró exámenes de control satisfactorios de todos sus pacientes, sin excepción. Se trata de saber si el progreso debe significar independencia progresiva o progresiva dependencia. + +La posibilidad de confiar la atención médica a no especializados va en contra de nuestra concepción del mayor bienestar, debido a la organización establecida por la medicina. Concebida como una _empresa industrial_, está en manos de _productores_ (médicos, hospitales, laboratorios, farmacéuticos) que estimulan la difusión de procedimientos avanzados, costosos y complicados, reduciendo así al enfermo y a sus cercanos al estatus de clientes dóciles. Organizada como sistema de distribución social de beneficencia, la medicina incita a la población a luchar por unos siempre crecientes cuidados dispensados por profesionales en materia de higiene, de anestesia o de asistencia a los moribundos. Antaño el deseo de justicia distributiva se basaba en la confianza en la autonomía. Actualmente, congelada en el monopolio de una _jerarquía monolítica_, la medicina protege sus fronteras impulsando la formación de una valla de para-profesionales a cuyos subtratamientos se somete al enfermo, que antes los recibía de sus allegados. Con esto la organización médica protege su monopolio ortodoxo contra la competencia desleal de toda curación obtenida por medios heterodoxos. En realidad, cualquiera puede cuidar de su prójimo y en este campo no todo es necesariamente materia de enseñanza. En una sociedad en que cualquiera podría y debería cuidar de su prójimo, simplemente unos serían más expertos que otros. En una sociedad en que se naciera y muriera en casa, o en que el lisiado y el idiota no fueran desterrados de la plaza pública, en que se supiera distinguir la vocación médica de la profesión de plomero, se encontrarían personas para ayudar a los demás a vivir, a sufrir y a morir. + +La complicidad evidente entre el profesional y su cliente no basta para explicar la resistencia del público a la idea de desprofesionalizar la atención. En la raíz de la impotencia del hombre industrializado se encuentra la otra función de la medicina actual, que sirve de ritual para conjurar la muerte. El paciente se confía al médico, no sólo a causa de su padecimiento, sino por miedo a la muerte, para protegerse de ella. La identificación de toda enfermedad con una amenaza de muerte es de origen bastante reciente. Al perder la diferenciación entre el alivio de una enfermedad curable y la preparación para aceptar un mal incurable, el médico moderno ha perdido el derecho de sus predecesores a distinguirse claramente del brujo y del charlatán; y su cliente ha perdido la capacidad de distinguir entre el alivio del sufrimiento y el recurso al conjuro. Con la celebración del ritual médico, el médico encubre la divergencia entre el hecho que profesa y la realidad que crea, entre la lucha contra el sufrimiento y la muerte por una parte, y el retardo de la muerte a costa de sufrimientos prolongados, por otra. La entereza de asistirse a sí mismo la tiene únicamente el hombre que tiene la entereza de enfrentarse a la muerte. + +#### El sistema de transportes + +A comienzos de la década del treinta, bajo la presidencia de Lázaro Cárdenas, México fue dotado de un sistema moderno de transportes. En pocos años, las cuatro quintas partes de la población percibieron las ventajas del transporte motorizado. Las poblaciones principales fueron unidas por caminos o trochas. Camiones sólidos, sencillos y duraderos, hacían el trayecto a una velocidad inferior a treinta kilómetros por hora. Los pasajeros se apretaban en los bancos clavados al piso, mientras los equipajes y las mercancías iban atrás o sobre el techo. En distancias cortas, el camión no aventajaba a la gente habituada a caminar llevando pesadas cargas, pero daba a todos la posibilidad de recorrer distancias largas. El hombre ya no arrastraba su cerdo al mercado, lo llevaba consigo en el camión. Cualquiera, en México, podía ir a cualquier punto del país en unos cuantos días. + +A partir de 1945, cada año es mayor el gasto para el sistema vial. Se construyeron autopistas entre algunos centros importantes. Frágiles automóviles ruedan sobre carreteras bien asfaltadas. Los vehículos pesados van de una fábrica a la obra. Los viejos camiones para todo terreno y para todo uso han sido desplazados a las montañas. En la mayoría de los Estados, el campesino debe tomar un autobús para ir al mercado a comprar productos industrializados, pero le es imposible cargar en el vehículo a su cerdo, y se ve obligado a venderlo al comprador ambulante. Sin embargo, contribuye a financiar la construcción de carreteras que aprovechan los detentadores de diversos monopolios especializados. Está obligado a hacerlo, bajo el supuesto de que, en última instancia, también él será beneficiario del progreso. + +A cambio de un trayecto ocasional sobre el asiento tapizado de un autobús con aire acondicionado, el hombre medio ha perdido mucho de la movilidad que le garantizaba el sistema antiguo, sin que por ello haya ganado en libertad. Un estudio hecho en dos de los grandes estados típicos de México --uno desértico, el otro montañoso y tropical-- confirma lo que decimos. Menos del uno por ciento de la población de esos dos estados ha recorrido en 1970 más de veinte kilómetros en menos de una hora. Un sistema de bicicletas o de carretas, motorizadas quizás, hubiera representado para el 99% de la población una solución técnicamente mucho más eficaz que la tan cacareada red de carreteras. Esta clase de vehículos pueden construirse y mantenerse a costos relativamente bajos, y podrían moverse por redes viales análogas a las del Imperio Inca. El argumento en favor de la producción masiva de automóviles y de carreteras es que ellas son condición del desarrollo, que sin ellas una región queda desconectada del mercado mundial. Queda por ver si la integración al mercado monetario, que en nuestros días es un símbolo luminoso, es realmente la meta del desarrollo. + +Desde hace algunos años se empieza a admitir que los automóviles, en la forma en que se utilizan, no son eficaces. Se atribuye esta falta de eficiencia al hecho de que los vehículos se han concebido para la propiedad privada y no para el bien público. En realidad, el sistema moderno de transportes no es eficiente porque todo incremento en velocidad se asimila a un progreso en la circulación. Al igual que el imperativo de mayor bienestar a toda costa, la carrera por la velocidad es una forma de desorden mental. En el país capitalista el viaje largo es una cuestión de dinero. En el país socialista, es una cuestión de poder. La velocidad es un nuevo factor de estratificación social en las sociedades supereficientes. + +La intoxicación por la velocidad es un buen campo para el control social de las condiciones del desarrollo. En Estados Unidos, la industria de los transportes, en todas sus formas, devora el 23% del presupuesto total de la nación, consume el 35% de la energía y, al mismo tiempo, es la fuente principal de contaminación y la razón más poderosa del endeudamiento de las familias. Esta misma industria con frecuencia consume una fracción aún mayor del presupuesto anual de las municipalidades latinoamericanas. Y lo que en las estadísticas aparece bajo la rúbrica 'desarrollo', es en realidad el vehículo motorizado del médico o del político. Cuesta más caro al conjunto de la población que a los egipcios la construcción de la pirámide de Keops. + +Tailandia, por ejemplo, es célebre en la historia por su sistema de canales, los _klongs_. Estos canales cubrían con su red todo el país. Garantizaban la circulación de los hombres, del arroz y de los impuestos. Ciertos poblados quedaban aislados durante la temporada seca, pero el ritmo estacional de la vida hacía de este aislamiento periódico ocasión para la meditación y las celebraciones. Un pueblo que se concede largas vacaciones y las llena de actividades, ciertamente no es un pueblo pobre. Durante los últimos cinco años, los canales más importantes han sido rellenados y transformados en carreteras. A los conductores de autobús se les paga por kilómetro, y los vehículos aún son poco numerosos. Asimismo, en un corto plazo, los tailandeses probablemente batirán los records mundiales de velocidad en autobús. Pero habrán de pagar cara la destrucción de las milenarias vías acuáticas. Los economistas dicen que el autobús y los automóviles inyectan dinero a la economía. Esto es cierto, ¿pero a qué precio? ¿Cuántas familias van a perder su ancestral embarcación y, con ella, la libertad? Jamás los automovilistas hubieran podido competir con ellas si el Banco Mundial no les hubiera pagado las carreteras y si el gobierno tailandés no hubiera promulgado nuevas leyes que autorizaran la profanación de los canales. + +#### La industria de la construcción + +El Derecho y las Finanzas están detrás de la industria de la construcción, dándole poder para sustraer al hombre la facultad de construir su propia casa. Últimamente, en más de un país de América Latina se han lanzado programas destinados a dar a cada trabajador 'un alojamiento decente'. Al principio se establecieron nuevas normas para la construcción de unidades habitacionales. Éstas estaban destinadas a proteger al adquisidor de los abusos de la industria de la construcción. Pero, paradójicamente, estas mismas normas han privado a un número mayor de gente de la posibilidad tradicional de construirse su casa. Este nuevo código habitacional dicta condiciones mínimas que un trabajador, al construirse su casa en el tiempo libre, no puede satisfacer. Aún más, el solo alquiler de una vivienda cualquiera construida industrialmente sobrepasa el ingreso del ochenta por ciento de la población. Este 'alojamiento decente', como se dice, no puede ser ocupado más que por gente acomodada o por aquellos a quienes la ley concede una subvención para vivienda. + +Los alojamientos que no satisfacen las normas industriales se declaran peligrosos e insalubres. Se rehúsa ayuda pública a la aplastante mayoría de la población que no tiene medios para comprar una casa, pero que bien podría construirla. Los fondos públicos destinados al mejoramiento de las condiciones habitacionales en las barriadas pobres se destinan a la construcción de poblaciones nuevas cercanas a las capitales provinciales y regionales, en donde podrán vivir los funcionarios, los obreros sindicados y los que tienen conexiones. Toda esa gente es empleada del sector moderno de la economía, _tiene trabajo_. Se les puede clasificar entre los que hablan de su trabajo en sustantivo. Los que no trabajan o que trabajan de cuando en cuando, y los que apenas alcanzan el nivel de subsistencia, utilizan la forma verbal cuando, por casualidad, les es posible _trabajar_. + +Sólo las personas que tienen trabajo reciben subvenciones para construir su casa; además, todos los servicios públicos están organizados para hacerles la vida grata. En las grandes ciudades de América Latina, el diez por ciento de la población consume alrededor del cincuenta por ciento del agua potable. La mayoría de esas ciudades están en los altiplanos, donde el agua es muy escasa. El código de urbanismo impone normas mucho más bajas que las de los países ricos, pero, al prescribir cómo se deben construir las casas, crea un ambiente de escasez de alojamientos. La pretensión de una sociedad de ofrecer cada vez mejores viviendas sufre de la misma aberración que la de los médicos al pretender cada vez mayor bienestar, o la de los ingenieros al producir cada vez más velocidad. En lo abstracto se fijan fines imposibles de alcanzar, y en seguida se sustituyen los medios por los fines. + +Lo que ha sucedido en toda la América Latina en los años sesenta, incluyendo a Cuba, también ha sucedido en Massachusetts. En 1945, la tercera parte de las familias habitaba una casa que era enteramente obra de sus ocupantes, o había sido construida según sus planos y bajo su dirección. En 1970, la proporción de esas casas no representaba más que el once por ciento del total. Entretanto, el alojamiento se había convertido en el problema número uno. Aunque gracias a las nuevas herramientas y a los materiales disponibles, construir una casa se ha hecho más fácil en la actualidad, son las instituciones sociales --reglamentos, sindicatos, cláusulas hipotecarias-- las que se oponen a ello. + +La mayoría de la gente no se siente realmente en su casa, sino cuando una parte significativa del valor de ella es fruto de su propia labor. Una política convivencial se ocuparía primero de definir lo que es imposible que alguien obtenga por sí mismo, cuando se construye su casa. En consecuencia, aseguraría a cada uno el acceso a un mínimo de espacio, de agua, de elementos prefabricados de herramientas convivenciales, desde el barreno hasta el montacargas y, probablemente, también el acceso a un mínimo crédito. + +Semejante inversión de la política actual daría a una sociedad posindustrial moradas modernas tan atractivas para sus miembros como lo fueron, para los antiguos mayas, las casas que aún son la regla en Yucatán. + +Hoy día, la asistencia, los transportes, la vivienda, son concebidos como el resultado necesario de una acción que exige la intervención profesional. Esta intervención se concreta por la suma de _quanta_ sucesivas, siendo el _quantum_ la unidad mínima de medida. Tres años de escuela tienen peores efectos que la falta de escolarización: hacen del niño que la abandona un fracasado. Lo que es válido para la escuela lo es también para la medicina, los transportes, la vivienda, la agricultura o la justicia. Los transportes motorizados no son rentables sino a partir de cierta velocidad. La acción de la justicia no es rentable más que cuando la importancia del daño sufrido justifica el costo de la acción judicial. Sembrar nuevas especies no es rentable más que cuando el granjero dispone de suficiente tierra y capital. Es fatal que los instrumentos asombrosos, concebidos para obtener fines sociales definidos en abstracto, provean productos inaccesibles, por _quanta_ , a la mayoría de la gente. Por lo demás, esos instrumentos están _integrados_. Es la misma minoría la que utiliza la escuela, el avión, el teletipo y el aire acondicionado. La productividad exige recurrir a _quanta_ ya diseñados de valores definidos por las instituciones, y una gestión productiva exige que un mismo individuo tenga a la vez acceso a todos esos lotes bien condicionados. La demanda de cada producto específico es regulada por la ley de un medio instrumentado, que concurre a mantener las circunstancias producidas por las otras profesiones. La gente que vive entre su automóvil y su apartamento en un rascacielos, debe poder terminar su existencia en el hospital. Por definición, todos esos bienes son escasos y cada vez se vuelven más escasos, a medida que las profesiones se especializan y elevan el nivel de normas que las rigen. De allí que todo nuevo _quantum_ lanzado al mercado frustra a más gente de la que satisface. + +Las estadísticas que demuestran el crecimiento del producto y el elevado consumo per cápita de _quanta_ especializados encubren la amplitud de los costos invisibles. La gente es mejor educada, mejor atendida, mejor transportada, mejor divertida y con frecuencia mejor alimentada, bajo la sola condición de que, por unidad de medida de eso _mejor_, acepte dócilmente los objetivos fijados por los expertos. La posibilidad de establecer una sociedad convivencial depende de que se reconozca el carácter destructor del imperialismo político, económico y técnico. Es más importante para una sociedad posindustrial fijar criterios para la concepción de la instrumentación --y límites a su desarrollo-- que establecer objetivos de producción, como es el caso actualmente. Instituyendo el desarrollo obligatorio y sistemático de la producción, nuestra generación amenaza la supervivencia de la humanidad. Para traducir a la práctica la posibilidad teórica de un modo de vida posindustrial y convivencial, necesitamos señalar los umbrales a partir de los cuales la institución produce frustración, y los límites a partir de los cuales las herramientas ejercen un efecto destructor sobre la sociedad en su totalidad. + +## El equilibrio múltiple + +Abierto, el equilibrio humano es susceptible de modificarse en función de parámetros flexibles pero finitos: si los hombres pueden cambiar, lo hacen en el interior de ciertos límites. A la inversa, la dinámica del sistema industrial produce su propia inestabilidad: está organizada con miras a un crecimiento indefinido y para la creación ilimitada de necesidades nuevas que pronto se hacen coercitivas dentro del cuadro industrial. El modo industrial de producción, una vez establecido como dominante, aportará este o aquel bien de consumo, pero no pondrá límite a la industrialización de los valores. Semejante proceso de crecimiento pone al hombre una exigencia fuera de lugar: encontrar satisfacción en la sumisión a la lógica de la herramienta. Ahora bien, la estructura de la fuerza productiva moldea las relaciones sociales. + +La exigencia que la herramienta pone al hombre es cada vez más costosa --es el costo del ajuste del hombre al servicio de su herramienta, reflejado por el crecimiento del sector terciario en el producto global--. Cada vez hay mayor necesidad de manipular al hombre para vencer la resistencia de su equilibrio vital a la dinámica industrial; y esto toma la forma de múltiples terapias pedagógicas, médicas y administrativas. La educación produce consumidores competitivos, la medicina los mantiene con vida en el ambiente instrumentado que se les ha hecho indispensable, y la burocracia refleja la necesidad de que el cuerpo social ejerza su control sobre los individuos dedicados a un trabajo insensato. Que los seguros, la policía y el ejército hagan subir el costo de la defensa de los nuevos privilegios, refleja la situación inherente a una sociedad de consumo: es inevitable que comporte dos tipos de esclavos, aquellos que están intoxicados, y aquellos que ambicionan estarlo, los iniciados y los neófitos. + +Es hora de centrar el debate político sobre las formas en que la estructura de la fuerza productiva amenaza al hombre. Semejante debate será soslayado por los que se empeñan en prescribir paliativos, encubriendo así la causa profunda del bloqueo de los sistemas de salud, transportes, educación y vivienda, bloqueo que alcanza a las mismas instancias jurídica y política. La crisis ecológica se trata superficialmente, cuando no se subraya lo siguiente: la instalación de dispositivos anticontaminantes no tendrá efecto sino yendo acompañada de la disminución de la producción global. De otra manera, con esas medidas no se hará otra cosa que pasarles los desechos a nuestros vecinos, reservarlos a nuestros hijos o vaciarlos sobre el Tercer Mundo. Estrangular la contaminación creada localmente por una gran industria exige inversiones en material y en energía que recrean, en otra parte, el mismo daño a escala mayor. Si se imponen dispositivos anticontaminantes no se logra más que aumentar el costo unitario de producción. Ciertamente, se conserva un poco de aire respirable para la colectividad, puesto que menos gente puede darse el lujo de conducir un automóvil, dormir en una casa climatizada o tomar el avión para ir de pesca el fin de semana; en lugar de degradar el medio físico, se acentúan las brechas sociales. La estructura de las fuerzas de producción amenaza a las relaciones sociales más directamente que al funcionamiento biológico. Pasar del carbón al átomo es pasar del _smog_ de hoy a altos niveles de radiación mañana. Los norteamericanos, al transportar sus refinerías a ultramar, en donde el control de la contaminación es menos severo, se protegen contra los olores desagradables (aunque no así a los subdesarrollados), y se reservan la fetidez para Venezuela, sin disminuir el envenenamiento del planeta. + +El crecimiento desmesurado de la herramienta amenaza a las personas en forma radicalmente nueva y, al mismo tiempo, análoga a las formas clásicas de perjuicio y daño. La amenaza es nueva, en el sentido de que el verdugo y las víctimas se confunden en la dualidad operadores/clientes de instrumentos inexorablemente destructores. En este juego algunos salen ganando, pero todo el mundo, finalmente pierde. + +Señalaré cinco amenazas que entraña para la población mundial el desarrollo industrial avanzado: + +1. El supercrecimiento amenaza el derecho del hombre a arraigarse en el medio con el cual ha evolucionado. +2. La industrialización amenaza el derecho del hombre a la autonomía en la acción. +3. La sobreprogramación del hombre relacionada con su nuevo medio amenaza su _creatividad_. +4. Por la complejidad que genera, el proceso de producción amenaza el derecho del hombre a la palabra, es decir, a la política. +5. El fortalecimiento de los mecanismos de obsolescencia amenaza el derecho del hombre a su tradición, su recurso al precedente por medio del lenguaje, el mito y el ritual. + +Voy a describir estas cinco amenazas, a la vez distintas e interrelacionadas, regidas por una mortal inversión de los medios en fines. La frustración profunda engendrada por vía de la satisfacción obligatoria e instrumentada, constituye una _sexta amenaza_, que no es la menos sutil, pero que no podría situarse en ninguna violación determinada de un derecho ya definido. + +La clasificación que utilizo tiene por objeto hacer reconocible el daño (la _nueva_ amenaza) en terminología tradicional. Una herramienta anónima aplicada a salvar la parte dañada, infecta la herida: he aquí un hecho nuevo; por lo mismo, el mal que amenaza a todos no es nuevo. Esta primera clasificación de los perjuicios sufridos puede servir de base para acciones legales cuando las personas lesionadas por el funcionamiento de las herramientas quieran hacer valer su derecho. La explicación de estas teorías de daños puede servir para reconquistar principios de procedimiento político-jurídico con los cuales la gente puede descubrir, acusar y corregir el desequilibrio actual del complejo institucional de la industria. + +Yo postulo que los principios subyacentes a todo procedimiento son tres, y se aplican en el orden moral, político y jurídico: + +* a. Un conflicto planteado por una persona es legítimo. +* b. Las decisiones que han sido incorporadas formalmente en la tradición de una sociedad y representan desde entonces una realidad histórica, pasan por delante de los procesos actuales de decisión. +* c. El recurso al pueblo, a un consejo de pares, sella las decisiones comunitarias. + +Invertir de raíz el funcionamiento de nuestras instituciones más importantes, he ahí una revolución de una profundidad bien distinta que el asalto al haber o al poder, que la entrega al público de títulos de propiedad, como se nos propone. No se puede contemplar ni emprender semejante revolución más que llegando a reconquistar --y a ponerse de acuerdo sobre-- una estructura formal de procedimiento. + +Antes de entrar a precisar el único procedimiento político capaz de salvaguardar el equilibrio humano, conviene centrar el análisis sobre cada una de las dimensiones en donde se presenta la amenaza. + +### La degradación del medio ambiente + +La importancia del equilibrio entre el hombre y la biosfera es algo reconocido, y repentinamente ha comenzado a preocupar a mucha gente. La degradación del medio ambiente es dramática y espectacular. Durante años, en México, la circulación de automóviles ha aumentado con regularidad, bajo un cielo azul. Y luego, de golpe, el _smog_ se ha extendido, se ha vuelto peor que en Los Angeles. Venenos de un poder desconocido son inyectados en nuestro bio-sistema. No hay medio de eliminarlos, ni de saber cuánto necesitarán aumentar para reducir el planeta, repentinamente, a una cosa muerta, como ha sucedido ya con el lago de Erie o el lago Baikal. La antropogénesis es evolución dentro de un nicho cósmico. La Tierra es nuestra morada y he aquí que el hombre la amenaza. + +Generalmente se considera que el crecimiento demográfico, la sobreabundancia y la perversión de la herramienta, son las tres fuerzas que se conjugan para poner en peligro el equilibrio ecológico. Paul Ehrlich subraya el hecho de que si, honestamente, se quiere controlar la explosión demográfica y estabilizar el consumo, está uno expuesto a ser tratado de « _antipoblación_ y _antipobre_ ». Insiste: «medidas impopulares, que límiten a la vez los nacimientos y el consumo, son la única esperanza que tiene la humanidad de evitar una miseria sin precedente». Ehrlich, seguido por otros defensores del crecimiento cero de la población, quiere conjugar el control de los nacimientos y la eficiencia industrial. Por su parte, Barry Commoner pone el acento sobre el hecho de que la perversión de la herramienta, tercera incógnita de la ecuación, es la principal responsable de la reciente degradación del medio ambiente. Él se expone a la crítica de ser un demagogo rompe-máquinas. Commoner, al igual que muchos otros ecólogos, quiere reinstrumentar la industria, más bien que invertir, de raíz, la estructura de base de la herramienta. + +La fascinación provocada por la crisis ecológica ha limitado la discusión sobre la supervivencia a la consideración de un solo equilibrio, el amenazado por el instrumento contaminante. Pero este debate sigue siendo unidimensional y, por lo tanto, sin objeto, aun si se hace intervenir en él a tres variables, cada una de ellas tendiente a alterar el equilibrio entre el hombre y su medio ambiente. El crecimiento demográfico hace depender a mayor número de gente de recursos limitados, la sobreabundancia obliga a cada uno a depender más de la energía, y la herramienta destructora degrada esta energía sin beneficio. + +Si se consideran estas tres fuerzas como únicas amenazas y la biosfera como el objeto amenazado, dos cuestiones merecen solamente ser discutidas: + +* a. ¿Qué factor (o qué fuerza) ha degradado más los recursos genéticos, y cuál representa la amenaza mayor para el futuro próximo? * b. ¿Qué factor, en la medida en que sea reducible o invertible, requiere mayor atención de parte nuestra? + +Unos dicen que es más fácil ocuparse de la población, otros que es más cómodo reducir la producción que genera la entropía. + +La honestidad nos obliga a todos a reconocer la necesidad de una limitación de la procreación, del consumo y del despilfarro, pero importa más abandonar la ilusión de que las máquinas pueden trabajar por nosotros, o de que los terapeutas pueden capacitarnos para servirnos de ellas. La única solución a la crisis ecológica consiste en que la gente comprenda que sería más feliz si pudiera _trabajar_ junta y _prestarse asistencia_ mutuamente. Una inversión tal de la manera de ver las cosas reclama osadía intelectual. En efecto, se expone a una crítica que, por poco ilustrada, no por eso es menos dolorosa: no sólo será tratado de 'antipueblo' y 'antipobres', sino también de oscurantista opuesto a la escuela, al saber y al progreso. El desequilibrio ecológico es un recargo que se conjuga con otros para operar, cada uno dentro de una dimensión particular, la distorsión del equilibrio vital. Más adelante indicaré cómo, dentro de esta perspectiva, la superpoblación es el resultado de un desequilibrio de la educación, que la sobreabundancia proviene de la monopolización industrial de los valores personales, que la perversión de la herramienta es efecto ineluctable de la inversión de los medios en fines. + +El debate unidimensional que sostienen los poseedores de diversos remedios milagrosos, que conjugan el desarrollo industrial con la supervivencia en equidad, no puede más que alimentar la ilusoria esperanza de que, en alguna forma, la acción humana, convenientemente instrumentada, responderá a las exigencias del mundo concebido como Totalidad-Herramienta. Una supervivencia garantizada burocráticamente en estas condiciones significaría la expansión de la industrialización del sector terciario hasta el punto de que la orientación de la evolución mundial sería identificada con un sistema de producción y de reproducción centralmente planificado. + +Según los partidarios de esta solución --espíritus apegados a la instrumentación--, la conservación del medio físico podrá convertirse en la preocupación primordial del leviatán burocrático puesto al mando regulador de los niveles de reproducción, de demanda, de producción y de consumo. Semejante respuesta tecnocrática al crecimiento demográfico, a la contaminación y a la sobreabundancia, no puede basarse más que en un desarrollo creciente de la industrialización de los valores. + +La creencia en la posibilidad de semejante desarrollo se basa ella misma en un postulado erróneo, a saber: + +> "Los logros históricos de la ciencia y la tecnología han hecho posible el desplazamiento de los valores, su materialización en tareas técnicas. A partir de entonces, el problema candente es el de la redefinición de los valores en términos técnicos, como elementos de un proceso tecnológico. Técnicos, los nuevos fines serían operantes no solamente en el uso, sino fuera del proyecto y de la construcción de la instrumentación"[^n04]. + +El restablecimiento de un equilibrio ecológico depende de la capacidad del cuerpo social para reaccionar contra la progresiva materialización de los valores, en su transformación en áreas técnicas. Al desatender esto, el hombre se encontrará cercado por los productos de su instrumentación, encerrado bajo siete llaves. Rodeado por un medio físico, social y psíquico que él se habrá forjado, se encontrará prisionero de su cápsula-instrumento, incapaz de volver a encontrar el antiguo medio ambiente con el cual se había formado. El equilibrio ecológico no se restablecerá si no reconocemos que únicamente la persona tiene fines, y que sólo puede trabajar para realizarlos. + +### El monopolio radical + +Las herramientas supereficientes pueden destruir el equilibrio entre el hombre y la naturaleza y destruir el medio ambiente. Pero las herramientas pueden ser supereficientes de una manera totalmente distinta: pueden alterar la relación entre lo que la gente necesita hacer por sí misma y lo que obtiene de la industria. Dentro de esta segunda dimensión, una producción supereficiente produce un monopolio radical. + +Por monopolio radical entiendo yo un tipo de dominación por un producto, más allá de lo que así se denomina habitualmente. En general, por monopolio se entiende el control exclusivo, por una firma, de los medios de producción o de venta de un bien o de un servicio. Se dirá que Coca-Cola tiene el monopolio de las bebidas suaves en Nicaragua, por ser el único fabricante de este tipo de bebidas que dispone de los medios modernos de publicidad. Nestlé impone su marca de chocolate al controlar el mercado de la materia prima; un fabricante de automóviles, al controlar las importaciones extranjeras; una cadena de televisión, obteniendo una licencia de exclusividad. Hace un siglo que los monopolios de este estilo han sido reconocidos como subproductos peligrosos del crecimiento industrial, habiéndose establecido dispositivos legales de control de muy poco resultado. Normalmente la legislación opuesta al establecimiento de monopolios ha intentado evitar que con ellos se imponga un límite al desarrollo; en ello nada tenía que ver la preocupación de proteger al individuo. + +Este primer tipo de monopolio reduce la elección que se le ofrece al consumidor, incluso le obliga a comprar un producto en el mercado, pero raras veces limita su libertad. Un hombre sediento puede desear una bebida no alcohólica, fresca y gaseosa, y verse limitado en la elección por haber una sola marca, pero queda libre de apagar su sed bebiendo cerveza o agua. Sólo cuando su sed se traduce, sin otra posibilidad, en la necesidad apremiante de comprar obligadamente una botella de determinada bebida, se establece el monopolio radical. Yo entiendo por este término, más que la dominación de una marca, la de un tipo de producto. En ese caso un proceso de producción industrial ejerce un control exclusivo sobre la satisfacción de una necesidad apremiante excluyendo en ese sentido todo recurso a las actividades no industriales. + +Es así como los transportes pueden ejercer el monopolio de la circulación. Los automóviles pueden moldear una ciudad a su imagen, eliminando prácticamente el desplazamiento a pie o en bicicleta, como sucede en Los Angeles. La construcción de carreteras para autobuses puede liquidar la circulación fluvial, como en Tailandia. Cuando el automóvil hace puramente nominal el derecho a caminar --no se trata ya de que haya en circulación más Chevrolets que Peugeots--, se da el monopolio radical. Que la gente se vea obligada a hacerse transportar y se vuelva impotente para circular sin motor, eso es monopolio radical. Lo que los transportes motorizados producen en la gente en virtud de ese monopolio radical es totalmente distinto e independiente de lo que hacen al quemar gasolina que podría ser transformada en alimentos para un mundo superpoblado. También es distinto del homicidio automovilístico. Ciertamente, los automóviles queman gasolina en holocausto. Ciertamente son costosos. Ciertamente, los norteamericanos celebraron la cienmilésima víctima del automóvil desde 1908\. Pero el monopolio radical establecido por el vehículo de motor tiene su propia forma de destruir. Los autos crean las distancias, y la velocidad, bajo todas sus formas, estrangula el espacio. Se abren autopistas a través de regiones superpobladas, luego se extorsiona a la gente un peaje para 'autorizarles' a franquear las distancias que el sistema de transporte exige. Este monopolio de los transportes, como una bestia monstruosa, devora el espacio. Aunque los aviones y los autobuses funcionaran como servicio público, sin contaminar el aire y el silencio, y sin agotar los recursos de energía, su velocidad inhumana no degradaría menos la movilidad natural del hombre, obligándole siempre a dedicar más tiempo a la circulación mecánica. + +La escuela también puede ejercer un monopolio radical sobre el saber al redefinirlo como educación. Mientras que la gente acepte la definición de la realidad que le da el maestro, los autodidactos llevarán la etiqueta oficial de 'no educados'. La medicina moderna, por su parte, priva a los que sufren de los cuidados que no están bajo prescripción médica. Hay monopolio radical cuando la herramienta programada despoja al individuo de su posibilidad de hacer. Esta dominación de la herramienta instaura el consumo obligatorio y con ello limita la autonomía de la persona. Es un tipo particular de control social reforzado por el consumo obligatorio de una producción en masa que sólo las grandes industrias pueden garantizar. + +El hecho de que las empresas organizadas de pompas fúnebres lleguen a controlar los entierros demuestra cómo funciona un monopolio radical y en qué difiere de otras formas de comportamiento cultural. En México, apenas hace una generación, cavar la fosa y bendecir el cadáver eran las dos únicas funciones practicadas por especialistas: el sepulturero y el sacerdote. Una muerte en familia creaba obligaciones sociales, de las que se hacían cargo los parientes cercanos. El velorio, las exequias y la comida tenían por función armonizar disputas, dar rienda suelta al dolor, celebrar la vida y la fatalidad de la muerte. La mayoría de los usos, en esa oportunidad, eran de naturaleza ritual, objeto de reglas precisas que diferían de una región a otra. Luego se instalaron las empresas de pompas fúnebres en todas las grandes ciudades. Al principio les fue difícil encontrar clientes, porque la gente aún sabía enterrar a sus muertos. En los años sesenta, estas empresas adquirieron el control de nuevos cementerios y comenzaron a ofrecer servicio completo, incluyendo el ataúd, la ceremonia y el embalsamamiento del difunto. Ahora se ha promulgado una ley que establece, como obligatorio, recurrir a los buenos oficios de los sepultureros. Mientras tenga el control del cadáver, el patrón de pompas fúnebres tendrá el monopolio radical del entierro, así como la medicina está a punto de tomar el de la muerte. + +La reciente controversia sobre los servicios médicos en Estados Unidos echa una luz brutal sobre la fortaleza que representa un monopolio radical. En la discusión, cada partido político hace del servicio a la enfermedad un problema candente y, por ese hecho, relega el servicio de la salud a un campo donde la política tiene poco que decir. Cada partido promete más dinero a los médicos, a los hospitales y a los farmacéuticos. Con estas promesas no se beneficia la gran masa, pero contribuyen a acrecentar el poder, detentado por una minoría de especialistas, de determinar las herramientas de que ha de servirse el hombre para conservar la salud, cuidar la enfermedad y combatir la muerte. Más dinero revalidará el embargo que ejerce la industria de la salud sobre los fondos públicos, aumentando su prestigio y su poder arbitrario. Puesto en manos de una minoría, semejante poder aumentará el sufrimiento humano y disminuirá la iniciativa de la persona. Se destinará más dinero a las herramientas que no hacen más que retardar una muerte segura, y a servicios que mutilan aún más los derechos elementales de aquellos que quieren cuidarse unos a otros. Más dinero gastado bajo el control de especialistas de la salud significa más gente condicionada en forma operacional para jugar el papel del enfermo, papel que ni siquiera tienen el derecho a jugar cuando les da la gana. Una vez que se acepta este papel, sus necesidades más simples no se pueden satisfacer sin pasar por servicios que, por definición, son profesionales, y, por tanto, sometidos a la escasez. + +Los hombres disponen de la capacidad innata de cuidarse, reconfortarse, desplazarse, adquirir conocimientos, construir sus moradas y enterrar a sus muertos. Cada uno de estos poderes responde a una necesidad. Los medios para satisfacer estas necesidades no faltan: mientras los hombres sigan dependiendo de lo que puedan hacer por y para sí mismos, el recurso a los profesionales será marginal. Estas actividades tienen un valor de uso y no han sido afectadas por el valor de cambio. Su _ejercicio_ no se considera un _trabajo_. + +Estas satisfacciones elementales se ratifican cuando el medio ambiente social ha sido transformado de tal suerte que las necesidades primordiales ya no pueden ser satisfechas fuera del comercio. Y un monopolio radical se establece cuando la gente abandona su capacidad innata de hacer lo que puede por sí misma y por los demás, a cambio de algo 'mejor' que sólo puede producir para ellos una herramienta dominante. El monopolio radical refleja la industrialización de los valores. La respuesta personal la sustituye por el objeto estandarizado; crea nuevas formas de escasez y un nuevo instrumento de medida y, por lo tanto, de clasificación del nivel de consumo. Esta reclasificación provoca el alza en el costo unitario de la prestación del servicio, modula la distribución de privilegios, limita el acceso a los recursos, e instala a la gente dentro de la dependencia. Es necesario establecer una defensa contra el monopolio radical. Es necesario defender a la gente contra la muerte y la sepultura estandarizadas, contra el consumo que les es impuesto por el interés de la libre empresa de los médicos y los sepultureros, o por el gobierno en nombre de la higiene. Esta defensa la necesitan, aun cuando la mayoría de ellos son ya tributarios de los servicios especializados. Si no se reconoce la necesidad de una defensa contra el monopolio radical, éste reforzará y afinará su instrumentación, hasta conducir a que el umbral humano de resistencia a la inacción y a la pasividad sea traspuesto. + +No siempre es fácil determinar lo que constituye el consumo obligatorio. El monopolio escolar no se basa primordialmente sobre una ley que sancione a los padres o a sus hijos por la deserción escolar. No es que no existan leyes semejantes, pero la escuela se apoya en otra táctica: la segregación de los no escolarizados, la centralización de la instrumentación del saber bajo el control de los maestros, el tratamiento social privilegiado de los estudiantes. Si bien es importante defenderse contra las leyes que hacen obligatorias la educación, o la vacunación o la prolongación de la vida humana, esto no basta. Los procedimientos que actualmente permiten protegerse contra la privación de un bien o de un derecho deben extenderse al caso de que las partes amenazadas quieran defenderse de la obligación de consumir, y esto independientemente del tipo del consumo de que se trate. No se puede fijar por adelantado el umbral de intolerabilidad de un monopolio radical, pero se puede anticipar su amenaza. La legislación que define la naturaleza precisa del monopolio considerada como intolerable debe ser fruto de un proceso político. + +Es tan difícil defenderse contra la generalización del monopolio, como contra la extensión de la contaminación. La gente se enfrenta con mayor facilidad a un peligro que amenaza sus intereses privados que a uno que amenaza al cuerpo social en general. Tiene muchos más enemigos confesos el automóvil que el manejarlo. Los mismos que se oponen a los automóviles, porque contaminan el aire, el silencio y monopolizan la circulación, conducen el suyo y juzgan que su capacidad de contaminación es desestimable, y de ninguna manera tienen la sensación de alienar su libertad cuando van al volante. La defensa contra el monopolio es aún más difícil si se toman en cuenta los siguientes factores: por una parte la sociedad está ya plagada de autopistas, escuelas y hospitales; por otra la capacidad innata de que dispone el hombre para ejercer actos independientes está paralizada desde hace tiempo hasta parecer atrofiada; finalmente, las soluciones que ofrecen otra posibilidad, por ser simples, en apariencia quedan fuera del alcance de la imaginación. Es difícil desembarazarse del monopolio cuando éste ha congelado la forma del mundo físico, anquilosado el comportamiento y mutilado la imaginación. Cuando se descubre el monopolio radical, casi siempre ya es demasiado tarde. + +Un monopolio comercial se rompe a costa de la minoría que de él se beneficia, es decir, a costa de aquellos que habitualmente se las arreglan para escapar a los controles. Puesto que la colectividad soporta el costo del monopolio radical, éste no podrá romperse si esta misma colectividad no toma conciencia de que le iría mejor financiando la destrucción del monopolio, en vez de su perpetuación. Y no aceptará el pago de este precio si no pone en la balanza, de un lado las promesas de una sociedad convivencial y del otro los espejismos de una sociedad de progresos. La gente elegirá la bicicleta cuando haya calculado bien el precio que paga por los vehículos rápidos. Nadie aceptará pagar si confunde la convivencialidad con la indigencia. + +Ciertos síntomas del monopolio radical comienzan a apuntar en la conciencia social, y sobre todo éste: aun en los países superdesarrollados, cualquiera que sea su régimen político, la tasa de crecimiento de la frustración excede grandemente a la de la producción. Ciertamente, las políticas de acomodo de la frustración fácilmente distraen la atención de la índole profunda del monopolio. Pero cada éxito superficial, que corrige distorsiones y diluye la crítica en reformas vagas, arraiga más sólidamente el monopolio a que nos referimos. + +El primer paliativo es la defensa del consumidor. El consumidor no puede pasarse sin un automóvil. Compra ésta o aquella marca. Descubre que la mayoría de los automóviles son peligrosos, no importa a qué velocidad. Entonces se organiza con otros consumidores para obtener automóviles más seguros, de mejor calidad y más duraderos. La victoria del consumidor es una victoria pírrica: se gana otra vez la confianza en los vehículos superpotentes (públicos o privados), lo que significa más dependencia colectiva hacia ellos y siempre más frustración para los que andan a pie porque tienen que hacerlo, o porque así lo quieren. + +Que los consumidores 'enganchados' a un producto se organicen para defenderse tiene como efecto inmediato aumentar la calidad de la droga suministrada y la potencia del proveedor y, en última instancia, puede llevar al desarrollo a encontrar sus propios límites: es posible que los automóviles lleguen a ser algún día demasiado costosos para la compra y los medicamentos demasiado violentos para los ensayos. Es exacerbando las contradicciones inherentes a tal proceso de industrialización de los valores como las mayorías pueden, por sí mismas, llegar a tomar plena conciencia de estas contradicciones. Es posible que el consumidor sagaz, que elige sus compras, llegue a descubrir que está mejor servido arreglándoselas por sí solo. + +El segundo paliativo, que tiende a igualar la tasa de crecimiento de la producción, es el de la frustración y la planificación. La ilusión imperante es que los planificadores, animados de ideales socialistas, pueden de alguna manera crear una sociedad socialista en donde los trabajadores industriales representarán la mayoría. Quienes sostienen esta idea desatienden el siguiente hecho: el margen de adaptación de instrumentos anticonvivenciales (que manipulan a la persona) a una sociedad socialista es extremadamente estrecho. El recurso a los transportes, a la educación o la medicina, una vez que se establece su gratuidad, corre el riesgo de ser reforzado por los guardianes del orden moral: se acusará al subconsumidor de sabotear el esfuerzo nacional. En una economía de mercado, quien quiere cuidarse la gripe quedándose en la cama es acusado por dejar de ganar. En una sociedad que apela 'al pueblo' para alcanzar objetivos de producción determinados desde arriba, el resistirse a consumir la medicina se asimila a una profesión de inmoralidad pública. La defensa contra el monopolio radical es posible bajo una condición: que se obtenga, en el plano político, un acuerdo unánime sobre la necesidad de poner término al crecimiento. Este consenso se sitúa en oposición directa a la actitud subyacente en todas las oposiciones políticas, y que consiste en reclamar más cosas útiles para más gente inútil. + +El equilibrio entre el hombre y su medio, por una parte, y por otra, entre la posibilidad de ejercer una actividad creativa y la suma de necesidades elementales a satisfacer en esa forma, da un doble equilibrio que se aproxima actualmente al punto de ruptura. Sin embargo, la gran mayoría no se siente preocupada. Debo explicar aquí por qué esta gran mayoría es ciega o impotente ante el peligro. Creo que la ceguera se debe a un tercer equilibrio: el del saber; en cuanto a la importancia, es el hecho de la perturbación de un cuarto equilibrio, que yo llamo equilibrio del poder. + +### La sobreprogramación + +El equilibrio del saber es determinado por la relación de dos variables: por un lado, el saber que proviene de las relaciones creativas entre el hombre y su medio; por otro, el saber cosificado del hombre movido por su medio instrumentado. + +El primer saber es efecto de los nudos de relaciones que se establecen espontáneamente entre las personas, dentro del empleo de herramientas convivenciales. El segundo saber es el resultado de un amansamiento intencional y programado. El aprendizaje del lenguaje materno exime del primer saber, la ingestión de matemáticas en la escuela exime del segundo. Nadie sensato irá a decir que hablar, caminar u ocuparse de un niño sea resultado de una educación formal. Es distinto, de ordinario, tratándose de las matemáticas, la danza clásica o la pintura. + +El equilibrio del saber cambia, según el lugar y el tiempo. El rito es determinante: un musulmán sabe un poco de árabe gracias a su oración. Esta adquisición del saber se opera por interacción dentro del medio circunscrito por una tradición. De manera análoga los campesinos transmiten el folklore de su tierra. Las clases y las castas multiplican las oportunidades de aprender: el rico _sabe_ comportarse en la mesa y sabe conversar (subrayando además que 'eso no se aprende'), el pobre sabrá sobrevivir dignamente allí donde ninguna escuela ha enseñado a los ricos cómo hacerlo. + +Primero es la estructura de la herramienta para la adquisición del primer saber: mientras menos convivenciales son nuestras herramientas, más alimentan la instrucción. En ciertas tribus de reducido tamaño y de gran cohesión, el saber es compartido muy equitativamente entre la mayoría de sus miembros: cada uno sabe la mayor parte de lo que todo el mundo sabe. Ulteriormente, en el proceso de civilización, se introducen nuevas herramientas: más gente sabe más cosas, pero no todos saben hacer todas las cosas igualmente bien. La maestría, en todo caso, no implica todavía el monopolio de la comprensión: se puede tener la comprensión de lo que hace el herrero sin ser herrero, no es necesario ser cocinero para saber cómo se cocina. Este juego combinado de una información ampliamente extendida y de la aptitud general de sacarle partido, caracteriza a una sociedad donde prevalece la herramienta convivencial. Si la técnica del artesano puede ser comprendida al observar el trabajo, los recursos complejos que maneja no pueden adquirirse más que tras una larga operación disciplinada: el aprendizaje. El saber global de una sociedad florece cuando al mismo tiempo se desarrolla el saber adquirido espontáneamente y el saber recibido de un maestro; entonces el rigor y la libertad se conjugan armoniosamente. La extensión del campo del equilibrio del saber no puede llegar hasta el infinito; lleva en sí su propio límite. Este campo es optimizable, no es indefinido. Primero, porque el tiempo de la vida de un hombre es limitado. Segundo --y esto es inexorable-- porque la especialización de la herramienta y la división del trabajo están en interacción, y requieren, más allá de un punto determinado, una superprogramación del operador y del cliente. La mayor parte del saber de cada uno es pues efecto de la voluntad y del poder de otro. La cultura puede florecer en innumerables variedades, pero hay barreras materiales que no puede bordear. + +¿Dentro de qué ambiente nace el niño de las ciudades? Dentro de un conjunto complejo de sistemas que significan una cosa para quienes los conciben y otra para quienes los emplean. Colocado en contacto con miles de sistemas, colocado en sus terminales, el hombre de las ciudades sabe servirse del teléfono y de la televisión, pero no sabe cómo funcionan. La adquisición espontánea del saber está confinada a los mecanismos de ajuste a un confort masificado. El hombre de las ciudades cada vez tiene menos posibilidad de hacer las cosas a su antojo. Hacer la corte, la comida y el amor se convierten en materia docente. Desviado por y hacia la educación, el equilibrio del saber se degrada. La gente aprende lo que se le ha enseñado, pero ya no sabe por sí misma. Siente la necesidad de ser educada. El saber es pues un bien, y como todo bien puesto en el mercado, está sujeto a la escasez. Ocultar la naturaleza de esta escasez, es la función bastante costosa de una educación multiforme. La educación es la preparación programada para la 'vida activa', a través de la ingurgitación (engullir, tragar) de instrucciones masivas y estandarizadas, producidas por la escuela. Pero la educación es también la ramificación continua sobre el flujo de las informaciones mediatizadas sobre lo que pasa: es el 'mensaje' de cada bien manufacturado. A veces el mensaje está escrito sobre el envoltorio, se lee por fuerza. Si el producto es más elaborado, su forma, su color, las asociaciones provocadas, dictan al usuario la forma de empleo. Particularmente, la educación es permanente, como medicina de temporada, para el administrador, el policía y el obrero calificado, periódicamente sobrepasados por las innovaciones de su ramo. Cuando la gente se agota y debe volver sin cesar a los bancos de la escuela para recibir un baño de saber y seguridad, cuando el analista debe ser reprogramado para cada nueva generación de computadores, es que la educación realmente es un bien sujeto a la escasez. Es entonces cuando la educación se convierte en la cuestión, más candente para la sociedad y, al mismo tiempo, la más mistificante. + +En todas partes, la tasa de crecimiento del costo de la formación es superior a la del producto global. Hay dos interpretaciones posibles. Para una, la educación es un medio de alcanzar esos fines económicos. Desde este punto de vista la inversión del saber del hombre se requiere por la necesidad de elevar la productividad. La disparidad en las tasas de crecimiento del sector terciario terapéutico significa que la producción global se acerca al asíntoma. Para detener el peligro, es necesario encontrar el medio de aumentar la relación costo/beneficio dentro de la ortopedia pedagógica. Las escuelas serán las primeras afectadas en el proceso de racionalización de los mecanismos de capitalización del saber. En mi opinión esto es una lástima. Por destructora e ineficaz que sea la escuela, dado su carácter tradicional, asegura un mínimo de defensa al niño. Los institutores transformados en 'educadores' y liberados de los obstáculos inherentes al sistema escolar, podrían revelarse como 'condicionadores' horriblemente eficaces. + +El punto de partida de la segunda interpretación es opuesto: el sector terciario, sin que se le pueda asimilar sólo a la educación, es el producto social más precioso del crecimiento industrial. En ese sentido, la declinación de la utilidad marginal de la educación no podrá justificar una limitación en su producción. Al contrario, la sustitución de la demanda de bienes por la demanda de servicios, marca a la vez la transición de una sociedad hacia una economía estable y un alza en la 'calidad de la vida'. Nueve sobre diez de las proposiciones adelantadas sobre lo que será el año 2000 describen, en su último capitulo, la felicidad como una avalancha de consumo terciario. + +Estas dos interpretaciones desvían, ambas, el equilibrio del saber: concurren en el desarrollo de las técnicas de manipulación educativa y hacen abortar toda curiosidad personal. Considerar la educación como medio de producción o como producto de lujo viene a ser lo mismo, desde el momento en que es demandada. En los dos casos, el equilibrio del saber es desviado en favor de más enseñanza. Las dos posiciones descansan sobre el mismo postulado con un carácter de fatalidad: el mundo moderno es de tal manera artificial, alienado, hermético, que sobrepasa el alcance de cualquier mortal y no puede ser conocido más que por los grandes iniciados y sus discípulos. + +Sustituir el despertar del saber por el de la educación es ahogar el poeta en el hombre, es congelar su poder de dar sentido al mundo. Por poco que se le arranque de la naturaleza, que se le prive del trabajo creativo, que se le mutile su curiosidad, el hombre es desarraigado, maniatado, secado. Sobredeterminar el medio físico es hacerlo fisiológicamente hostil. Ahogar al hombre en el bienestar es encadenarlo al monopolio radical. Desbaratar el equilibrio del saber es hacer del hombre una marioneta de sus herramientas. Empantanado en su felicidad climatizada, el hombre es un gato castrado: no le queda sino la rabia que le hace matar o matarse. + +Siempre ha habido poetas y bufones para alzarse contra el aplastamiento del pensamiento creativo por el dogma. Metaforizando, denuncian el literal vacío cerebral. El humor apoya su demostración: lo serio es insensato. Ellos abren los ojos a lo maravilloso, disuelven lo cierto, destierran el temor y desatan los cuerpos. El profeta denuncia las creencias, desnuda las supersticiones, despierta a la gente, saca afuera la fuerza y la llama. Las intimidaciones que lanzan la poesía, la intuición y la teoría, al avance blindado del dogma sobre el espíritu, ¿serán capaces de lograr una revolución del despertar? Esto no es imposible. Pero para que el equilibrio del saber pueda ser restablecido, se precisa que el Estado y la Iglesia sean separados, que la burocracia del bienestar y la burocracia de la verdad sean divididas, que la acción política y el saber obligatorio sean diferenciados. Las palabras poéticas no harán estallar la sociedad sino metiéndose en el molde del proceso político. + +El Derecho ya ha servido para desvincular de las leyes la ideología. El Derecho que ha defendido ya al cuerpo social contra las pretensiones exageradas de sus clérigos, puede hacerlo ahora contra las de sus educadores. No es mucho lo que dista la obligación de ir a la escuela de la de ir a la iglesia. Un día, el Derecho podrá realizar la separación de la educación y de la política, y convertirla en principio constitutivo de la sociedad. Pero ya desde ahora, el Derecho puede servir para combatir la proliferación del sector terciario y su empleo en la reproducción de una sociedad de clases. + +Comprender verdaderamente el alza del costo de la educación supone conocer las dos fases del problema: primero la herramienta no convivencial tiene efectos educativos que alcanzan un umbral de intolerabilidad; segundo, una educación no instrumentalizada convivencialmente no es económicamente viable. + +El primer punto nos abre a la necesidad de una transición hacia una sociedad donde el trabajo, la recreación y la política, favorecieran el aprendizaje, una sociedad que funcionara con menos educación formal. El segundo nos abre la posibilidad de poner en vigor soluciones educativas que facilitaran una adquisición espontánea del saber y confinaran la enseñanza programada a casos limitados y claramente específicos. Para vencer _la crisis de comunicación_ hay que subrayar la distorsión paralela que existe en la instrumentación de la energía y de la información. + +En toda la superficie del planeta, el instrumento altamente capitalizado requiere de un hombre atiborrado de conocimientos almacenados. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la racionalización de la producción ha penetrado en las regiones llamadas retrasadas y las metástasis industriales ejercen sobre la escuela una intensa demanda de personal programado. La proliferación del bienestar exige el condicionamiento apropiado para vivir en él. Lo que la gente aprende en las escuelas que se multiplican en Malasia o en Brasil es, ante todo, a medir el tiempo con el reloj del programador, estimar el adelanto con los anteojos del burócrata, apreciar el consumo creciente con el corazón del comerciante, y considerar la razón del trabajo con los ojos del responsable sindical. Esto no es el maestro quien se lo enseña, sino el recorrido programado, producido y, al mismo tiempo, obliterado por la estructura escolar. Lo que enseña el maestro no tiene ninguna importancia, desde el momento en que los niños deben pasarse centenares de horas reunidos en clases por edades, entrar en la rutina del programa (o _curriculum_ ), y recibir un diploma en función de su capacidad de someterse a él. ¿Qué se aprende en la escuela? Se aprende que mientras más horas se pasen en ella, más vale uno en el mercado. Se aprende a valorar el consumo escalonado de programas. Se aprende que todo lo que produce una institución dominante vale y cuesta caro, aun lo que no se ve, como la educación y la salud. Se aprende a valorar la promoción jerárquica, la sumisión y la pasividad, y hasta la desviación tipo, que el maestro interpretará como síntoma de creatividad. Se aprende a solicitar sin indisciplina los favores del burócrata que preside las sesiones cotidianas: profesor en la escuela, patrón en la fábrica. Se aprende a definirse como detentador de un lote de conocimientos en la especialización en que ha invertido su tiempo. Se aprende, finalmente, a aceptar sin rebelarse su lugar dentro de la sociedad, es decir la clase y la carrera precisas que corresponden respectivamente al nivel y al campo de especialización escolares. + +Las reglas de contratación en las industrias incipientes en los países pobres son tales que solamente los escolarizados ocupan las escasas plazas, por ser los únicos que en la escuela han aprendido a callarse. Estos puestos en la cadena son definidos como los más productivos, los mejor pagados, de manera que el acceso a los productos industriales es reservado a los escolarizados y prohibido a los no-escolarizados. Fabricados por la máquina, los zapatos, las bolsas, la ropa, los alimentos congelados y las bebidas gaseosas desplazan en el mercado a los bienes equivalentes, que eran producidos convivencialmente. La escuela sirve a la industrialización justificando en el Tercer Mundo la existencia de dos sectores, el del mercado y el de la subsistencia: el de la pobreza modernizada y el de una nueva miseria de los pobres. A medida y conforme la producción se concentra y se capitaliza, la escuela pública, para continuar en su papel de pantalla, cuesta más cara a los que asisten a ella, pero, sobre todo, hace pagar la cuenta a los que no asisten. + +La educación no se convierte en necesidad sólo para diplomar a la gente, para seleccionar a aquellos a quienes se les da trabajo, sino también para controlar a los otros que acceden al consumo. Es el mismo crecimiento industrial el que conduce a la educación a ejercer el control social indispensable para un uso eficiente de los productos. La industria de la vivienda en los países de América Latina es un buen ejemplo de las disfunciones educativas producidas por los arquitectos. En estos países las grandes ciudades están rodeadas de vastas zonas, _favelas_ , _barriadas_ o _poblaciones_, donde la gente levanta ella misma sus moradas. No costaría caro prefabricar elementos para viviendas y construcciones de servicios comunes fáciles de ubicar. La gente podría construirse moradas más duraderas, más confortables y salubres, al mismo tiempo que aprendería el empleo de nuevos materiales y de nuevos sistemas. En vez de ello, en vez de estimular la aptitud innata de las personas para moldear su propio ambiente, los gobiernos encajan en esas barriadas servicios comunes concebidos para una población instalada en casas de tipo moderno. Por su sola presencia, la escuela nueva, la carretera asfaltada y los puestos de policía en acero y vidrio, definen el edificio construido por los especialistas como modelo, y, de esa manera, imprimen a la vivienda que se construya uno mismo el sello de la barriada, reduciéndola a ser nada más que una choza. Semejante definición es implantada por la ley; niega el permiso de construir a la gente que no puede presentar un plano firmado por un arquitecto. Y es así como se priva a la gente de su aptitud natural de invertir su tiempo personal en la creación de valores de uso, y se les obliga a un trabajo asalariado: podrán entonces cambiar sus salarios contra el espacio industrialmente condicionado. Aquí también se les priva de la posibilidad de aprender construyendo. + +La sociedad industrial exige que unos sean programados para conducir camiones, otros para construir casas. Y a otros más hay que enseñarles a vivir en los grandes complejos habitacionales. Maestros de escuela, trabajadores sociales y policías trabajan mano a mano para mantener a individuos subpagados o semidesocupados, en casas que no pueden construir por sí mismos ni modificar. Así la suma economizada en la construcción de conjuntos habitacionales populares aumenta el costo de mantenimiento del inmueble y exige invertir un múltiplo del ahorro conseguido en gastos terciarios para instruir, animar, promover; es decir, para controlar, conformar y condicionar al locatario dócil. Para hacinar más gente sobre menos terreno, Brasil y Venezuela han hecho el experimento de construir grandes inmuebles. Primero fue necesario que la policía evacuara a la gente de sus tugurios y los reinstalara en los apartamentos. En seguida los trabajadores sociales se enfrentaron a la ruda tarea de socializar a inquilinos insuficientemente escolarizados para comprender por sí mismos que no se crían marranos negros en los balcones de un onceavo piso, y que no se siembran frijoles en la tina del baño. + +En Nueva York, la gente que no tiene doce años de escolaridad es considerada impedida: se convierte en inempleable y es controlada por trabajadores sociales que deciden cómo va a vivir. El monopolio radical de la herramienta supereficiente extorsiona del cuerpo social un creciente y costoso condicionamiento de sus clientes. Los automóviles producidos por Ford requieren, para ser reparados, mecánicos reinstruidos por la misma compañía. Los autores del 'milagro verde' sacan semillas de alto rendimiento que puede usar sólo una minoría que dispone del doble abono, del químico y del educador. Más salud, más velocidad o más cosechas significa individuos más receptivos, más pasivos, más disciplinados. Las escuelas productoras de control social, al tomar por su cuenta la mayor parte del costo de esas conquistas dudosas, lo encubren con ese mismo hecho. + +Al ceder a las presiones ejercidas sobre ella, en nombre del control social, la escuela alcanza y sobrepasa su segundo umbral critico. Los planificadores fabrican programas más variados y más complejos, cuya utilidad marginal declina por ese mismo hecho. + +Mientras la escuela ensancha el campo de sus pretensiones, otros servicios descubren su misión educadora. La prensa, la radio y la televisión ya no son únicamente medios de comunicación, desde el momento en que se les pone conscientemente al servicio de la integración social. Los semanarios que conocen la expansión, al llenarse de informaciones estereotipadas, se convierten en productos terminados, entregando completamente empaquetada una información filtrada, aséptica, predigerida. Esta 'mejor' información suplanta la antigua discusión del _foro_; so pretexto de informar, suscita un apetito dócil de alimentos ya preparados y mata la capacidad natural de seleccionar, dominar, organizar la información. Se ofrecen al público algunas estrellas o algunos especialistas vulgarizados por el embalador del saber, se confina la voz de los lectores a la correspondencia o a las encuestas que ellos envían dócilmente. + +La producción industrial y la comercialización masiva del saber cierran a la gente el acceso a herramientas para compartir el saber. Es el caso del libro. El libro es resultado de dos grandes invenciones: el alfabeto y la imprenta. La técnica del alfabeto y la de la imprenta son casi idealmente convivenciales. Todo el mundo, o casi todo el mundo, puede aprender su manejo y utilizarlos para sus propios fines. Son técnicas poco costosas. Se las toma o se las deja, como se quiera. Son difíciles de controlar por terceros. Así, el gobierno soviético parece impotente para impedir el _Samtzdat_ , esa edición y circulación clandestina de manuscritos. + +Al parecer, el alfabeto y la imprenta arrancan la custodia de la palabra a la empresa exclusiva del escriba. Gracias al alfabeto, el comerciante rompe el monopolio ejercido por los sacerdotes sobre el jeroglífico. Con el papel y el lápiz, y más tarde con la máquina de escribir y los medios modernos de reproducción, aparece un abanico de técnicas nuevas que, en sí mismas, inician una era de comunicación no especializada, verdaderamente convivencial para la conservación, reproducción y difusión de la palabra. Con la película y la cinta magnética aparecen nuevos sistemas de comunicación convivencial. Sin embargo, el privilegio acordado a las instituciones con estructuras manipuladoras ha puesto estas herramientas al servicio de una enseñanza aún más unívoca y monologada. La escuela amaestra al alumno para que se sirva de textos continuamente revisados. Difunde la ilusión de que sólo el escolarizado sabe leer, y refuerza la tendencia a no publicar más que sus obras. Produce consumidores de información y lectores de noticias técnicas. Las estadísticas dicen que los estudiantes leen menos libros no especializados desde que empieza a irles bien en sus exámenes. Cada vez hay más libros escritos para los especialistas educados, pero los diplomados cada vez leen menos por su cuenta. Cada vez la gente pasa más tiempo aprisionada en el programa definido por los nuevos directores de estudios: el editor, el productor y el programador. Es la misma gente que cada semana espera con avidez la salida de revistas como _Selecciones_. + +Las propias bibliotecas han sido puestas al servicio de un mundo escolarizado. A medida y conforme las van 'mejorando', el libro es colocado siempre más lejos del alcance del lector. Primero era el bibliotecario quien se interponía entre el libro y el lector, ahora el computador reemplaza al bibliotecario. Al colocar esos libros, almacenados en inmensos silos, a la disposición de un computador, el funcionamiento de la biblioteca pública de la ciudad de Nueva York se ha hecho tan costoso que ya no abre sus puertas más que de las diez a las dieciocho horas en días hábiles y el sábado sólo las entreabre. Esto significa que los libros se han convertido en instrumentos especializados de investigadores a quienes una beca libere de la escuela y del trabajo. + +En realidad, una biblioteca es un modelo de herramienta convivencial, un sitio que ofrece libre acceso y no hace obedecer a programas rígidos, un sitio donde se toma o se deja lo que se quiere, fuera de toda censura. Sobre este modelo, se pueden extender y se pueden organizar discotecas, filmotecas, fonotecas y videotecas públicas, donde la gente tendría ciertamente acceso a herramientas de producción. Dentro de estructuras análogas a la biblioteca, no sería difícil poner a disposición del público las herramientas, bien simples, que han hecho posible la mayoría de los adelantos científicos del siglo pasado. + +Los instrumentos de manipulación de los que se sirve la enseñanza hacen subir el precio del saber. Se plantea la pregunta de qué es lo que la gente debe aprender, y, en seguida, se invierte en un instrumento para enseñárselo. Valdría la pena aprender a preguntar primero cuáles son los tipos de herramientas que la gente desea, si quiere ir al encuentro del otro, de lo desconocido, del extranjero, del pasado. Los maestros de oficio se ríen de la idea de que las personas puedan sacar mayor ventaja del libre acceso a las herramientas del saber que de su enseñanza. Con frecuencia apoyan su escepticismo poniendo como ejemplo la decadencia de las bibliotecas públicas. No pueden ver que si éstas son poco frecuentadas es precisamente porque, en su gran mayoría, han sido organizadas como formidables instalaciones de enseñanza, y que se mantienen desiertas precisamente porque la gente ha sido amaestrada para reclamar instrucción. + +Ahora bien, los hombres no tienen necesidad de más enseñanza. Sólo necesitan aprender ciertas cosas. Hay que enseñarles a renunciar, cosa que no se aprende en la escuela, aprender a vivir dentro de ciertos límites, como exige, por ejemplo, la necesidad de responder a la situación de la natalidad. La supervivencia humana depende de la capacidad de los hombres para aprender muy pronto y por sí _mismos_ lo que _no pueden_ hacer. Los hombres deben aprender a controlar su reproducción, su consumo y el uso de las cosas. Es imposible _educar_ a la gente para la pobreza voluntaria, lo mismo que el dominio de sí mismo no puede ser el resultado de una manipulación. Es imposible _enseñar_ la renuncia gozosa y equilibrada en un mundo totalmente estructurado para producir siempre más, y mantener la ilusión de que esto cuesta cada vez menos. + +Es necesario que cada uno aprenda el porqué y el cómo de la contracepción. La razón es clara: el hombre ha evolucionado sobre una parcela del cosmos; confinado por los recursos de la ecosfera, su universo no puede admitir más que un número limitado de ocupantes. Por la técnica, ha modificado las características de su nicho ecológico. La ecosfera puede actualmente acoger más gente, cada vez menos adaptada vitalmente a su ambiente, cada vez pudiendo disponer de menos espacio, de menos capacidad, de menos tradición. La tentativa de fabricar un medio ambiente _mejor_ se ha revelado tan presuntuosa como la de mejorar la salud, la educación o la comunicación. El resultado es que ahora hay más gente que se siente cada vez menos a gusto. Los nuevos instrumentos, que han favorecido el crecimiento de la población, no pueden asegurar su supervivencia. La colocación de instrumentos aún más potentes, aumenta con más rapidez el número de frustrados que la cifra total de la población. En un mercado atestado, la falta se acentúa, y exige siempre mayor programación de la clientela. + +Toda planificación es garantizada por un factor clave, a saber, el control del número de gentes para las cuales se planifica. Pero, hasta el presente, toda planificación de la población ha fracasado: la gente no limita su reproducción sino por propia decisión. La paradoja es que el hombre opone máxima resistencia a la enseñanza que más necesita. Todo programa de control de la natalidad fundado sobre el modelo industrial fracasará ahí donde han fracasado la escuela y el hospital. Al principio, tendrá atractivo; más tarde vendrá la escalada del aborto y de la esterilización; finalmente, será el mazazo cerebral para perpetrar genocidios, paupericidios y otros megacidios. + +Sin la práctica de una contracepción voluntaria y eficaz, la humanidad será aplastada por su número, antes de ser aplastada por la potencia de su propia instrumentación. Pero la generalización de la contracepción no puede en ningún caso ser resultado de un instrumento milagroso. Una nueva práctica, opuesta a la presente, no puede resultar más que de una relación nueva del hombre con su herramienta. El control de la herramienta, al cual me refiero, exige la generalización de la contracepción. Pero la contracepción demanda, para ser eficaz, la generalización del estado mental convivencial que acompaña al control de la herramienta en cuestión. + +Los sistemas requeridos para controlar los nacimientos son el ejemplo-tipo de la herramienta convivencial moderna. Integran los datos de la ciencia más avanzada con las herramientas utilizables con un mínimo de buen sentido y de aprendizaje. Estos sistemas ofrecen nuevos medios de ejercer las prácticas milenarias de contracepción, de esterilización y de aborto. Por su bajo costo pueden llegar a ser accesibles a todos. En su variedad convienen a las creencias, ocupaciones y situaciones más diversas. Con toda evidencia, estas herramientas estructuran la relación que cada uno sostiene con su cuerpo y con los demás. + +El control de los nacimientos es una empresa que debe realizarse dentro de un horizonte temporal muy limitado. No puede darse sino de una manera convivencial. Es un contrasentido querer obligar al uso de la herramienta convivencial a la gente que, en lo demás, continúa estando condicionada al solo consumo. Es absurdo pedir a un campesino que se sirva del preservativo cuando se le _enseña a depender_ del médico para las inyecciones y las recetas, del juez para dirimir los litigios y del maestro para la alfabetización. Es un contrasentido legislar en la actualidad sobre el aborto como 'acto médico', cuando hoy es más simple que nunca reconocer el comienzo de una gravidez o interrumpirla. También es utópico imaginar que los médicos van a confiar las esterilizaciones a asistentes analfabetos formados para ello. El día en que los interesados se den cuenta de que esta operación delicada puede ser realizada igualmente, si no mejor, por un profano, siempre que disponga del cuidado y habilidad que requiere una práctica ancestral como la de tejer, por ejemplo, se habrá acabado el monopolio médico sobre operaciones poco costosas que pueden estar al alcance del mayor número. A medida que las herramientas posindustrial es racionales se extiendan, los tabúes del especialista seguirán a la instrumentación industrial en su caída como la siguieron en su gloria. La herramienta simple, pobre, transparente, es un servidor humilde; la herramienta elaborada, compleja, secreta, es un amo arrogante. + +### La polarización + +La industrialización multiplica la gente y las cosas. Los subprivilegiados crecen en número, en tanto que los privilegiados consumen siempre más. En consecuencia, el hambre crece entre los pobres y el temor entre los ricos. Llevado por el hambre y el sentimiento de impotencia, el pobre reclama una industrialización acelerada; impelido por el miedo y el deseo de proteger su mayor bienestar, el rico se embarca en una protección cada vez más explosiva y blindada. Mientras que el poder se polariza, la insatisfacción se generaliza. La posibilidad que se nos presenta de crear más felicidad para todo el mundo, con menos abundancia, queda relegada al punto amarillo de visión social. + +Esta ceguera es el hecho del desequilibrio en la balanza del saber. Los intoxicados por la educación resultan buenos consumidores y buenos usuarios. Consideran su crecimiento personal bajo la forma de una acumulación de bienes y de servicios producidos por la industria. Antes que hacer las cosas por sí mismos, prefieren recibirlas embaladas por la institución. Rechazan su capacidad innata de captar lo real. El desequilibrio del balance del saber explica cómo el despliegue del monopolio radical de bienes y servicios es casi imperceptible para el usuario. Pero no nos dice por qué éste se siente hasta tal punto impotente para modificar las disfunciones en la medida en que las percibe. + +Es allí donde interviene el efecto de un cuarto tipo de trastorno: la polarización creciente del poder. Bajo el empuje de la mega-máquina en expansión, el poder de decisión sobre el destino de todos se concentra en las manos de algunos. Y, dentro de este frenesí de crecimiento, las innovaciones que mejoran la suerte de la minoría privilegiada crecen aún más rápidamente que el producto global. + +Un alza del tres por ciento del nivel de vida norteamericano cuesta veinticinco veces más caro que un alza igual en la India. La India, sin embargo, es más poblada y prolífica que América del Norte. La condición del pobre puede mejorarse, siempre que el rico consuma menos, mientras que la condición del rico no puede mejorar sino a costa de la expoliación mortal del pobre. El rico pretende que al explotar al pobre le enriquece, puesto que, en última instancia crea la abundancia para todos. Las élites de los países pobres difunden esta fábula. + +El rico se enriquecerá y despojará más al pobre en el decenio que viene. El hecho de que el mercado internacional les suministre trigo impondrá a los países pobres la construcción de redes de transporte y de distribución a un precio social que, de hecho, hubiera bastado para transformar la agricultura local. Pero la angustia que nos oprime no debe, bajo ningún precio, impedirnos comprender bien la estructura del reparto del poder, pues ésta es la cuarta dimensión por donde el sobrecrecimiento ejerce sus efectos destructores. La industrialización sin freno fabrica la pobreza moderna. Es cierto que los pobres con ello disponen de un poco más de dinero, pero pueden hacer menos con sus pocos pesos. La modernización de la pobreza camina de la mano con la concentración del poder: es necesario comprender bien, o no se percibirá la naturaleza profunda de la polarización. + +La pobreza se moderniza: su umbral monetario se eleva porque nuevos productos industriales se presentan como bienes de primera necesidad, manteniéndose totalmente fuera del alcance económico de la gran mayoría. En el Tercer Mundo, el granjero pobre es expulsado de sus tierras por la revolución verde. Gana más como asalariado agrícola, pero sus hijos no comen como antes. El ciudadano norteamericano que gana diez veces más que el asalariado agrícola es, también, desesperadamente pobre. Los dos pagan cada vez más cara la creciente falta de bienestar. + +De manera complementaria, el distanciamiento entre ricos y pobres se acentúa, porque el control de la producción se centraliza con miras a producir siempre más para mayor número. Mientras que el alza de los umbrales de la pobreza es efecto de la estructura del producto industrial, el crecimiento del distanciamiento entre inermes y poderosos es consecuencia de la estructura de la herramienta. Quienes quieran resolver el primer aspecto del problema sin poner atención en el segundo, no hacen más que reemplazar la falta de cosas por la falta de voces. La redistribución del producto no es el remedio para la polarización del control. + +El impuesto es un paliativo a los efectos superficiales de la concentración industrial del poder. El impuesto sobre la renta encuentra su complemento en los sistemas de seguridad social, de asignaciones y de distribución equitativa del bienestar. Incluso es posible que, más allá de un cierto umbral, se estatice el capital, o bien se decida reducir el abanico de los salarios. Pero este tipo de control de la renta privada no puede ser eficaz sino con un control paralelo del consumo, de los privilegios del individuo en razón de su función de productor. El control de la renta privada no tiene ningún efecto igualitario sobre los privilegios que realmente cuentan en una sociedad donde el trabajo es promovido a primer plano y la vida doméstica relegada al segundo. Mientras que los trabajadores sean clasificados en función del grado de capitalización de la fuerza de trabajo de cada uno, la minoría que detenta existencias de saber de alto precio se arroga regularmente todos los privilegios que _permiten ganar tiempos_. La concentración de privilegios entre las manos de unos cuantos es inherente a la productividad industrial. + +Hace apenas un siglo, nadie hubiera podido imaginar la concentración de poder y de energía que hoy nos parece normal. En una sociedad moderna, la energía industrializada excede considerablemente a la energía metabólica global, es decir, la energía de la cual dispone el cuerpo humano para realizar tareas. La relación entre energía mecánica y energía humana disponible es de quince a uno en China y de trescientos a uno en Estados Unidos. Y los recursos eléctricos concentran más eficazmente el control de la energía y el ejercicio del poder que el látigo en las viejas civilizaciones. La distribución social del control del consumo de energía ha sido modificada en forma radical. El funcionamiento y, aun más, los lineamientos de la infraestructura energética de una sociedad moderna imponen la ideología del grupo dominante, con una fuerza y una penetración inconcebibles para el sacerdote del antiguo Egipto, o para el banquero del siglo XVII. En tanto que instrumento de dominación, la moneda pierde su valor en beneficio del carburante. Si el capital es lo que suministra la energía del cambio, la inflación energética ha reducido a la mayoría a la indigencia. A medida y conforme el instrumento se infla, el número de operadores potenciales disminuye. A medida que el instrumento se hace más eficiente, el operador emplea más bienes y servicios costosos. En los países que se industrializan, en la obra el ingeniero es el único que tiene aire acondicionado en su barraca. Su tiempo es tan precioso que toma el avión para dirigirse a la capital, y sus decisiones son tan importantes que las comunica por un transmisor de radio de onda corta. El ingeniero ha ganado sus privilegios acaparando los fondos públicos para obtener sus diplomas. El albañil indígena no puede evaluar la situación relativamente privilegiada de su contramaestre, pero los ayudantes técnicos y los dibujantes, que han sido escolarizados, pero no diplomados, sienten inmediatamente en forma más aguda el calor del campamento y la lejanía de su familia. Se ven relativamente empobrecidos por toda la eficiencia suplementaria ganada por su patrón. + +Nunca antes la herramienta había sido tan poderosa. Y jamás había llegado a ser acaparada hasta ese punto por una élite. El derecho divino robaba menos en favor de los reyes de antaño de lo que el crecimiento de los servicios, al socaire del interés superior de la producción, roba hoy a los cuadros populares. Los soviéticos justifican los transportes supersónicos diciendo que ahorran tiempo a sus sabios. Los transportes a gran velocidad, las redes de telecomunicación, los cuidados médicos especializados, la asistencia ilimitada de la burocracia se presentan como necesidades para sacar el máximo de los individuos que han sido objeto de un _máximum_ de capitalización. + +La sociedad de la mega-herramienta depende para sobrevivir de múltiples sistemas que impiden a un gran número de gente hacer valer su palabra. Este último privilegio se reserva a los individuos reconocidos como los más productivos. Normalmente se mide la productividad de un individuo por la inversión educativa de que ha sido objeto, por la importancia del ritual de iniciación al que ha sido sometido. Mientras más grande es el montón de saber que ha sido inyectado a un individuo determinado, más grande es el valor social atribuido a sus decisiones, y más legítima también es su demanda de productos industriales avanzados. + +Mientras se derrumba el poder fundado en el saber certificado en la escuela, formas más antiguas de segregación vuelven al primer plano en la escena: la fuerza de trabajo de un individuo vale menos cuando es negro, de sexo femenino, extranjero; no piensa como se debe o no pasa ciertas ordalías. En la selección de una meritocracia, el más mínimo rol de escuela abre la puerta a procedimientos de selección primitivos. Así queda montado el tablado para la multiplicación de minorías y para el desarrollo espectacular de sus reivindicaciones. Cada uno que reclama su parte, expone inevitablemente a la minoría de la cual forma parte a ser víctima de sus propios fines. + +Conforme van cubriendo instituciones más escasas y más vastas, las jerarquías se elevan y se aglutinan. Un puesto en la administración de una industria moderna es el más ambicionado y disputado producto del crecimiento. Los otros, los que corren detrás en vano, y que son los más, se reparten en una variedad de clases 'inferiores': los subeducados, las mujeres, los homosexuales, los jóvenes, los viejos, etc. Cada día se inventa un nuevo tipo de inferioridad. Los movimientos minoritarios, los de las mujeres, de los negros o de los mal pensantes, logran, cuando mucho, obtener diplomas y carreras para algunos de los miembros salidos de sus filas. Cantan victoria cuando logran que sea reconocido el principio: _a igual trabajo, igual salario_. Allí se asienta una paradoja: por una parte esos movimientos fortalecen la creencia de que las necesidades de una sociedad igualitaria no pueden ser satisfechas sin pasar por un trabajo especializado y por una jerarquía burocratizada; por otra acumulan _quanta_ fabulosos de frustración, que la menor chispa hará explotar. + +Poco importa saber para qué fines específicos se organizan las minorías, siempre que aspiren a un reparto equitativo del consumo, de las buenas plazas o del poder formal para gobernar las herramientas ingobernables. Cada vez que una minoría actúe con miras a obtener su parte en una sociedad de crecimiento, no obtendrá para la mayoría de sus miembros más que un sentimiento siempre más agudo de insatisfacción. + +En cuanto a las oposiciones que quieren alcanzar el control de las instituciones existentes, con ello les dan una legitimidad de un nuevo tipo, exacerbando al mismo tiempo las contradicciones. Cambiar el equipo dirigente no es una revolución. ¿Qué significa el poder de los trabajadores, el poder negro, el poder de las mujeres o el de los jóvenes si no es el poder de tomarse el poder establecido? Un poder tal es a lo más el de dirigir mejor un crecimiento ya encaminado a proseguir su curso glorioso por estas providenciales tomas del poder. La escuela, ya se enseñe en ella marxismo o fascismo, reproduce una pirámide de clases de fracasados. El avión, aunque se le conceda pasaje a un trabajador en ocasión de sus vacaciones, reproduce la jerarquía social con una clase superior de gente cuyo tiempo se supone más precioso que el de los demás. + +Entre los inevitables subproductos del crecimiento industrial se cuentan las nuevas clases de subconsumidores y de subempleados. Las mujeres, los negros, los hijos de los pobres se están organizando. La organización les hace tomar conciencia de su condición común. Por el momento, las minorías organizadas reclaman el derecho a poseer, manteniendo así el _statu quo_. Exigir _a trabajo igual, igual salario_ es apoyar la idea de un trabajo desigual. El día que estas organizaciones reclamen un derecho igual en el poder, podrán llegar a ser el pivote de la reconstrucción social. La sociedad industrial no resistiría el asalto de un movimiento vigoroso de mujeres que reclamaran, por ejemplo, un trabajo igual para todos, sin distinción alguna. Todas las clases, todas las razas cuentan con mujeres. Ellas ejercen la mayoría de sus actividades cotidianas en una forma no industrial. Las sociedades industrializadas son viables precisamente porque cuentan con las mujeres para tareas caseras que se escapan a la industrialización. Pero una sociedad regida por criterios de eficiencia industrial degrada y devalúa el trabajo doméstico. En realidad, éste se haría aún más inhumano al colocarlo en el molde industrial. Es más fácil imaginar al norteamericano dejando de explotar la subindustrialización de América Latina que cesando de destinar sus mujeres a los trabajos no industrializables. La expansión de la industria se detendría si las mujeres nos obligaran a reconocer que la sociedad deja de ser viable en cuanto un solo modo de producción ejerce su dominio sobre el conjunto. Es urgente tomar conciencia de la pluralidad de los modos de producción, cada uno válido y respetable, que una sociedad para ser viable debe permitir que coexistan. Esta toma de conciencia nos haría los amos del crecimiento industrial. Éste se detendría si las mujeres y las otras minorías alejadas del poder exigiesen un trabajo igualmente creativo para todos, en vez de reclamar la igualdad de derechos sobre la mega-instrumentación manipulada hasta ahora sólo por el hombre. Sólo una estructura de producción que protege el reparto igual del poder permite un goce igual del haber. + +### Lo obsoleto + +La reconstrucción convivencial supone el desmantelamiento del actual monopolio de la industria, no la supresión de toda producción industrial. Exige que sea reducida la polarización social de la herramienta, a fin de que coexista una pluralidad dinámica de estructuras complementarias en la fuerza productiva y que haya lugar para una pluralidad de ambientes y de élites. Reclama la adopción de herramientas que pongan en acción la energía del cuerpo humano, no la regresión hacia una explotación del hombre. Exige la reducción considerable de la serie de tratamientos obligatorios, pero no impide a nadie ser enseñado o asistido si así lo desea. Una sociedad convivencial tampoco es una sociedad congelada. Su dinámica es función de la amplitud en el reparto del control de la energía, es decir, del poder de operar un cambio real. En el sistema actual de obsolescencia programada en gran escala, algunos centros de decisión son los que imponen la innovación al conjunto de la sociedad y privan a las comunidades de base para elegir su porvenir. De hecho, es el instrumento el que impone la dirección y el ritmo de la innovación. Un proceso ininterrumpido de reconstrucción convivencial es posible a condición de que el cuerpo social proteja el poder de las personas y de las colectividades para modificar y renovar sus estilos de vida, sus herramientas, su ambiente; dicho de otra forma, su poder para dar a la realidad un rostro nuevo. Dentro de esta amenaza industrial al pasado y al futuro, a la tradición y a la utopía, reside la quinta dimensión para salvaguardar el equilibrio. + +La polarización social, como se ha visto, resulta de dos factores combinados: el alza del costo de los bienes y servicios producidos y empaquetados por la industria, y la escasez creciente de los empleos considerados como altamente productivos. Lo obsoleto, por su parte, produce la desvalorización. Esta _desvalorización_ no es el efecto de una tasa global de cambio, sino del cambio que afecta a los productos que ejercen un monopolio radical. La _polarización_ social es determinada por el hecho siguiente: el costo de los bienes y servicios estandarizados ha llegado a ser tal, que la mayoría de la gente no puede obtenerlos. Mientras más aumenta su producción, más se iguala su distribución y más se excluye al consumidor del control sobre lo que recibe. Lo obsoleto, por su parte, puede llegar a ser intolerable, aun para quien no está eliminado del mercado. Obliga al consumidor a desprenderse continuamente de aquello que ha sido forzado a desear, a pagar y a instalar en su existencia. La necesidad artificial y la obsolescencia planificada, son dos dimensiones distintas de la supereficiencia que apoya una sociedad donde la jerarquía sedimenta el privilegio. + +Apenas importa que la usura forzada destruya viejos modelos o viejos sistemas. Ford puede desembarazarse de un modelo viejo dejando de suministrar repuestos, y la policía puede eliminar de la vía pública los automóviles antiguos por no responder a las nuevas normas de seguridad. Por falta de gasolina o por aspirar a la eficiencia, se podría reemplazar el automóvil por el monorrail. La renovación está dentro de un modo de producción industrial y va acompañada de una ideología de progreso. El producto no puede ser mejorado si la mega-máquina no es reinstrumentada. Y para que esto 'pague' se deben crear inmensos mercados en vistas al nuevo modelo. La mejor forma de abrir un mercado es asimilando el producto nuevo a un importante privilegio. Si esto funciona, el modelo antiguo se desvaloriza, y el consumidor se entrega a la ideología del desarrollo ilimitado que afecta la 'calidad' mejorada del bien de consumo. Los individuos, pero también los países, se clasifican socialmente según la antigüedad de sus existencias en instrumentos y bienes. Algunos, los menos, pueden pagarse el lujo de tener siempre el último modelo; otros siguen utilizando automóviles, máquinas lavadoras y radios que tienen cinco o quince años, y probablemente pasan sus vacaciones en hoteles también pasados de moda, es decir, sin categoría. El nivel de obsolescencia de su consumo indica el sitio exacto que ocupan en la escala social. + +La clasificación social de los individuos en función de la edad de los objetos que utilizan no es manifestación sólo del capitalismo. Como sea que la economía se basa en la producción y el empaquetamiento masivo de bienes y servicios sujetos a la obsolescencia, únicamente algunos privilegiados tienen acceso a los productos de última creación. Son únicamente algunas enfermeras las que asisten a los cursos de anestesia más moderna y sólo algunos burócratas pueden correr o volar en el último modelo de vehículos. Cada uno, dentro de la élite que se forma en el seno de la minoría, reconoce y clasifica al otro según la edad de sus instrumentos, ya sea de su material doméstico, ya del equipo de su oficina. + +La innovación cuesta cara; para justificar el gasto, los administradores deben probar que es un factor de progreso. Para justificar este progreso, en una economía planificada, el departamento de investigación y desarrollo recurre a la seudociencia; en una economía de mercado, el departamento de ventas recurre al estudio del mercado. En cualquier caso, la innovación periódica alimenta la misma creencia que la ha engendrado, la ilusión de que lo nuevo es lo mejor. Esta creencia se ha convertido en parte integrante de la mentalidad moderna. Se olvida únicamente que cada vez que una sociedad industrial se alimenta de esta ilusión, cada nueva unidad lanzada al mercado crea más necesidades de las que satisface. Si lo que es nuevo es mejor, lo que es viejo no es tan bueno; la suerte de la humanidad, en su aplastante mayoría, es entonces bastante mala. El modelo nuevo produce una nueva pobreza. El consumidor, el usuario, se resiente duramente de la distancia que hay entre lo que tiene y lo que sería mejor tener. Mide el valor de un producto por su novedad, y se presta a una educación permanente en vista del consumo y del uso de la innovación. Nada escapa a lo obsoleto, ni siquiera los conceptos. La lógica de 'siempre mejor' reemplaza la del bien como elemento estructurante de la acción. + +Una sociedad empeñada en la carrera hacia el mayor bienestar, siente como una amenaza la mera idea de cualquier limitación del progreso. Entonces el individuo que no cambia los objetos conoce el rencor del fracaso y quien los cambia descubre el vértigo de la falta. Lo que tiene le repugna, lo que desea tener le enferma. El cambio acelerado produce en él los mismos efectos que la habituación de una droga: ensaya, comienza de nuevo, está atado, está enfermo, algo le falta. La dialéctica de la historia se rompe. La relación entre el presente y la tradición se desvanece; el lenguaje pierde sus raíces; la memoria social se endurece; en el Derecho, el precedente pierde su influencia. El acuerdo sobre la acción legal, social y política se orienta hacia la alquimia del porvenir. + +Pero se nos objeta que al establecer cercos al crecimiento, al producir una cantidad terminada y durable de bienes industrializados, se acaba con la libertad de experimentar e innovar. Esta objeción se justificaría si aquí se tratara de formular una nueva forma de economía del crecimiento. Actualmente, el último grito de la moda es justamente una producción limpia y limitada de bienes, y un desarrollo ilimitado de servicios. Pero no es eso lo que nos interesa, pues no hablamos del porvenir de la sociedad industrial, sino de la transición a una sociedad que diversifique los modos de producción. La limitación del producto industrial tiene para nosotros la finalidad de liberar el porvenir, de abrir las acciones personales a la sorpresa. + +Ahora bien, la innovación industrial es programada, grosera, reaccionaria. La renovación de las herramientas convivenciales tendrá la espontaneidad de los seres que las manejen. En la hora actual, el progreso del _savoir-faire_ está trabado por la asimilación de la investigación científica al desarrollo industrial. La mayoría de los instrumentos de la investigación se reservan a los investigadores programados para interpretar el mundo en términos de ganancias y poder, y la mayoría de los fines de la investigación se determinan por móviles de poder y de eficiencia. La mayor parte del costo de la investigación se debe a su carácter secreto, competitivo, impersonal. En cambio, nada impide que la investigación convivencial sea también una investigación fundamental. La investigación que se realiza por placer nos reserva, estoy seguro, más sorpresas que la del grano de arena que bloquea la gran máquina. La innovación del saber, como la del poder, puede florecer únicamente donde esté protegida contra la obsolescencia industrial. + +Una sociedad congelada sería tan insoportable al hombre como la sociedad de la aceleración: entre las dos se sitúa la sociedad de la innovación convivencial. El cambio acelerado conduce al absurdo, a la administración de una sociedad regida por el Derecho. La razón es que el Derecho se basa sobre el precedente. Más allá de un cierto umbral de aceleración, ya no hay sitio para esta referencia al precedente, y, por tanto, para el juicio. Al perder este recurso al Derecho, la sociedad queda condenada a la educación. El ejercicio del control social, puesto al servicio del _plan_, se convierte en la tarea de los especialistas. El ideólogo reemplaza al jurista. El educador moldea al individuo para ser domesticado y re-domesticado, orientado a lo largo de toda su existencia. Ya en el oficio, cien veces se reanuda este trabajo, para producir un individuo fascinado con las ganancias y siempre mejor adaptado a las exigencias de la industria. La producción de instrumentos para adaptar al hombre a su medio se convierte en la industria dominante cuando el ritmo del cambio del ambiente sobrepasa cierto umbral. La reconstrucción convivencial exige que sea limitada la tasa de usura y de innovación obligatoria. El hombre es un ser frágil. Nace en el lenguaje, vive en el derecho y muere en el mito. Sometido a un cambio desmesurado, pierde su calidad de hombre. + +### La insatisfacción + +Hemos revisado cinco circuitos diferentes. En cada uno de ellos la herramienta supereficiente amenaza un equilibrio. Amenaza el equilibrio de la _vida_, amenaza el equilibrio de la _energía_, amenaza el equilibrio del _saber_, amenaza el equilibrio del _poder_, en fin, amenaza el derecho a la historia. + +La perversión de la herramienta amenaza saquear el medio físico. El monopolio radical amenaza congelar la creatividad. La superprogramación amenaza transformar el planeta en una vasta zona de servicios. La polarización amenaza instituir un despotismo estructural e irreversible. Finalmente, lo obsoleto amenaza desarraigar la especie humana. En cada uno de estos circuitos, y cada vez según una dimensión diferente, la herramienta supereficiente afecta a la relación del hombre con su ambiente: amenaza provocar un cortocircuito fatal. + +Nuestro análisis sería incompleto si tratara de un circuito con exclusión de los otros. Cada uno de esos equilibrios debe ser protegido. Los _outputs_ de la energía limpia pueden ser equitativamente distribuidos por un monopolio radical intolerable. La secuela obligatoria o los medios de comunicación omnipresentes puede afectar el equilibrio del saber y abrir el camino a una polarización de la sociedad, es decir, a un despotismo del saber. Cualquier industria puede engendrar una aceleración insoportable de los ritmos de usura. Las culturas han florecido en el seno de una multiplicidad de geografías, amenazadas hoy. Pero, actualmente, son también el medio social y el medio psíquico los que corren el riesgo de ser destruidos. La especie humana puede ser envenenada por la contaminación. Puede también desvanecerse y desaparecer por falta de lenguaje, de derecho o de mito. Si el monopolio radical degrada al hombre y la polarización le amenaza, el choque del futuro puede desintegrarlo. + +En cada uno de los circuitos, como se ha visto, se pueden determinar criterios y divisar umbrales que permitan verificar la degradación de los diversos equilibrios. Es posible describir estos umbrales en un lenguaje comprensible para todos. En el curso de un proceso político, la población puede servirse de estos criterios para mantener el desarrollo de la herramienta más acá de los umbrales críticos. Los cercos así trazados circunscribirán el tipo de estructuras de las fuerzas productivas que pueden seguir siendo controladas por la población: el poder indicar estos cercos forma el apéndice tecnopolítico necesario a toda constitución contemporánea. Más allá, la herramienta escapa a todo control político. El poder que tiene el hombre de hacer valer su derecho desaparece cuando se vincula a los procesos en los cuales ya no hay derecho a voz en la junta. En tanto pueda gozar de ello, su cuerpo, su reposo, su libertad y sus amores, en una palabra, el sentido de su vida, le serán concedidos como un factor de optimización de la lógica de la herramienta. En este punto, el hombre se ha convertido en materia prima para la mega-máquina, la más maleable de las materias primas. Los umbrales críticos circunscriben un espacio que es el de la sobrevivencia humana. Si este espacio no fuera cercado por un Derecho, la dignidad y la libertad de la persona serán arrolladas. + +En la hora actual, la investigación científica se orienta masivamente hacia esta reducción del hombre, a través de la persecución de dos objetivos: por una parte, garantizar el avance tecnológico que permita producir mejor, mejores productos; por otra parte, aplicar el análisis de sistemas a la manipulación de la supervivencia de la especie humana, a fin de preservar su mejor consumo. Para permitir al hombre realizarse, la investigación futura debe ir en un sentido radicalmente opuesto, debe llegar a la raíz del mal. Le daremos el nombre de investigación radical. La investigación radical persigue también dos objetivos: por una parte presentar criterios que permitan determinar cuándo una herramienta alcanza un umbral de nocividad; por otra, inventar herramientas que optimicen el equilibrio de la vida y así maximicen la libertad de cada uno. El primer objetivo enfoca la formulación de las cinco clases de umbrales identificadas anteriormente. El segundo, enfoca las limitaciones de las técnicas del bienestar. + +La investigación radical no es ni una nueva disciplina científica ni una empresa interdisciplinaria. Es el análisis dimensional de la relación del hombre y su herramienta. + +Es evidente que la existencia social del hombre se desarrolla en varias escalas, en diversos medios concéntricos: la célula de base, la unidad de producción, la ciudad, el estado, la Tierra, en fin. Cada uno de estos medios tiene su espacio y su tiempo, sus hombres y sus recursos de energía. Hay disfunción de la herramienta en uno de estos medios cuando el espacio, el tiempo y la energía requeridos por el conjunto de herramientas exceden la _escala natural_ que corresponde. Estas escalas naturales son susceptibles de ser identificadas, sin avanzar una determinada interpretación respecto a la naturaleza del hombre o de la sociedad. Estas escalas definen, en términos negativos y de proscripción, el espacio dentro del cual el fenómeno humano se puede observar. Pero no avanzan ni una palabra sobre la naturaleza propia de ese fenómeno, como no formulan prescripciones. En este sentido, se puede hablar de la _homeóstasis_ del hombre dentro de su ambiente, amenazada por toda disfunción de la herramienta, y se puede definir la política como el proceso por el cual los hombres asumen la responsabilidad de esa _homeóstasis_. Ya va siendo hora de no seguir definiendo las necesidades humanas en abstracto, sometiéndolas, como a los problemas, al tratamiento de la tecnocracia que practica el método de la escalada. Es tiempo de comenzar a buscar dentro de qué cercos las colectividades humanas concretas pueden usar la técnica para satisfacer sus necesidades sin provocar prejuicios a los demás. Precisar el anatema que es necesario lanzar marca el primer paso de la investigación radical. + +Los umbrales más allá de los cuales se perfila la destrucción, no determinan el registro en el cual una sociedad limita voluntariamente el uso de sus herramientas. Los umbrales determinan el campo de la supervivencia posible; los límites de ese registro representan los cercos de una cultura. Los umbrales naturales son efecto de la necesidad; los límites culturales son el hecho de la libertad. Los umbrales configuran el derecho constitutivo de toda sociedad, los límites prefiguran la justicia convivencial de una sociedad particular. La necesidad de determinar umbrales y de observar los cercos así definidos es la misma para todas las sociedades. La fijación de límites depende del modo de vida y del grado de libertad de cada colectividad. + +Existe una forma de disfunción dentro de la cual el crecimiento aún no destruye la vida, pero ya pervierte el uso de la herramienta. La herramienta no es óptima, no es tampoco intolerable; todavía es tolerable, pero es ya supereficiente; degrada un equilibrio de la naturaleza más subjetivo y más sutil que los descritos anteriormente: _el equilibrio de la acción_. Es el equilibrio entre el precio pagado personalmente y el resultado obtenido. Es la conciencia de que _los medios y los fines se equilibran_. Mientras la herramienta avasalla el fin al que debiera servir, el usuario se convierte en presa de una profunda insatisfacción. Si no deja a la herramienta, o la herramienta no le deja a él, se vuelve loco. En el Hades el castigo más espantoso estaba reservado a los blasfemos: el juez de los infiernos los condenaba a la acción frenética. La roca de Sísifo es la herramienta pervertida. El colmo es que, en una sociedad en donde la acción frenética es la regla, se formen hombres que rivalizan entre sí en la conquista del derecho de frustrarse a sí mismos. Movidos por la rivalidad, cegados por el deseo, la única cuestión es quién de entre ellos será intoxicado primero por la herramienta. + +Como he desarrollado en otra parte[^n05], el predominio del transporte sobre la circulación de la gente puede servir para ilustrar la diferencia entre lo que es la frontera del equilibrio y lo que es un límite elegido para hacer florecer la igualdad en el goce de la libertad. Proteger el ambiente puede significar la prohibición de los transportes supersónicos. Evitar que la polarización social se convierta en intolerable puede significar la prohibición de los transportes aéreos. Defenderse contra el monopolio radical puede significar la prohibición de los automóviles. En ausencia de estas medidas, el transporte amenaza a la sociedad. El equilibrio entre fines y medios que he subrayado aquí, nos presenta un nuevo criterio de selección de la herramienta. La consideración de este nuevo equilibrio, tal vez nos conduzca hasta proscribir todos los transportes públicos de velocidad superior a la de la bicicleta. + +Cualquier vehículo cuya velocidad máxima excede un cierto umbral, acrecienta la pérdida de tiempo y de dinero del usuario medio. Todas las veces que en un punto del sistema de circulación la velocidad máxima excede cierto umbral, significa que más gente empleará más tiempo en la parada del autobús, en la atascada autopista de circunvalación, o en una cama de hospital. Significa también que empleará más tiempo en pagar el sistema de transporte que se está obligado a utilizar. + +El umbral crítico de velocidad depende de una multitud de factores: condiciones geográficas, culturales, económicas, técnicas, financieras. Con tantas variables para una incógnita, se podría esperar que el margen de estimación para dicho umbral fuera muy grande. Pero no es así. Es de tal manera bajo y estrecho que parece improbable a la mayoría de los especialistas en circulación. + +Hay disfunción en la circulación desde que ésta admite, en un punto dado del sistema, una velocidad superior a la de la bicicleta. Es por esto que la velocidad de la bicicleta puede servir de criterio en la determinación del umbral crítico. Todo exceso en un punto dado del sistema acrecienta la suma de tiempo destinado por el conjunto de los usuarios al servicio de la industria de los transportes. + +La sobreabundancia de bienes conduce a la escasez de tiempo. El tiempo se rarifica porque es necesario para consumir y para dejarse asistir, y porque el acostumbramiento a la producción hace aún más costoso el desacostumbramiento. Mientras más se enriquece el consumidor, más consciente es de los grados que ha ascendido, tanto en la casa en que vive como en la oficina. Mientras más alto ha trepado en la pirámide de la producción, menos tiempo tiene para abandonarse a las actividades que no pueden ser contabilizadas. + +Es difícil ganar tiempo cuando se tiene muy empeñado el porvenir. Staffan Linder subraya el hecho de que tenemos la tendencia a sobreemplear el futuro. En tanto que el futuro se hace presente, continuamente tenemos la sensación de falta de tiempo, por la sencilla razón de haber previsto jornadas de treinta horas. Como si no fuera suficiente el costo más o menos alto del tiempo --y que en general en una sociedad de la abundancia, cada vez se hace más caro--, el sobreempleo del futuro engendra una tensión devastadora. + +La industria de los transportes produce escasez de tiempo. En una sociedad en donde mucha gente emplea vehículos rápidos, todo el mundo debe consagrarles más tiempo y dinero. Una vez roto el equilibrio, sobrepasado el umbral de la velocidad, la rivalidad entre la industria del transporte y las otras industrias se hace feroz, tratando de controlar los espacios y la energía disponibles. Mientras la velocidad crece en forma lineal, la confusión crece en forma exponencial. El tiempo consagrado a la circulación usurpa el tiempo de trabajo, como devora el tiempo de recreo. + +Los vehículos más grandes no deben estar vacíos nunca; los más rápidos, deben moverse continuamente. Las cápsulas individuales se vuelven ruinosas. Los transportes públicos no prestan servicios más que en las grandes arterias. Es necesario que esto se mueva cada vez más rápido. + +Mientras la velocidad aumenta, el vehículo se convierte en tirano de la existencia cotidiana. Se prevé un tiempo determinado, se necesita el doble. Se proyectan planes con meses y hasta con años de anticipación. Algunos de esos planes, realizados con gran costo, no pueden cumplirse. El sentimiento de fracaso es continuo. Se vive bajo tensión. El hombre no se deja programar a voluntad. Cuando se ha sobrepasado el umbral crítico para el equilibrio de la acción, viene el enfrentamiento de la industria de la velocidad con las otras industrias, para ver quién va a despojar al hombre de la parte de humanidad que le queda. + +La velocidad es el vector clave para detectar cómo la industria del transporte afecta el equilibrio vital. Al considerar las cinco primeras dimensiones se necesita mucho menos de lo que pudiera pensarse para que el transporte se vuelva contra el hombre rompiendo las escalas naturales. Pero se da otro hecho aún más sorprendente. La velocidad, que al aplicar el conjunto de los cinco primeros criterios definidos, se manifiesta tolerable, es del mismo orden de grandeza que la velocidad que optimiza la circulación deseable. Es la que, al menor costo de tiempo social, asegura la equidad del radio de acción y de las posibilidades de acceso maximizadas por la técnica. La gran diversidad de registros de orden técnico que configuran el cerco respectivo de cada civilización, caben naturalmente dentro del espacio de la tecnología tolerable. El cerco de lo tolerable coincide, en orden de grandeza, con el límite superior del registro de lo deseable. + +La constatación del contrasentido que representa la sobreproducción no se establece solamente sobre los transportes. El mismo tipo de resultados negativos se encuentra a propósito de las inversiones hechas en medicina. En Estados Unidos se ha calculado que más del 95% de los gastos médicos consagrados a los enfermos cuya muerte se sabe próxima, no han tenido ningún efecto benéfico sobre su bienestar; únicamente intensifican su sufrimiento y los hacen totalmente dependientes de cuidados impersonales, sin prolongar la duración de su existencia. La rentabilidad máxima de un servicio se sitúa dentro de ciertos límites. Pasado cierto umbral, la salud de un paciente se mide por su cuenta de hospital, como la riqueza de una nación se mide por la cuenta de gastos globales que es un PNB. A la escala del individuo como a la de la colectividad, es preciso pagar siempre. Es preciso pagar para remunerar al capital, es preciso también pagar los platos rotos del crecimiento. Al practicar la escalada de la técnica, la medicina primero deja de sanar, y después deja de prolongar la vida humana. Se transforma en ritual de negación de la muerte: el individuo superadaptado a la máquina, hace su última vuelta a la pista, espectacular. Habrá hecho el mejor tiempo. + +En una primera etapa, la investigación radical se ciñe a estudiar el alza en las desutilidades marginales y las amenazas engendradas por el crecimiento. En una segunda etapa, se aplica a descubrir los sistemas y las instituciones que optimizan los modos de producción convivenciales. Esta investigación provoca resistencias, de las cuales las de orden psíquico no son las menores. El hombre superinstrumentado es como el _junkie_ : el habituamiento deforma el conjunto de su sistema de valores y mutila su capacidad de juicio. Los drogadictos de toda clase están dispuestos a pagar cada vez más por gozar cada vez menos. Toleran la escalada de la desutilidad marginal. Nada puede afectarles mientras les anime una sola preocupación: subir la postura. Tales espíritus consideran los transportes más como un medio de producir el placer de la velocidad que como medio de ampliar la libertad y el goce de moverse. No aceptarán sin dificultad la evidencia de que el hombre es un ser naturalmente móvil, y que la técnica, por medio de la bicicleta, eleva la movilidad de una sociedad a un nuevo orden de grandeza más allá del cual ninguna aceleración del vehículo puede hacerla aumentar. + +La investigación radical se ciñe a hacer sensible la relación entre el hombre y la herramienta, después a hacerla nítida, a identificar los recursos de que disponemos y los efectos que se pueden alcanzar con sus diferentes usos. + +Hacer sensible la degradación de los equilibrios que establecen la supervivencia, es la tarea inmediata de la investigación radical. La investigación radical detecta las categorías de población más amenazadas, y les ayuda a discernir la amenaza. Hace tomar conciencia a los individuos o grupos, hasta entonces divididos, de que sobre sus libertades fundamentales pesan las mismas amenazas. Muestra que la exigencia de libertad real, formulada por quien sea, sirve siempre al interés de la mayoría. + +El deshabituamiento al crecimiento será doloroso. Será doloroso para la generación de transición, y sobre todo para los más intoxicados de sus miembros. Ojalá el recuerdo de tales sufrimientos preserve a las generaciones futuras de nuestros yerros. + +## Los obstáculos y las condiciones de la inversión política + +Hemos visto que el equilibrio de la vida se despliega en cinco dimensiones. En cada una de ellas sólo el mantenimiento de un equilibrio determinado que la caracteriza garantiza la homeostasis constitutiva de la vida humana. La intervención en la ecosfera será racional sólo a condición de no franquear los límites genéticos. La institución no suscita la cultura sino al permitir y hacer efectivo un sutil equilibrio entre la acción personal autónoma y las restricciones directrices que ella misma impone. El borrar las barreras geográficas y culturales no puede promover la originalidad social si esa acción no va acompañada de la reducción de la brecha energética entre los privilegiados y la gran mayoría. Un incremento en la tasa de innovación sólo tiene valor si acentúa el arraigamiento más profundo en la tradición y en la plenitud del sentido. + +De instrumento, la herramienta puede convertirse en amo, y después en verdugo del hombre. La relación se invierte con más rapidez de lo que se espera: el arado hace del hombre, señor de un jardín, y muy pronto un errabundo en un campo polvoriento. La vacuna, que selecciona sus víctimas, engendra una raza capaz de sobrevivir únicamente en un medio acondicionado. Nuestros hijos nacen disminuidos en un mundo inhumano. El _homo faber_ , de aprendiz de brujo, se transforma en basural voraz. La herramienta puede crecer en dos formas, sea para aumentar el poder del hombre o para reemplazarlo. En el primer caso, la persona conduce su propia existencia, tomando el control y la responsabilidad. + +En el segundo, es finalmente la máquina la que lo conduce: reduce a la vez la elección del operador y la del usuario-consumidor; luego les impone a los dos su lógica y sus exigencias. Amenazada por la omnipotencia de la herramienta, la supervivencia de la especie depende del establecimiento de procedimientos que permitan a todo el mundo distinguir claramente entre estas dos maneras de racionalizar y de emplear la herramienta, y, con ello, inciten a elegir la supervivencia dentro de la libertad. En el cumplimiento de esta tarea, hay tres obstáculos que nos cierran el camino: la idolatría de la ciencia, la corrupción del lenguaje cotidiano y la devaluación de los procedimientos formales que estructuran la toma de decisiones sociales. + +### La desmitificación + +Por encima de todo, el debate político está congelado por un engaño respecto a la _ciencia_. La palabra ha venido a significar una empresa institucional en vez de una actividad personal; la solución de un rompecabezas en vez del despliegue imprevisible de la creatividad humana. La ciencia es actualmente una agencia de servicios fantasmas y omnipresente, que produce _mejor saber_, igual que la medicina produce mejor salud. El daño causado por este contrasentido en la naturaleza del saber es aún más radical que el mal hecho por la mercantilización de la educación, de la salud y de la movilidad. La falsedad de la mejor salud corrompe el cuerpo social, pues cada uno se preocupa cada vez menos de la calidad del ambiente, de la higiene, de su modo de vida o de su propia capacidad de cuidar a los demás. La institucionalización del saber conduce a una degradación global más profunda, pues determina la estructura común de los otros productos. En una sociedad que se define por el consumo del saber, la creatividad es mutilada y la imaginación se atrofia. + +Esta perversión de la ciencia se funda en la creencia en dos especies de saber; el inferior del individuo, y el saber superior de la ciencia. El primer saber sería del dominio de la opinión, la expresión de una subjetividad, y el progreso nada tendría que ver en ello. El segundo sería objetivo, definido por la ciencia y extendido por voceros expertos. Este saber objetivo es considerado como un bien que se puede almacenar y mejorar constantemente. Es un recurso estratégico, un capital, la más preciosa de las materias primas, el elemento base de lo que se ha dado en llamar la toma de decisiones, siendo éstas, a su vez, concebidas como un proceso impersonal y técnico. Bajo el nuevo reino del computador y de la dinámica de grupo, el ciudadano abdica de todo su poder en favor del experto, el único competente. + +El mundo no es portador de ningún mensaje, de ninguna información. Es lo que es. Todo mensaje que le concierne es producto de un organismo vivo que actúa por él. Cuando se habla de la información almacenada fuera del organismo humano, se cae en una trampa semántica. Los libros y las computadoras forman parte del mundo. Ofrecen datos siempre que haya ojos para leerlos. Al confundir el medio con el mensaje, el receptáculo con la información misma, los datos con la decisión, relegamos el problema del saber y del conocimiento al punto muerto de nuestra mente. + +Intoxicados por la creencia de un porvenir mejor, los individuos cesan de fiarse de su propio criterio y piden que se les diga la verdad sobre lo que 'saben'. Intoxicados por la creencia en una toma mejor de decisiones, les es difícil decidir por sí solos, y pronto pierden la confianza en su propio poder de hacerlo. La impotencia creciente del individuo para tomar por sí mismo decisiones afecta a la estructura base de su espera. Antes, los hombres se disputaban una escasez concreta, en el presente reclaman un mecanismo distribuidor para colmar una falta ilusoria. El ritual burocrático organiza el consumo frenético del menú social: programa de educación, tratamiento médico o acción judicial. El conflicto personal se ve privado de toda legitimidad, desde que la ciencia promete la abundancia para todos y pretende dar a cada uno según sus demandas personales y sociales, objetivamente identificadas. Los individuos, que han desaprendido a reconocer sus propias necesidades así como a reclamar sus propios derechos, se convierten en presa de la mega-máquina que define en su lugar lo que les hace falta. La persona ya no puede por sí misma contribuir a la renovación continua de la vida social. El hombre llega a desconfiar de la palabra, se apega a un ser supuesto. El voto reemplaza al corrillo; la caseta electoral, a la terraza del café. El ciudadano se sienta frente a la pantalla, y calla. + +Las reglas del sentido común que permitían a los hombres conjugar y compartir sus experiencias se destruyen. El consumidor-usuario tiene necesidad de su dosis de saber garantizado, cuidadosamente acondicionado. Encuentra su seguridad en la certidumbre de leer el mismo periódico que su vecino, de mirar la misma emisión televisiva que su patrón. Se contenta con tener acceso al mismo grifo del saber que su superior, antes que tratar de instaurar la igualdad de condiciones que darían a su palabra el mismo peso que tiene la del patrón. La dependencia, en todas partes aceptada como un hecho, en relación al saber altamente calificado, producido por la ciencia, la técnica y la política, erosiona la confianza tradicional en la veracidad del testigo y despoja de su sentido las principales formas en que los hombres pueden intercambiar sus propias certidumbres. Hasta en los tribunales, el experto rivaliza en importancia con los testigos. El experto es casi admitido como testigo patentado, se olvida que su declaración no representa sino lo que se oye decir: es la _opinión_ de una profesión. Sociólogos y siquíatras acuerdan o rechazan el derecho a la palabra, a una palabra audible. Al poner su fe en el experto, el hombre se despoja de su competencia jurídica, primero, y política, después. Su confianza en la omnipotencia de la ciencia incita a los gobiernos y a sus administrados a descansar sobre la ilusión de que se eliminarán los conflictos suscitados por un evidente enrarecimiento del agua, del aire o de la energía; a creer ciegamente en los oráculos de los expertos, que prometen milagros multiplicadores. + +Nutrida en el mito de la ciencia, la sociedad abandona a los expertos hasta la preocupación de fijar límites al crecimiento. Ahora bien, semejante delegación de poder destruye el funcionamiento político; a la palabra, como medida de todas las cosas, se la sustituye por la obediencia a un mito y, finalmente, legitimiza en cierta forma los experimentos practicados en los hombres. El experto no representa al ciudadano, forma parte de una élite cuya autoridad se basa sobre la posesión exclusiva de un saber no comunicable; pero, en realidad, este saber no le confiere ninguna aptitud particular para definir las delimitaciones del equilibrio de la vida. El experto no podrá jamás decir dónde se encuentra el umbral de tolerancia humana. Es la persona quien lo determina; en comunidad, nada le puede hacer desistir de ese derecho. Ciertamente, es posible hacer experiencias sobre seres humanos. Los médicos nazis han explorado los límites de resistencia del organismo. Descubrieron por cuánto tiempo el individuo medio puede soportar la tortura, pero esto nada les reveló respecto a lo que alguien puede considerar tolerable. Hecho significativo, esos médicos fueron condenados, de acuerdo con un pacto firmado en Nuremberg, dos días después de la destrucción de Hiroshima, en vísperas de destruir Nagasaki. + +Lo que un pueblo puede tolerar queda fuera del alcance de todo experimento. Se puede decir lo que será de un grupo de hombres particulares dentro de una situación extrema: prisioneros, náufragos o conejos de indias. Pero esto no puede servir para determinar el grado de sufrimiento y frustración que una sociedad dada aceptaría sufrir a causa de la instrumentación forjada por ella misma. + +Ciertamente, las operaciones científicas de medida pueden indicar que un determinado tipo de comportamiento amenaza un equilibrio vital mayor. Pero sólo una mayoría de hombres juiciosos, que conozcan la complejidad de las realidades cotidianas y que las tomen en cuenta en sus actuaciones, pueden encontrar la forma de limitar los fines que persiguen la sociedad y los individuos. La ciencia puede iluminar las dimensiones del reino del hombre en el cosmos, pero precisa una comunidad política de hombres conscientes de la fuerza de su razón, del peso de su palabra y de la seriedad de sus actos, para elegir libremente la austeridad que garantizará su vitalidad. + +### El descubrimiento del lenguaje + +Entre 1830 y 1850 una docena de sabios descubrieron y formularon la ley de conservación de la energía. La mayoría de ellos eran ingenieros que, cada uno por su cuenta, habían redefinido la energía cósmica en términos de pesos levantables por una máquina. Gracias a operaciones de medida efectuadas en laboratorio, se creyó al fin posible reducir a un denominador común la energía primordial, la _vis viva_ de la tradición. Es entonces cuando las ciencias exactas se pusieron a dominar la investigación. + +En esta misma época, y en forma análoga, la industria comenzó a competir con los otros modos de producción. Los éxitos industriales se volvieron la medida y la regla de la economía entera. Pronto se tuvo como subsidiarias a todas las actividades productoras a las cuales no se podían aplicar las reglas de medición y los criterios de eficiencia aplicables en la producción en serie: esto valió para los trabajos domésticos, la artesanía y la agricultura de subsistencia. El modo industrial de producción comenzó por degradar la red de relaciones productivas que hasta entonces habían coexistido en la sociedad, para luego paralizarla. + +Este monopolio, que ejerce un solo modo de producción sobre todas las relaciones productivas, es más insidioso y más peligroso que la competencia entre firmas, pero menos visible. Es fácil conocer al ganador en la competencia abierta: es la fábrica que utiliza el capital en forma intensiva; es el negocio mejor organizado; la rama industrial más esclavista y mejor protegida; la empresa que malgasta con la mayor discreción o que fabrica más armamentos. A gran escala, este curso toma la forma de una competencia entre firmas trasnacionales y naciones en vías de industrialización. Pero este juego mortal entre titanes distrae la atención de su propia función ritual. A medida que se extiende el campo de la competencia, una misma estructura industrial se desarrolla a través del mundo, y polariza la sociedad. El modo de producción industrial establece su dominación no sólo sobre los recursos y la instrumentación sino también sobre la imaginación y los deseos de un número creciente de individuos. Es el monopolio radical generalizado, ya no el de una rama de la industria sino el del modo industrial de producción. El hombre mismo, en cierta forma, está industrializado. Los sistemas políticos hacen prodigios de ingenio y de agilidad semántica para bautizar con nombres opuestos a esta misma estructura industrial en expansión en todas partes, sin comprender que ella escapa a su control. El antagonismo entre los países pobres y los países ricos, entre las naciones sumisas a una planificación central y las naciones gobernadas por la ley del mercado, es el antifaz necesario para que este monopolio parezca benéfico. + +Extendida por el mundo entero, esta industrialización del hombre lleva consigo la degradación de todos los lenguajes, y se hace muy difícil encontrar las palabras que hablarían de un mundo opuesto al que las ha engendrado. El lenguaje refleja el monopolio que el modo industrial de producción ejerce sobre la percepción y la motivación. En las naciones industriales, cuando el hombre habla de sus obras, las palabras que emplea designan los productos de la industria. El lenguaje refleja la materialización de la conciencia. Cuando el hombre aprende algo por la lectura dice que ha _adquirido educación_. El deslizamiento funcional del verbo hacia el sustantivo subraya el empobrecimiento de la imaginación social. La práctica nominalista del lenguaje sirve para marcar las relaciones de propiedad: la gente habla del trabajo que _tiene_. En toda América Latina, sólo los que _tienen_ un empleo dicen que tienen trabajo. Los campesinos (que son la gran mayoría) dicen que lo _hacen_: «se va a trabajar, pero no se tiene trabajo». Los trabajadores modernos y sindicados no sólo esperan que la industria produzca más bienes y servicios, sino también más trabajo para más gente. No solamente el hacer es sustantivo, sino también el querer. La habitación es más un bien que una actividad; el abrigo se convierte en bien que uno se procura, o que reivindica al verse privado del poder de abrigarse por sí mismo. Se adquiere el saber, la movilidad, y aun la sensibilidad o la salud. Se tiene trabajo o salud, como se tiene placer. + +El deslizamiento del verbo hacia el sustantivo refleja también el empobrecimiento del consejo de propiedad. _Posesión, embargo, abuso_, no pueden indicar la relación del individuo o del grupo con una institución como la escuela. Porque en su función esencial una herramienta semejante escapa, como hemos visto, a todo control. Las afirmaciones de propiedad concernientes a la herramienta vienen a designar la capacidad de detentar sus productos, sea el interés objetivo del capital o los objetos manufacturados, o incluso toda especie de prestigio ligado a lo uno o a lo otro. El consumidor-usuario integral, el hombre plenamente industrializado, no se apodera de nada más que de lo que consume. Dice: _mi educación, mis desplazamientos, mis recreos, mi salud_. A medida que el campo de su quehacer se estrecha, reclama productos de los que se dice _propietario_. Sometido al monopolio de un solo modo de producción, el usuario ha perdido todo sentido de la rica pluralidad de estilos de tener. En las lenguas polinesias, hay formas verbales distintas para expresar la relación que yo mantengo con mis actos (que me siguen), mi nariz (que me pueden quitar), mis prójimos (que no he escogido), mi piragua (sin la cual no sería un hombre verdadero), una bebida (que ofrezco) y la misma bebida (que me dispongo a tomar). + +Es una sociedad donde el lenguaje se ha sustantivado, los predicados son formulados en términos de lucha contra la escasez dentro del cuadro de la concurrencia. «Yo quiero aprender» se convierte en «yo quiero adquirir una educación». La decisión de actuar es reemplazada por la demanda de un billete de la lotería escolar. «Yo tengo deseos de ir a alguna parte» se transforma en «yo quiero un medio de transporte». La insistencia sobre el derecho de actuar se sustituye por la insistencia sobre el derecho de tener. En el primer caso, el sujeto es actor; en el segundo, usuario. El cambio de la lengua apoya la expansión del modo de producción industrial: la competencia gobernada por valores industrializados se refleja en la nominalización del lenguaje. La lucha competitiva inevitablemente toma la forma de un juego a suma cero ( _zero sum-game_ ) en el cual lo que un jugador pierde se transforma en ganancia para los otros jugadores. En el barullo, la gente juega con los nombres tal como los percibe: valorando únicamente el aprendizaje promueve la escuela, define la _educación_ como objeto de competición. El _Alma mater_ tiene demasiados hijos pegados a sus pechos: el que traga su ración de educación priva a un hermano de leche. + +El conflicto personal no es forzosamente una lucha por obtener un bien escaso. Puede también expresar un desacuerdo sobre los medios para asegurar mejor la autonomía de la persona. En ese caso, el conflicto se vuelve creador de libertad. Pero el lenguaje nominalista ha oscurecido esta profunda verdad: que el conflicto puede ser creador de derecho para ambos adversarios; creador del derecho de hacer las cosas que, por definición, no son ni bienes ni objetos escasos. El conflicto conducirá al derecho de caminar, de hablar, de leer, de escribir o de recordar en igualdad, de participar en el cambio social, de respirar aire puro y de emplear herramientas convivenciales. Haciéndolo, privará a las dos partes de un bien determinado, por amor de una ganancia inapreciable como es una nueva libertad compartida. Al limitar el consumo obligado, se libera el campo de la acción. + +El código operatorio de la instrumentación industrial se incardina en el habla cotidiana. La palabra del hombre que vive como poeta es apenas tolerada como protesta marginal y siempre que no perturbe a la muchedumbre que hace cola frente al aparato distribuidor de productos. Si no accedemos a un nuevo grado de conciencia que nos permita reencontrar la función convivencial del lenguaje, no llegaremos jamás a invertir ese proceso de industrialización del hombre. Pero si cada uno se sirve del lenguaje para reivindicar su derecho a la acción social antes que al consumo, el lenguaje se convertirá en el medio para restituir a la relación del hombre con la herramienta su transparencia. + +### La recuperación del derecho + +La ley y el Derecho, en sus formas actuales, están, de manera abrumadora, al servicio de una sociedad en expansión indefinida. El proceso por el cual los hombres deciden sobre lo que se debe hacer está actualmente sometido a la ideología de la productividad: hay que producir más, más saber y decisiones, más bienes y servicios. Después de la perversión del saber y del lenguaje, la perversión del Derecho es el tercer obstáculo a una actualización política de los límites. Los partidos, los modos de legislación y el aparato judicial han sido requisados al servicio del crecimiento de las escuelas, de los sindicatos, de los hospitales y de las autopistas, para no hablar de las fábricas. Poco a poco, no sólo la policía, sino también los órganos legislativos y los tribunales han llegado a ser considerados como una instrumentación al servicio del estado industrial. Si a veces defienden al individuo ante las pretensiones de la industria, ésta es la coartada de su docilidad para servir al monopolio radical y de su servilismo para legitimar una concentración siempre más fuerte de poderes. A su manera, los magistrados se convierten en cuerpo de ingenieros del crecimiento. En la democracia popular o capitalista, son los aliados 'objetivos' del instrumento contra el hombre. Con la idolatría de la ciencia y la corrupción del lenguaje, esta degradación del Derecho es un obstáculo mayor para la reinstrumentación de la sociedad. + +Se comprende que una sociedad distinta es posible cuando se logra expresarla claramente. Se provoca su aparición al descubrir el procedimiento por el cual la sociedad presente toma sus decisiones. Se organiza su estructura cuando se utilizan la lengua materna y los procedimientos tradicionales del Derecho para servir a fines opuestos a los que fija su presente uso. Pues en cada sociedad hay una estructura profunda que organiza la toma de decisión. Esta estructura existe dondequiera que los hombres se reúnen. El mismo proceso puede dar lugar a decisiones contradictorias, porque la estructura no sirve únicamente para la definición de los valores personales, sino también para la supervivencia de un comportamiento institucionalizado. La existencia de contradicciones no contradice la existencia de una estructura coherente que las engendre, sino al contrario. Yo puedo decidir adquirir una educación aun si por otra parte he decidido que valdría más aprender participando en la vida cotidiana. Me puedo dejar transportar al hospital aun cuando haya decidido que sufriría menos y moriría más fácilmente quedándome en casa. Lo mismo que la captación de disonancias cognoscitivas funda la poesía, así la coexistencia de normas contradictorias manifiesta la existencia de procedimientos normativos. + +Los hombres han perdido la confianza en los procedimientos disponibles, no porque éstos hayan sido pervertidos en sí, sino por el uso abusivo que constantemente se hace de ellos. Son utilizados para atiborrar a la gente con argumentos éticos, políticos o legales. Se han convertido en engranajes de la producción ilimitada. Las iglesias predican la humildad, la caridad y la pobreza, y financian programas de desarrollo industrial. Los socialistas se han convertido en defensores sin escrúpulos del monopolio industrial. La burocracia del Derecho se ha aliado a las burocracias de la ideología del bienestar general, para defender el crecimiento de la herramienta. Pronto será el computador el que decida ideas, leyes y técnicas indispensables al crecimiento. + +Si no nos ponemos de acuerdo sobre un procedimiento eficaz, duradero y convivencial, con el fin de controlar la instrumentación social, la inversión de la estructura institucional existente no se podrá iniciar y menos mantener. Siempre habrá administradores que quieran aumentar la productividad de la institución, y tribunos que prometan la luna a las multitudes ávidas. + +Cada vez que se propone utilizar el Derecho como herramienta de inversión de la sociedad, surgen tres objeciones: la primera es superficial: no todos pueden ser juristas, por tanto no todos pueden manejar el Derecho por su cuenta. Naturalmente, esto es verdad sólo en cierta medida. Sistemas parajurídicos podrían establecerse dentro de ciertas comunidades, y luego ser incorporados a la estructura del conjunto. Es más, a la participación del profano se le podría adjudicar un campo de acción más vasto y revelarse como preciosa en los procedimientos de mediación, de conciliación o de arbitraje. Pero, aun si la objeción es fundada, no viene al caso. El Derecho se aplicaría a la regulación de las herramientas, gobernando la vida cotidiana; pues no hay razón para que la mayoría de los procesos no sean descentralizados, demistificados y desburocratizados. Queda el que ciertos problemas sociales se presentan en gran escala, son complejos y posiblemente permanecerán así por mucho tiempo, y exigen una instrumentación jurídica a su medida. Si está destinado a servir a vastos grupos de hombres, cada uno portador de una tradición secular, para negociar proscripciones a escala mundial, el Derecho, como proceso de regulación de esos problemas sociales, es, de hecho, una herramienta que requiere expertos como operadores. Pero eso no significa que dichos expertos deban ser doctores en Derecho o formar un mandarinato. + +La segunda objeción toca directamente nuestro tema, y va mucho más lejos: los actuales operadores de la instrumentación jurídico-social están profundamente intoxicados por la mitología del crecimiento. Su visión de lo posible y de lo factible se mantiene conforme al adoctrinamiento industrial. Sería locura esperar que los gerentes de una sociedad productivista se transformaran en vestales de la sociedad convivencial. El alcance de esta observación se completa y subraya por una tercera objeción: el sistema jurídico no sólo es un conjunto de reglas escritas, es un proceso continuo a través del cual las leyes se elaboran y se aplican a situaciones reales. A través de la serie de actos jurídicos, la colectividad se da un cierto marco mental. De ello resulta un contenido del Derecho que refleja la ideología de los legisladores y de los jueces. La manera en que estos últimos perciben la ideología subyacente a toda cultura se convierte en la mitología oficial que se concreta en las leyes que formulan y aplican. El cuerpo de las leyes que regula una sociedad industrial refleja inevitablemente la ideología, las características sociales y la estructura de clase, al mismo tiempo que la refuerzan y aseguran su reproducción. Cualquiera que sea su sello ideológico, toda sociedad moderna sitúa siempre el bien común en el orden del más: más poder a las empresas y a los expertos, más consumo al usuario. + +Si bien estas objeciones subrayan una dificultad fundamental en el uso del Derecho con el fin de invertir la sociedad, dejan de lado el asunto. Cuidadosamente hago la distinción entre el cuerpo de las leyes y la estructura formal que lo elabora, al igual que distingo entre el uso de _slogans_ al que recurren las instituciones y la práctica del lenguaje cotidiano. Así también distinguiré entre un conjunto de políticas y el proceso formal que les da origen. Es bien evidente que, tratándose del Derecho, así como del saber o del lenguaje, nos ceñimos a la estructura que rige en profundidad la donación de sentido. De la recuperación plena y del libre uso de esa estructura depende el despertar de las fuerzas capaces de transfigurar 'la alianza para el progreso'. + +En una época en que la _operación_ se ha convertido en un fin en sí, nunca se insistirá bastante sobre la distinción entre los fines y los medios, entre el procedimiento y la sustancia. Vivimos en un mundo en donde el lenguaje nos habla, el saber nos piensa y el Derecho nos actúa. El lenguaje se reduce a la emisión y a la recepción de mensajes; el pensamiento, a la acumulación de informaciones; el Derecho, a la reglamentación del proyecto. Para reencontrar esta distinción crucial entre el procedimiento y la sustancia, el análisis del procedimiento jurídico nos puede servir de paradigma, puesto que esta distinción se encuentra en la raíz del Derecho, aunque cada ejemplo del Derecho se caracteriza por el estilo particular de su proceso formal. Aquí apoyaré mi argumentación haciendo referencia al derecho angloamericano. + +### El ejemplo del derecho consuetudinario + +La estructura formal del _common law_ presenta dos rasgos dominantes y complementarios que le hacen particularmente adaptable a las necesidades de un tiempo de crisis. El sistema se basa sobre la continuidad y la oposición antagónica o contradictoria de las partes (_adversary nature of the common law_). + +La continuidad inherente al proceso de elaboración del Derecho conserva, en un sentido, la sustancia del cuerpo de las leyes. Esto no es tan evidente en la etapa legislativa. El legislador tiene el campo abierto para innovar, desde el momento en que permanece dentro del marco constitucional. Pero toda nueva ley debe inscribirse dentro del contexto de la legislación existente y, por este hecho, no puede apartarse mucho del derecho vigente. + +Es claro que la función de la jurisprudencia consiste en asegurar la continuidad de la sustancia del Derecho, actualizándola. Los tribunales aplican el Derecho a situaciones reales. La jurisprudencia zanja del mismo modo dos casos idénticos o decide, por el contrario, que el mismo hecho ya no significa hoy la misma cosa que ayer. El Derecho representa la autoridad soberana que el pasado ejerce sobre el conflicto presente, la continuidad de un proceso dialéctico. El tribunal da al conflicto un estatuto social, luego incorpora el juicio emitido al cuerpo del Derecho. Dentro del proceso jurídico se reactualiza la experiencia social del pasado en vista de las necesidades presentes; en el futuro, a su vez, el juicio presente servirá de precedente para arreglar otras diferencias. + +La continuidad de la estructura formal que rige el proceso jurídico no se reduce a la simple incorporación de un conjunto de prejuicios en un conjunto de leyes. Sólo desde el punto de vista formal, este modo de continuidad no se endereza a preservar el contenido de tal o cual ley. Muy al contrario, podría servir para preservar el desarrollo continuo del Derecho de una sociedad regida por principios inversos. En la mayoría de las constituciones, nada prohibe proponer leyes sobre una limitación de la productividad, de los privilegios burocráticos, de la especialización o del monopolio radical. En principio, a condición de estar inversamente orientado, los procesos legislativo y jurisprudencial podrían servir para formular ese derecho nuevo y hacer que se respete. + +De igual importancia es el carácter contradictorio del procedimiento de la _common law_. Desde un punto de vista formal, la _common law_ nada tiene que ver con la definición de lo que está bien en materia ética o técnica. Es una herramienta para comprender las relaciones, cuando éstas estallan en forma de conflictos reales. Corresponde a las partes afectadas reclamar su derecho o reivindicar aquello que consideren bueno. Así funciona la estructura tanto a nivel legislativo como a nivel jurisprudencial. Al equilibrar intereses opuestos, la decisión debería retener lo que es, en teoría, preferible para todos. + +En las últimas generaciones, este equilibrio, siempre deformado por uno u otro prejuicio, ha sido globalmente dirigido en favor de la sociedad de crecimiento. Pero la frecuente perversión de la estructura jurídica no predica contra su inversión. Muy al contrario, nada impide a las partes globalmente opuestas a la sociedad productivista --liberadas de la ilusión de que el crecimiento puede suprimir la injusticia social y conscientes de la necesidad de límites-- recurrir a esta herramienta. Ciertamente, no basta con que aparezca un nuevo tipo de alegante; es preciso también que el legislador se desintoxique del crecimiento, que las partes interesadas insistan en la protección de sus intereses y que, con ese fin, se dediquen a una revaluación sistemática de las evidencias y de las certidumbres demasiado bien establecidas. + +La ley, como la jurisprudencia, supone que las partes someten los conflictos de interés social al juicio de un tribunal imparcial. Este tribunal, o sala de apelación, opera en forma continua. El juez ideal es una persona común, prudente, en el fondo indiferente al asunto en debate, experto en el ejercicio del procedimiento. Pero, dentro de la realidad de la vida, el juez es un hombre de su tiempo y de su medio. De hecho, el tribunal ha llegado a servir a la concentración del poder y al crecimiento de la producción industrial. No sólo el juez y el legislador son impulsados a creer que un asunto está bien juzgado y el conflicto debidamente resuelto cuando la balanza de la justicia se inclina en favor del interés global de las industrias, sino que además la sociedad ha condicionado al demandante a exigir que éstas crezcan. Más bien se reivindica una tajada grande del pastel institucional y no la protección contra una institución que mutila la libertad. Sin embargo, el uso abusivo de la herramienta jurídica no corrompe su naturaleza misma. + +Cuando se presentan los procedimientos que oponen formalmente adversarios como la herramienta clave que permite limitar el crecimiento industrial, se levanta a menudo una objeción, a saber: las sociedades ya son fuertemente dependientes de estos procedimientos, muchas veces ineficaces. Los reformadores de América del Norte reivindican el Derecho a la oposición legal para los negros, los indios, las mujeres, los trabajadores, los lisiados, los consumidores organizados. El procedimiento se hace largo, incómodo y costoso, y la mayoría de los demandantes no pueden llegar hasta el fin. Los asuntos se rezagan y las decisiones llegan demasiado tarde. El procedimiento se convierte en un juego que crea nuevos antagonismos, nuevas competencias. Ha sido desviado de su fin, la decisión se vuelve un bien escaso. La sociedad del crecimiento recupera así al usuario del procedimiento formal. + +La objeción que se opone a esta multiplicación de procedimientos no queda desplazada si enfoca su proliferación como medio de resolver conflictos personales. Pero aquí los conflictos entre personas o las luchas de grupos entre sí no son mi tema. Lo que me interesa no es la oposición entre una clase de hombres explotados y otra clase propietaria de las herramientas, sino la oposición que se sitúa primero entre el hombre y la estructura técnica de la herramienta, y luego, como consecuencia, entre el hombre y las profesiones cuyo interés consiste en mantener esta estructura técnica. En la sociedad, el conflicto fundamental afecta a los actos, los hechos o los objetos respecto a los cuales las personas entran en oposición formal con las empresas y las instituciones manipuladoras. Formalmente, el procedimiento contradictorio es el modelo de la herramienta de que disponen los ciudadanos para oponerse a las amenazas que la industria presenta. + +Con raras excepciones, las leyes y los cuerpos legislativos, los tribunales y los juicios, los demandantes y sus demandas están profundamente pervertidos por el acuerdo unánime y aplastante que acepta sin murmurar el modo de producción industrial y sus _slogans_: _mientras más, mejor_. Además, las empresas y las instituciones saben mejor que las personas cuál es el interés público y cómo servirlo. Pero esta unanimidad desconcertante en nada desvirtúa mi tesis: una revolución que no recurre a los procedimientos jurídicos y políticos se condena al fracaso. Únicamente una activa mayoría de individuos y de grupos que busquen en un procedimiento convivencial común recobrar sus propios derechos, puede arrancar al Leviatán el poder de determinar los cercos que se deben imponer al crecimiento para sobrevivir y el de poder elegir los límites que optimicen una civilización. + +Para entablar la lucha contra los prejuicios reinantes que conduzca a la inversión, algunos individuos que pertenecen a las grandes profesiones pueden jugar un papel orientador. Al tomar conciencia de la crisis de la escuela, los educadores generalmente se ponen en búsqueda de una solución-milagro para enseñar más cosas a más gente. Sus esfuerzos y sus pretensiones amplifican la importancia de la minoría de pedagogos que insisten en los _límites pedagógicos_ del crecimiento industrial. De la misma manera, los médicos tienen la tendencia a creer que por lo menos una parte de su saber se puede expresar únicamente en términos esotéricos. A sus ojos, un colega que seculariza los actos médicos no es más que un profanador. Es vano esperar que el Colegio de Médicos, el Sindicato de la Educación Nacional o la Asociación de Ingenieros de la Circulación, expliquen en términos sencillos, sacados del lenguaje común, el gangsterismo profesional de sus colegas. Asimismo, es vano pensar que los diputados, los juristas y los magistrados vayan de pronto a reconocer la independencia del Derecho de su noción preconcebida del bien, que se confunde con el suministro de la mayor cantidad de productos al mayor número de gente. Porque todos están domesticados para arbitrar conflictos en favor de su propia rama de actividad, ya hablen en nombre de los patronos, de los asalariados, de los usuarios o de sus propios colegas. Pero, aquí o allá, por excepción se encontrará a un médico que ayude a los demás a vivir en forma responsable, a aceptar el sufrimiento, a afrontar la muerte y, de modo similar, por excepción se encontrarán juristas que ayuden a las personas a utilizar la estructura formal del Derecho para defender sus intereses dentro del marco de una sociedad convivencial. Aun si la sentencia dictada no llega finalmente a satisfacer a los demandantes, la acción servirá siempre para poner en evidencia el litigio. + +No cabe duda de que el recurso al procedimiento con el fin de inmovilizar y de invertir nuestras instituciones dominantes, se presenta a los más poderosos de sus administradores y a los más intoxicados de los usuarios como un desvío del Derecho y una subversión del único orden que reconocen. En sí, el recurso a un procedimiento convivencial, en forma debida, es una monstruosidad y un crimen a los ojos del burócrata, aunque éste pretenda ser juez. + +## La inversión política + +Si en un futuro muy próximo la humanidad no limita el impacto de su instrumentación sobre el ambiente y no pone en obra un control eficaz de nacimientos, nuestros descendientes conocerán el espantoso apocalipsis predicho por muchos ecólogos. La sociedad puede aislar su supervivencia dentro de los límites fijados y reforzados por una dictadura burocrática, o bien reaccionar _políticamente_ a la amenza, recurriendo a los procedimientos jurídico y político. La falsificación ideológica del pasado nos vela la existencia y la necesidad de esta elección. + +La gestión burocrática de la supervivencia humana es una elección aceptable, desde un punto de vista ético o político. Pero habrá de fracasar. Es posible que la gente vuelva a poner de su propio grado sus destinos en manos de un Gran Hermano y de sus agentes anónimos, aterrorizados por la creciente evidencia de la superpoblación, de la mengua de los recursos y de la organización insensata de la vida cotidiana. Es posible que a los tecnócratas se les encargue conducir al rebaño al borde del abismo, es decir, fijar los límites multidimensionales al crecimiento, justamente más acá del umbral de la autodestrucción. Semejante fantasía suicida mantendría al sistema industrial en el más alto grado de productividad capaz de ser tolerado. + +El hombre viviría protegido en una cápsula de plástico que le obligaría a sobrevivir como el condenado a muerte antes de la ejecución. El umbral de tolerancia del hombre en materia de programación y de manipulación pronto se volvería el obstáculo más serio para el crecimiento. Y la empresa alquímica renacería de sus cenizas: se trataría de producir y de hacer obedecer al mutante monstruoso parido por la pesadilla de la razón. Para garantizar su supervivencia en un mundo racional y artificial, la ciencia y la técnica se empeñarían en instrumentar el siquismo del hombre. Desde el nacimiento a la muerte, la humanidad estaría confinada en la escuela permanente, extendida a escala mundial, tratada de por vida en el gran hospital planetario y atada día y noche a implacables cadenas de comunicación. Es así como funcionaría el mundo de la Gran Organización. Sin embargo, los fracasos anteriores de las terapias de masa hacen esperar la quiebra también de este último proyecto de control planetario. + +La instalación del fascismo tecnoburocrático no está escrita en las estrellas. Existe otra posibilidad: un proceso político que permita a la población determinar el máximo que cada uno puede exigir, en un mundo de recursos manifiestamente limitados; un proceso consensual destinado a fijar y mantener límites al crecimiento de la instrumentación; un proceso de estímulo a la investigación radical, de manera que un número creciente de gente pueda _hacer cada vez más con cada vez menos_. Un programa así puede aún parecer utópico a la hora actual: si sigue agravándose la crisis, pronto revelará su realismo extremo. + +### Mitos y mayorías + +El impedimento ulterior para la reestructuración de la sociedad no es ni la falta de información sobre los límites necesarios, ni la falta de hombres resueltos a aceptarlos si llegan a hacerse inevitables. Es el poder de la mitología política. + +En una sociedad rica, cada uno es, más o menos, consumidor-usuario en alguna forma. Cada uno juega su papel en la destrucción del ambiente. El mito transforma esta multiplicidad de depredadores en una mayoría política. Por este hecho, esta multiplicidad de individuos automatizados se convierte en un bloque mítico de electores que se ponen de acuerdo sobre un problema inexistente: la mayoría silenciosa, guardiana invisible e invencible de los intereses empleados en el crecimiento, que paraliza toda acción política real. Analizándolo más profundamente, esta mayoría es un conjunto ficticio de personas teóricamente dotadas de razón. En realidad, hay una multiplicidad de individuos: el experto en ecología que se dirige en Boeing a una conferencia contra la contaminación; el economista que sabe que el alza de la productividad hace escasear el trabajo y trata de crear nuevos empleos, etc. Ni el uno ni el otro representan los intereses del trabajador especializado que compra a crédito un aparato de televisión a color, o del campesino que, por seguir la revolución verde, utiliza insecticidas prohibidos desde hace cinco años en el país que los produce. Pero, a pesar de su diversidad, un común apego al crecimiento les une, puesto que de ello depende su satisfacción. Sólo el mito les dará la homogeneidad de una mayoría política opuesta a los límites. Todos tienen su razón para desear el crecimiento industrial y para sentir su amenaza. Por el momento, en una palabra, un voto contra el crecimiento estaría tan desprovisto de sentido como un voto en favor del Producto Nacional Bruto. + +Una ideología común no crea una mayoría, no tiene eficacia sino a condición de arraigarse en la interpretación del interés racional de cada uno y de dar a este interés una forma política. La acción política de la persona frente a un conflicto social esencial no depende de la ideología aceptada previamente, sino de dos factores: + +* [a] el estilo que marcará la transformación del conflicto latente entre el hombre y la herramienta en una crisis abierta, que exija una reacción global y sin precedente; +* [b] el surgimiento de una multiplicidad de nuevas élites que puedan proveer una nueva forma interpretativa y hasta cierto punto inesperada sobre las líneas de interés. + +### De la catástrofe a la crisis + +Yo no hago más que conjeturar sobre la agravación de la crisis. Pero puedo exponer con precisión la conducta a mantener delante y dentro de la crisis. Creo que el crecimiento se detendrá por sí mismo. La parálisis sinergética de los sistemas alimenticios provocará el derrumbamiento general del modo de producción industrial. Las administraciones creen estabilizar y armonizar el crecimiento afinando los mecanismos y los sistemas de control, pero no hacen sino precipitar la mega-máquina institucional hacia su segundo umbral de mutación. Dentro de muy corto tiempo, la población perderá la confianza, no sólo de las instituciones dominantes, sino también en los gestores de la crisis. El poder que tienen sus instituciones para definir los valores (la educación, la velocidad, la salud, el bienestar, la información, etc.) se desvanecerá repentinamente cuando se reconozca su carácter ilusorio. + +Un suceso imprevisible y probablemente menor, servirá de detonador a la crisis, como el pánico en Wall Street precipitó la Gran Depresión. Una coincidencia fortuita pondrá de manifiesto la contradicción estructural entre los fines oficiales de nuestras instituciones y sus verdaderos resultados. Lo que es ya evidente para algunos, de golpe saltará a la vista de la mayoría: la organización de toda la economía dirigida a un _mejor estar_ es el obstáculo mayor al _bienestar_. Como otras intuiciones ampliamente compartidas, ésta tendrá la virtud de distorsionar completamente la imaginación popular. De la noche a la mañana, importantes instituciones perderán toda respetabilidad, toda legitimidad y reputación de servir al interés público. Es lo que le ha sucedido a la Iglesia de Roma bajo la Reforma y a la monarquía francesa en 1793. En una noche, lo impensable se convirtió en evidencia. + +Una mutación repentina no es producto ni del orden, ni de la retroacción, ni de la revolución. Basta ver los torbellinos al pie de una cascada. Las estaciones se suceden, el agua abunda o disminuye hasta ser un débil hilo; pero los remolinos parecen siempre iguales. Sin embargo, basta con que una piedra caiga en la poza, para que la superficie cambie totalmente, sin volver a ser igual. El despertar de la conciencia también se produce de golpe. La mayoría silenciosa hoy apoya totalmente la tesis del crecimiento, pero no se puede prever su comportamiento político cuando estalle la crisis. Cuando un pueblo pierde confianza en la productividad industrial, y no solamente en el papel moneda, todo puede suceder. La inversión es realmente posible. + +En la hora actual todavía se trata de parchear las fallas de cada sistema. Ningún remedio surte efecto, pero aún se dispone de medios para aplicarlos todos, uno tras otro. Los gobiernos atacan la crisis de los servicios públicos, la educación, los transportes, los sistemas jurídicos, la juventud. Cada aspecto de la crisis global se separa de los demás, se explica en forma autónoma y se trata en particular. Se proponen soluciones de recambio que dan credibilidad a la reforma sectorial: las escuelas de vanguardia contra las escuelas tradicionales doblan la demanda de educación; las ciudades satélite, contra el monorrail, refuerzan la convicción de que el desarrollo de las ciudades es una fatalidad; una mejor formación de los médicos, contra la proliferación de profesiones para-médicas, alimenta la industria de la salud; y, como los dos términos de la alternativa tienen sus partidarios, en general no se elige entre ellos, sino que se prueban los dos a la vez. El resultado es que se trata de hacer un pastel cada vez más grande, lo que redunda en pura pérdida. + +Se imita la actitud de Coolidge frente a los primeros síntomas de la Gran Depresión, descuidando en forma análoga el aviso de una crisis mucho más radical. Se cree que el análisis general de los sistemas vincula entre ellas las crisis institucionales, pero en verdad no hace sino conducir a mayor planificación, centralización y burocratización a fin de perfeccionar el control de la población, de la abundancia de la industria destructora e ineficaz. Se supone que el crecimiento de la producción de decisiones, de controles y de terapias, compensa la extensión del desempleo en los sectores fabriles. Fascinada por la producción industrial, la población permanece ciega a la posibilidad de una sociedad posindustrial donde coexistirán varios modos de producción complementarios. Tratar de promover una era a la vez hiperindustrial y ecológicamente realizable es acelerar la degradación de los otros componentes del equilibrio multidimensional de la vida. El costo de la defensa del _statu quo_ sube como una flecha. + +Sería necesario ser geomántico para predecir qué serie de sucesos causaría el derrumbamiento de Wall Street y desencadenaría la crisis inminente. Pero no es necesario ser genial para prever que se tratará de la primera crisis mundial que cuestionará el sistema industrial en sí, en vez de localizarlo en el seno de ese sistema. Pronto se producirá un acontecimiento que tendrá como efecto congelar el crecimiento de los instrumentos. Llegado el momento, el estruendo del derrumbamiento obnubilará las mentes e impedirá escuchar la razón. + +Aún nos queda una oportunidad de comprender las causas de la crisis global del sistema que nos amenaza y de prepararnos justamente para no asimilarla a una crisis parcial, interior del sistema. Si queremos anticipar los efectos, debemos imaginar cómo una brusca transformación llevará al poder a grupos sociales sofocados hasta ahora. No es la catástrofe que, en tanto tal, sacará a estos grupos de la nada para alzarlos sobre el resto, sino que la catástrofe debilitará a las potencias reinantes que aplastaban a esos grupos y les impedían participar en el proceso social. El efecto de la sorpresa debilita el control, desorienta a los controladores e instala en primer rango a los que conservan su sangre fría. + +Una vez debilitado el control, los controladores buscan nuevos aliados. En el estado industrial debilitado por la Gran Crisis, los gobernantes no pudieron pasarse sin trabajadores organizados, por lo que éstos recibieron parte del poder estructural. En el mercado de trabajo constreñido por la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la industria no ha podido pasarse sin los trabajadores negros, por lo que éstos han comenzado a situarse como poder. Actualmente, al haberse hecho su lugar, la élite negra tiende a convertirse en pilar de un sistema establecido, a imagen de la suerte que anteriormente corrieron los sindicatos. En efecto, el desenlace de la crisis inminente depende de la aparición de élites imposibles de recuperar. + +### En el interior de la crisis + +Las fuerzas que tienden a limitar la producción ya están operando en el interior del cuerpo social. Una investigación pública y radical puede ayudar de manera significativa a muchos hombres a ganar cohesión y lucidez en la condena de un crecimiento que se juzga destructivo. Seguramente sus voces se harán oír mejor cuando la crisis de la sociedad superproductora se agrave. Sin formar partido, son los portavoces de una mayoría de la cual cada uno es miembro en potencia. Mientras más inesperada sea la crisis más repentinamente las llamadas a la austeridad alegre y equilibrada se convertirán en un programa de limitaciones racionales. Para ser capaces de controlar la situación en el momento dado, estas minorías deben captar la profundidad de la crisis y deben saber describirla con un lenguaje apropiado para declarar qué quieren, qué pueden hacer y qué no necesitan. El uso crítico del lenguaje ordinario es el primer pivote en la inversión política. Se necesita un segundo. + +Más crecimiento conduce obligatoriamente al desastre, pero éste presenta un rostro doble. El suceso catastrófico puede ser el fin de la civilización política, o incluso de la especie 'hombre'. Puede ser también la Gran Crisis, es decir, la oportunidad de una elección sin precedente. Previsible e inesperada, la catástrofe no será una _crisis_ en el sentido propio de la palabra, a no ser que en el momento en que llegue, los prisioneros del progreso pidan escaparse del paraíso industrial, y que una puerta se abra en el recinto de la prisión dorada. Será necesario entonces demostrar que el desvanecimiento del espejismo industrial presenta la oportunidad de elegir un modo de producción convivencial y eficaz. Por ahora, la preparación a esta tarea es la clave de una nueva práctica política. + +Se necesitará de grupos capaces de analizar con coherencia la catástrofe y de expresarla en lenguaje común. Deberán saber abogar por la causa de una sociedad que establece cercos y hacerlo en términos concretos, comprensibles para todos, deseables en general y aplicables inmediatamente. El sacrificio es el rescate de la elección, precio inevitable a pagar para obtener lo que se quiere, o por lo menos, para liberarse de lo intolerable. Pero no basta con servirse de las palabras de todos los días, como herramientas para sacar a la luz el rostro verdadero de la realidad; también será preciso ser capaz de manejar una herramienta social que convenga al ordenamiento del bien público. + +Como quedó explicado anteriormente, esta herramienta es la estructura formal de la política y del Derecho. A la hora del desastre, la catástrofe se transforma en crisis, si un grupo de gente lúcida, de sangre fría, inspira confianza a sus conciudadanos. Su credibilidad dependerá de su habilidad para demostrar que no sólo es necesario, sino posible instaurar una sociedad convivencial, a condición de utilizar conscientemente un procedimiento regulador que reconozca al conflicto de intereses su legitimidad, que dé valor al precedente, y atribuya un carácter ejecutorio a la decisión de hombres corrientes, reconocidos por la comunidad como sus representantes. A la hora del desastre, sólo el arraigo en la historia puede dar la confianza necesaria para trastocar el presente. El uso convivencial del procedimiento garantiza que una revolución institucional se mantenga como herramienta cuya práctica engendra los fines. Un recurso lúcido al procedimiento, hecho dentro de un espíritu de oposición continua a la burocracia, es la única manera posible de evitar que la revolución se transforme, ella misma, en institución. Que la aplicación de este procedimiento para la inversión radical de las principales instituciones sea bautizada revolución cultural, recuperación de la estructura formal del Derecho, socialismo de participación o retorno al espíritu de los _Fueros de España_, no es más que cuestión de denominación. + +### La mutación repentina + +Cuando hablo acerca de la emergencia de grupos de interés y su preparación no hablo de grupos de acción, o de una iglesia, o de una nueva clase de expertos. Y sobre todo, no estoy hablando de un nuevo partido político que pudiera asumir el poder en un momento de crisis. La administración de la crisis la convertiría en una catástrofe irreversible. Un partido bien entrenado puede establecer su poder en el momento de una crisis en la cual la opción es la única dentro todo un sistema. Tales fueron los instrumentos de producción durante la Gran Depresión. Es así como en los países de Europa del Este, pasada la Segunda Guerra Mundial, tuvieron que 'elegir' el estalinismo. Pero la crisis, de cuyo próximo advenimiento estoy hablando, no está ya dentro de la sociedad industrial sino que concierne al modo de producción industrial en sí. Esta crisis obliga al hombre a elegir entre la herramienta convivencial y el aplastamiento por la megamáquina, entre el crecimiento indefinido y la aceptación de límites multidimensionales. La única respuesta posible consiste en reconocer su profundidad y aceptar el único principio de solución que se ofrece: establecer, por acuerdo político, una autolimitación. Mientras más numerosos y diversos sean los heraldos, más profunda será la comprensión de que el sacrificio es necesario, de que protege intereses variados y de que es la base de un nuevo pluralismo cultural. + +Tampoco hablo de una mayoría opuesta al crecimiento, en nombre de principios abstractos. Ésta sería una nueva mayoría fantasma. En realidad, es concebible la formación de una élite organizada que alabe la ortodoxia del anticrecimiento. Esta élite quizás se esté formando. Pero un coro semejante, con el anticrecimiento como todo programa, es el antídoto industrial a la imaginación revolucionaria. Al incitar a la población a aceptar una limitación de la producción industrial, sin poner en cuestión la estructura de base de la sociedad industrial, obligadamente se daría más poder a los burócratas que optimizan el crecimiento, y uno mismo se convertiría en rehén. La producción estabilizada de bienes y servicios muy racionalizados y estandarizados alejaría aún más, de ser posible, la producción convivencial de lo que ya lo hace la sociedad industrial de crecimiento. + +Los miembros de una sociedad que se pone cerco no necesitan reunir una mayoría. En democracia, una mayoría electoral no se basa en la adhesión explicita a una ideología o a un valor determinado de todos sus miembros. Una mayoría electoral favorable a la limitación de las instituciones sería heterogénea: comprendería a las víctimas de un aspecto particular de la superproducción, a los ausentes al festín industrial y a la gente que rechaza en bloque el estilo de la sociedad totalmente racionalizada. El ejemplo de la escuela puede ilustrar el funcionamiento de una mayoría electoral en la política tradicional. La gente sin niños rezonga ante las cargas presupuestarias de la educación nacional. Unos encuentran que pagan, sin razón, más que sus vecinos. Otros sostienen las escuelas confesionales. Hay quienes rechazan la obligación escolar porque daña a los niños, otros la combaten porque refuerza la segregación social. Toda esta gente podría formar una mayoría electoral, pero sin constituir ni una secta ni un partido. Actualmente podrían eficazmente reducir las pretensiones de la escuela, pero al hacerlo, reforzarían la legitimidad del producto escolar, que es la 'educación'. Cuando las cosas siguen su curso, limitar una institución dominante con el voto mayoritario toma siempre un giro reaccionario. + +Pero una mayoría puede tener un efecto revolucionario cuando una crisis afecta a la sociedad de manera radical. La llegada simultánea de varias instituciones a su segundo umbral de mutación hace sonar la alarma. La crisis no puede tardar. En realidad ya comenzó. El desastre que seguirá, pondrá claramente en evidencia que la sociedad industrial, como tal, y no sólo sus diversos órganos, ha traspuesto los límites. + +El Estado-Nación se ha convertido en guardián de los instrumentos ya tan poderosos, que no pueden desempeñar su papel de cuadro político. De la misma manera que Giap supo utilizar la máquina de guerra norteamericana para ganar su guerra, así las empresas multinacionales y las profesiones pueden usar la ley, el sistema bipartidista, para establecer un imperio. Si bien la democracia norteamericana pudo sobrevivir a la victoria de Giap, no podrá sobrevivir a la de la ITT y similares. Cuando la crisis total se avecina, se pone de manifiesto que el estado-nación moderno se ha convertido en un conglomerado de sociedades anónimas, donde cada instrumentación trata de promover su propio producto y servir sus intereses propios. El conjunto produce _bienestar_ , bajo la forma de educación, salud, etc., y el éxito se mide por el crecimiento del capital de todas estas sociedades. En su oportunidad, los partidos políticos reúnen a todos los accionistas para elegir un consejo de administración. Los partidos apoyan el derecho del elector a reclamar un nivel más alto de consumo _individual_ , lo que significa un grado más alto de consumo _industrial_. La gente puede siempre reclamar más transportes rápidos, pero el criterio que se aplica al sistema de transporte basado en el automóvil o el tren y que está absorbiendo una gran parte de la renta nacional, se deja a discrección de los expertos. Los partidos sostienen un Estado cuya meta reconocida es el crecimiento del PNB; nada se puede esperar de ellos para cuando llegue lo peor. + + +El procedimiento contradictorio para el arreglo de un conflicto entre la empresa y el individuo cuando todo va bien refuerza la legitimidad de la dependencia de este último. Pero en el momento de la crisis estructural, cuando aun la reducción voluntaria de la supereficiencia aceptada por las instituciones dominantes no podrá salvarlas de hundirse, el procedimiento contradictorio cambia de signo. Una crisis generalizada abre la vía para la reconstrucción de la sociedad. La pérdida de legitimidad del Estado, como sociedad por acciones, no invalida, sino que reafirma la necesidad de un procedimiento constitucional. + +La pérdida de credibilidad, convertidos en facciones rivales de accionistas, no hace mas que subrayar la importancia al recurso de los procedimientos contradictorios en política. La pérdida de credibilidad en las reivindicaciones antagónicas para obtener más consumo individual hace resaltar la importancia del recurso a esos mismos procedimientos contradictorios, cuando se trata de armonizar series opuestas de limitaciones, referentes al conjunto de la sociedad. La misma crisis general puede establecer, de forma duradera, un contrato social que abandone el poder de prescribir el bienestar al despotismo tecnoburocrático y a la ortodoxia ideológica, o bien puede ser la oportunidad para construir una sociedad convivencial, en transformación continua dentro de un cuadro material, que estaría definido por aboliciones racionales y políticas. + +Los procedimientos político y jurídico van encajados estructuralmente el uno en el otro. Ambos conforman y expresan la estructura de la libertad dentro de la historia. Reconociendo esto, el procedimiento formal puede ser la mejor herramienta teatral, simbólica y convivencial de la acción política. El concepto de Derecho conserva toda su fuerza, aun cuando la sociedad reserve a los privilegiados el acceso a la maquinaria jurídica, aun cuando, sistemáticamente, encarnezca a la justicia y vista al despotismo con el manto de simulacros de tribunales. Cuando un hombre defiende el recurso al lenguaje ordinario y al procedimiento formal, inscrito en la historia de un pueblo, sigue siendo la herramienta más poderosa para decir la verdad, para denunciar la hipertrofia cancerosa y la dominación del modo de producción industrial como la última forma de idolatría. La angustia me aprisiona cuando veo que nuestra única posibilidad para detener la marejada mortal está en la palabra, más exactamente en el verbo, que ha llegado a nosotros y se encuentra en nuestra historia. Sólo dentro de su fragilidad, el verbo puede reunir a la multitud de los hombres para que el alud de la violencia se transforme en recontrucción convivencial. + +Si saben definir criterios para limitar la instrumentación, los países pobres emprenderán más fácilmente su reconstrucción social y, sobre todo, accederán directamente a un modo de producción posindustrial y convivencial. Los límites que deberán adoptar son del mismo orden que aquellos que las naciones industrializadas deberán aceptar para sobrevivir: la convivencialidad, accesible desde ahora a los 'subdesarrollados', costará un precio inaudito a los 'desarrollados'. + +Una última objeción se presenta a menudo cuando se propone la orientación convivencial a una sociedad: para elegir una vida austera con herramientas convivenciales es preciso defenderse contra el imperialismo de las megaherramientas en expansión. Tal defensa no sería posible sin un ejército moderno, que a su vez exige una industria en pleno crecimiento. En realidad, la reconstrucción de la sociedad no puede ser protegida por un ejército poderoso: primero, porque habría contradicción entre los términos; luego, porque ningún ejército moderno de un país pobre puede defenderlo contra tal poder. La convivencialidad será obra exclusiva de personas que utilicen una instrumentación efectivamente controlada. Los mercenarios del imperialismo pueden envenenar o destruir una sociedad convivencial, pero no la pueden conquistar. + + + +[^n01:]"_Awteritas secundum quod est virtus non excludit omnes delectationes, sed superfluas et inordinatas: unde videtur pertinere ad affabilitatem, quam philosophus, lib. 4 Ethic Cap. Vl 'amicitiam' nominat, vel ad eutrapelldiln sive jocunditatem._" (Santo Tomás: _Summa Thelogica_ , IIa IIae, q. 168, art. 4, ad 3m).] + +[^n02:]Rodamiento de bolas.] + +[^n03:]¿En francés en el original?] + +[^n04:]**Marcuse, Herbert** (1964) _El hombre unidimensional_ Ed. española: Joaquín Mortiz, México, 1968] + +[^n05:]Illich, Ivan (1974) _Energy and Equity_ Marion Boyars Publishers, London. Ed. española: _Energía y equidad_ ; Barral Editores, Barcelona, 1974] diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/fr.txt b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/fr.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..43441b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/fr.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../fr/book/conviviality/fr.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/index.txt b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fca159c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/conviviality/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# La convivencialidad + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _La convivencialidad_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1973 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** Traducción directa de la versión francesa, _"La convivialité"_. + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/en.txt b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/en.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..bcd4886 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../en/book/deschooling/en.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.md b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c16bf4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.md @@ -0,0 +1,1097 @@ +--- +title: My Title Here +author: Jake Zimmerman (<jake@zimmerman.io>) +date: \today +geometry: margin=1.75in +fontsize: 12pt +fontfamily: ebgaramond-maths +newtxmathoptions: +- cmintegrals +- cmbraces +toc: true +colorlinks: true +linkcolor: RoyalBlue +urlcolor: RoyalBlue +documentclass: book +classoption: +- oneside +--- + + + + + +# Introducción + +Debo a Everett Reimer el interés que tengo por la educación pública hasta el día de 1958 en que nos conocimos en Puerto Rico jamás había yo puesto en duda el valor de hacer obligatoria la escuela para todos. Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela. + +Desde 1966 en adelante, Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca, organizó anualmente dos seminarios alrededor de mi diálogo con Reimer. Centenares de personas de todo el mundo participaron en estos encuentros. Quiero recordar en este lugar a dos de ellos que contribuyeron particularmente a nuestro análisis y que en el entretiempo murieron: Augusto Salazar Bondy y Paul Goodman. Los ensayos escritos para el boletín _Cidoc Informa_ y reunidos en este libro se desarrollaron a partir de mis notas de seminario. El último capítulo contiene ideas que me surgieron después de mis conversaciones con Erich Fromm en torno al Mutterrecht de Bachofen. + +Durante estos años Valentina Borremans constantemente me urgía a poner a prueba nuestro pensar enfrentándolo a las realidades de América Latina y de África. Este libro refleja su convencimiento de que no sólo las instituciones sino el _ethos_ de la sociedad deben ser “desescolarizados”. + +La educación universal por medio de la escolarización no es factible. No sería más factible si se intentara mediante instituciones alternativas construidas según el estilo de las escuelas actuales. Ni nuevas actitudes de los maestros hacia sus alumnos, ni la proliferación de nuevas herramientas y métodos físicos o mentales (en el aula o en el dormitorio), ni, finalmente, el intento de ampliar la responsabilidad del pedagogo hasta que englobe las vidas completas de sus alumnos, dará por resultado la educación universal. La búsqueda actual de nuevos _embudos_ educacionales debe revertirse hacia la búsqueda de su antípoda institucional: _tramas_ educacionales que aumenten la oportunidad para que cada cual transforme cada momento de su vida en un momento de aprendizaje, de compartir, de interesarse. Confiamos en estar aportando conceptos necesarios para aquellos que realizan investigaciones sobre la educación —y asimismo para aquellos que buscan alternativas para otras industrias de servicio establecidas—. + +Me propongo examinar algunas cuestiones inquietantes que surgen una vez que adoptamos como hipótesis que la sociedad puede desescolarizarse, buscar pautas que puedan ayudarnos a discernir instituciones dignas de desarrollo por cuanto apoyan el aprendizaje en un medio desescolarizado, y esclarecer las metas personales que ampararían el advenimiento de una Edad de Ocio _(schole)_ opuesta como tal a una economía dominada por las industrias de servicio. + +IVÁN ILLICH + +_Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978_ + +# Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela + +Muchos estudiantes en especial los que son pobres saben intuitivamente qué hacen por ellos las escuelas los adiestran a confundir proceso y sustancia. Una vez que estos dos términos se hacen indistintos, se adopta una nueva lógica: cuanto más tratamiento haya, tanto mejor serán los resultados. Al alumno se le “escolariza” de ese modo para confundir enseñanza con saber, promoción al curso siguiente con educación, diploma con competencia, y fluidez con capacidad para decir algo nuevo. A su imaginación se la “escolariza” para que acepte servicio en vez de valor. Se confunde el tratamiento médico tomándolo por cuidado de la salud, el trabajo social por mejoramiento de la vida comunitaria, la protección policiaca por tranquilidad, el equilibrio militar por seguridad nacional, la mezquina lucha cotidiana por trabajo productivo. La salud, el saber, la dignidad, la independencia y el quehacer creativo quedan definidos como poco más que el desempeño de las instituciones que afirman servir a estos fines, y su mejoramiento se hace dependiente de la asignación de mayores recursos a la administración de hospitales, escuelas y demás organismos correspondientes. + +En estos ensayos mostraré que la institucionalización de los valores conduce inevitablemente a la contaminación física, a la polarización social y a la impotencia psicológica: tres dimensiones en un proceso de degradación global y de miseria modernizada. Explicaré cómo este proceso de degradación se acelera cuando unas necesidades no materiales se transforman en demanda de bienes; cuando a la salud, a la educación, a la movilidad personal, al bienestar o a la cura psicológica se las define como el resultado de servicios o de “tratamientos”. Hago esto porque creo que la mayoría de las investigaciones actualmente en curso acerca del futuro tienden a abogar por incrementos aún mayores en la institucionalización de valores y que debemos definir algunas condiciones que permitieran que ocurriese lo contrario. Precisamos investigaciones sobre el posible uso de la tecnología para crear instituciones que atiendan a la acción recíproca, creativa y autónoma entre personas y a la emergencia de valores que los tecnócratas no puedan controlar sustancialmente. Necesitamos investigación en líneas generales para la futurología actual. + +Quiero suscitar la cuestión general acerca de la mutua definición, de la naturaleza del hombre y de la naturaleza de las instituciones modernas, que caracteriza nuestra visión del mundo y nuestro lenguaje. Para hacerlo, he elegido a la escuela como mi paradigma, y por consiguiente trato sólo indirectamente de otros organismos burocráticos del Estado corporativo: la familia consumidora, el partido, el ejército, la Iglesia, los medios informativos. Mi análisis del currículum oculto de la escuela debería poner en evidencia que la educación pública se beneficiaría con la desescolarización de la sociedad, tal como la vida familiar, la política, la seguridad, la fe y la comunicación se beneficiarían con un proceso análogo. + +Quiero comenzar este estudio esforzándome en hacer comprender qué es lo que la desescolarización de una sociedad escolarizada podría significar. En este contexto debiera ser más fácil entender mi elección de los cinco aspectos específicos pertinentes respecto de este proceso, los cuales abordaré en los capítulos siguientes. + +No sólo la educación sino la propia realidad social se han escolarizado. Cuesta más o menos lo mismo escolarizar tanto al rico como al pobre en igual dependencia. El gasto anual por alumno en los arrabales y los suburbios ricos de cualquiera de 20 ciudades de Estados Unidos está comprendido dentro de unos mismos márgenes —y hasta es favorable al pobre en ciertos casos—.[^n01] + +Tanto el pobre como el rico dependen de escuelas y hospitales que guían sus vidas, forman su visión del mundo y definen para ellos qué es legítimo y qué no. Ambos consideran irresponsable medicarse uno mismo, y ven a la organización comunitaria, cuando no la pagan quienes detentan la autoridad, como una forma de agresión y subversión. Para ambos grupos, apoyarse en el tratamiento institucional hace sospechoso el logro independiente. El subdesarrollo progresivo de la confianza en sí mismo y en la comunidad es incluso más típico en Westchester que en el norte de Brasil. Por doquiera, no tan sólo la educación sino la sociedad en conjunto, necesitan “desescolarización”. + +Las burocracias del bienestar social pretenden un monopolio profesional, político y financiero sobre la imaginación social, fijando normas sobre qué es valedero y qué es factible. Este monopolio está en las raíces de la modernización de la pobreza. Cada necesidad simple para la que se halla una respuesta institucional permite la invención de una nueva clase de pobres y una nueva definición de la pobreza. Hace 10 años, lo normal en México era nacer y morir en su propia casa, y ser enterrado por sus amigos. Sólo las necesidades del alma las atendía la Iglesia institucionalizada. Ahora, comenzar y acabar la vida en casa se convierten en _signos_ , ya sea de pobreza, ya sea de privilegio especial. El morir y la muerte han quedado bajo la administración institucional del médico y de los empresarios de pompas fúnebres. + +Una vez que una sociedad ha convertido ciertas necesidades básicas en demandas de bienes producidos científicamente, la pobreza queda definida por normas que los tecnócratas pueden cambiar a voluntad. “Pobre” es quien no llega a satisfacer ciertas normas del consumo obligatorio. En México son pobres aquellos que carecen de tres años de escolaridad, y en Nueva York aquellos que carecen de doce. + +Los pobres siempre han sido socialmente impotentes. Apoyarse cada vez más en la atención y el cuidado institucionales agrega una nueva dimensión a su indefensión: la impotencia psicológica, la incapacidad de valerse por sí mismos. Los campesinos del altiplano andino son explotados por el terrateniente y el comerciante —una vez que se asientan en Lima llegan a depender, además, de los jefazos políticos y están desarmados por su falta de escolaridad—. La pobreza moderna conjuga la pérdida del poder sobre las circunstancias con una pérdida de la potencia personal. Esta modernización de la pobreza es un fenómeno mundial y está en el origen del subdesarrollo contemporáneo. Adopta aspectos diferentes, por supuesto, en países ricos y países pobres. + +Probablemente se siente más intensamente en las ciudades estadunidenses. En ninguna otra parte se da un tratamiento más costoso a la pobreza. En ninguna otra parte el tratamiento de la pobreza produce tanta dependencia, ira, frustración y nuevos requerimientos. Y en ninguna otra parte es tan evidente que la pobreza —una vez modernizada— ha llegado a hacerse resistente al tratamiento con dólares y requiere de una revolución institucional. + +Hoy en día, en Estados Unidos, el negro y hasta el vagabundo pueden aspirar a un nivel de tratamiento profesional que habría sido inconcebible hace dos generaciones y que a la mayoría de la gente del Tercer Mundo le parece grotesca. Por ejemplo, los pobres de Estados Unidos pueden contar con un vigilante escolar que lleve a sus hijos de regreso a la escuela hasta que lleguen a los 17 años o con un médico que les remita a una cama de hospital que cuesta 60 dólares diarios —el equivalente al ingreso de tres meses para la mayor parte de la gente en el mundo—. Pero ese cuidado los hace sólo más dependientes de un tratamiento ulterior, y los hace cada vez más incapaces de organizar sus propias vidas en torno a sus propias experiencias y recursos dentro de sus propias comunidades. + +Los estadunidenses pobres están en una posición singular para hablar sobre el predicamento que amenaza a todos los pobres de un mundo en vías de modernización. Están descubriendo que no hay cantidad alguna de dólares que pueda eliminar la destructividad inherente de las instituciones de bienestar social, una vez que las jerarquías profesionales de estas instituciones han convencido a la sociedad de que sus servicios son moralmente necesarios. Los pobres de los núcleos urbanos centrales de Estados Unidos pueden demostrar con su propia experiencia la falacia sobre la que está construida la legislación social en una sociedad “escolarizada”. + +William O. Douglas, miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, hizo la observación de que “la única manera de establecer una observación es financiarla”. El corolario es asimismo verdadero. Sólo al desviar los dólares que ahora afluyen a las instituciones que actualmente tratan la salud, la educación y el bienestar social, podrá detenerse el progresivo empobrecimiento que ahora proviene del aspecto paralizante de las mismas instituciones. + +Debemos tener esto presente al evaluar los programas de ayuda federales. A modo de ejemplo: entre 1965 y 1968, en las escuelas de Estados Unidos se gastaron más de 3 000 millones de dólares para compensar las desventajas de unos seis millones de niños. Al programa se le conoce con el nombre de _Title One_ (Artículo Primero). Es el programa compensatorio más costoso que jamás se haya intentado en parte alguna en materia de educación y, sin embargo, no es posible discernir ningún mejoramiento significativo en el aprendizaje de estos niños “desfavorecidos”. En comparación con sus condiscípulos del mismo curso que provienen de hogares de ingresos medios, han quedado aún más retrasados. Por lo demás, a lo largo de este programa, los profesionales descubrieron otros 10 millones de niños que se esforzaban sometidos a desventajas económicas y educativas. Se dispone ahora de nuevas razones para reclamar nuevos fondos federales. + +Este fracaso total en el intento de mejorar la educación de los pobres a pesar de un tratamiento más costoso puede explicarse de tres maneras: + +_1)_ Tres mil millones de dólares son insuficientes para mejorar el aprovechamiento de seis millones de niños de modo apreciable; o bien, + +_2)_ el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente: se requieren diferentes planes de estudio, una mejor administración, una concentración aún mayor de fondos sobre el niño pobre, y más investigaciones. Con ello se lograría el objetivo: o bien, + +_3)_ la desventaja educativa no puede curarse apoyándose en una educación dentro de la escuela. + +Lo primero es sin duda cierto en cuanto que el dinero se ha gastado a través del presupuesto escolar. El dinero se destinó efectivamente a las escuelas donde estaban la mayoría de los niños desfavorecidos, pero no se gastó en los niños mismos. Estos niños, a los que estaba destinado el dinero, constituían sólo alrededor de la mitad de los que asistían a las escuelas que añadieron el subsidio federal a sus presupuestos. De modo que el dinero se gastó en inspección y custodia, en indoctrinación y selección de papeles sociales, como también en educación, todo ello inextricablemente mezclado con los edificios e instalaciones, planes de estudio, profesores, administradores y otros componentes básicos de estas escuelas y, por consiguiente, con sus presupuestos. + +Los fondos adicionales permitieron a las escuelas atender desproporcionadamente a los niños relativamente más ricos que estaban “desfavorecidos” por tener que asistir a la escuela en compañía de los pobres. En el mejor de los casos, una pequeña proporción de cada dólar destinado a remediar las desventajas del niño pobre en su aprendizaje podía llegar hasta ese niño a través del presupuesto de la escuela. + +Podría ser igualmente cierto que el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente. Pero ni siquiera la incompetencia poco común puede superar la del sistema escolar. Las escuelas resisten, por su estructura misma, la concentración del privilegio en quienes son, por otra parte, desfavorecidos. Los planes especiales de estudio, las clases separadas o más horas de estudio constituyen tan sólo más discriminación a un coste más elevado. + +Los contribuyentes no se han acostumbrado aún a ver que 3 000 millones de dólares se desvanezcan en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar como si se tratara del Pentágono. El gobierno actual tal vez estime que puede afrontar la ira de los educadores. Los estadunidenses de clase media no tienen nada que perder si se interrumpe el programa. Los padres pobres creen que sí pierden, pero, más todavía, están exigiendo el control de los fondos destinados a sus hijos. Un sistema lógico de recortar el presupuesto y, sería de esperar, de aumentar sus beneficios, consistiría en un sistema de becas escolares como el propuesto por Milton Friedman y otros. Los fondos se canalizarían al beneficiario, permitiéndole comprar su parte de escolaridad que elija. Si dicho crédito se limitara a unas compras que se ajustasen a un plan escolar de estudios, tendería a proporcionar una mayor igualdad de tratamiento, pero no aumentaría por ello la igualdad de las exigencias sociales. + +Debería ser obvio que incluso con escuelas de igual calidad un niño pobre rara vez se pondrá a la par de uno rico. Incluso si asisten a las mismas escuelas y comienzan a la misma edad, los niños pobres carecen de la mayoría de las oportunidades educativas que, al parecer, dispone el niño de clase media. Estas ventajas van desde la conversación y los libros en el hogar hasta el viaje de vacaciones y un sentido diferente de sí mismo, y actúan, para el niño que goza de ellas, tanto dentro de la escuela como fuera de ella. De modo que el estudiante más pobre se quedará atrás en tanto dependa de la escuela para progresar o aprender. Los pobres necesitan fondos que les permitan aprender y no obtener certificados del tratamiento de sus deficiencias presuntamente desproporcionadas. + +Todo esto es válido para naciones tanto ricas como pobres, pero aparece con aspecto diferente. En las naciones pobres, la pobreza modernizada afecta a más gente y más visiblemente, pero también —por ahora— más superficialmente. Dos de cada tres del total de niños latinoamericanos dejan la escuela antes de terminar el quinto grado, pero estos _desertores_[^n02] no están tan mal, como lo estarían en Estados Unidos. + +Hoy en día son pocos los países víctimas de la pobreza clásica, que era estable y menos paralizante. La mayoría de los países de América Latina han llegado al punto de “despegue” hacia el desarrollo económico y el consumo competitivo y, por lo tanto, hacia la pobreza modernizada: sus ciudadanos aprenden a pensar como ricos y a vivir como pobres. Sus leyes establecen un periodo escolar obligatorio de seis a 10 años. No sólo en Argentina, sino también en México o en Brasil, el ciudadano medio define una educación adecuada según las pautas estadunidenses, aun cuando la posibilidad de lograr esa prolongada escolarización esté restringida a una diminuta minoría. En estos países la mayoría ya está enviciada con la escuela, es decir, ha sido “escolarizada” para sentirse inferior respecto de quienes tienen una mejor escolaridad. Su fanatismo en favor de la escuela hace posible explotarlos por partida doble: permite aumentar la asignación de fondos públicos para la educación de unos pocos y aumentar la aceptación del control social por parte de la mayoría. + +Es paradójico que la creencia en la escolarización universal se mantenga más firme en los países en que el menor número de personas ha sido —y será— servido por las escuelas. Sin embargo, en América Latina la mayoría de los padres y de los hijos podrían seguir aún senderos diferentes hacia la educación. La proporción del ahorro nacional invertido en escuelas y maestros tal vez sea mayor que en los países ricos, pero estas inversiones son totalmente insuficientes para atender a la mayoría haciendo posible siquiera cuatro años de asistencia a la escuela. Fidel Castro habla como si quisiese avanzar directo a la desescolarización, cuando promete que para 1980 Cuba estará en condiciones de disolver su universidad, puesto que toda la vida cubana será una _experiencia educativa_. Sin embargo, en los niveles de primaria y secundaria, Cuba, al igual que otros países latinoamericanos, actúa como si el paso a través de un periodo definido como “la edad escolar” fuese una meta incuestionable para todos, sólo postergada por una escasez momentánea de recursos. + +Los dos engaños gemelos de un tratamiento más a fondo, tal como de hecho se proporciona en Estados Unidos —y como tan sólo se promete en América Latina— se complementan entre sí. Los pobres del Norte están siendo tullidos por el mismo tratamiento de 12 años cuya carencia marca a los pobres del Sur como irremediablemente retrasados. Ni en Norteamérica ni en América Latina logran los pobres igualdad a partir de escuelas obligatorias. Pero en ambas partes la sola existencia de la escuela desanima al pobre y lo invalida para asir el control de su propio aprendizaje. En todo el mundo la escuela tiene un efecto antieducacional sobre la sociedad: se le reconoce como la institución que se especializa en educación. La mayoría de las personas considera los fracasos de la escuela como una prueba de que la educación es una tarea muy costosa, muy compleja, siempre arcana y frecuentemente casi imposible. + +La escuela se apropia del dinero, de los hombres y de la buena voluntad disponibles para educación, y fuera de eso desalienta a otras instituciones respecto a asumir tareas educativas. El trabajo, el tiempo libre, la política, la vida ciudadana e incluso la vida familiar dependen de las escuelas, en lo concerniente a los hábitos y conocimientos que presuponen, en vez de convertirse ellos mismos en medios de educación. Tanto las escuelas como las otras instituciones que dependen de aquéllas llegan simultáneamente a tener un precio imposible. + +En Estados Unidos, los costes per cápita de la escolaridad han aumentado casi con igual rapidez que el coste del tratamiento médico. Pero este tratamiento más completo impartido por doctores y maestros ha mostrado resultados en continua declinación. Los gastos médicos concentrados sobre los mayores de 45 años se han duplicado varias veces durante un periodo de 40 años, dando como fruto un aumento de 3% en las probabilidades de vida de los varones. El incremento de los gastos educativos ha producido resultados aún más extraños; de otra manera el presidente Nixon no se habría sentido inclinado a prometer esta primavera que todo niño tendrá pronto el “derecho a leer” antes de dejar la escuela. + +En Estados Unidos se precisarían 80 000 millones de dólares por año para proporcionar lo que los educadores consideran como tratamiento igualitario para todos en escuelas primaria y secundaria. Esto es bastante más del doble de los 36 000 millones que se están gastando ahora. Las predicciones de costes preparadas de modo independiente en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar y en la Universidad de Florida indican que para 1974 las cifras comparables serán de 107 000 millones contra los 45 000 millones proyectados ahora, y estas cifras omiten totalmente los enormes costes de lo que se denomina “educación superior”, cuya demanda está creciendo de manera más veloz. Estados Unidos, que en 1969 gastó casi 80 000 millones de dólares en “defensa”, incluyendo su despliegue en Vietnam, es obviamente demasiado pobre como para proporcionar igual escolaridad. El comité nombrado por el presidente para el estudio del financiamiento de las escuelas debiera preguntar no cómo mantener o cómo recortar tales costes, crecientes, sino cómo evitarlos. + +La escuela igual y obligatoria para todos debiera reconocerse por lo menos como algo económicamente impracticable. En América Latina, la cantidad de erario que se gasta en cada estudiante graduado oscila entre 350 y 1 500 veces el monto gastado en el ciudadano medio (es decir, el ciudadano que está en un término medio entre el más pobre y el más rico). En Estados Unidos la discrepancia es menor, pero la discriminación más aguda. Los padres más ricos, cerca de 10%, pueden permitirse proporcionar a sus hijos educación privada y ayudarles a beneficiarse de las donaciones de fundaciones. Pero además consiguen 10 veces el monto per cápita de fondos públicos si éste se compara con el gasto per cápita que se efectúa en los hijos de 10% de los más pobres. Las razones principales de que esto ocurra son que los muchachos ricos permanecen más tiempo en la escuela, que un año de universidad es desproporcionadamente más costoso que un año de escuela secundaria, y que la mayoría de las universidades privadas dependen —al menos indirectamente— de un financiamiento derivado de desgravámenes. + +La escuela obligatoria polariza inevitablemente a una sociedad y califica asimismo a las naciones del mundo según un sistema internacional de castas. A los países se los califica como castas cuya dignidad la determina el promedio de años de escolaridad de sus ciudadanos, tabla de calificación que se relaciona íntimamente con el producto nacional bruto per cápita y es mucho más dolorosa. + +La paradoja de las escuelas es evidente: el gasto creciente hace aumentar su destructividad en su propio país y en el extranjero. Esta paradoja debe convertirse en tema de debate público. Hoy por hoy se reconoce de manera general que el medio ambiente físico quedará destruido dentro de poco por la contaminación bioquímica a menos que invirtamos las tendencias actuales de producción de bienes físicos. Debería reconocerse asimismo que la vida social y personal está igualmente amenazada por la contaminación del Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar, subproducto inevitable del consumo obligatorio y competitivo del bienestar. + +La escalada de las escuelas es tan destructiva como la de las armas, si bien de manera menos visible. En todo el mundo, los costes de la escuela han aumentado con mayor velocidad que las matrículas y más velozmente por el producto nacional bruto (PNB); en todas partes los gastos en la escuela se quedan cada vez más cortos frente a las expectativas de padres, maestros y alumnos. Por doquiera, esta situación desalienta tanto la motivación como el financiamiento para una planificación en gran escala del aprendizaje no escolar. Estados Unidos está demostrando al mundo que ningún país puede ser lo bastante rico como para permitirse un sistema escolar que satisfaga las demandas que este mismo sistema crea con sólo existir, porque un sistema escolar que logre su meta escolariza a padres y alumnos en el valor supremo de un sistema escolar aún mayor, cuyo coste crece desproporcionadamente conforme se crea una demanda de grados superiores y éstos se hacen escasos. + +En vez de decir que una escolaridad pareja es impracticable por el momento, debemos reconocer que, en principio, es económicamente absurda, y que intentarla es intelectualmente castrante, socialmente polarizante y destruye la verosimilitud del sistema político que la promueve. + +La ideología de la escolaridad obligatoria no admite límites lógicos. La Casa Blanca proporcionó hace poco un buen ejemplo. El doctor Hutschnecker, el “psiquiatra” que atendió al señor Nixon antes de que fuese admitido como candidato, recomendó al presidente que todos los niños de seis a ocho años fueran examinados profesionalmente para cazar a aquellos que tuviesen tendencias destructivas, y que se les proporcionase a éstos tratamiento obligatorio. En caso necesario se exigiría su reeducación en instituciones especiales. Este memorándum enviado al presidente por su doctor pasó al Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar para que examinaran su valía. En efecto, unos campos de concentración preventivos para predelincuentes serían un adelanto lógico respecto del sistema escolar. + +El que todos tengan iguales oportunidades de educarse es una meta deseable y factible, pero identificar con ello la escolaridad obligatoria es confundir la salvación con la Iglesia. La escuela ha llegado a ser la religión del proletariado modernizado, y hace promesas huecas a los pobres de la era tecnológica. La nación-Estado la ha adoptado, reclutando a todos los ciudadanos dentro de un currículum graduado que conduce a diplomas consecutivos no distintos a los rituales de iniciación y promociones hieráticas de antaño. El Estado moderno se ha arrogado el deber de hacer cumplir el juicio de sus educadores mediante vigilantes bien intencionados y cualificaciones exigidas para conseguir trabajos, de modo muy semejante al que siguieron los reyes españoles que hicieron cumplir los juicios de sus teólogos mediante los conquistadores y la Inquisición. + +Hace dos siglos Estados Unidos dio al mundo la pauta en un movimiento para privar de apoyo oficial al monopolio de una sola Iglesia. Ahora necesitamos la separación constitucional respecto del monopolio de la escuela quitando de esa manera el apoyo oficial a un sistema que conjuga legalmente el prejuicio con la discriminación. El primer artículo de una Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre apropiada para una sociedad moderna, humanista, concordaría con la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de Estados Unidos: “El Estado no dictará ley alguna respecto del establecimiento de la educación”. No habrá ningún ritual obligatorio para todos. + +Para poner en vigencia esta separación entre Estado y escuela, necesitamos una ley que prohíba la discriminación en la contratación de personal, en las votaciones o en la admisión a los centros de enseñanza fundados en la previa asistencia a algún plan de estudios. Esta garantía no excluiría pruebas de competencia para una función o cargo, pero eliminaría la absurda discriminación actual en favor de una persona que aprende una destreza determinada con el mayor de los gastos del erario público o —lo que es igualmente probable— que ha podido obtener un diploma que no tiene relación con ninguna habilidad o trabajo útiles. Una separación constitucional del Estado y la escuela puede llegar a ser psicológicamente eficaz sólo si protege al ciudadano de la posibilidad de ser descalificado por cualquier aspecto de su carrera escolar. + +Con la escolaridad no se fomenta ni el deber ni la justicia porque los educadores insisten en aunar la instrucción y la certificación. El aprendizaje y la asignación de funciones sociales se funden en la escolarización. No obstante que aprender significa adquirir una nueva habilidad o entendimiento, la promoción depende de la opinión que otros se hayan formado de uno. Aprender es con frecuencia el resultado de una instrucción, pero ser elegido para una función o categoría en el mercado del trabajo depende cada vez más del tiempo que se ha asistido a un centro de instrucción. + +Instrucción es la selección de circunstancias que facilitan el aprendizaje. Las funciones se asignan fijando un currículum de condiciones que el candidato debe satisfacer para pasar la valla. La escuela vincula la instrucción —pero no el aprendizaje— con estas funciones. Esto no es ni razonable ni liberador. No es razonable porque no liga unas cualidades o competencias sobresalientes con las funciones por desempeñar, sino con el proceso mediante el cual se supone que habrán de adquirirse dichas cualidades. No libera ni educa porque la escuela reserva la instrucción para aquellos cuyos pasos en el aprendizaje se ajustan a unas medidas aprobadas de control social. + +El currículum se ha empleado siempre para asignar el rango social. En ocasiones podía ser prenatal: el karma le adjudica a uno a determinada casta y el linaje a la aristocracia. El currículum podía adoptar la forma de un ritual de ordenaciones sacras y secuenciales, o bien podía consistir en una sucesión de hazañas guerreras o cinegéticas, o bien las promociones ulteriores podían depender de una serie de previos favores regios. La escolaridad universal tenía por objeto separar la adjudicación de las funciones de la historia personal de cada uno: se ideó para dar a todos una oportunidad igual de obtener cualquier cargo. Aún ahora muchos creen erróneamente que la escuela asegura que la confianza pública dependa de unos logros sobresalientes en el saber. Pero en vez de haber igualado las posibilidades, el sistema escolar ha monopolizado su distribución. + +Para separar la competencia del currículum, debe convertirse en tabú toda indagación acera del historial de aprendizaje de cada persona, tal como las indagaciones acerca de su filiación política, su asistencia a la iglesia, linaje, hábitos sexuales o antecedentes raciales. Deben dictarse leyes que prohíban la discriminación basada en una previa escolaridad. Evidentemente, las leyes no pueden impedir el prejuicio contra el no escolarizado —ni se pretende con ellas obligar a nadie a casarse con un autodidacta—, pero pueden desaprobar la discriminación justificada. + +Otra gran ilusión en la que se apoya el sistema escolar es la creencia de que la mayor parte del saber es el resultado de la enseñanza. La enseñanza puede, en verdad, contribuir a ciertos tipos de aprendizaje en ciertas circunstancias. Pero la mayoría de las personas adquieren la mayor parte de su conocimiento fuera de la escuela, y cuando este conocimiento se da en ella, sólo es en la medida en que, en unos cuantos países ricos, la escuela se ha convertido en el lugar de confinamiento de las personas durante una parte cada vez mayor de sus vidas. + +Lo principal del aprendizaje sobreviene casualmente, e incluso el aprendizaje más intelectual no es el resultado de una instrucción programada. Los niños normales aprenden su lenguaje de manera informal, aunque con mayor rapidez si sus padres les prestan atención. La mayoría de las personas que aprenden bien un segundo idioma lo hacen a consecuencia de circunstancias aleatorias y no de una enseñanza ordenada. Llegan a vivir con sus abuelos, o viajan o se enamoran de algún extranjero. La lectura fácil proviene con igual frecuencia de la escuela o de actividades extracurriculares de este tipo. La mayoría de quienes leen profusamente y con placer tan sólo creen que aprendieron a hacerlo en la escuela; cuando se les discute esto, descartan fácilmente este espejismo. + +Pero el hecho de que aún ahora gran parte del aprendizaje parece suceder al azar y como subproducto de alguna otra actividad definida como trabajo u ocio no significa que el aprendizaje planificado no beneficie la instrucción planificada. Al estudiante poderosamente motivado que se enfrenta con la tarea de adquirir una habilidad nueva y compleja puede aprovecharle mucho la disciplina que hoy en día se asocia mentalmente con el maestro de viejo cuño que antaño enseñaba lectura, hebreo, catecismo o multiplicación de memoria. La escuela ha hecho que este tipo de enseñanza rutinaria sea escasa y mal reputada; no obstante hay muchas destrezas que un estudiante motivado puede dominar en pocos meses si se le enseña de este modo tradicional. Esto vale tanto para los códigos como para su desciframiento; tanto para los segundos o terceros idiomas como para la lectura y la escritura, e igualmente para lenguajes especiales como el álgebra, la programación de computadoras, el análisis químico, o para destrezas manuales como la mecanografía, la relojería, la fontanería, las instalaciones domésticas de electricidad, la reparación de televisores, o para bailar, conducir vehículos y bucear. + +En algunos casos, ser aceptado en un programa de aprendizaje dirigido a una determinada habilidad podría presuponer competencia en alguna otra habilidad, pero ciertamente no se haría depender del proceso mediante el cual se hubieran adquirido tales habilidades previamente requeridas. La reparación de televisores presupone saber leer y algo de matemáticas; el bucear, ser buen nadador, y el conducir, muy poco de ambas cosas. + +El progreso en el aprendizaje es mensurable. Es fácil calcular los recursos óptimos de tiempo y materiales que un adulto corriente motivado necesita. El coste de enseñar un segundo idioma europeo occidental hasta un elevado nivel de fluidez oscila entre 400 y 600 dólares en Estados Unidos, y para una lengua oriental el tiempo requerido de instrucción podría duplicarse. Esto sería todavía poquísimo en comparación con el coste de 12 años de escolaridad en la ciudad de Nueva York (condición para ingresar en el Departamento de Higiene) —casi 15 000 dólares—. Sin duda no sólo el maestro, sino también el impresor y el farmacéutico protegen sus oficios mediante el espejismo público de que el adiestramiento para aprenderlos es muy costoso. + +En la actualidad, las escuelas se apropian de antemano de la mayor parte de los fondos para educación. La instrucción rutinaria, que cuesta menos que una escolarización comparable, es ahora un privilegio de quienes son lo bastante ricos como para pasarse por alto las escuelas, y de aquellos a quienes el ejército o las grandes firmas les proporcionan un adiestramiento en el trabajo mismo. En un programa de desescolarización progresiva para Estados Unidos, en un comienzo habría escasez de recursos para el adiestramiento rutinario. Pero finalmente no habría impedimento alguno para cualquiera que en cualquier momento de su vida quisiese elegir una instrucción entre centenares de habilidades definibles y a cargo del Estado. + +Ahora mismo podrían proporcionarse calificaciones educativas aceptables en cualquier centro de enseñanza de oficios en cantidades limitadas para personas de cualquier edad, y no sólo para pobres. Yo concibo dicha calificación (o crédito) en forma de un pasaporte educativo o de una “tarjeta de educrédito” entregada a cada ciudadano al nacer. A fin de favorecer a los pobres, que probablemente no usarían sus cuotas anuales a temprana edad, podría estipularse que los usuarios tardíos de tales “títulos” acumulados ganasen interés. Dichos créditos permitirían a la mayoría adquirir las habilidades de mayor demanda, cuando les conviene, de manera mejor, más rápida, más barata y con menos efectos subsidiarios desfavorables que en la escuela. + +Se me objetará la falta de profesores, pero esto es plantear mal el problema, pues, por una parte, la demanda de una habilidad crece sólo al ponerse en práctica en una comunidad y, por otra, un hombre que ejerza una habilidad puede también enseñarla. Pero, actualmente, aquellos que usan una habilidad que está en demanda y que precisan un profesor humano tienen estímulos negativos para compartir con otros estas habilidades. Esto lo hacen o maestros que monopolizan las licencias, o sindicatos que protegen sus intereses gremiales. Unos centros de enseñanza de oficios o habilidades a los que los clientes juzgaran por sus resultados, y no por el personal que empleasen o por el proceso que se utilizasen, abrirían oportunidades insospechables de trabajo, frecuentemente incluso para aquellos que hoy se consideran inempleables. Verdaderamente no hay motivo para que tales centros no estuviesen en el lugar mismo de trabajo; el patrono y su personal proporcionarían tanto la instrucción como trabajos a quienes eligiesen utilizar sus créditos educativos de esta manera. + +En 1956 se suscitó la necesidad de enseñar rápidamente español a varios centenares de maestros, trabajadores sociales y curas de la arquidiócesis de Nueva York, de modo que pudiesen comunicarse con los puertorriqueños. Mi amigo Gerry Morris anunció en español por una radioemisora que necesitaba hispanohablantes nativos que viviesen en Harlem. Al día siguiente unos 200 adolescentes se alineaban frente a su oficina; de entre ellos eligió cuatro docenas —muchos de ellos desertores escolares—. Los instruyó en el uso del Manual de Instrucción del Instituto del Servicio Exterior de Estados Unidos, para español, concebido para el uso de lingüistas con licenciatura, y al cabo de una semana sus profesores se manejaban solos —cada uno de ellos a cargo de cuatro neoyorkinos que querían hablar el idioma—. En el plazo de seis meses se había cumplido la misión. El cardenal Spellman podía afirmar que tenía 127 parroquias en cada una de las cuales había por lo menos tres miembros de su personal que podían conversar en español. Ningún programa escolar podría haber logrado iguales resultados. + +Los profesores de habilidades escasean por la creencia en el valor de los títulos. La certificación es una manera de manipular el mercado y es concebible sólo para una mente escolarizada. La mayoría de los profesores de artes y oficios son menos diestros, tienen menor inventiva y son menos comunicativos que los mejores artesanos y maestros. La mayoría de los profesores de español o de francés de bachillerato no hablan esos idiomas con la corrección con que lo harían alumnos después de un semestre de rutinas competentes. Unos experimentos llevados a cabo por Ángel Quintero en Puerto Rico sugieren que muchos adolescentes, si se les dan los adecuados incentivos, programas y acceso a las herramientas, son mejores que la mayoría de los maestros de escuela para iniciar a los de su edad en la exploración científica de las plantas, las estrellas y la materia, y en el descubrimiento de cómo y por qué funciona un motor o un radio. + +Las oportunidades para el aprendizaje de habilidades pueden multiplicarse enormemente si abrimos el “mercado”. Esto depende de reunir al maestro correcto con el alumno correcto cuando éste está altamente motivado dentro de un programa inteligente, sin la restricción del currículum. + +La instrucción libre y rutinaria es una blasfemia subversiva para el educador ortodoxo. Ella desliga la adquisición de destrezas de la educación “humana”, que la escuela empaca conjuntamente, y fomenta así el aprendizaje sin título no menos que la enseñanza sin título para fines imprevisibles. + +Hay actualmente una propuesta registrada que a primera vista parece sumamente sensata. La preparó Christopher Jencks, del Center for the Study of Public Policy, y está patrocinada por la Office of Economic Opportunity. Propone poner unos “bonos” o “títulos” educativos o donaciones, para pagar el coste de los estudios, en manos de padres y estudiantes para que los gasten en las escuelas que elijan. Tales bonos individuales podrían ser un importante avance en la dirección correcta. Necesitamos que se garantice a cada ciudadano el derecho a una parte igual de los recursos educativos derivados de los impuestos, el derecho a verificar esa parte, y el derecho a entablar juicio si le es denegada. Es una forma de garantía contra la tributación regresiva. + +Pero la propuesta de Jencks comienza con la ominosa declaración de que “los conservadores, los liberales y los radicales se han quejado en una u otra ocasión de que el sistema educativo estadunidense da a los educadores profesionales un incentivo demasiado pequeño para que proporcionen una educación de gran calidad a la mayoría de los niños”. La propuesta se condena sola al proponer donaciones para pagar unos estudios que tendrían que gastar en escolarizarse. + +Esto es como dar a un inválido un par de muletas, advirtiéndole que las use sólo si les amarra los extremos. En su forma actual, la propuesta de estos bonos educativos hace el juego no sólo a los educadores profesionales sino también a los racistas, a los promotores de escuelas religiosas y a otros cuyos intereses son socialmente disociantes. Sobre todo, los bonos educativos, cuyo uso se restrinja a las escuelas, hace el juego de quienes quieren continuar viviendo en una sociedad en la que el progreso social está ligado no al conocimiento comprobado, sino al historial de aprendizaje mediante el cual presuntamente se adquiere. Esta discriminación en favor de las escuelas que domina la exposición de Jencks sobre el refinamiento de la educación podría desacreditar uno de los principios que más perentoriamente se precisan para la reforma educativa: el retorno de la iniciativa y la responsabilidad del aprendizaje al aprendiz o a su tutor más inmediato. + +La desescolarización de la sociedad implica el reconocimiento de la naturaleza ambivalente del aprendizaje. La insistencia en la sola rutina podría ser un desastre; igual énfasis debe hacerse en otros tipos de aprendizaje. Pero si las escuelas son el lugar inapropiado para aprender una destreza, son lugares aún peores para adquirir una educación. La escuela realiza mal ambas tareas, en parte porque no distingue entre ellas. La escuela es ineficiente para instruir en destrezas por ser curricular. En la mayoría de las escuelas, un programa cuyo objetivo es mejorar una habilidad está siempre concatenado con otra tarea no pertinente. La historia está amarrada al derecho de usar el patio de juegos. + +Las escuelas son todavía menos eficientes en la creación de circunstancias que alienten el uso irrestricto, exploratorio, de habilidades adquiridas, para lo cual reservaré el término de “educación liberal”. El principal motivo es que la escuela es obligatoria y llega a convertirse en la escolaridad por la escolaridad: una estadía forzosa en compañía de profesores, que paga con el dudoso privilegio de continuar en dicha compañía. Así como la instrucción de destrezas debe ser liberada de restricciones curriculares, a la educación liberal debe desligársela de la asistencia obligatoria. Mediante dispositivos institucionales puede ayudarse tanto al aprendizaje de habilidades como a la educación encaminada a un comportamiento creativo e inventivo, pero ambas cosas son de naturaleza diferente y frecuentemente contraria. + +La mayoría de las destrezas pueden adquirirse y perfeccionarse mediante rutinas; porque la destreza o habilidad implica el dominio de una conducta definible y predecible. La instrucción de una destreza puede apoyarse, por consiguiente, en la simulación de las circunstancias en que se utilizará dicha destreza. En cambio, la educación en el empleo exploratorio y creativo de destrezas no puede descansar en sistemas rutinarios. La educación puede ser el resultado de la instrucción, aunque de una instrucción fundamentalmente opuesta a la rutina. Se apoya en la relación entre asociaciones que ya poseen algunas de la llaves que dan acceso a memorias almacenadas en la comunidad y por la comunidad. Se apoya en la sorpresa de la pregunta inesperada que abre nuevas puertas al cuestionario y a su asociado. + +El instructor de destrezas utiliza un conjunto de condiciones dadas que permiten al aprendiz desarrollar ciertas reacciones o respuestas precisas y definidas. El guía o maestro en educación se ocupa de ayudar a unos asociados a que se reúnan de modo que se dé el aprendizaje. Reúne a personas que parten de sus propias y no resueltas interrogantes. A lo más, ayuda al alumno a formular su perplejidad puesto que sólo un planteamiento claro le dará el poder de encontrar a su pareja, moverse como ella, explorar en ese momento la misma cuestión en el mismo contexto. + +En un comienzo parecería más difícil imaginar unos asociados o compañeros para fines educativos que hallar instructores de destrezas y compañeros para un juego. Una de las razones de que esto ocurra es el profundo temor que la escuela nos ha inculcado, un miedo que nos pone criticones. El intercambio intitulado de destrezas —a menudo destrezas inconvenientes— es más predecible y por tanto parece menos peligroso que las oportunidades ilimitadas de reunión para personas que comparten una cuestión en debate que es, en ese momento, social, intelectual y emocionalmente importante para ellas. + +El profesor brasileño Paulo Freire sabe esto por experiencia. Descubrió que cualquier adulto puede comenzar a leer en cosa de 40 horas si las primeras palabras que descifra están cargadas de significado político. Freire adiestra a sus maestros para trasladarse a una aldea y descubrir las palabras que designan asuntos actuales importantes, tales como el acceso a un pozo, o el interés compuesto de las deudas que han contraído con el _patrón_. Por la tarde, los aldeanos se reúnen para conversar sobre esas palabras clave. Comienzan a percatarse de que cada palabra permanece en el pizarrón incluso después de haberse desvanecido su sonido. Las letras continúan abriendo, como llaves, la realidad y haciéndola manejable como problema. Frecuentemente he presenciado cómo en unos participantes crece la conciencia social y cómo se ven impelidos a actuar políticamente con la misma velocidad con que aprenden a leer. Parecen tomar la realidad en sus manos conforme la escriben. + +Recuerdo a un hombre que se quejó del peso de los lápices: eran difíciles de manipular porque no pesaban como una pala, y recuerdo a otro que camino al trabajo se detuvo con sus compañeros y escribió con su azadón en el suelo la palabra de la que venía conversando: _agua_.[^n03] Desde 1962, mi amigo Freire ha pasado de exilio en exilio, principalmente porque rehúsa llevar a cabo sus sesiones en torno a palabras que hayan sido preseleccionadas por educadores aprobados y prefiere utilizar aquellas que los participantes llevan consigo a las clases. + +La reunión de personas con fines educativos sólo es posible cuando se han beneficiado de una verdadera escolaridad. Los que no necesitan de esa ayuda son una minoría, incluso entre aquellos que leen revistas serias. La mayoría no puede ni debe ser congregada en torno a una consigna, a una palabra, a una imagen, sino en torno a un problema elegido y definido por iniciativa de los participantes. El aprendizaje creativo, exploratorio, requiere sujetos de igual perplejidad ante los mismos términos o problemas. Las grandes universidades realizan el vano intento de aparejarlos multiplicando sus cursos y por lo general fracasan en la medida en que están ligados al currículum, a la estructura de cursos y a una administración burocrática. En las escuelas, tal como en las universidades, la mayoría de los recursos se gasta en comprar el tiempo y la motivación de un número reducido de personas para encarar problemas predeterminados en un escenario definido de forma ritual. La alternativa más radical para la escuela sería una red o servicio que diera a cada hombre la misma oportunidad de compartir sus intereses actuales con otros motivados por iguales cuestiones. + +Permítaseme dar, como ejemplo de mi planteamiento, una descripción de cómo podría funcionar esta “unión” intelectual en la ciudad de Nueva York. Cada hombre, en cualquier momento y a un precio mínimo, podría identificarse ante una computadora con su dirección y su número de teléfono, indicando libro, artículos, película o grabación acerca de los cuales busca un compañero con el cual conversar. En un plazo de días podría recibir por correo la lista de otros que hubieran tomado recientemente la misma iniciativa. Esta lista le permitiría concertar por teléfono una reunión con personas que inicialmente se conocerían exclusivamente por el hecho de haber solicitado un diálogo sobre el mismo tema. + +Juntar personas de acuerdo con el interés que tengan sobre un título dado es radicalmente simple. Permite la identificación sobre la base de un deseo mutuo de conversar sobre una afirmación registrada por un tercero, y deja al individuo la iniciativa de concertar la reunión. Normalmente se hacen tres objeciones contra esta pureza esquelética. Las recojo no sólo para esclarecer la teoría que quiero ilustrar mediante mi propuesta —pues destacan la acendrada resistencia a desescolarizar la educación, a separar el aprendizaje del control social—, sino también porque pueden ayudar a sugerir unos recursos que no se emplean ahora para fines de aprendizaje. + +La primera objeción es: ¿por qué no podría la identificación de cada uno basarse en una idea o en un tema de debate? Ciertamente dichos términos subjetivos podrían usarse también en un sistema informático. Los partidos políticos, Iglesias, sindicatos, clubes, centros vecinales y sociedades profesionales organizan ya sus actividades educativas de este modo y, en efecto, actúan como escuelas. Todos ellos reúnen personas con el fin de explorar ciertos “temas”, que se abordan en cursos, seminarios y planes de estudio en los que unos presuntos “intereses comunes” están preen-vasados. Dicha “reunión por tema” está, por definición, centrado en el profesor: precisa una presencia autoritaria para definir ante los participantes el punto de partida de su debate. + +Por el contrario, reunirse para hablar de un libro, de una película, etc., sin otra explicación que un título o una referencia, deja al autor definir el lenguaje especial, los términos y el marco de referencia dentro del cual se plantea un determinado problema o hecho, y permite a quienes acepten este punto de partida identificarse uno con otro. Por ejemplo, reunir gente en torno a la idea de “revolución cultural” conduce generalmente o a la confusión o a la demagogia. Por otra parte, reunir a quienes se interesen en ayudarse mutuamente a entender un determinado artículo de Mao, Marcuse, Freud o Goodman se inscribe en la gran tradición del aprendizaje liberal, desde los _Diálogos_ de Platón, que están construidos en torno a presuntas declaraciones de Sócrates, hasta los comentarios de Tomás de Aquino sobre Pedro Lombardo. La idea de reunir a las personas alrededor de un título es pues radicalmente diferente de la teoría sobre la que se fundaban, por ejemplo, los clubes de los “Grandes Libros”: en vez de apoyarse en la selección realizada por algunos catedráticos de Chicago, cualquier par de personas puede, como compañero de juego, elegir cualquier libro para analizarlo. + +La segunda objeción pregunta: ¿por qué la identificación de quienes buscan compañero no podría incluir información sobre edad, antecedentes, visión del mundo, competencia, experiencia y otras características definitorias? No hay en este caso razón alguna para que tales restricciones discriminatorias no pudiesen (y no debiesen) incorporarse en algunas de las numerosas universidades —con o sin muros— que podrían usar la reunión alrededor de títulos como el dispositivo básico para organizarse. Puedo imaginar un sistema ideal para fomentar las reuniones de personas interesadas en las que el autor del libro elegido podría estar presente o representado, o un sistema que garantice la presencia de un asesor competente, o uno al que tuviesen acceso sólo estudiantes matriculados en una facultad o escuela, o personas capaces de presentar una investigación específica sobre la obra que se discute. Cada una de estas restricciones, se me dirá, serviría a metas específicas de aprendizaje. Pero me temo que, en la mayoría de los casos, el motivo real para proponer tales restricciones es el desdén que proviene de presuponer que la gente es ignorante: los educadores quieren evitar que el ignorante se junte con el ignorante en torno a un texto que podrían no entender y que leen _sólo_ porque están interesados en él. + +La tercera objeción: ¿por qué no proporcionar a quienes buscan compañero una ayuda incidental que facilite sus reuniones —espacio, horarios, selección de participantes, protección—? Esto lo hacen actualmente las escuelas con toda la ineficiencia que caracteriza a las grandes burocracias. Si dejáramos la iniciativa de las reuniones a los interesados en reunirse, unas organizaciones que nadie clasifica hoy como educativas harían mucho mejor este trabajo. Pienso en dueños de restaurantes, editores, servicios de recados telefónicos, directivos de trenes suburbanos que podrían promover sus servicios al hacerlos atractivos para reuniones educativas. + +En una primera reunión en, digamos, un café, los interesados podrían establecer sus identidades colocando el libro en debate junto a sus tazas. Las personas que tomaran la iniciativa de concertar tales reuniones aprenderían pronto qué elementos citar para encontrarse con la gente que buscan. El riesgo de que una conversación que uno mismo ha elegido le lleve a una pérdida de tiempo, a una decepción, e incluso a un desagrado es ciertamente menor que el riesgo que corre quien solicita ingresar en una universidad. Una reunión concertada por computadora para debatir un artículo de una revista de circulación nacional, celebrada en un café de la Cuarta Avenida, no obligaría a ninguno de los participantes a permanecer en compañía de sus nuevos conocidos por más tiempo del necesario para beber una taza de café, ni tendría que encontrarse con ellos de nuevo. La probabilidad de que ello le ayudara a disipar la opacidad de la vida en una ciudad moderna, a fomentar nuevas amistades, a abrir nuevos horizontes y profundizar en un trabajo elegido, es elevada. (El hecho de que de este modo el FBI podría conseguir un registro de las reuniones y lecturas que se hacen es innegable; el que esto pueda aún preocupar a alguien en 1970 es sólo divertido para un hombre libre, quien, quiéralo o no, aporta su cuota para ahogar a los espías en las nimiedades que recolectan.) + +Tanto el intercambio de destrezas como el encuentro con copartícipes se fundan en el supuesto de que educación _para todos_ significa educación _por parte de todos_. No es el reclutamiento en una institución especializada, sino sólo la movilización de toda la población lo que puede conducir a una cultura popular. Los maestros titulados se han apropiado del derecho que todo hombre tiene de ejercer su competencia para aprender e instruir igualmente. La competencia del maestro está a su vez restringida a lo que pueda hacerse en la escuela. Además, el trabajo y el tiempo libre están, a consecuencia de ello, alienados el uno del otro: tanto del trabajador como del espectador se espera que lleguen al lugar de trabajo prestos a encajar en una rutina preparada para ellos. La adaptación en forma de diseño, instrucción y publicidad de un producto los moldea para desempeñar su papel de modo muy semejante a como lo hace la educación mediante la escolaridad. Una alternativa radical para una sociedad escolarizada exige no sólo mecanismos para la adquisición formal de destrezas y el uso educativo de éstas, implica un nuevo modo de encarar la educación informal o incidental. + +La educación incidental ya no puede regresar a las formas que el aprendizaje adoptó en la aldea o en la ciudad medieval. Mientras la sociedad tradicional se asemejaba más a un grupo de círculos concéntricos de estructuras significativas, el hombre moderno debe aprender cómo hallar significación en muchas estructuras con las que está relacionado de manera sólo marginal. En la aldea, el lenguaje, la arquitectura, el trabajo, la religión y las costumbres familiares eran compatibles entre sí, se explicaban y reforzaban mutuamente. Desarrollarse en una implicaba un desarrollo en las otras. Incluso el aprendizaje especializado era el subproducto de actividades especializadas, tales como la fabricación de zapatos o el canto de los salmos. Si un aprendiz no llegaba jamás a ser maestro o erudito, contribuía sin embargo a la fabricación de zapatos o a hacer solemnes los servicios litúrgicos. La educación no competía en tiempo ni con el trabajo ni con el ocio. Casi toda la educación era compleja, vitalicia y no planificada. + +La sociedad contemporánea es el resultado de diseños e intenciones conscientes, y las oportunidades educativas han de ser incorporadas a esos diseños. Ahora disminuirá la confianza que depositamos en la instrucción especializada y de tiempo completo a través de la escuela, y hemos de hallar nuevas maneras de aprender y enseñar: la calidad educativa de todas las instituciones debe aumentar una vez más. Pero ésta es una previsión muy ambigua. Podría significar que los hombres de la ciudad moderna serán cada día más las víctimas de un proceso eficaz de instrucción total y manipulación una vez que estén privados incluso del tenue asomo de independencia crítica que proporcionan hoy en día las escuelas liberales, cuando menos a algunos de sus alumnos. + +Podría significar también que los hombres se escudarán menos tras certificados adquiridos en la escuela y adquirirán así valor para ser “respondones” y controlar e instruir de ese modo a las instituciones en que participen. Para lograr esto último debemos darnos cuenta del valor social del trabajo y del ocio por el intercambio educativo que permiten. La participación efectiva en la política de una calle, de un puesto de trabajo o de un hospital es por lo tanto el mejor patrón para evaluar el valor de las diferentes instituciones en el plan de la educación. + +Hace poco dirigí la palabra a un grupo de estudiantes de los primeros años de bachillerato, empeñados en organizar un movimiento de resistencia a su enrolamiento obligatorio en la clase siguiente. Tenían por consigna “participación-no simulación”. Les decepcionaba que esto se entendiera como una petición de menos educación en vez de lo contrario, y me hicieron recordar la resistencia que opuso Karl Marx a un párrafo en el programa de Gotha que —hace 100 años— quería hacer ilegal el trabajo infantil. Se opuso a la proposición diciendo que la ecuación de los jóvenes solo podía producirse en el trabajo. Si el mayor fruto del trabajo del hombre debiera ser la educación que se deriva de éste y la oportunidad que el trabajo le da para iniciar la educación de otros, entonces la alimentación de la sociedad moderna en un sentido pedagógico es aún peor que su alienación económica. + +El mayor obstáculo en el camino de una sociedad que educa verdaderamente lo definió muy bien un amigo mío, negro de Chicago, quien me dijo que nuestra imaginación estaba “totalmente escuelada”. Permitimos al Estado verificar las deficiencias educativas universales de sus ciudadanos y establecer un organismo especializado para tratarlos. Compartimos así la ilusión de que podemos distinguir entre qué es educación necesaria para otros y qué no lo es, tal como generaciones anteriores establecieron leyes que definían qué era sagrado y qué profano. + +Durkheim reconoció que esta capacidad para dividir la realidad social en dos ámbitos era la esencia misma de la religión formal. Existen —razonó— religiones sin lo sobrenatural y religiones sin Dios, pero no hay ninguna que no subdivida el mundo en cosas, tiempo y personas que son sagradas y en otras que por consecuencia son profanas. Este penetrante alcance de Durkheim puede aplicarse a la sociología de la educación, pues la escuela es radicalmente divisoria de manera parecida. + +La existencia misma de las escuelas obligatorias divide cualquier sociedad en dos ámbitos: ciertos lapsos, procesos, tratamientos y profesiones son “académicos” y “pedagógicos”, y otros no lo son. Así, el poder de la escuela para dividir la realidad social no conoce límites: la educación se hace no terrenal, en tanto que el mundo se hace no educacional. + +A partir de Bonhoeffer, los teólogos contemporáneos han señalado la confusión que reina hoy en día entre el mensaje bíblico y la religión institucionalizada. Señalan la experiencia que la libertad y la fe cristianas suelen ganar con la secularización. Sus afirmaciones suenan inevitablemente blasfemas para muchos clérigos. En incuestionable que el proceso educativo ganará con la desescolarización de la sociedad aun cuando esta exigencia les suene a muchos escolares como una traición a la cultura. Pero es la cultura misma la que está siendo apagada hoy en las escuelas. + +La secularización de la fe cristiana depende de la dedicación que pongan en ello los cristianos arraigados en la Iglesia. De manera muy parecida, la desescolarización de la educación depende del liderazgo de quienes se criaron en las escuelas. El currículum que cumplieron no puede servirles como excusa para la tarea: cada uno de nosotros sigue siendo responsable de lo que se ha hecho por él, aun cuando puede que no sea capaz sino de aceptar esta responsabilidad y servir de advertencia para otros. + +# Fenomenología de la escuela + +Algunas palabras llegan a ser tan flexibles que pierden cualquier significación precisa y se usan para cualquier cosa entre éstas se cuentan “escuela” y “enseñanza”. Se filtran, como una amiba, por cualquier intersticio del lenguaje. Así, decimos que el ABM[^n04] enseñará a los rusos, la IBM enseñará a los niños negros, y el ejército puede llegar a ser la escuela de la nación. + +Por consiguiente, la búsqueda de alternativas en educación debe comenzar por un acuerdo acerca de lo que entendemos por “escuela”. Esto puede hacerse de varias maneras. Podemos comenzar por anotar las funciones latentes desempeñadas por los sistemas escolares modernos, tales como los de custodia, selección, adoctrinamiento y aprendizaje. Podríamos hacer un análisis de clientela y verificar cuál de estas funciones latentes favorece o desfavorece a maestros, patronos, niños, padres o a las profesiones. Podríamos repasar la historia de la cultura occidental y la información reunida por la antropología a fin de encontrar instituciones que desempeñaron un papel semejante al que hoy cumple la escolarización. Podríamos finalmente recordar los numerosos dictámenes normativos que se han hecho desde el tiempo de Comenius, o incluso desde Quintiliano, y descubrir a cuál de éstos se aproxima más el moderno sistema escolar. Pero cualquiera de estos enfoques nos obligaría a comenzar con ciertos supuestos acerca de una relación entre escuela y educación. + +Para crear un lenguaje en el que podamos hablar sobre la escuela sin ese incesante recurrir a la educación, he querido comenzar por algo que podría llamarse fenomenología de la escuela pública. Con este objeto definiré “escuela” como el proceso que especifica edad, se relaciona con maestros y exige asistencia de tiempo completo y un currículum obligatorio. + +1\. _Edad_. La escuela agrupa a las personas según sus edades. Este agrupamiento se funda en tres premisas indiscutidas. A los niños les corresponde estar en la escuela. Los niños aprenden en la escuela. A los niños puede enseñárseles solamente en la escuela. Creo que estas tres premisas no sometidas a examen merecen ser seriamente puestas en duda. + +Nos hemos ido acostumbrando a los niños. Hemos decidido que deberían ir a la escuela, hacer lo que se les dice y no tener ingresos propios. Esperamos que sepan el lugar que ocupan y se comporten como niños. Recordamos, ya sea con nostalgia o con amargura, el tiempo en que también fuimos niños. Se espera de nosotros que toleremos la conducta infantil de los niños. La humanidad es, para nosotros, una especie simultáneamente atribulada y bendecida con la tarea de cuidar niños. No obstante, olvidamos que nuestro actual concepto de “niñez” sólo se desarrolló recientemente en Europa occidental, y hace aún menos en América.[^n05] + +La niñez como algo diferente de la infancia, la adolescencia o la juventud fue algo desconocido para la mayoría de los periodos históricos. Algunos siglos del cristianismo no tuvieron ni siquiera una idea de sus proporciones corporales. Los artistas pintaban al niño como un adulto en miniatura sentado en el brazo de su madre. Los niños aparecieron en Europa junto con el reloj de bolsillo y los prestamistas cristianos del Renacimiento. Antes de nuestro siglo ni los ricos ni los pobres supieron nada acerca de vestidos para niños, juegos para niños o de la inmunidad del niño ante la ley. Esas ideas comenzaron a desarrollarse en la burguesía. El hijo del obrero, el del campesino y el del noble vestían todos como lo hacían sus padres, jugaban como éstos y eran ahorcados igual que ellos. Después de que la burguesía descubriera la “niñez”, todo esto cambió. Sólo algunas Iglesias continuaron respetando por algún tiempo la dignidad y la madurez de los menores. Hasta el Concilio Vaticano II, se le decía a cada niño que un cristiano llega a tener discernimiento moral y libertad a la edad de siete años y a partir de entonces es capaz de caer en pecados por los cuales podrá ser castigado por toda una eternidad en el infierno. A mediados de este siglo, los padres de clase media comenzaron a tratar de evitar a sus niños el impacto de esta doctrina, y su modo de pensar sobre los niños es el que hoy prevalece en la Iglesia. + +Hasta el siglo pasado, los “niños” de padres de clase media se fabricaban en casa con la ayuda de preceptores y escuelas privadas. Sólo con el advenimiento de la sociedad industrial la producción en masa de la “niñez” comenzó a ser factible y a ponerse al alcance de la multitud. El sistema escolar es un fenómeno moderno, como lo es la niñez que lo produce. + +Puesto que hoy en día la mayoría de las personas viven fuera de las ciudades industriales, la mayoría de la gente no experimenta la niñez. En los Andes, uno labra la tierra cuando ha llegado a ser “útil”. Antes de esa edad, uno cuida las ovejas. Si se está bien nutrido, debe llegar a ser útil hacia los 11 años de edad, y de otro modo a los 12. Estaba yo conversando hace poco con Marcos, mi celador nocturno, sobre su hijo de 11 años que trabaja en una barbería. Hice en español la observación de que su hijo era todavía un _niño_. Marcos, sorprendido, contestó con inocente sonrisa: “Don Iván, creo que usted tiene razón”. Percatándome de que hasta el momento de mi observación Marcos había pensado en el muchacho en primer lugar como su “hijo”, me sentí culpable de haber hecho surgir el fantasma de la niñez entre dos personas sensatas. Naturalmente que si yo fuese a decir a un habitante de los barrios bajos de Nueva York que su hijo que trabaja es todavía un “niño”, no mostraría ninguna sorpresa. Sabe muy bien que a su hijo de 11 años debería permitírsele su niñez, y se resiente de que no sea así. El hijo de Marcos no ha sido afectado aún por el anhelo de tener niñez, el hijo del neoyorkino se siente desposeído. + +Así pues, la mayoría de la gente en el mundo o no quiere o no puede conceder una niñez moderna a sus críos. Pero también parece que la niñez es una carga para esos pocos a quienes se les concede. A muchos simplemente se les obliga a pasar por ella y no están en absoluto felices de desempeñar el papel de niños. Crecer pasando por la niñez significa estar condenado a un proceso de conflicto inhumano entre la conciencia de sí y el papel que impone una sociedad que está pasando por su propia edad escolar. Ni Stephen Dédalus ni Alexander Portnoy gozaron de la niñez y, según sospecho, tampoco nos gustó a muchos de nosotros ser tratados como niños. + +Si no existiese una institución de aprendizaje obligatorio y para una edad determinada, la “niñez” dejaría de fabricarse. Los menores de los países ricos se librarían de su destructividad, y los países pobres dejarían de rivalizar con la niñería de los ricos. Para que la sociedad pudiese sobreponerse a su edad de la niñez, tendría que hacerse vivible para los menores. La disyunción actual entre una sociedad adulta que pretende ser humanitaria y un ambiente escolar que remeda la realidad no puede seguir manteniéndose. + +El hecho de privar de apoyo oficial a las escuelas podría terminar también con la discriminación contra los nenes, los adultos y los ancianos en favor de los niños durante su adolescencia y juventud. Es probable que la decisión social de asignar recursos educativos preferentemente a aquellos ciudadanos que han dejado atrás la extraordinaria capacidad de aprendizaje de sus primeros años y no han llegado a la cúspide de su aprendizaje automotivado parezca grotesca cuando se vea retrospectivamente. + +La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños necesitan la escuela. La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños aprenden en la escuela. Pero esta sabiduría institucional es en sí el producto de escuelas, porque el sólido sentido común nos dice que sólo a niños se les puede enseñar en la escuela. Sólo segregando a los seres humanos en la categoría de la niñez podremos someterlos alguna vez a la autoridad de un maestro de escuela. + +2\. _Profesores y alumnos_. Por definición, los niños son alumnos. La demanda por el medio ambiente escolar crea un mercado ilimitado para los profesores titulados. La escuela es una institución construida sobre el axioma de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza. Y la sabiduría institucional continúa aceptando este axioma, pese a las pruebas abrumadoras en sentido contrario. + +Todos hemos aprendido la mayor parte de lo que sabemos fuera de la escuela. Los alumnos hacen la mayor parte de su aprendizaje sin sus maestros y, a menudo, a pesar de éstos. Lo que es más trágico es que a la mayoría de los hombres las escuelas les enseñan su lección, aun cuando nunca vayan _a_ la escuela. + +Toda persona aprende a vivir fuera de la escuela. Aprendemos a hablar, a pensar, a amar, a sentir, a jugar, a blasfemar, a politiquear y a trabajar sin la interferencia de un profesor. Ni siquiera los niños que están día y noche bajo la tutela de un maestro constituyen excepciones a la regla. Los huérfanos, los cretinos y los hijos de maestros de escuela aprenden la mayor parte de lo que aprenden fuera del proceso “educativo” programado para ellos. Los profesores han quedado mal parados en sus intentos de aumentar el aprendizaje entre los pobres. A los padres pobres que quieren que sus hijos vayan a la escuela no les preocupa tanto lo que aprendan como el certificado y el dinero que obtendrán. Y los padres de clase media confían sus hijos a un profesor para evitar que aprendan aquello que los pobres aprenden en la calle. Las investigaciones sobre educación están demostrando cada día más que los niños aprenden aquello que sus maestros pretenden enseñarles, no de éstos, sino de sus iguales, de las tiras cómicas, de la simple observación al pasar y, sobre todo, del solo hecho de participar en el ritual de la escuela. Las más de las veces los maestros obstruyen el aprendizaje de materias de estudio conforme se dan en la escuela. + +La mitad de la gente en nuestro mundo jamás ha estado en una escuela. No se han topado con profesores y están privados del privilegio de llegar a ser desertores escolares. No obstante, aprenden eficazmente el mensaje que la escuela enseña: que deben tener escuela y más y más escuela. La escuela les instruye acerca de su propia inferioridad mediante el cobrador de impuestos que les hace pagar por ella, mediante el demagogo que les suscita las esperanzas de tenerla, o bien mediante sus niños cuando éstos se ven enviciados por ella. De modo que a los pobres se les quita su respeto por sí mismos al suscribirse a un credo que concede la salvación sólo a través de la escuela. La Iglesia les da al menos la posibilidad de arrepentirse en la hora de su muerte. La escuela les deja con la esperanza (una esperanza falsificada) de que sus nietos la conseguirán. Esa esperanza es, por cierto, otro aprendizaje más que proviene de la escuela, pero no de los profesores. + +Los alumnos jamás han atribuido a sus maestros lo que han aprendido. Tanto los brillantes como los lerdos han confiado siempre en la memorización, la lectura y el ingenio para pasar sus exámenes, movidos por el garrote o por la obtención de una carrera ambicionada. + +Los adultos tienden a crear fantasías románticas sobre su periodo de escuela. Atribuyen retrospectivamente su aprendizaje al maestro cuya paciencia aprendieron a admirar. Pero esos mismos adultos se preocuparán por la salud mental de un niño que corriera a casa a contarles qué ha aprendido de cada uno de sus profesores. Las escuelas crean trabajos para maestros de escuela, independientemente de lo que aprendan de ellos sus alumnos. + +3\. _Asistencia a jornada completa_. Cada mes veo una nueva lista de propuestas que hace al AID[^n06] alguna industria estadunidense, sugiriéndole reemplazar a los “practicantes del aula” latinoamericanos por unos disciplinados administradores de sistemas o simplemente por la televisión. Pero, aunque el profesor sea una maestra de primaria o un equipo de tipos con delantales blancos, y que logren enseñar la materia indicada en el catálogo o fracasen en el intento, el maestro profesional crea un entorno sagrado. + +La incertidumbre acerca del futuro de la enseñanza profesional pone al aula en peligro. Si los educadores profesionales se especializan en fomentar el aprendizaje tendrían que abandonar un sistema que exige entre 750 y 1 500 reuniones por año. Pero naturalmente los profesores hacen mucho más que eso. La sabiduría institucional de la escuela dice a los padres, a los alumnos y a los educadores que el profesor, para que pueda enseñar, debe ejercer su autoridad en un recinto sagrado. Esto es válido incluso para profesores cuyos alumnos pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo escolar en un aula sin muros. + +La escuela, por su naturaleza misma, tiende a reclamar la totalidad del tiempo y las energías de sus participantes. Esto a su vez hace del profesor un custodio, un predicador y un terapeuta. + +El maestro funda su autoridad sobre una pretensión diferente en cada uno de estos tres papeles. _El profesor-como-custodio_ actúa como maestro de ceremonias que guía a sus alumnos a lo largo de un ritual dilatado y laberíntico. Es árbitro del cumplimiento de las normas y administra las intrincadas rúbricas de iniciación a la vida. En el mejor de los casos, monta la escena para la adquisición de una habilidad como siempre han hecho los maestros de escuela. Sin hacerse ilusiones acerca de producir ningún saber profundo, somete a sus alumnos a ciertas rutinas básicas. + +El _profesor-como-moralista_ reemplaza a los padres, a Dios, al Estado. Adoctrina al alumno acerca de lo bueno y lo malo, no sólo en la escuela, sino en la sociedad en general. Se presenta _in loco parentis_ para cada cual y asegura así que todos se sientan hijos del mismo Estado. + +El _profesor-como-terapeuta_ se siente autorizado a inmiscuirse en la vida privada de su alumno a fin de ayudarle a desarrollarse como persona. Cuando esta función la desempeña un custodio y predicador, significa por lo común que persuade al alumno a someterse a una domesticación de su visión de la verdad y de su sentido de lo justo. + +La afirmación de que una sociedad liberal puede basarse en la escuela moderna, es paradójica. Todas las defensas de la libertad individual quedan anuladas en los tratos de un maestro de escuela con su alumno. Cuando el maestro funde en su persona las funciones de juez, ideólogo y médico, el estilo fundamental de la sociedad es pervertido por el proceso mismo que debiera preparar para la vida. Un maestro que combine estos tres poderes contribuye mucho más a la deformación del niño que las leyes que dictan su menor edad legal o económica, o que restringen su libertad de reunión o de vivienda. + +Los maestros no son en absoluto los únicos en ofrecer servicios terapéuticos. Los psiquiatras, los consejeros vocacionales y laborales, y hasta los abogados ayudan a sus clientes a decidir, a desarrollar sus personalidades y a aprender. Pero el sentido común le dice al cliente que dichos profesionales deben abstenerse de imponer sus opiniones sobre lo bueno y lo malo, o de obligar a nadie a seguir su consejo. Los maestros de escuelas y los curas son los únicos profesionales que se sienten con derecho para inmiscuirse en los asuntos privados de sus clientes al mismo tiempo que predican a un público obligado. + +Los niños no están protegidos ni por la Primera ni por la Quinta Enmienda[^n07] cuando están frente a ese sacerdote secular, el profesor. El niño tiene que enfrentarse con un hombre que usa una triple corona invisible y que, como la tiara papal, es el símbolo de la triple autoridad conjugada en una persona. Para el niño, el maestro pontifica como pastor, profeta y sacerdote —es a un mismo tiempo guía, maestro y administrador de un ritual sagrado—. Conjuga las pretensiones de los papas medievales en una sociedad constituida bajo la garantía de que tales pretensiones no serán jamás ejercidas conjuntamente por una institución establecida y obligatoria —la Iglesia o el Estado—. + +Definir a los niños como alumnos a jornada completa permite al profesor ejercer sobre sus personas una especie de poder que está mucho menos limitado por restricciones constitucionales o consuetudinarias que el poder detentado por el guardián de otros enclaves sociales. La edad cronológica de los niños los descalifica respecto de las salvaguardas que son de rutina para adultos situados en un asilo moderno —un manicomio, un monasterio o una cárcel—. + +Bajo la mirada autoritaria del maestro, los valores se confunden y las diferencias se borran. Las distinciones entre moralidad, legalidad y valor personal se difuminan y eventualmente se eliminan. Se hace sentir cada transgresión como un delito múltiple. Se cuenta con que el delincuente sienta que ha quebrantado una norma, que se ha comportado de modo inmoral y se ha abandonado. A un alumno que ha conseguido hábilmente ayuda en un examen se le dice que es un delincuente, un corrompido y un mequetrefe. + +La asistencia a clases saca a los niños del mundo cotidiano de la cultura occidental y los sumerge en un ambiente mucho más primitivo, mágico y mortalmente serio. La escuela no podría crear un enclave como éste, dentro del cual se suspende físicamente a los menores durante muchos años sucesivos de las normas de la realidad ordinaria, si no tuviera el poder de encarcelar físicamente a los menores durante esos años en su territorio sagrado. La norma de asistencia posibilita que el aula sirva de útero mágico, del cual el niño es dado periódicamente a luz al terminar el día escolar y el año escolar, hasta que es finalmente lanzado a la vida adulta. Ni la niñez universalmente prolongada ni la atmósfera sofocante del aula podrían existir sin las escuelas. Sin embargo, las escuelas, como canales obligatorios de aprendizaje, podrían existir sin ninguna de ambas y ser más represivas y destructivas que todo lo que hayamos podido conocer hasta la fecha. Para entender lo que significa desescolarizar la sociedad y no tan sólo reformar el sistema educativo establecido, debemos concentrarnos ahora en el currículum oculto de la escolarización. No nos ocupamos en este caso, y directamente, del currículum oculto de las calles del gueto, que deja marcado al pobre, o del currículum camuflado de salón, que beneficia al rico. Nos interesa más bien llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que el ceremonial o ritual de la escolarización misma constituye un currículum escondido de este tipo. Incluso el mejor de los maestros no puede proteger del todo a sus alumnos contra él. Este currículum oculto de la escolarización añade inevitablemente prejuicio y culpa a la discriminación que una sociedad practica contra algunos de sus miembros y realza el privilegio de otros con un nuevo título con el cual tener en menos a la mayoría. De modo igualmente inevitable, este currículum oculto sirve como ritual de iniciación a una sociedad de consumo orientada hacia el crecimiento, tanto para ricos como para pobres. + +# Ritualización del progreso + +El graduado en una universidad ha sido escolarizado para cumplir un servicio selectivo entre los ricos del mundo sean cuales fueren sus afirmaciones de solidaridad con el Tercer Mundo, cada estadunidense que ha conseguido su título universitario ha tenido una educación que cuesta una cantidad cinco veces mayor que los ingresos medios de toda una vida en el seno de la mitad desheredada de la humanidad. A un estudiante latinoamericano se le introduce en esta exclusiva fraternidad acordándole para su educación un gasto por lo menos 350 veces mayor que el de sus conciudadanos de clase media. Salvo muy raras excepciones, el graduado universitario de un país pobre se siente más a gusto con sus colegas norteamericanos o europeos que con sus compatriotas no escolarizados, y a todos los estudiantes se les somete a un proceso académico que les hace sentirse felices sólo en compañía de otros consumidores de los productos de la máquina educativa. + +La universidad moderna sólo confiere el privilegio de disentir a aquellos que han sido comprobados y clasificados como fabricantes de dinero o detentadores de poder en potencia. A nadie se le conceden fondos provenientes de impuestos para que tengan así tiempo libre para autoeducarse o el derecho de educar a otros, a menos que al mismo tiempo puedan certificarse sus logros. Las escuelas eligen para cada nivel superior sucesivo a aquellos que en las primeras etapas del juego hayan demostrado ser buenos riesgos[^n08] para el orden establecido. Al tener un monopolio sobre los recursos para el aprendizaje y sobre la investidura de los papeles por desempeñar en la sociedad, la universidad invita a sus filas al descubridor y al disidente en potencia. Un grado siempre deja su tinta indeleble con el precio en el currículum de su consumidor. Los graduados universitarios diplomados encajan sólo en un mundo que pone un marbete con el precio en sus cuellos dándoles así el poder de pertenecer a un mundo donde todo recibe un valor mercantil. En cada país, el monto que consume el graduado universitario fija la pauta para todos los demás; si fueran gente civilizada con trabajo o cesantes habrán de aspirar al estilo de vida de los graduados universitarios. + +De este modo, la universidad tiene por efecto imponer normas de consumo en el trabajo o en el hogar, y lo hace en todo el mundo y bajo todos los sistemas políticos. Cuanto menos graduados universitarios hay en un país, tanto más sirven de modelo para el resto de la población sus ilustradas exigencias. La brecha entre el consumo de un graduado universitario y el de un ciudadano corriente es incluso más ancha en Rusia, China y Argelia que en Estados Unidos. Los coches, los viajes en avión y los magnetófonos confieren una distinción más notoria en un país socialista en donde únicamente un título, y no tan sólo el dinero, puede procurarlos. + +La capacidad de la universidad para fijar metas de consumo es algo nuevo. En muchos países la universidad adquirió este poder sólo en la década de los años sesenta, conforme la ilusión de acceso parejo a la educación pública comenzó a difundirse. Antes de entonces la universidad protegía la libertad de expresión de un individuo, pero no convertía automáticamente su conocimiento en riqueza. Durante la Edad Media, ser un estudioso significaba ser pobre y hasta mendicante. En virtud de su vocación, el estudioso medieval aprendía latín, se convertía en un _outsider_ digno tanto de la mofa como de la estimación del campesino y del príncipe, del burgués y del clérigo. + +Para triunfar en el mundo, el escolástico tenía que ingresar primero en él, entrando en la carrera funcionaria, preferiblemente la eclesiástica. La universidad antigua era una zona liberada para el descubrimiento y el debate de ideas nuevas y viejas. Los maestros y los estudiantes se reunían para leer los textos de otros maestros, muertos mucho antes, y las palabras vivas de los maestros difuntos daban nuevas perspectivas a las falacias del mundo presente. La universidad era entonces una comunidad de búsqueda académica y de inquietud endémica. + +En la universidad multidisciplinaria moderna esta comunidad ha huido hacia las márgenes, en donde se junta en un apartamento, en la oficina de un profesor o en los aposentos del capellán. El propósito estructural de la universidad moderna guarda poca relación con la búsqueda tradicional. Desde los días de Gutenberg, el intercambio de la indagación disciplinada y crítica se ha trasladado en su mayor parte de la “cátedra” a la imprenta. La universidad moderna ha perdido por incumplimiento su posibilidad de ofrecer un escenario simple para encuentros que sean autónomos y anárquicos, enfocados hacia un interés y sin embargo espontáneos y vivaces, y ha elegido en cambio administrar el proceso mediante el cual se produce lo que ha dado en llamarse investigación y enseñanza. + +Desde el _Sputnik_ , la universidad estadunidense ha estado tratando de ponerse a la par con el número de graduados que sacan los soviéticos. Ahora los alemanes están abandonando su tradición académica y están construyendo unos _campus_ para ponerse a la par con los estadunidenses. Durante esta década quieren aumentar sus erogaciones en escuelas primarias y secundarias de 14 000 a 59 000 millones de marcos alemanes y triplicar los desembolsos para la instrucción superior. Los franceses se proponen elevar para 1980 a 10% de su PNB el monto gastado en escuelas, y la Fundación Ford ha estado empujando a países pobres de América Latina a elevar sus desembolsos per cápita para los graduados “respetables” a los niveles estadunidenses. Los estudiantes consideran sus estudios como la inversión que produce el mayor rédito monetario, y las naciones los ven como un factor clave para el desarrollo. + +Para la mayoría que va en pos de un grado universitario, la universidad no ha perdido prestigio, pero desde 1968 ha perdido notoriamente categoría entre sus creyentes. Los estudiantes se niegan a prepararse para la guerra, la contaminación y la perpetuación del prejuicio. Los profesores les ayudan en su recusación de la legitimidad del gobierno, de su política exterior, de la educación y del sistema de vida norteamericano. No pocos rechazan títulos y se preparan para una vida en una contracultura, fuera de la sociedad diplomada. Parecen elegir la vía de los Fraticelli medievales o de los Alumbrados de la Reforma, que fueron los _hippies_ y desertores escolares de su época. Otros reconocen el monopolio de las escuelas sobre los recursos que ellos necesitan para construir una contrasociedad. Buscan apoyo el uno en el otro para vivir con integridad mientras se someten al ritual académico. Forman, por así decirlo, focos de herejía en medio de la jerarquía. + +No obstante, grandes sectores de la población general miran al místico moderno y al heresiarca moderno con alarma. Éstos amenazan la economía consumista, el privilegio democrático y la imagen que de sí mismo tiene Estados Unidos. Pero no es posible eliminarlos con sólo desearlo. Son cada vez menos aquellos a los que es posible reconvertir y reincorporar en las filas mediante sutilezas —como, por ejemplo, darles el cargo de enseñar como profesores su herejía—. De aquí la búsqueda de medios que hagan posible ya sea librarse de disidentes, ya sea disminuir la importancia de la universidad que les sirve de base para protestar. + +A los estudiantes y a la facultad que ponen en tela de juicio la legitimidad de la universidad, y lo hacen pagando un alto costo personal, no les parece por cierto estar fijando normas de consumo ni favoreciendo un sistema determinado de producción. Aquellos que han fundado grupos tales como el Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars y el North American Congress of Latin America (NACLA) han sido de los más eficaces para cambiar radicalmente la visión que millones de personas jóvenes tenían de países extranjeros. Otros más han tratado de formular interpretaciones marxistas de la sociedad norteamericana o han figurado entre los responsables de la creación de comunas. Sus logros dan nuevo vigor al argumento de que la existencia de la universidad es necesaria para una crítica social sostenida. + +No cabe duda de que en este momento la universidad ofrece una combinación singular de circunstancias que permite a algunos de sus miembros criticar el conjunto de la sociedad. Proporciona tiempo, movilidad, acceso a los iguales y a la información, así como cierta impunidad —privilegios de que no disponen igualmente otros sectores de la población—. Pero la universidad permite esta libertad sólo a quienes ya han sido profundamente iniciados en la sociedad de consumo y en la necesidad de alguna especie de escolaridad pública obligatoria. + +El sistema escolar de hoy en día desempeña la triple función que ha sido común a las Iglesias poderosas a lo largo de la historia. Es simultáneamente el depósito del mito de la sociedad, la institucionalización de las contradicciones de ese mito y el lugar donde ocurre el ritual que reproduce y encubre las disciplinas entre el mito y la realidad. El sistema escolar, y en particular la universidad, proporciona hoy grandes oportunidades para criticar el mito y para rebelarse contra las perversiones institucionales. Pero el ritual que exige tolerancia para con las contradicciones fundamentales entre mito e institución pasa todavía por lo general sin ponerse en tela de juicio, pues ni la crítica ideológica ni la acción social pueden dar a luz una nueva sociedad. Sólo el desencanto del ritual social central, el desligarse del mismo y reformarlo pueden llevar a cabo un cambio radical. + +La universidad estadunidense ha llegado a ser la etapa final del rito de iniciación más global que el mundo haya conocido. Ninguna sociedad histórica ha logrado sobrevivir sin ritual o mito, pero la nuestra es la primera que ha necesitado una iniciación tan aburrida, morosa, destructiva y costosa a su mito. La civilización mundial contemporánea es también la primera que estimó necesario racionalizar su ritual fundamental de iniciación en nombre de la educación. No podemos iniciar una reforma de la educación a menos que entendamos primero que ni el aprendizaje individual ni la igualdad social pueden acrecentarse mediante el ritual de la escolarización. No podremos ir más allá de la sociedad de consumo a menos que entendamos primero que las escuelas públicas obligatorias reproducen inevitablemente dicha sociedad, independientemente de lo que se enseñe en ellas. + +El proyecto de desmitologización que propongo no puede limitarse tan sólo a la universidad. Cualquier intento de reformar la universidad sin ocuparse del sistema del que forma parte integral es como tratar de hacer la reforma urbana en Nueva York, desde el piso decimosegundo hacia arriba. La mayor parte de las reformas introducidas en la enseñanza superior, equivalen a rascacielos construidos sobre chozas. Sólo una generación que se críe sin escuelas obligatorias será capaz de recrear la universidad. + + +## El mito de los valores institucionalizados + +La escuela inicia asimismo el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin. Este mito moderno se funda en la creencia según la cual el sistema de producción produce inevitablemente algo de valor y que, por consiguiente, la producción produce necesariamente demanda. La escuela nos enseña que la instrucción produce aprendizaje. La existencia de las escuelas produce la demanda de escolaridad. Una vez que hemos aprendido a necesitar la escuela, todas nuestras actividades tienden a tomar la forma de relaciones de clientes respecto de otras instituciones especializadas. Una vez que se ha desacreditado al hombre o a la mujer autodidactos, toda actividad no profesional se hace sospechosa. En la escuela se nos enseña que el resultado de la asistencia es un aprendizaje valioso; que el valor del aprendizaje aumenta con el monto de la información de entrada y, finalmente, que este valor puede medirse y documentarse mediante grados y diplomas. + +De hecho, el aprendizaje es la actividad humana que menos manipulación de terceros necesita. La mayor parte del aprendizaje no es la consecuencia de una instrucción. Es más bien el resultado de una participación a la que no se estorba en un entorno significativo. La mayoría de la gente aprende mejor “metiendo la cuchara” y, sin embargo, la escuela les hace identificar su desarrollo cognoscitivo personal con una programación y una manipulación complicadas. + +Una vez que un hombre o una mujer ha aceptado la necesidad de la escuela, es presa fácil de otras instituciones. Una vez que los jóvenes han permitido que a su imaginación la forme la instrucción curricular, están condicionados para las planificaciones institucionales de toda especie. La “institución” les ahoga el horizonte imaginativo. No se les puede traicionar, sólo engañar en el precio, porque se les ha enseñado a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. Para bien o para mal, ya no serán sorprendidos por terceros, pues se les ha enseñado qué pueden esperar de cualquier otra persona que ha sido enseñada como ellos. Esto es válido para el caso de otra persona o de una máquina. + +Esta transferencia de responsabilidad desde sí mismo a una institución garantiza la regresión social, especialmente desde el momento en que se ha aceptado como una obligación. Así, los rebeldes contra el _Alma Mater_ a menudo “la consiguen” e ingresan en su facultad en vez de desarrollar la valentía de infectar a otros con su enseñanza personal y de asumir la responsabilidad de las consecuencias de tal enseñanza. Esto sugiere la posibilidad de una nueva historia de Edipo —Edipo Profesor, que “consigue” a su madre a fin de engendrar hijos de ella—. El hombre adicto a ser enseñado busca su seguridad en la enseñanza compulsiva. La mujer que experimenta su conocimiento como el resultado de un proceso quiere reproducirlo en otros. + + +## El mito de la medición de los valores + +Los valores institucionalizados que infunde la escuela son valores cuantificados. La escuela inicia a los jóvenes en un mundo en el que todo puede medirse, incluso su imaginación y hasta el hombre mismo. + +Pero el desarrollo personal no es una entidad mensurable. Es crecimiento en disensión disciplinada, que no puede medirse respecto a ningún cartabón, a ningún currículum, ni compararse con lo logrado por algún otro. En ese aprendizaje podemos emular a otros sólo en el empeño imaginativo, y seguir sus huellas más bien que remedar sus maneras de andar. El aprendizaje que yo aprecio es una recreación inmensurable. + +Las escuelas pretenden desglosar el aprendizaje en “materias”, para incorporar en el alumno un currículum hecho con estos ladrillos prefabricados y para medir el resultado con una escala internacional. Las personas que se someten a la norma de otros para la medida de su propio desarrollo personal pronto se aplican el mismo cartabón a sí mismos. Ya no es necesario ponerlos en su lugar, pues se colocan solos en sus casilleros correspondientes, se comprimen en el nicho que se les ha enseñado a buscar y, en el curso de este mismo proceso, colocan asimismo a sus prójimos en sus lugares, hasta que todo y todos encajan. + +Las personas que han sido escolarizadas hasta su talla dejan que la experiencia no mensurada se les escape entre los dedos. Para ellas, lo que no puede medirse se hace secundario, amenazante. No es necesario robarles su creatividad. Con la instrucción, han desaprendido a “hacer” lo suyo o a “ser” ellas mismas, y valoran sólo aquello que ha sido fabricado o podría fabricarse. + +Una vez que se ha escolarizado a las personas con la idea de que los valores pueden producirse y medirse, tienden a aceptar toda clase de clasificaciones jerárquicas. Existe una escala para el desarrollo de las naciones, otra para la inteligencia de los nenes, e incluso el avance hacia la paz puede medirse según un recuento de personas. En un mundo escolarizado, el camino hacia la felicidad está pavimentado con un índice de precios para el consumidor. + + +## El mito de los valores envasados + +La escuela vende currículum: un atado de mercancías hecho con el mismo proceso y con la misma estructura que cualquier otra mercancía. La producción del currículum para la mayoría de las escuelas comienza con la investigación presuntamente científica; fundados en ella los ingenieros de la educación predicen la demanda futura y las herramientas para la línea de montaje, dentro de los límites establecidos por presupuestos y tabúes. El distribuidor-profesor entrega el producto terminado al consumidor-alumno, cuyas reacciones son cuidadosamente estudiadas y tabuladas a fin de proporcionar datos para la investigación que servirán para preparar el modelo siguiente que podrá ser “desgraduado”, “concebido para alumnado”, “concebido para un trabajo en equipo”, “con ayudas visuales” o “centrado en temas”. + +El resultado del proceso de producción de un currículum se asemeja a cualquier otro artículo moderno de primera necesidad. Es un paquete de significados planificados, una mercancía cuyo “atractivo equilibrado” la hace comercializable para una clientela lo bastante grande como para justificar su elevado coste de producción. A los consumidores-alumnos se les enseña a ajustar sus deseos a valores comercializables. De modo que se les hace sentir culpables si no se comportan en conformidad con los resultados de los análisis de mercado y si no obtienen los grados y diplomas que los colocarán en la categoría laboral que se les ha inducido a esperar. + +Los educadores pueden justificar unos currícula más costosos fundándose en lo que han observado, a saber, que las dificultades de aprendizaje se elevan en proporción al costo del currículum. Ésta es una aplicación de aquella ley de Parkinson que dice que una labor se expande junto con los recursos disponibles para ejecutarla. Esta ley puede verificarse en todos los niveles de la escuela: por ejemplo, las dificultades de lectura han sido un tema principal de debate en que los grados per cápita en ellas se han aproximado a los niveles estadunidenses de 1950 —año en el cual las dificultades para aprender a leer llegaron a ser tema de importancia en las escuelas de Estados Unidos. + +De hecho, los estudiantes saludables redoblan su resistencia a la enseñanza conforme se ven más cabalmente manipulados. Su resistencia no se debe al estilo autoritario de una escuela pública o al estilo seductor de algunas escuelas libres, sino al planteamiento fundamental común a todas las escuelas —la idea de que el juicio de una persona debiera determinar qué y cuándo debe aprender otra persona—. + + +## El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo + +Los crecientes costes per cápita de la instrucción, aun cuando vayan acompañados por réditos de aprendizaje decrecientes, aumentan paradójicamente el valor del alumno o alumna ante sus propios ojos y su valor en el mercado. La escuela, casi al coste que sea, iza a empellones al alumno hasta el nivel del consumo curricular competitivo, hasta meterlo en el progreso hacia unos niveles cada vez más elevados. Los gastos que motivan al alumno a permanecer en la escuela se desbocan conforme asciende la pirámide. En niveles más altos adoptan el disfraz de nuevos estadios de futbol o programas llamados de Educación Internacional. Aunque no enseña ninguna otra cosa, la escuela enseña al menos el valor de la escalada: el valor de la manera estadunidense de hacer las cosas. + +La guerra de Vietnam se ajusta a la lógica prevaleciente. Su éxito se ha medido por el número de personas efectivamente tratadas con balas baratas descargadas a un coste inmenso, y a este cálculo salvaje se le llama desvergonzadamente “recuento de cuerpos”. Así como los negocios son los negocios, la acumulación inacabable de dinero, así también la guerra es el matar, la acumulación inacabable de cuerpos muertos. De manera semejante, la educación es escolarización, y este proceso sin término se cuenta en alumnos-hora. Los diferentes procesos son irreversibles y se justifican por sí mismos. Según las normas económicas, el país se hace cada vez más rico. Según las normas de la contabilidad mortal, la nación continúa ganando perennemente sus guerras. Y conforme a las normas escolares, la población se va haciendo cada vez más educada. + +El programa escolar está hambriento de un bocado cada vez mayor de instrucción, pero aun cuando esta hambre conduzca a una absorción sostenida, nunca da el gozo de saber algo a satisfacción. Cada tema llega envasado con la instrucción de continuar consumiendo una “oferta” tras otra, y el envase del año anterior es siempre anticuado para el consumidor del año en curso. El fraudulento negocio de los libros de texto está construido sobre esta demanda. Los reformadores de la educación prometen a cada generación lo último y lo mejor, y al público se le escolariza para pedir lo que ellos ofrecen. Tanto el desertor, a quien se le hace recordar a perpetuidad lo que se perdió, como el graduado, a quien se le hace sentir inferior a la nueva casta de estudiantes, saben exactamente dónde están situados en el ritual de engaños crecientes, y continúan apoyando una sociedad que, para denominar la brecha cada vez más ancha de frustración, usa el eufemismo de “revolución de expectativas crecientes”. + +Pero el crecimiento concebido como un consumo sin términos —el progreso eterno— no puede conducir jamás a la madurez. El compromiso con un ilimitado aumento cuantitativo vicia la posibilidad de un desarrollo orgánico. + + +## El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial + +En las naciones desarrolladas, la edad para salir de la escuela excede el aumento de los años de vida probable. Dentro de una década se cortarán ambas curvas y crearán un problema para Jessica Mitford y para los profesionales que se interesan por la “educación terminal”. Me hace recordar la Edad Media tardía, cuando la demanda por los servicios de la Iglesia sobrepasó la duración de la vida, y se creó el “purgatorio” para purificar a las almas bajo el control papal antes de que pudiesen ingresar en la paz eterna. Lógicamente, esto condujo primero a un tráfico de indulgencias y luego a un intento de Reforma. El Mito del Consumo Sin Fin ocupa ahora el lugar de la creencia en la vida eterna. + +Arnold Toynbee señaló que la decadencia de una gran cultura suele ir acompañada por el surgimiento de una nueva Iglesia Universal que lleva la esperanza al proletariado interior mientras atiende al mismo tiempo las necesidades de una nueva casta guerrera. La escuela parece eminentemente apta para ser la Iglesia Universal de nuestra decadente cultura. Ninguna institución podría ocultar mejor a sus participantes la profunda discrepancia entre los principios sociales y la realidad social en el mundo de hoy. Secular, científica y negadora de la muerte, se ciñe estrechamente al ánimo moderno. Su apariencia clásica, crítica, la hace aparecer, si no antirreligiosa, al menos pluralista. Su currículum define la ciencia y la define a ella misma mediante la llamada investigación científica. Nadie completa la escuela —todavía—. No cierra sus puertas a nadie sin antes ofrecerle una oportunidad más: educación de recuperación, para adultos y de continuación. + +La escuela sirve como una eficaz creadora y preservadora del mito social debido a su estructura como juego ritual de promociones graduadas. La introducción a este ritual es mucho más importante que el asunto enseñado o el cómo se enseña. Es el juego mismo el que escolariza, el que se mete en la sangre y se convierte en hábito. Se inicia a una sociedad entera en el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin de servicios. Esto ocurre hasta tal punto que la formalidad de participar en el ritual sin término se hace obligatoria y compulsiva por doquier. La escuela ordena una rivalidad ritual en forma de juego internacional que obliga a los competidores a achacar los males del mundo a aquellos que no pueden o no quieren jugar. La escuela es un ritual de iniciación que introduce al neófito en la sagrada carrera del consumo progresivo, un ritual propiciatorio cuyos sacerdotes académicos son mediadores entre los creyentes y los dioses del privilegio y del poder, un ritual de expiación que sacrifica a sus desertores, marcándolos a fuego como chivos expiatorios del subdesarrollo. + +Incluso aquellos que en el mejor de los casos pasan unos pocos años en la escuela —y éste es el caso de la abrumadora mayoría en América Latina, Asia y África— aprenden a sentirse culpables debido a su subconsumo de escolarización. En México es obligatorio aprobar seis grados de escuela. Los niños nacidos en el tercio económico inferior tienen sólo dos posibilidades sobre tres de aprobar el primer grado. Si lo aprueban, tienen cuatro probabilidades sobre 100 de terminar la escolaridad obligatoria en el sexto grado. Si nacen en el tercio medio, sus probabilidades aumentan a 12 sobre 100. Con estas pautas, México ha tenido más éxito que la mayoría de las otras 26 repúblicas latinoamericanas en cuanto a proporcionar educación pública. + +Todos los niños saben, en todas partes, que se les ha dado una posibilidad, aunque desigual, en una lotería obligatoria, y la supuesta igualdad de la norma internacional realza ahora la pobreza original de esos niños con la discriminación autoinfligida que el desertor acepta. Se les ha escolarizado en la creencia de las expectativas crecientes y pueden racionalizar ahora su creciente frustración fuera de la escuela aceptando el rechazo de la gracia escolástica que les ha caído en suerte. Se les expulsa del paraíso porque, habiendo sido bautizados, no fueron a la Iglesia. Nacidos en pecado original, se les bautiza en el primer grado, pero van al Gehenna (que en hebreo significa “conventillo”) debido a sus faltas personales. Así como Max Weber examinó los efectos sociales de la creencia en que la salvación pertenecía a quienes acumulaban riqueza, podemos observar ahora que la gracia está reservada para aquellos que acumulan años de escuela. + + +## El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas + +La escuela conjuga las expectativas del consumidor expresadas en sus pretensiones, con las creencias del productor expresadas en su ritual. Es una expresión litúrgica del _cargocult_[^n09] que recorrió la Melanesia en la década de 1940-1950, que inyectaba en sus cultores la creencia de que si se colocaban una corbata negra sobre el torso desnudo, Jesús llegaría en un vapor trayendo una nevera, un par de pantalones y una máquina de coser para cada creyente. + +La escuela funde el crecimiento en humillante dependencia de un maestro con el crecimiento en el vano sentido de omnipotencia que es tan típico del alumno que quiere ir a enseñar a todas las naciones a salvarse. El ritual está moldeado según los severos hábitos de trabajo de los obreros de la construcción, y su finalidad es celebrar el mito de un paraíso terrestre de consumo sin fin, que es la única esperanza del desgraciado y el desposeído. + +A lo largo de la historia ha habido epidemias de insaciables expectativas en este mundo, especialmente entre grupos colonizados y marginales en todas las culturas. Los judíos tuvieron durante el Imperio romano sus Esenios y Mesías judíos, los siervos en la Reforma tuvieron su Thomas Münzer, los desposeídos indios desde el Paraguay hasta Dakota sus contagiosos bailarines. Estas sectas estaban siempre dirigidas por un profeta, y limitaban sus promesas a unos pocos elegidos. En cambio la espera del reino a que induce la escuela es impersonal más que profética, y universal más que local. El hombre ha llegado a ser el ingeniero de su propio Mesías y promete las limitadas recompensas de la ciencia a aquellos que somete a una progresiva tecnificación para su reino. + + +## La nueva alienación + +La escuela no sólo es la Nueva Religión Mundial. Es también el mercado de trabajo de crecimiento más veloz del mundo. La tecnificación de los consumidores ha llegado a ser el principal sector de crecimiento de la economía. Conforme el coste de la producción disminuye en las naciones ricas, se produce una concentración creciente de capital y trabajo en la vasta empresa de equipar al hombre para un consumo disciplinario. Durante la década pasada las inversiones de capital relacionadas directamente con el sistema escolar aumentaron con velocidad incluso mayor que los gastos para defensa. El desarme tan sólo aceleraría el proceso por el cual la industria del aprendizaje se encamina al centro de la economía nacional. La escuela proporciona oportunidades ilimitadas para el derroche legitimizado, mientras su destructividad pasa inadvertida y crece el coste de los paliativos. + +Si a quienes asisten a jornada completa agregamos los que enseñan a jornada completa, nos percatamos de que esta llamada superestructura ha llegado a ser el principal patrono de la sociedad. En Estados Unidos hay 62 millones en la escuela y 80 millones trabajando en otras cosas. Esto a menudo lo han olvidado los analistas neomarxistas cuando dicen que el proceso de desescolarización debe posponerse o dejarse pendiente hasta que otros desórdenes, considerados tradicionalmente como más importantes, los haya corregido una revolución económica y política. Pero hay que comprender que la escuela es una industria antes de querer edificar una estrategia revolucionaria realista. Para Marx, el coste de producir las demandas de bienes apenas si era significativo. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la mano de obra está empleada en la producción de demandas que puede satisfacer la industria que hace un uso intenso del capital. La mayor parte de este trabajo se realiza en la escuela. + +En el esquema tradicional, la alienación era una consecuencia directa de que el trabajo se convirtiera en labor asalariada que privaba al hombre de su oportunidad para crear y recrearse. Ahora a los menores los prealienan las escuelas que los aíslan del mundo mientras juegan a ser productores y consumidores de su propio conocimiento, al que se concibe como una mercancía en el mercado en la escuela. La escuela hace de la alienación una preparación para la vida, privando así a la educación de realidad y al trabajo de creatividad. La escuela prepara para la alienante institucionalización de la vida al enseñar la necesidad de ser enseñado. Una vez que se aprende esta lección, la gente pierde su incentivo para desarrollarse con independencia; ya no encuentra atractivos en relacionarse y se cierra a las sorpresas que la vida ofrece cuando no está predeterminada por la definición institucional. La escuela emplea directa o indirectamente a una mayor parte de la población. La escuela o bien guarda a la gente de por vida o asegura el que encaje en alguna otra institución. + +La Nueva Iglesia Mundial es la industria del conocimiento, proveedora de opio y banco de trabajo durante un número creciente de años de la vida de un individuo. La desescolarización es por consiguiente fundamental para cualquier movimiento de liberación del hombre. + + +## La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización + +La escuela no es de ningún modo, por cierto, la única institución moderna cuya finalidad primaria es moldear la visión de la realidad en el hombre. El currículum escondido de la vida familiar, de la conscripción militar, del llamado profesionalismo o de los medios informativos desempeña un importante papel en la manipulación institucional de la visión del mundo que tiene el hombre, de su lenguaje y de sus demandas. Pero la escuela esclaviza más profunda y sistemáticamente, puesto que sólo a ella se le acredita la función principal de formar el juicio crítico y, paradójicamente, trata de hacerlo haciendo que el aprender sobre sí mismo, sobre los demás y sobre la naturaleza dependa de un proceso preempacado. La escuela nos alcanza de manera tan íntima que ninguno puede esperar liberarse de ella mediante algo externo. + +Muchos de los que se autodenominan revolucionarios son víctimas de la escuela. Incluso ven la “liberación” como el producto de algo institucional. Sólo al librarse uno mismo de la escuela se disipa esa ilusión. El descubrimiento de que la mayor parte del aprendizaje no requiere enseñanza no puede ser ni manipulado ni planificado. Cada uno de nosotros es responsable de su propia desescolarización, y sólo nosotros tenemos el poder de hacerlo. No puede excusarse a nadie si no logra liberarse de la escolarización. El pueblo no pudo liberarse de la Corona sino hasta que al menos algunos de ellos se liberaron de la Iglesia establecida. No pueden liberarse del consumo progresivo hasta que no se liberen de la escuela obligatoria. + +Todos estamos metidos en la escolarización, tanto desde el aspecto de la producción como desde el del consumo. Estamos supersticiosamente convencidos de que el buen aprendizaje puede y debería producirse en nosotros —y de que podemos producirlo en otros—. Nuestro intento de desligarnos del concepto de escuela hará surgir las resistencias que hallamos en nosotros mismos cuando tratamos de renunciar al consumo ilimitado y a la ubicua suposición de que a los otros se les puede manipular por su propio bien. Nadie está totalmente exento de explotar a otros en el proceso de escolarización. + +La escuela es el más grande y más anónimo de todos los patrones. De hecho es el mejor empleo de un nuevo tipo de empresa, sucesora del gremio, de la fábrica y de la sociedad anónima. Las empresas multinacionales que han dominado la economía están siendo complementadas ahora, y puede que algún día sean suplantadas por organismos de servicio con planificación supranacional. Estas empresas presentan sus servicios de manera que hacen que todos los hombres se sientan obligados a consumirlos. Se rigen por una normativa internacional, redefiniendo el valor de sus servicios periódicamente y por doquiera a un ritmo aproximadamente parejo. + +El “transporte” que se apoya en nuevos coches y supercarreteras atiende a la misma necesidad institucionalmente envasada de comodidad, prestigio, velocidad y equipamiento, independientemente de que sus componentes los produzca o no el Estado. El aparato de la “atención médica” define una especie peculiar de salud, poco importa que sea el individuo o el Estado quien pague el servicio. La promoción graduada a fin de obtener diplomas ajusta al estudiante para ocupar un lugar en la misma pirámide internacional de mano de obra cualificada, independientemente de quien dirija la escuela. + +En todos estos casos el empleo es un beneficio oculto: el chofer de un automóvil privado, el paciente que se somete a hospitalización o el alumno en el aula deben considerase como parte de una nueva clase de “empleados”. Un movimiento de liberación que se inicie en la escuela y, sin embargo, esté fundado en maestros y alumnos como explotados y explotadores simultáneamente, podría anticiparse a las estrategias revolucionarias del futuro; pues un programa radical de desescolarización podría adiestrar a la juventud en el nuevo estilo de revolución necesaria para desafiar a un sistema social que exhibe una “salud”, una “riqueza” y una “seguridad” obligatorias. + +Los riesgos de una rebelión contra la escuela son imprevisibles, pero no son tan horribles como los de una revolución que se inicie en cualquier otra institución principal. La escuela no está todavía organizada para defenderse con tanta eficacia como una nación-Estado, o incluso como una gran sociedad anónima. La liberación de la opresión de las escuelas podría ser incruenta. Las armas del vigilante escolar[^n10] y de sus aliados en los tribunales y en las agencias de empleo podrían tomar medidas muy crueles contra el o la delincuente individual, especialmente si fuese pobre, pero podrían ser a su vez impotentes si surgiera un movimiento de masas. + +La escuela se ha convertido en un problema social; se le ataca por todas partes, y los ciudadanos y los gobiernos patrocinan experimentos no convencionales en todo el mundo. Recurren a insólitos expedientes estadísticos a fin de preservar la fe y salvar las apariencias. El ánimo que existe entre algunos educadores es muy parecido al ánimo de los obispos católicos después del Concilio Vaticano. Los planes de estudio de las llamadas “escuelas libres” se parecen a las liturgias de las misas con música folclórica y rock. Las exigencias de los estudiantes de bachillerato para tener voz y voto en la elección de sus profesores son tan estridentes como las de los feligreses que exigen seleccionar a sus párrocos. Pero para la sociedad está en juego algo mucho mayor si una minoría significativa pierde su fe en la escolaridad. Esto pondría en peligro la supervivencia no sólo del orden económico construido sobre la coproducción de bienes y demandas, sino igualmente del orden político construido sobre la nación-Estado dentro del cual los estudiantes son dados a la luz por la escuela. + +Nuestras alternativas posibles son harto claras. O continuamos creyendo que el aprendizaje institucionalizado es un producto que justifica una inversión ilimitada, o redescubrimos que la legislación, la planificación y la inversión, si de alguna manera encajan en la educación formal, debieran usarse principalmente para derribar las barreras que ahora obstaculizan las posibilidades de aprendizaje, el cual sólo puede ser una actividad personal. + +Si no ponemos en tela de juicio el supuesto de que el conocimiento valedero es una mercancía que en ciertas circunstancias puede metérsele a la fuerza al consumidor, la sociedad se verá cada día más dominada por siniestras seudoescuelas y totalitarios administradores de la información. Los terapeutas pedagógicos drogarán más a sus alumnos a fin de enseñarles mejor, y los estudiantes se drogarán más a fin de conseguir aliviarse de las presiones de los profesores y de la carrera por diplomas. Ejércitos cada día mayores de burócratas presumirán de maestros. El lenguaje del escolar ya se lo ha apropiado el publicista. Ahora el general y el policía tratarán de dignificar sus profesiones disfrazándose de educadores. En una sociedad escolarizada, las guerras y la represión civil encuentran una justificación racional educativa. La guerra pedagógica al estilo Vietnam se justificará cada vez más como la única manera de enseñar a la gente el valor superior del progreso inacabable. + +La represión se considerará como un empeño de misioneros por apresurar la venida del Mesías mecánico. Más y más países recurrirán a la tortura pedagógica puesta ya en práctica en Brasil y Grecia. Esta tortura pedagógica no se usa para extraer información o para satisfacer las necesidades psíquicas de unos sádicos. Se apoya en el terror aleatorio para romper la integridad de toda una población y convertirla en un material plástico para las enseñanzas inventadas por tecnócratas. La naturaleza totalmente destructiva y en constante progreso de la instrucción obligatoria cumplirá cabalmente su lógica final a menos que comencemos a librarnos desde ahora de nuestra _hybris_ pedagógica, nuestra creencia de que el hombre puede hacer lo que no puede Dios, a saber, manipular a otros para salvarlos. + +Muchos comienzan recientemente a darse cuenta de la inexorable destrucción que las tendencias actuales de producción implican para el medio ambiente, pero las personas aisladas tienen un poder muy restringido para cambiar estas tendencias. La manipulación de hombres y mujeres iniciada en la escuela ha llegado también a un punto sin retorno, y la mayoría de las personas aún no se han percatado de ello. Fomentan todavía la reforma escolar, tal como Henry Ford II propone unos nuevos automóviles ponzoñosos. + +Daniel Bell dice que nuestra época se caracteriza por una extrema disyunción entre las estructuras cultural y social; una dedicada a actitudes apocalípticas y la otra a la toma tecnocrática de decisiones. Esto es sin duda verdadero respecto de muchos reformadores de la educación que se sienten impulsados a condenar casi todo aquello que caracteriza a las escuelas modernas —y proponen simultáneamente nuevas escuelas—. + +En su _Estructura de las revoluciones científicas_ , Thomas Kuhn aduce que dicha disonancia precede inevitablemente a la aparición de un nuevo paradigma cognoscitivo. Los hechos que informaban aquellos que observaban la caída libre, aquellos que volvían del otro lado de la Tierra y aquellos que usaban el nuevo telescopio, no se ajustaban a la visión cósmica tolemaica. Súbitamente, se aceptó el paradigma newtoniano. La disonancia que caracteriza a muchos jóvenes de hoy no es tanto cognoscitiva como un asunto de actitudes —un sentimiento acerca de cómo _no_ puede ser una sociedad tolerable—. Lo sorprendente respecto de esta disonancia es la capacidad de un número muy grande de personas para tolerarla. + +La capacidad para ir tras metas incongruentes exige una explicación. Según Max Gluckman, todas las sociedades poseen procedimientos para ocultar tales disonancias de sus miembros. Los rituales pueden ocultar a sus participantes incluso discrepancias y conflictos entre principio social y organización social. Mientras un individuo no sea explícitamente consciente del carácter ritual del proceso a través del cual se le inició en las fuerzas que moldean su cosmos, no puede romper el conjuro y moldear un nuevo cosmos. Mientras no nos percatemos del ritual a través del cual la escuela moldea al consumidor progresivo —el recurso principal de la economía—, no podremos romper el conjuro de esta economía y dar forma a una nueva. + +# Espectro institucional + +La mayoría de los esquemas utópicos y escenarios futurísticos requieren nuevas y costosas tecnologías que habrían de venderse a las naciones ricas y pobres por igual. Herman Kahn ha encontrado alumnos en Venezuela, Argentina y Colombia. Las fantasías de Sergio Bernardes para su Brasil del año 2000 centellean con más maquinaria nueva de la que hoy posee Estados Unidos, que para entonces estará recargado con los obsoletos emplazamientos para misiles, aeropuertos para reactores y ciudades de las décadas de los años sesenta-setenta. Los futuristas inspirados en Buckminster Fuller se apoyarían más bien en dispositivos más baratos y exóticos. Cuentan con que se acepte una tecnología nueva pero posible, que al parecer nos permitiría hacer más con menos —monorrieles ligeros en vez de transporte supersónico, viviendas verticales en vez de dispersión horizontal—. Todos los planificadores futuristas de hoy tratan de hacer económicamente factible lo técnicamente posible, negándose a la vez a enfrentar las inevitables consecuencias sociales: el creciente anhelo de todos los hombres por bienes y servicios que seguirán siendo privilegio de unos pocos. + +Creo que un futuro deseable depende, en primer lugar, de nuestra voluntad de elegir una vida de acción en vez de una vida de consumo, de que engendremos un estilo de vida que nos permita ser espontáneos, independientes y, sin embargo, relacionarnos uno con otro, en vez de mantener un estilo de vida que sólo nos permite hacer y deshacer, producir y consumir —un estilo de vida que es sólo una estación en el camino hacia el agotamiento y la contaminación del entorno—. El futuro depende más de nuestra elección de instituciones que mantengan una vida de acción y menos de que desarrollemos nuevas ideologías y tecnologías. Necesitamos un conjunto de pautas que nos permitan reconocer aquellas instituciones que apoyan el desarrollo personal en vez del enviciamiento, como también la voluntad de dedicar nuestros recursos tecnológicos preferentemente a dichas instituciones de desarrollo. + +La elección se sitúa entre dos tipos institucionales radicalmente opuestos, ejemplificados ambos en ciertas instituciones existentes, aunque uno de esos tipos caracteriza de tal manera la época contemporánea que casi la define. A este tipo dominante yo propondría llamarlo la institución manipulativa. El otro tipo existe, pero sólo precariamente. Las instituciones que se ajustan a él son más humildes y menos notorias. No obstante, las tomo como modelos de un futuro más deseable. Las llamo “convivenciales” y sugiero colocarlas a la izquierda institucional, para mostrar que hay instituciones situadas entre ambos extremos y para ilustrar cómo las instituciones históricas pueden cambiar de color conforme se desplazan desde un facilitar la actividad a un organizar la producción. + +Dicho espectro, que se desplaza de izquierda a derecha, se ha usado por lo general para caracterizar a los hombres y sus ideologías, y no a nuestras instituciones sociales y a sus estilos. Esta categorización de los hombres, sea como individuos o como grupos, suele producir más calor que luz. Pueden suscitarse poderosas objeciones contra el uso de una convención corriente, pero al hacerlo espero desplazar los términos del debate de un plano estéril a uno fértil. Se evidenciará que los hombres de izquierda no siempre se caracterizan por su oposición a las instituciones manipulativas, a las que coloco en el extremo derecho del espectro. + +Las instituciones modernas más influyentes se agolpan al lado derecho del espectro. Hacia él se ha desplazado la coerción legal, conforme ha pasado de las manos del _sheriff_ a las del FBI y del Pentágono. La guerra moderna se ha convertido en una empresa sumamente profesional cuyo negocio es matar. Ha llegado al punto en que su eficiencia se mide por el recuento de cuerpos. Sus capacidades pacificadoras dependen de su poder para convencer a amigos y enemigos de la ilimitada potencia letal de la nación. Las balas y los productos químicos modernos son tan eficaces que a un ínfimo precio son capaces de matar o mutilar infaliblemente al “cliente”. Pero los costos de entrega aumentan vertiginosamente; el coste de un vietnamita muerto subió de 360 000 dólares en 1967 a 450 000 dólares en 1969. Sólo economías a una escala cercana al suicidio de la raza harían económicamente eficiente el arte militar moderno. Se está haciendo más obvio el efecto _boomerang_ en la guerra: cuanto mayor es el recuento de cuerpos de vietnamitas muertos, tantos más enemigos consigue Estados Unidos por todo el mundo; asimismo, tanto más debe gastar Estados Unidos en crear otra institución manipulativa —motejada cínicamente como de “pacificación”— en un vano intento por absorber los efectos secundarios de la guerra. + +En este mismo lado del espectro hallamos también organismos sociales que se especializan en la manipulación de sus clientes. Semejante a la organización militar, tienden a crear efectos contrarios a sus objetivos conforme crece el ámbito de sus operaciones. Estas instituciones sociales son igualmente contraproductivas, pero lo son de manera menos evidente. Muchas adoptan una imagen simpática y terapéutica para encubrir este efecto paradójico. Por ejemplo, hasta hace un par de siglos, las cárceles servían como medio para detener a las personas hasta que se les sentenciaba, se les mutilaba, se les mataba o se les exiliaba; en ocasiones se usaban deliberadamente como forma de tortura. Sólo recientemente comenzamos a pretender que encerrar a la gente en jaulas tendrá un efecto benéfico sobre su carácter y comportamiento. Ahora, más que unos pocos están empezando a entender que la cárcel incrementa tanto la calidad de los criminales como su cantidad, que es perfectamente capaz de hacer de un simple inconforme un criminal endurecido. No obstante, es mucho menor el número de los que al parecer entienden que las clínicas psiquiátricas, hogares de reposo y orfanatos hacen algo muy parecido. Estas instituciones proporcionan a sus clientes la destructiva autoimagen del psicótico, del excedido en años o del niño abandonado, y proveen la justificación lógica para la existencia de ciertas profesiones, tal como las cárceles poseen sus guardias. La afiliación a instituciones que se encuentran en este extremo del espectro se consigue de dos maneras, ambas coercitivas: mediante compromiso obligado o mediante servicio selectivo. + +En el extremo opuesto del espectro se sitúan unas instituciones que se distinguen por el uso espontáneo —las instituciones “convivenciales”—. Las conexiones telefónicas, las líneas de metro, los recorridos de los carteros, los mercados y lonjas no tienen necesidad de convencernos de su necesidad. Los sistemas de alcantarillado, de agua potable, los parques y veredas son instituciones que los hombres usan sin tener que estar institucionalmente convencidos de que les conviene hacerlo. Todas las instituciones exigen, por cierto, cierta reglamentación. Pero el funcionamiento de instituciones que existen para usarse más que para producir algo, requiere de normas cuya índole es totalmente diferente de la que exigen las instituciones-tratamiento, que son manipulativas. Las normas que rigen a las instituciones para uso tienen por fin principal evitar abusos que frustrarían su accesibilidad general. Las veredas deben mantenerse libres de obstrucciones, el uso industrial de agua potable debe someterse a ciertos límites y el juego de pelota debe restringirse a zonas especiales dentro de un parque. Actualmente necesitamos una legislación especial para evitar el abuso de nuestras líneas telefónicas por parte de computadoras, el abuso del servicio de correo por parte de los anunciantes y la contaminación de nuestros sistemas de alcantarillado por los desechos industriales. La reglamentación de las instituciones convivenciales fija límites para su empleo; conforme uno pasa del extremo convivencial del espectro al manipulativo, las normas van exigiendo cada vez más un consumo o participación no queridos. El diferente coste de la adquisición de clientes es precisamente una de las características que distingue a las instituciones conviviales de las manipulativas. + +En ambos extremos del espectro encontramos instituciones de servicio, pero a la derecha, el servicio es una manipulación impuesta y al cliente se le convierte en víctima de la publicidad, la agresión, el adoctrinamiento, la prisión o el electrochoque. A la izquierda, el servicio es una mayor oportunidad de límites definidos formalmente, mientras el cliente sigue siendo un agente libre. Las instituciones del ala derecha tienden a procesos de producción altamente complejos y costosos en los que gran parte de la complicación y el gasto se ocupan en convencer a los consumidores de que no pueden vivir sin el producto o tratamiento ofrecido por la institución. Las instituciones del ala izquierda tienden a redes que facilitan la composición o cooperación iniciada por el cliente. + +Las instituciones manipulativas de la derecha son formadoras de hábito, “adictivas”, social y psicológicamente. La adicción social, o escalada, consiste en la tendencia a prescribir un tratamiento intensificado si dosis menores no han rendido los resultados deseados. La adicción psicológica, o habituamiento, se produce cuando los consumidores se envician con la necesidad de una cantidad cada vez mayor del proceso o del producto. Las instituciones de la izquierda que uno mismo pone en actividad tienden a autolimitarse. Al revés de los procesos de producción que identifican la satisfacción con el mero acto del consumo, estas redes sirven a un objetivo que va más allá de su uso repetido. Una persona levanta el teléfono cuando quiere decir algo a otra, y cuelga una vez terminada la comunicación deseada. A excepción hecha de los adolescentes, no usa el teléfono por el puro placer de hablar ante el receptor. Si el teléfono no es el mejor modo de ponerse en comunicación, las personas escribirán una carta o harán un viaje. Las instituciones de la derecha, como podemos ver claramente en el caso de las escuelas, invitan compulsivamente al uso repetitivo y frustran las maneras alternativas de lograr resultados similares. + +Hacia la izquierda del espectro institucional, pero no en el extremo mismo, podemos colocar a las empresas que compiten entre sí en la actividad que les es propia, pero que no han empezado a ocupar la publicidad de manera notable. Encontramos aquí las lavanderías manuales, las pequeñas panaderías, los peluqueros y, para hablar de profesionales, algunos abogados y profesores de música. Son por consiguiente característicamente del ala izquierda las personas que han institucionalizado sus servicios, pero no su publicidad. Consiguen clientes mediante su contacto personal y la calidad relativa de sus servicios. + +Los hoteles y las cafeterías se acercan algo más al centro. Las grandes cadenas hoteleras como la Hilton que gastan inmensas cantidades en vender su imagen, a menudo se comportan como si estuvieran dirigiendo instituciones de la derecha. No obstante, las empresas Hilton y Sheraton no ofrecen nada más —de hecho dan frecuentemente menos— que alojamientos de precio similar y dirigidos independientemente. En lo esencial, un letrero de hotel atrae al viajero como lo hace un signo caminero. Dice más bien: “Detente, aquí hay una cama para ti”, y no: “¡Deberías preferir una cama de hotel a una banca en el parque!” + +Los productores de artículos de primera necesidad y de la mayoría de los bienes efímeros pertenecen a la parte central de nuestro espectro. Satisfacen demandas genéricas y agregan al costo de producción y distribución todo lo que el mercado soporte en costos publicitarios, en anuncios y envases. Cuanto más básico sea el producto —trátese de bienes o de servicios— tanto más tiende la competencia a limitar el costo de venta del artículo. + +La mayoría de los fabricantes de bienes de consumo se han ido mucho más a la derecha. Tanto directa como indirectamente, producen demandas de accesorios que hinchan el precio real de compra muy por encima del coste de producción. La General Motors y la Ford producen medios de transporte, pero también, y esto es más importante, manipulan el gusto del público de manera tal que la necesidad de transporte se expresa como una demanda de coches privados y no de autobuses públicos. Venden el deseo de controlar una máquina, correr a grandes velocidades con lujosa comodidad, al tiempo que ofrecen el espejismo de la evasión. Pero lo que venden no es tan sólo un asunto de motores inútilmente poderosos, de artilugios superfluos o de suplementos nuevos que los fabricantes han tenido que agregar obligados por Ralph Nader y los grupos que presionan en pro de un aire limpio. La lista de precios incluye dispositivos anticontaminantes, cinturones de seguridad, climatización; pero también comprende otros costes que no se le declaran abiertamente al conductor: los gastos de publicidad y de ventas de la empresa, el combustible, el mantenimiento y las refacciones, el seguro, el interés sobre el crédito, como también costes menos tangibles, como la pérdida de tiempo, el buen humor y el aire respirable en nuestras congestionadas ciudades. + +Un corolario particularmente interesante de nuestro examen de instituciones socialmente útiles es el sistema de carreteras “públicas”. Este importante elemento del coste total de los automóviles merece un análisis más dilatado, pues conduce directamente a la institución derechista en la que estoy más interesado, a saber, la escuela. + + +## Falsos servicios de utilidad pública + +El sistema de carreteras es una red para la locomoción a través de distancias relativamente grandes. En su condición de red, parecería corresponderle estar a la izquierda en el espectro institucional. Pero en este caso debemos hacer una distinción que esclarecerá tanto la naturaleza de las carreteras como la naturaleza de los verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Los caminos que son genuinamente para todos, son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Las supercarreteras son cotos privados, cuyo coste se le encaja parcialmente al público. + +Los sistemas de teléfonos, correos y caminos son redes, y ninguno es gratis. El acceso a la red de teléfonos está limitado por cobros sobre tiempo ocupado en cada llamada. Estas tarifas son relativamente bajas y podrían reducirse sin cambiar la naturaleza del sistema. El uso del sistema telefónico no está en absoluto limitado por lo que se transmita, aunque lo emplean mejor quienes pueden hablar frases coherentes en el lenguaje del interlocutor, una capacidad que poseen todos los que desean usar la red. El franqueo suele ser barato. El uso del sistema postal se ve ligeramente limitado por el precio de la pluma y el papel, y algo más por la capacidad de escribir. Aún así, cuando alguien que no sabe escribir tiene un pariente o un amigo a quien pueda dictarle una carta, el sistema postal está a su disposición, tal como lo está si quiere despachar una cinta grabada. + +El sistema de carreteras no llega a estar disponible de manera similar para alguien que tan sólo aprenda a conducir. Las redes telefónica y postal existen para servir a quienes deseen usarlas, mientras el sistema de carreteras sirve principalmente como accesorio del automóvil privado. Las primeras son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública, mientras el último es un servicio público para los dueños de coches, camiones y autobuses. Los servicios de utilidad pública existen en pro de la comunicación entre los hombres: las carreteras, como otras instituciones de la derecha, existen en pro de un producto. Tal como hicimos notar, los fabricantes de automóviles _producen_ simultáneamente tanto los coches como la demanda de coches. Asimismo _producen_ la demanda de carreteras de varias vías, puentes y campos petrolíferos. El coche privado es el foco de una constelación de instituciones del ala derecha. El elevado coste de cada elemento lo dicta la complicación del producto básico, y vender el producto básico es enviciar a la sociedad en el paquete conjunto. + +Planificar un sistema vial como un verdadero servicio de utilidad pública discriminaría a aquellos para quienes la velocidad y el confort individualizado son los valores primarios de transporte, y favorecería a aquellos que valoran la fluidez y el lugar de destino. Es la diferencia entre una red extendidísima con acceso máximo para los viajeros y otra que ofrezca sólo un acceso privilegiado a una zona restringida. + +La transferencia de una institución moderna a las naciones en desarrollo permite probar esto con mejor claridad. En los países muy pobres, los caminos suelen ser apenas lo bastante buenos como para permitir el tránsito mediante camiones especiales de eje elevado, cargados de víveres, reses o personas. Este tipo de país debería usar sus limitados recursos para construir una telaraña de pistas que llegaran a todas sus regiones y debería restringir la importancia de vehículos a dos o tres modelos diferentes muy duraderos que puedan transitar por malos caminos a baja velocidad. Esto simplificaría el mantenimiento continuo de estos vehículos y proporcionaría una máxima fluidez y elección de puntos de destino a todos los ciudadanos. Esto exigiría proyectar vehículos para todo servicio con la simplicidad del Ford T, utilizando las aleaciones más modernas para garantizar su durabilidad, con un límite de velocidad incorporado de unos 25 kilómetros por hora a lo más, y lo bastante firme como para rodar por el terreno más áspero. No se ofrecen estos vehículos en el mercado porque no hay demanda de ellos. De hecho sería preciso cultivar esa demanda, muy posiblemente al amparo de una legislación estricta. Actualmente, cada vez que una demanda de esta especie se hace sentir un poco, se le descarta rápida y desdeñosamente mediante una publicidad contraria, encaminada a la venta universal de las máquinas que extraen hoy de los contribuyentes estadunidenses el dinero necesario para construir supercarreteras. + +Para “mejorar” el transporte, todos los países, hasta los más pobres, proyectan ahora sistemas viales concebidos para coches de pasajeros y remolques de alta velocidad que se ajustan a la minoría, pendiente del velocímetro, compuesta por productores y consumidores en las clases selectas. Este planteamiento a menudo se justifica racionalmente pintándolo como un ahorro del recurso más precioso de un país pobre: el tiempo del médico, del inspector escolar o del funcionario público. Estos hombres, naturalmente, sirven casi exclusivamente a la misma gente que posee un coche o espera tenerlo algún día. Los impuestos locales y las escasas divisas se derrochan en _falsos servicios de utilidad pública_. + +La tecnología “moderna” transferida a los países pobres puede dividirse en tres categorías: bienes, fábricas que los hacen e instituciones de servicios —principalmente escuelas— que convierten a los hombres en productores y consumidores modernos. La mayor parte de los países gastan la mayor proporción de su presupuesto, y con mucho, en escuelas. Los graduados fabricados con escuelas crean entonces una demanda de otros servicios conspicuos de utilidad pública, tales como potencia industrial, carreteras pavimentadas, hospitales modernos y aeropuertos, y éstos crean a su vez un mercado para los bienes hechos para países ricos y, al cabo de un tiempo, la tendencia a importar fábricas anticuadas para producirlos. + +De todos los “falsos servicios de utilidad pública”, la escuela es el más insidioso. Los sistemas de carreteras producen sólo demanda de coches. Las escuelas crean una demanda para el conjunto completo de instituciones modernas que llenan el extremo derecho del espectro. A un hombre que pusiera en duda la necesidad de carreteras se le tacharía de romántico; al que ponga en tela de juicio la necesidad de escuelas se le ataca de inmediato: un ser sin entrañas o un imperialista. + + +## Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública + +Al igual que las carreteras, las escuelas dan a primera vista la impresión de estar igualmente abiertas para todos los interesados. De hecho están abiertas sólo para quienes renueven sin cejar sus credenciales. Así como las carreteras crean la impresión de que su nivel actual de costes anuales es necesario para que la gente pueda moverse, así se supone que las escuelas son indispensables para alcanzar la competencia que exige una sociedad que use la tecnología moderna. Hemos expuesto las autopistas como servicios de utilidad pública espurios observando cómo dependen de los automóviles privados. Las escuelas se fundan en la hipótesis igualmente espuria de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza curricular. + +Las carreteras son las consecuencias del deseo y la necesidad de movilizarse que se pervierten para convertirlos en demanda de coches privados. Las escuelas pervierten la natural inclinación a desarrollarse y aprender convirtiéndola en demanda de instrucción. La demanda de una madurez manufacturada es mucho más la abnegación de la actividad iniciada por uno mismo que la demanda de bienes manufacturados. Las escuelas no sólo están a la derecha de las carreteras y los coches, tienen su lugar cerca del extremo del espectro institucional ocupado por los asilos totales. Incluso los productores de recuentos de cuerpos matan solamente cuerpos. Al hacer que los hombres abdiquen de la responsabilidad de su propio desarrollo, la escuela conduce a muchos a una especie de suicidio espiritual. + +Las carreteras las pagan en parte quienes las utilizan, puesto que los peajes e impuestos al combustible se obtienen sólo de los conductores. La escuela, en cambio, es un sistema perfecto de tributación regresiva, en el que los privilegios cabalgan sobre el lomo de todo público pagador. La escuela fija un gravamen por cabeza sobre la promoción. El subconsumo de distancias recorridas por carretera no es nunca tan costoso como el subconsumo de escolarización. El hombre que no posea un coche en Los Ángeles posiblemente esté casi inmovilizado, pero si se ingenia de algún modo para llegar a su lugar de trabajo, podrá conseguir y conservar un empleo. El desertor escolar carece de vía alternativa. El habitante suburbano en su Lincoln nuevo y su primo campesino que conduce una vieja carcacha se aprovechan más o menos igual de la carretera, aunque el vehículo del uno cueste 30 veces más que el del otro. El valor de la escolarización de un hombre es función del número de años que ha permanecido en escuelas y de la carestía de éstas. La ley no obliga a conducir, en cambio obliga a ir a la escuela. + +El análisis de las instituciones según su actual emplazamiento en un espectro continuo izquierda-derecha me permite esclarecer mi convicción de que el cambio social fundamental debe comenzar con un cambio en la conciencia que se tiene de las instituciones y explicar por qué la dimensión de un futuro viable recae en el rejuvenecimiento del estilo institucional. + +Durante la década 1960-1970, unas instituciones, nacidas en diversas épocas después de la Revolución francesa, llegaron a su vejez; los sistemas de escuelas públicas fundados en la época de Jefferson o de Atatürk, junto con otros que se iniciaron después de la segunda Guerra Mundial, se hicieron todos burocráticos, autojustificantes y manipulativos. Lo mismo les ocurrió a los sistemas de seguridad social, a los sindicatos, a las principales Iglesias y cuerpos diplomáticos, a la atención de los ancianos y a los servicios funerarios. + +Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay un mayor parecido ente los sistemas escolares de Colombia, Inglaterra, la Unión Soviética y Estados Unidos, que entre las escuelas de este último de fines del siglo pasado y las de hoy o las de Rusia en ese tiempo. Las escuelas son hoy obligatorias, sin término definido y competitivo. Esa misma convergencia en el estilo institucional afecta la atención médica, la comercialización, la administración de personal y la vida política. Todos estos procesos institucionales tienden a apilarse en el extremo manipulativo del espectro. + +La consecuencia de esta convergencia de instituciones es la fusión de burocracias mundiales. El estilo, el sistema de ordenamiento jerárquico y la parafernalia (desde el libro de texto a la computadora) se normalizan en los consejos de planificación de Costa Rica o de Afganistán, según los modelos de Europa occidental. + +Las burocracias parecen centrarse en todas partes en la misma tarea: promover el crecimiento de las instituciones de la derecha. Se ocupan de la fabricación de cosas, la fabricación de normas rituales y la fabricación —y remodelación— de la “verdad ejecutiva”, la ideología o el _fiat_ que establece el valor presente que debiera atribuirse a lo que ellas producen. La tecnología proporciona a estas burocracias un poder creciente a la mano derecha de la sociedad. La mano izquierda parece marchitarse y no porque la tecnología sea menos capaz de aumentar el ámbito de la actividad humana y de proporcionar tiempo para el despliegue de la imaginación individual y para la creatividad personal, sino porque ese uso de la tecnología no aumenta el poder de la élite que la administra. El director de correos no tiene control sobre el uso esencial de ese servicio; la telefonista o el directivo de la compañía telefónica carecen de poder para impedir que se preparen adulterios, asesinatos o subversiones usando sus líneas. + +En la elección entre la derecha y la izquierda institucional está en juego la naturaleza misma de la vida humana. El hombre debe elegir entre ser rico en cosas o tener libertad para usarlas. Debe elegir entre estilos alternativos de vida y programas conexos de producción. + +Aristóteles ya había descubierto que “hacer y actuar” son diferentes, y de hecho tan diferentes que lo uno jamás incluye lo otro. “Porque ni es el actuar una manera de hacer, ni el hacer una manera del verdadero actuar. La arquitectura _techne_ es una manera de hacer… dar nacimiento a algo cuyo origen está en su hacedor y no en la cosa. El hacer siempre tiene una finalidad que no es él mismo, y no así la acción, puesto que la buena acción es en sí misma un fin. La perfección en el hacer es un arte; la perfección en el actuar, una virtud.”[^n11] La palabra que Aristóteles usó para hacer fue _poesis_ , y la que usó para actuar, _praxis_. El movimiento hacia la derecha de una institución indica que se la está reestructurando para aumentar su capacidad de “hacer”, mientras que si se desplaza hacia la izquierda indica que se la está reestructurando para permitir un mayor “actuar” o “praxis”. La tecnología moderna ha aumentado la capacidad del hombre para dejar a las máquinas el “hacer” cosas y ha aumentado el tiempo que puede dedicar a “actuar”. El “hacer” las cosas cotidianas imprescindibles ha dejado de ocupar su tiempo. El desempleo es la consecuencia de esta modernización: es la ociosidad del hombre para quien no hay nada que “hacer” y que no sabe cómo “actuar”. El desempleo es la triste ociosidad del hombre que, al revés de Aristóteles, cree que hacer cosas o trabajar es virtuoso y que la ociosidad es mala. El desempleo es la experiencia del hombre que ha sucumbido a la ética protestante. Según Weber, el hombre necesita el ocio para poder trabajar. Según Aristóteles, el trabajo es necesario para poder tener ocio. + +La tecnología proporciona al hombre tiempo discrecional que puede llenar ya sea haciendo, ya sea actuando. Toda nuestra cultura tiene abierta ahora la opción entre un triste desempleo o un ocio feliz. Depende del estilo institucional que la cultura elija. Esta elección habría sido inconcebible en una cultura antigua fundada en la agricultura campesina o en la esclavitud. Ha llegado a ser inevitable para el hombre posindustrial. + +Una manera de llenar el tiempo disponible es estimular mayores demandas de consumo de bienes y, simultáneamente, de producción de servicios. Lo primero implica una economía que proporciona una falange cada vez mayor de cosas siempre novedosas que pueden hacerse, consumirse y someterse a reciclaje. Lo segundo implica el vano intento de “hacer” acciones virtuosas, haciendo aparecer como tales los productos de las instituciones de “servicios”. Esto conduce a la identificación de la escolaridad con la educación, del servicio médico con la salud, de los programas con la recreación, de la velocidad con la locomoción eficaz. La primera opción lleva ahora el apodo de _desarrollo._ + +La manera radicalmente alternativa de llenar el tiempo disponible consiste en una gama limitada de bienes más durables y en proporcionar acceso a instituciones que puedan aumentar la oportunidad y apetencia de las acciones humanas recíprocas. + +Una economía de bienes duraderos es exactamente lo contrario de una economía fundada en la obsolescencia programada. Una economía de bienes duraderos significa una restricción en la lista de mercancías. Los bienes habrían de ser de tal especie que diesen un máximo de oportunidad para “actuar” en algo con ellos: artículos hechos para montarlos uno mismo, para autoayudarse, para su reempleo y reparación. + +El complemento de una lista de bienes durables, reparables y reutilizables no es un aumento de servicios producidos institucionalmente, sino más bien una estructura institucional que eduque constantemente en la acción, en la participación, en la autoayuda. El movimiento de nuestra sociedad desde el presente —en el que todas las instituciones gravitan hacia una burocracia posindustrial— a un futuro de convivencialidad posindustrial —en el que la intensidad de la acción sería preponderante sobre la producción— debe comenzar con una renovación del estilo de las instituciones de servicio y, antes que nada, por una renovación de la educación. Un futuro deseable y factible depende de nuestra disposición a invertir nuestro saber tecnológico en el desarrollo de instituciones convivenciales. En el terreno de las investigaciones sobre educación, esto equivale a exigir que se trastroquen las tendencias actuales. + +# Compatibilidades irracionales + +[^n12] Creo que la crisis contemporánea de la educación nos obliga más bien a modificar la idea de un aprendizaje públicamente prescrito y no los métodos usados para hacerlo cumplir. La proporción de desertores —especialmente de alumnos de los primeros años de bachillerato y de maestros de primaria— señala que las bases están pidiendo un enfoque totalmente nuevo. Al “practicante del aula” que se estima un profesor liberal se le ataca cada vez más por todos lados. El movimiento pro escuela libre, que confunde disciplina con adoctrinamiento, le ha adjudicado el papel de elemento destructivo y autoritario. El tecnólogo educativo demuestra sostenidamente la inferioridad del profesor para medir y modificar la conducta. Y la administración escolar para la que trabaja lo obliga a inclinarse tanto ante Summerhill como ante Skinner, poniendo en evidencia que el aprendizaje obligatorio no puede ser una empresa liberal. No debe asombrar que el índice de maestros desertores esté superando el de los alumnos. + +El compromiso que Estados Unidos ha contraído de educar obligatoriamente a sus menores se demuestra tan vano como el pretendido compromiso norteamericano de democratizar obligatoriamente a los vietnamitas. Las escuelas convencionales obviamente no pueden hacerlo. El movimiento pro escuela libre seduce a los educadores no convencionales, pero en definitiva lo hace en apoyo de la ideología convencional de la escolarización. Y lo que prometen los tecnólogos de la educación, a saber, que sus investigaciones y desarrollo —si se les dota de fondos suficientes— pueden ofrecer alguna especie de solución final a la resistencia de la juventud contra el aprendizaje obligatorio, suena tan confiado y demuestra ser tan fatuo como las promesas hechas por los tecnólogos militares. + +Las críticas dirigidas contra el sistema escolar estadunidense por parte de los conductistas, y las que provienen de la nueva raza de educadores raciales, parecen diametralmente opuestas. Los conductistas aplican las investigaciones sobre educación a la “inducción de instrucción autotélica mediante paquetes de aprendizaje individualizados”. El estilo conductista choca con la idea de hacer que los jóvenes ingresen por voluntad propia en unas comunas liberadas que les invitan a ingresar, las cuales estarían supervisadas por adultos. No obstante, bajo una perspectiva histórica, ambas no son sino manifestaciones contemporáneas de las metas, aparentemente contradictorias, pero en verdad complementarias, del sistema escolar público. Desde los comienzos de este siglo, las escuelas han sido protagonistas del control social por una parte y de la cooperación libre por la otra, poniéndose ambos aspectos al servicio de la “buena sociedad” a la que se concibe como una estructura corporativa altamente organizada y de suave funcionamiento. Sometidos al impacto de una urbanización intensa, los niños se convierten en un recurso natural que las escuelas han de moldear para luego alimentar la máquina industrial. Las políticas progresistas y el culto a la eficiencia coincidieron con el crecimiento de la escuela pública estadunidense.[^n13] La orientación vocacional y la _junior highschool_[^n14] fueron dos importantes resultados de este tipo de conceptos. + +Parece, por consiguiente, que el intento de producir cambios específicos en el comportamiento, que puedan medirse y de los que pueda responsabilizarse al encargado del proceso, es sólo el anverso de la medalla, cuyo reverso es la pacificación de la nueva generación dentro de enclaves especialmente proyectados que los inducirán a entrar en el sueño de sus mayores. Estos seres pacificados en sociedad están bien descritos por Dewey, quien quiere que “hagamos de cada una de nuestras escuelas una vida comunitaria en embrión, activa, con tipos de ocupaciones que reflejen la vida de la sociedad en pleno, y la _impregnen_ con el espíritu del arte, de la historia, de la ciencia”. Bajo esta perspectiva histórica, sería un grave error interpretar la actual controversia a tres bandas entre el establecimiento escolar, los tecnólogos de la educación y las escuelas libres como el preludio de una revolución en la educación. Esta controversia refleja más bien una etapa de un intento para convertir a grandes trancos un viejo sueño en hecho y convertir finalmente todo aprendizaje valedero en el resultado de una enseñanza profesional. La mayoría de las alternativas educativas propuestas convergen hacia metas que son inmanentes a la producción del hombre cooperativo cuyas necesidades individuales se satisfacen mediante su especialización en el sistema estadunidense: están orientadas hacia el mejoramiento de lo que yo llamo —a falta de una mejor expresión— la sociedad escolarizada. Incluso los críticos aparentemente radicales del sistema escolar no están dispuestos a abandonar la idea de que tienen una obligación para con los jóvenes, especialmente para con los pobres, la obligación de hacerlos pasar por el proceso, sea mediante amor o mediante odio, para meterlos en una sociedad que necesita especialización disciplinada tanto de sus productores como de sus consumidores y, asimismo, el pleno compromiso de todos ellos con la ideología que antepone a todo el crecimiento económico. + +La disensión enmascara la contradicción inherente a la idea misma de escuela. Los sindicatos establecidos de profesores, los brujos de la tecnología y los movimientos de liberación escolar refuerzan el compromiso de la sociedad entera con los axiomas fundamentales de un mundo escolarizado, más o menos del modo en que muchos movimientos pacifistas y de protesta refuerzan el compromiso de sus miembros —sean negros, mujeres, jóvenes o pobres— con la búsqueda de justicia mediante el crecimiento del ingreso nacional bruto. + +Es fácil anotar algunos de los postulados que ahora pasan inadvertidos a la crítica. En primer lugar está la creencia compartida de que la conducta que se ha adquirido ante los ojos de un pedagogo es de especial valor para el alumno y de especial provecho para la sociedad. Esto está relacionado con el supuesto de que el hombre social nace sólo en la adolescencia, y que nace adecuadamente sólo si madura en la escuela-matriz, que algunos desean hacer dulce mediante el _laissez-faire,_[^n15] otros quieren llenar de artilugios mecánicos y unos terceros buscan barnizar con una tradición liberal. Está finalmente una visión común de la juventud, psicológicamente romántica y políticamente conservadora. Según esta visión, los cambios de la sociedad deben llevarse a cabo agobiando a los jóvenes con la responsabilidad de transformarla —pero sólo después de que en su momento se han liberado de la escuela—. Para una sociedad fundada en tales postulados es fácil ir creando un sentido de su responsabilidad respecto de la educación de la nueva generación, y esto inevitablemente significa que algunos hombres pueden fijar, especificar y evaluar las metas personales de otros. En un “párrafo tomado de una enciclopedia china imaginaria” Jorge Luis Borges trata de evocar el mareo que debe producir ese intento. Nos dice que los animales están divididos en las clases siguientes: “ _a)_ pertenecientes al Emperador, _b)_ embalsamados, _c)_ amaestrados, _d)_ lechones, _e)_ sirenas, _f)_ fabulosos, _g)_ perros sueltos, _h)_ incluidos en esta clasificación, _i)_ que se agitan como locos, _j)_ innumerables, _k)_ dibujados con un pincel finísimo de pelo de camello, _l)_ etcétera, _m)_ que acaban de romper el jarrón, _n)_ que de lejos parecen moscas”. Ahora bien, semejante taxonomía no aparece a menos que alguien estime que puede servir para sus fines: en este caso, supongo, ese alguien era un cobrador de impuestos. Para él, al menos, esta taxonomía bestiaria _tiene_ que haber tenido sentido, tal como la taxonomía de objetivos educativos tiene sentido para los autores científicos. + +La visión de hombres dotados de una lógica tan inescrutable, y autorizados para evaluar su ganado, debe haber producido en el campesino un helado sentimiento de impotencia. Los estudiantes, por motivos parecidos, tienden a sentirse paranoicos cuando se someten seriamente a un currículum. Inevitablemente se asustan aún más que mi imaginario campesino chino, porque no es su ganado, sino sus objetivos vitales los que están siendo marcados con un signo inescrutable. + +Este pasaje de Borges es fascinante, porque evoca la lógica de la _compatibilidad irracional_ que hace a las burocracias de Kafka y de Koestler tan siniestras y no obstante tan evocadoras de la vida cotidiana. El encadenamiento implacable de las reglas parece embrujar a quienes se vuelven cómplices de ellas y los empuja a hacer prueba de una disciplina todavía más ciega. Es la lógica creada por la conducta burocrática. Y se convierte en la lógica de una sociedad que exige que a los administradores de sus instituciones educativas se les considere públicamente responsables de la modificación del comportamiento que producen en sus clientes. Los estudiantes a los que se puede motivar para valorar los paquetes educativos que sus profesores les obligan a consumir son comparables a los campesinos chinos que pueden ajustar sus rebaños al formulario de impuestos que ofrece Borges. + +Durante el transcurso de las dos últimas generaciones triunfó en algún momento en la cultura norteamericana un compromiso con la terapia, y vino a considerarse a los profesores como los terapeutas cuyas recetas todos los hombres necesitan, si es que desean gozar de la libertad y la igualdad con las cuales, según la Constitución, han nacido. + +Ahora los profesores-terapeutas siguen adelante al proponer como paso siguiente el tratamiento educativo vitalicio. El _estudio_ de este tratamiento está sujeto a discusión: ¿debiera adoptar la forma de una asistencia constante de los adultos al aula? ¿O la de éxtasis electrónico? ¿O de sesiones periódicas de sensibilización? Todos los educadores están prontos a conspirar para extender los muros del aula y agrandarla, con la meta de transformar la cultura completa en una escuela. + +Detrás de la retórica y del alboroto, la controversia sobre el futuro de la educación que tiene lugar en Estados Unidos es más conservadora que el debate en otros ámbitos de la política común. Respecto de las relaciones exteriores, por lo menos, una minoría organizada nos recuerda constantemente que el país debe renunciar a su papel de policía del mundo. Los economistas radicales, y ahora incluso sus profesores, menos radicales, ponen en duda la convivencia del crecimiento conjunto como meta. Hay grupos de presión para favorecer la medicina preventiva y no la curativa y otros propugnan por la fluidez en vez de la velocidad en el transporte. Sólo en el ámbito de la educación permanecen dispersas las voces articuladas que piden una desescolarización radical de la sociedad. Existe una carencia de argumentación persuasiva y de un liderazgo maduro encaminados a quitar el apoyo oficial a todas y cada una de las instituciones que tienen por fin el _aprendizaje_ obligatorio. Por el momento, la desescolarización radical de la sociedad es todavía una causa sin partido. Esto sorprende especialmente en un periodo de resistencia creciente, aunque caótica, a todas las formas de instrucción planificada institucionalmente, por parte de los jóvenes de 12 a 17 años. + +Los innovadores educativos siguen suponiendo que las instituciones educativas funcionan como embudos para los programas que ellos envasan. Para los fines de mi argumento da lo mismo que estos embudos tengan la forma de un aula, de un transmisor de televisión o de una “zona liberada”. Es igualmente ajeno al asunto si los envases suministrados son ricos o pobres, calientes o fríos, duros y mensurables (como Matemáticas III) o imposibles de evaluar (como la sensibilización). Lo que interesa es que se suponga que la educación es el resultado de un proceso institucional dirigido por el educador. Mientras las relaciones continúen siendo aquellas que existen entre un proveedor y un consumidor, el trabajo de investigación sobre educación continuará siendo un proceso circular. Acumulará pruebas científicas en apoyo de la necesidad de más paquetes educativos y del perfeccionamiento de los métodos de entrega, tal como cierta rama de las ciencias sociales puede probar la necesidad de acrecentar la distribución de los productos de la institución militar. + +Una revolución educativa se apoya en una doble inversión: una nueva orientación del trabajo de investigación y una nueva comprensión del estilo educativo de una contracultura emergente. + +La investigación operativa trata ahora de optimizar la eficiencia de una estructura heredada —un marco de referencia que jamás se pone en tela de juicio—. Este marco de referencia tiene la estructura sintáctica de un embudo para paquetes de enseñanza. La alternativa sintáctica respecto del mismo es una red o trama educativa para el montaje autónomo de recursos bajo el control personal de cada aprendiz. Esta estructura alternativa de una institución educativa yace ahora en el punto ciego conceptual de nuestra investigación operativa. Si la investigación se enfocara en él, ello constituiría una auténtica revolución científica. + +El punto ciego de los trabajos de investigación en educación refleja la parcialidad cultural de una sociedad en la que el crecimiento tecnológico se ha confundido con el control tecnocrático. Para el tecnócrata, el valor de un entorno aumenta conforme pueda programarse un mayor número de contactos entre un hombre y su medio ambiente. Es este mundo, las elecciones abiertas para el observador o el planificador deben estar acordes con los deseos de quienes están sometidos a una observación y a quienes se denomina los “beneficiarios”. La libertad se reduce a la elección entre unas mercancías envasadas. + +La contracultura emergente afirma los valores del contenido semántico por encima de la eficiencia de una sintaxis mayor y más rígida. Valora la riqueza de la connotación por encima del poder de la sintaxis para producir riquezas. Valora la consecuencia imprevisible de la instrucción profesional. Esta reorientación hacia la sorpresa personal, y no hacia los valores producidos por la institución, es capaz de perturbar el orden establecido hasta que podamos separar la creciente disponibilidad de las herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan el encuentro del creciente control del tecnócrata sobre lo que ocurre cuando la gente se reúne. + +Nuestras actuales instituciones educativas están al servicio de las metas del profesor. Las estructuras de relación que necesitamos son las que permitan a cada hombre definirse él mismo aprendiendo y contribuyendo al aprendizaje de otros. + +# Tramas del aprendizaje + +En un capítulo anterior examiné aquello que se está convirtiendo en una queja común acerca de las escuelas una queja que se hace sentir por ejemplo, en un informe reciente de la Carnegie Commission: en las escuelas los alumnos matriculados se someten ante maestros diplomados a fin de obtener sus propios diplomas; ambos quedan frustrados y ambos culpan a los recursos insuficientes —dinero, tiempo o edificios— de su mutua frustración. + +Una crítica semejante conduce a muchos a pensar si no será posible concebir un estilo diferente de aprendizaje. Paradójicamente, si a esas mismas personas se les insta a especificar cómo adquirieron lo que saben y estiman, admitirán prontamente que con mayor frecuencia lo aprendieron fuera y no dentro de la escuela. Su conocimiento de hechos, lo que entienden de la vida y de su trabajo les vino de la amistad o del amor, de leer, del ejemplo de sus iguales o de la incitación de un encuentro callejero. O tal vez aprendieron lo que saben por medio del ritual de iniciación de una pandilla callejera, de un hospital, de la redacción de un periódico, de un taller de fontanería o de una oficina de seguros. La alternativa a la dependencia respecto de las escuelas no es el uso de recursos públicos para algún nuevo dispositivo que “haga” aprender a la gente; es más bien la creación de un nuevo estilo de relación educativa entre el hombre y su medio. Para propiciar este estilo será necesaria una modificación de la idea que nos hacemos del crecimiento, de los útiles necesarios para aprender y de la calidad y estructura de la vida cotidiana. + +Las actitudes ya están cambiando. Ha desaparecido la orgullosa dependencia respecto de la escuela. En la industria del conocimiento se acrecienta la resistencia del consumidor. Muchos profesores y alumnos, contribuyentes y patronos, economistas y policías, preferirían no seguir dependiendo de las escuelas. Lo que impide que su frustración dé forma a otras instituciones es una carencia no sólo de imaginación, sino también, con frecuencia, de un lenguaje apropiado y de un interés personal ilustrado. No pueden visualizar ya sea una sociedad desescolarizada, ya sean unas instituciones educativas en una sociedad que haya privado de apoyo oficial a la escuela. + +En este capítulo me propongo mostrar que lo contrario de la escuela es posible: que podemos apoyarnos en el aprendizaje automotivado en vez de contratar profesores para sobornar u obligar al estudiante a hallar el tiempo y la voluntad de aprender, que podemos proporcionar al aprendiz nuevos vínculos con el mundo en vez de continuar canalizando todos los programas educativos por medio del profesor. Examinaré algunas de las características que distinguen la escolarización del aprendizaje y esbozaré cuatro categorías principales de instituciones que serían atractivas no sólo para muchas personas, sino también para muchos grupos de intereses comunes. + + +## Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada + +Estamos acostumbrados a considerar las escuelas como una variable que depende de la estructura política y económica. Si podemos cambiar el estilo de la dirección política o promover los intereses de una clase u otra, suponemos que el sistema escolar cambiará también. En cambio, las instituciones educativas que propondré están ideadas para servir a una sociedad que no existe ahora, aunque la actual frustración respecto de las escuelas tiene en sí el potencial de una fuerza importante para poner en movimiento un cambio hacia nuevas configuraciones sociales. Contra este planteamiento se ha suscitado una objeción de peso: ¿por qué canalizar energías para construir puentes hacia ninguna parte, en vez de organizarlas primero para cambiar no las escuelas, sino el sistema político y económico? + +No obstante, esta objeción subestima la naturaleza política y económica del sistema escolar en sí, así como el potencial político inherente a cualquier oposición eficaz a ella. + +En un sentido fundamental, las escuelas han dejado de ser dependientes de la ideología profesada por cualquier gobierno u organización de mercados. Otras instituciones pueden diferir de un país a otro: la familia, el partido, la Iglesia, la prensa. Pero el sistema escolar tiene por doquier la misma estructura, y en todas partes el currículum oculto tiene el mismo efecto. De modo invariable, modela al consumidor que valora los bienes institucionales sobre los servicios no profesionales de un prójimo. + +El currículum oculto de la escolarización inicia en todas partes al ciudadano en el mito de que algunas burocracias guiadas por el conocimiento científico son eficientes y benevolentes. Por doquiera, este mismo currículum inculca en el alumno el mito de que la mayor producción proporcionará una vida mejor. Y por doquiera crea el hábito —que se contradice a sí mismo— de consumo de servicios y de producción enajenante, la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional y el reconocimiento de los escalafones institucionales. El currículum oculto sustenta la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional, el reconocimiento por los profesores y cualquiera que sea la ideología preponderante. + +En otras palabras, las escuelas son fundamentalmente semejantes en todos los países, sean éstos fascistas, democráticos o socialistas, grandes o pequeños, ricos o pobres. La identidad del sistema escolar nos obliga a reconocer la profunda identidad en todo el mundo, del mito, del modo de producción y del método de control social, pese a la gran variedad de mitologías en las cuales encuentra expresión el mito. + +En vista de esta identidad, es ilusorio pretender que las escuelas son, en algún sentido profundo, unas variables dependientes. Esto significa que esperar un cambio social o económico concebido convencionalmente, es también una ilusión. Más aún, esta ilusión concede a la escuela —el órgano de reproducción de la sociedad de consumo— una inmunidad casi indiscutida. + +Al llegar a este punto es cuando adquiere importancia el ejemplo de China. Durante tres milenios, China protegió el aprendizaje superior por medio de un divorcio total entre el proceso del aprendizaje y el privilegio conferido por los exámenes para optar a altos cargos públicos. Para llegar a ser una potencia mundial y una nación-Estado moderno, China tuvo que adoptar el estilo internacional de escolarización. Sólo una mirada retrospectiva nos permitirá descubrir si la Gran Revolución Cultural resultará haber sido el primer intento logrado de desescolarizar las instituciones de la sociedad. + +Incluso la creación a retazos de nuevos organismos educativos que fuesen lo inverso de la escuela sería un ataque sobre el eslabón más sensible de un fenómeno ubicuo, el cual es organizado por el Estado en todos los países. Un programa político que no reconozca explícitamente la necesidad de la desescolarización no es revolucionario; es demagogia que pide más de lo mismo. Todo programa político importante de esta década debiera medirse con este rasero: ¿hasta dónde es claro afirmar la necesidad de la desescolarización —y qué directrices ofrece para asignar la calidad educativa de la sociedad hacia la cual se encamina—? + +La lucha contra el dominio que ejercen el mercado mundial y la política de las grandes potencias puede estar fuera del alcance de ciertas comunidades o países pobres, pero esta debilidad es una razón más para hacer hincapié en la importancia que tiene liberar a cada sociedad mediante una inversión de su estructura educativa, cambio este que no está más allá de los medios de ninguna sociedad. + + +## Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales + +Un buen sistema educativo debería tener tres objetivos: proporcionar a todos aquellos que lo quieren el acceso a recursos disponibles en cualquier momento de sus vidas; dotar a todos los que quieran compartir lo que saben del poder de encontrar a quienes quieran aprender de ellos, y, finalmente, dar a todo aquel que quiera presentar al público un tema de debate la oportunidad de dar a conocer su argumento. Un sistema como éste exigiría que se aplicaran a la educación unas garantías constitucionales. Los aprendices no podrían ser sometidos a un currículum obligatorio o a una discriminación fundada en la posesión o carencia de un certificado o diploma. Ni se obligaría tampoco al público a mantener, mediante una retribución regresiva, un gigantesco aparato profesional de educadores y edificios que de hecho disminuye las posibilidades que el público tiene de acceder a los servicios que la profesión está dispuesta a ofrecer en el mercado. Debería usar la tecnología moderna para lograr que la libre expresión, la libre reunión y la prensa libre fuesen universales y, por consiguiente, plenamente educativas. + +Las escuelas están proyectadas a partir del supuesto de que cada cosa en la vida tiene un secreto; de que la calidad de la vida depende de conocer ese secreto; de que los secretos pueden conocerse en ordenadas sucesiones, y de que sólo los profesores pueden revelar adecuadamente esos secretos. Una persona de mente escolarizada concibe el mundo como una pirámide de paquetes clasificados accesible sólo a aquellos que llevan los rótulos apropiados. Las nuevas instituciones educativas destrozarían esta pirámide. Su propósito debe ser facilitar el acceso al aprendiz, permitirle mirar al interior de la sala de control o del parlamento, si no puede entrar por la puerta. Además, esas nuevas instituciones deberían ser canales a los que el aprendiz tuviese acceso sin credenciales ni títulos de linaje —espacios públicos en los que iguales y mayores situados fuera de su horizonte inmediato se harían accesibles—. + +Pienso que no más de cuatro —y posiblemente hasta tres— “canales” distintos o centros de intercambio podrían contener todos los recursos necesarios para el aprendizaje real. El niño crece en un mundo de cosas, rodeado de personas que sirven de modelos para habilidades y valores. Encuentra seres como él, sus iguales, que le incitan a discutir, a competir, a cooperar, a entender, y si el niño es afortunado, se ve expuesto a la confrontación o a la crítica de un mayor experimentado que realmente se preocupe. Cosas, modelos, iguales y mayores son cuatro recursos, cada uno de los cuales requiere un tipo diferente de ordenamiento para asegurar que todos tengan acceso a él. + +Usaré las palabras “trama de oportunidad” en vez de “red” para designar las maneras específicas de proporcionar acceso a cada uno de los cuatro conjuntos de recursos. Desafortunadamente, “red” se emplea con frecuencia para designar los canales reservados a los materiales seleccionados por terceros para el adoctrinamiento, la instrucción y la recreación. Pero también puede usarse para los servicios postal o telefónico, que son primariamente accesibles para personas que quieren enviarse mensajes entre sí. Ojalá tuviésemos otra palabra para designar tales estructuras reticulares a fin de tener un acceso recíproco, una palabra que no evocase tanto una trampa, menos degradada por el uso corriente, y que sugiriese más el hecho de que cualquier ordenamiento de esta especie abarca aspectos legales, organizativos y técnicos. No habiendo hallado dicho término, trataré de redimir el único disponible, usándolo como sinónimo de “trama educativa”. + +Lo que se precisa son nuevas redes, de la cuales el público pueda disponer fácilmente y que estén concebidas para difundir una igualdad de oportunidades para aprender y enseñar. + +Para dar un ejemplo: en la televisión y en los magnetófonos se usa el mismo nivel de tecnología. Todos los países latinoamericanos han introducido la televisión: en Bolivia, el gobierno financió una estación transmisora de televisión, que se construyó hace siete años, y no hay más de 7 000 televisores para cuatro millones de ciudadanos. El dinero empozado hoy en instalaciones de televisión por toda América Latina podría haber dotado de magnetófonos a un ciudadano de cada cinco. Además, el dinero habría bastado para proporcionar un número casi ilimitado de cintas grabadas, con puestos de entrega incluso en aldeas perdidas, como también para un amplio suministro de cintas no grabadas. + +Esta red de magnetófonos sería, por supuesto, radicalmente diferente de la red actual de televisión. Proporcionaría oportunidades a la libre expresión: letrados y analfabetos podrían, por igual, registrar, preservar, difundir y repetir sus opiniones. La inversión actual en televisión, en cambio, proporciona a los burócratas, sean políticos o educadores, el poder de rociar el continente con programas producidos institucionalmente, que ellos —o sus patrocinadores— deciden que son buenos para el pueblo o que éste los pide. + + +## Cuatro redes + +El planteamiento de nuevas instituciones educativas no debiera comenzar por las metas administrativas de un rector director, ni por las metas pedagógicas de un educador profesional, ni por las metas de aprendizaje de una clase hipotética de personas. No debe iniciarse con la pregunta: “¿Qué debiera aprender alguien?”, sino con la pregunta: “¿Con qué tipos de cosas y personas podrían querer ponerse en contacto los que buscan aprender a fin de aprender?” + +Alguien que quiera aprender sabe que necesita tanto información como reacción crítica respecto del uso de esta información por parte de otra persona. La información puede almacenarse en personas y en cosas. En un buen sistema educativo el acceso a las cosas debiera estar disponible con sólo pedirlo el aprendiz, mientras el acceso a los informantes requeriría además el conocimiento de terceros. La crítica puede asimismo provenir de dos direcciones: de los iguales o de los mayores, esto es, de compañeros de aprendizaje cuyos intereses inmediatos concuerden con los míos, o de aquellos que me concederán una parte de su experiencia superior. Los iguales pueden ser colegas con quienes suscitar un debate, compañeros para una caminata o lectura juguetona y deleitable (o ardua), retadores en cualquier clase de juegos. Los mayores pueden ser asesores acerca de qué destreza aprender, qué método usar, qué compañía buscar en un momento dado. Pueden ser guías respecto a la pregunta correcta que hay que plantear entre iguales y a la deficiencia de las respuestas a que lleguen. La mayoría de estos recursos son abundantes. Pero convencionalmente ni se les percibe como recursos educativos, ni es fácil el acceso a ellos para fines de aprendizaje, especialmente para los pobres. Debemos idear nuevas estructuras de relación que se monten con el deliberado propósito de facilitar el acceso a estos recursos para el uso de cualquiera que esté motivado a buscarlos para su educación. Para montar estas estructuras tramadas se requieren disposiciones administrativas, tecnológicas y especialmente legales. + +Los recursos educativos suelen rotularse según las metas curriculares de los educadores. Propongo hacer lo contrario, y rotular cuatro enfoques diferentes que permitan al estudiante conseguir el acceso a cualquier recurso educativo que pueda ayudarle a definir y lograr sus propias metas: + +_1_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Objetos Educativos. Que faciliten el acceso a cosas o procesos usados para el aprendizaje formal. Algunas de estas cosas pueden reservarse para ese fin, almacenadas en bibliotecas, agencias de alquiler, laboratorios y salas de exposición, tales como museos y teatros; otras pueden estar en uso cotidiano en fábricas, aeropuertos o puestas en granjas, pero a disposición de estudiantes como aprendices o en horas de descanso. + +_2_. Servicios de habilidades. Que permitan a unas personas hacer una lista de sus habilidades, las condiciones según las cuales están dispuestas a servir de modelos a otros que quieran aprender esas habilidades y las direcciones en que se les puede hallar. + +_3_. Servicio de búsqueda de Compañero. Una red de comunicaciones que permita a las personas describir la actividad de aprendizaje a la que desean dedicarse, con la esperanza de hallar un compañero para la búsqueda. + +_4_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Educadores Independientes, los cuales pueden figurar en un catálogo que indique las direcciones y las descripciones —hechas por ellos mismos— de profesionales, paraprofesionales e independientes, conjuntamente con las condiciones de acceso a sus servicios. Tales educadores, como veremos, podrían elegirse mediante encuestas o consultando a sus clientes anteriores. + + +## Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos + +Las cosas son recursos básicos para aprender. La calidad del entorno y la relación de una persona con él determinarán cuánto aprenderá incidentalmente. El aprendizaje formal exige el acceso especial a cosas corrientes, por una parte o, por la otra, el acceso fácil y seguro a cosas especiales hechas con fines educativos. Un ejemplo del primer caso es el derecho especial a hacer funcionar o a desarmar una máquina en un garaje. Un ejemplo del segundo caso es el derecho general a usar un ábaco, una computadora, un libro, un jardín botánico o una máquina retirada de la producción y puesta a plena disposición de unos estudiantes. + +En la actualidad, la atención se centra en la disparidad entre niños ricos y pobres en cuanto a su acceso a cosas y en la manera en que pueden aprender de ellas. La OEO[^n16] y otros organismos, siguiendo este planteamiento, se concentran en igualar las posibilidades de cada cual, tratando de proveer de un mayor instrumental educativo a los pobres. Un punto de partida más radical sería reconocer que, en la ciudad, a ricos y pobres se les mantiene igualmente alejados de manera artificial de las cosas que los rodean. Los niños nacidos en la era de los plásticos y de los expertos en eficiencia deben traspasar dos barreras que obstaculizan sus entendimientos: una incorporada a las cosas y la otra construida en torno a las instituciones. El diseño industrial crea un mundo de cosas que ofrecen resistencia a la comprensión de su naturaleza interna, y las escuelas tapian al aprendiz respecto del mundo de las cosas en su escenario significativo. + +Después de una breve visita a Nueva York, una mujer de una aldea mexicana me dijo que le había impresionado que las tiendas vendiesen “solamente productos muy maquillados con cosméticos”. Entendí que ella quería decir que los productos industriales “hablan” a sus clientes acerca de sus encantos y no acerca de su naturaleza. La industria ha rodeado a la gente de artefactos hechos de manera que sólo a los especialistas les está permitido entender su mecanismo interno. Al no especialista que intenta hacer marchar el reloj o hacer sonar el teléfono o hacer funcionar la máquina de escribir, se le desalienta con la advertencia de que se romperá si lo intenta. Puede que se le diga qué hace funcionar un radio de transistores, pero no puede descubrirlo por sí mismo. Este tipo de diseño tiende a reforzar una sociedad no inventiva, en la que los expertos encuentran cada vez más fácil esconderse detrás de su pericia y más allá de una evaluación. + +El entorno creado por el hombre ha llegado a ser tan inescrutable como la naturaleza lo es para el primitivo. Al mismo tiempo, los materiales educativos los ha monopolizado la escuela. Los objetos educativos simples han sido costosamente empacados por la industria del conocimiento. Se han convertido en herramientas especializadas para los educadores profesionales, y se ha inflado su coste al obligarles a estimular ya sea entornos, ya sea profesores. + +El profesor es celoso del libro de texto al que define como su instrumento profesional. El estudiante puede llegar a odiar el laboratorio porque lo asocia con tareas escolares. El administrador racionaliza su actitud protectora hacia la biblioteca como una defensa de un instrumental público costoso contra quienes quisieran jugar con ella más bien que aprender. En esta atmósfera, el estudiante usa con excesiva frecuencia el mapa, el laboratorio, la enciclopedia o el microscopio sólo en los escasos momentos en que el currículum le dice que debe hacerlo. Incluso los grandes clásicos se convierten en arte de la “novatada” universitaria, en vez de señalar una nueva dirección en la vida de una persona. La escuela aparta las cosas del uso cotidiano al rotularlas como instrumentos educativos. + +Para que podamos desescolarizar será preciso invertir ambas tendencias. El entorno físico general debe hacerse accesible, y aquellos recursos físicos de aprendizaje que han sido reducidos a instrumentos de enseñanza deben llegar a estar disponibles para el aprendizaje autodirigido. Usar cosas sólo como partes de un currículum puede tener un efecto incluso peor que apartarlas del entorno general. Puede corromper las actitudes de los alumnos. + +Los juegos son un caso de este tipo. No me refiero a los “juegos” del departamento de educación física (tales como el futbol o el baloncesto), que las escuelas usan para generar ingresos y prestigio y en los que han hecho sustanciosas inversiones de capital. Como lo saben muy bien los mismos atletas, estas empresas, que adoptan la forma de torneos guerreros, han minado el aspecto juguetón de los deportes y se usan para reforzar la naturaleza competitiva de las escuelas. Hablo más bien de los juegos educativos que pueden proporcionar una manera singular de entender los sistemas formales. Un amigo mío fue a un mercado mexicano con un juego llamado _Wff’n Proff_ , que consta de varios dados en los que están impresos 12 símbolos lógicos. Mostró a unos niños qué combinaciones formaban una frase bien hecha —unas dos o tres de las muchas posibles— e, inductivamente, al cabo de la primera hora, algunos mirones también captaron el principio. A las pocas horas, jugando pruebas lógicas formales, algunos niños eran capaces de iniciar a otros en las pruebas formales de la lógica de proposiciones. Los otros simplemente se fueron. + +Para algunos niños dichos juegos son en efecto una forma especial de liberar la educación, puesto que les permite descubrir que los sistemas formales se fundan en axiomas mutables y que las operaciones conceptuales tienen un carácter lúdico. Son asimismo simples, baratos y en buena parte pueden organizarlos los jugadores mismos. Cuando se usan fuera del currículum, tales juegos dan una oportunidad para identificar y desarrollar el talento poco común, mientras que el psicólogo escolar identificará a menudo a quienes posean dicho talento como a personas en peligro de llegar a ser antisociales, enfermas o desequilibradas. Dentro de la escuela, cuando se usan en forma de torneos, a los juegos no sólo se les saca de la esfera de la recreación, a menudo se convierten en instrumentos para transformar al alumno juguetón en un espíritu competitivo y la falta de razonamiento abstracto en signo de inferioridad. Un ejercicio que para ciertos tipos de carácter es liberador, se convierte en camisa de fuerza para otros. + +El control de la escuela sobre el instrumental educativo tiene además otro efecto. Aumenta enormemente el coste de esos materiales baratos. Una vez que su uso se restringe a unas horas programadas, se paga a profesionales que supervisen su adquisición, almacenamiento y uso. Entonces los estudiantes descargan su rabia contra la escuela sobre el instrumental, que es preciso adquirir nuevamente. + +Algo paralelo a la intocabilidad de los útiles educativos es la impenetrabilidad de la moderna chatarra. En la década de 1930 cualquier muchacho que se respetara sabía reparar un automóvil, pero ahora los fabricantes de coches multiplican los alambres y apartan los manuales de todo el que no sea un mecánico especializado. En un periodo anterior un radio viejo contenía suficientes bobinas y condensadores como para construir un transmisor que hiciera chillar por realimentación a todos los radios del vecindario. Los radios de transistores son más portátiles, pero nadie se atreve a desarmarlos. En los países altamente industrializados sería inmensamente difícil cambiar esto, pero al menos en los países del Tercer Mundo debemos insistir en ciertas cualidades educativas incorporadas al objeto. + +Para ilustrar mi argumento, permítaseme presentar un modelo: gastando 10 millones de dólares sería posible conectar 40 000 aldeas de un país como Perú mediante una telaraña de pistas de un metro ochenta de ancho y mantenerlas funcionando; además, dotar al país de 200 000 burros mecánicos de tres ruedas —cinco por aldea como promedio—. Pocos países pobres de ese tamaño gastan menos de esa cantidad cada año en coches y caminos, cuyo uso, el de ambos, se limita principalmente a los ricos y a sus empleados, mientras la gente pobre queda atrapada en sus aldeas. Cada uno de estos pequeños vehículos, simples pero duraderos, equipados con un motor de seis caballos de fuerza, costaría 125 dólares. Un “burro” podría andar a 24 kilómetros por hora, y trasladaría cargas de unos 400 kilogramos (es decir, la mayoría de las cosas que suelen moverse, aparte de troncos y vigas de acero). + +El atractivo político que dicho sistema de transporte tendría para el campesinado es obvio. Igualmente obvio es el motivo por el cual quienes detentan el poder —y por tanto poseen, automáticamente, un coche— no están interesados en gastar dinero en pistas semejantes y en obstruir los caminos con burros motorizados. El burro universal podría funcionar sólo si los dirigentes de un país impusieran un límite de, digamos, 40 kilómetros por hora y adaptaran sus instituciones públicas a ese límite. El modelo no podría funcionar si estuviese concebido sólo como un parche. + +No es éste el lugar apropiado para examinar en detalle la factibilidad política, social, económica, financiera y técnica de este modelo. Deseo solamente indicar que los considerandos educativos pueden ser de primordial importancia cuando se elige una alternativa semejante frente a un transporte que usa relativamente más capital que mano de obra. Aumentando el coste unitario de cada burro 20% se haría posible planificar la producción de todas sus piezas de modo que, hasta donde fuera posible, cada futuro dueño pasase de uno a dos meses haciendo y entendiendo su máquina y fuese capaz de repararla. Con este coste adicional sería asimismo posible descentralizar la producción en fábricas dispersas. Las ventajas adicionales provendrían no sólo de incluir los costes educativos en el proceso de construcción. Más significativo todavía, un motor duradero que prácticamente cualquiera podría aprender a reparar y que podría usar como arado y como bomba aquel que lo entendiera, produciría unos beneficios educativos mucho más elevados que los inescrutables motores de los países avanzados. + +No sólo la chatarra, sino los lugares presuntamente públicos de la ciudad moderna se han vuelto impenetrables. En la sociedad estadunidense se excluye a los niños de la mayoría de las cosas y lugares con el argumento de que son privados. Pero incluso en las sociedades que han declarado el fin de la propiedad privada se aparta a los niños de las mismas cosas y lugares porque estos últimos se consideran un ámbito especial y peligroso para el no iniciado. A partir de la pasada generación el patio de los ferrocarriles se hizo tan inaccesible como el cuartel de bomberos. Sin embargo, con un poco de ingenio no sería difícil eliminar los peligros en esos lugares. El desescolarizar los artefactos de la educación haría necesario poner a disposición los artefactos y procesos —y reconocer su valor educativo—. Algunos trabajadores, sin duda, encontrarían molesto hacerlos accesibles a los aprendices, pero esta molestia debe valorarse comparándola con las ventajas educativas. + +Los automóviles privados podrían desterrarse de Manhattan. Hace cinco años esto era impensable. Ahora, ciertas calles de Nueva York se cierran a ciertas horas, y esta tendencia probablemente continuará. De hecho, la mayoría de las calles transversales deberían cerrarse al tránsito automotriz y el estacionamiento debería prohibirse en todas partes. En una ciudad abierta al pueblo, los materiales de enseñanza, que ahora se encierran en almacenes y laboratorios, podrían diseminarse en depósitos abiertos a la calle y gestionarse de manera independiente para que los adultos y los niños pudiesen visitarlos sin peligro de que los atropellen. + +Si las metas de la educación ya no estuviesen dominadas por las escuelas y los maestros de escuela, el mercado para los aprendices sería mucho más variado y la definición de “artefactos educativos” sería menos restrictiva. Podría haber talleres de herramientas, bibliotecas, laboratorios y salas de juegos. Los laboratorios fotográficos y prensas offset permitirían el florecimiento de diarios vecinales. Algunos centros de aprendizaje abiertos a la calle podrían contener cabinas para mirar programas de televisión en circuito cerrado, otros podrían poseer útiles de oficina para usar y para reparar. Los tocadiscos del tipo tragamonedas y de tipo corriente serían de uso diario, especializándose algunos en música clásica, otros en melodías folclóricas internacionales, otros en jazz. Las filmotecas competirían entre sí y con la televisión comercial. Los locales de museos abiertos al público podrían ser redes para poner en circulación muestras de arte antiguo y moderno, originales y reproducciones, tal vez administradas por los diversos museos metropolitanos. + +El personal profesional necesario para esta red se parecería mucho más a unos custodios, guardias de museo o bibliotecarios de servicio público que a unos profesores. Desde la tienda de biología de la esquina podrían dirigir a sus clientes a la colección de caracoles del museo o señalarles cuándo habría una exhibición de videocintas de biología en determinadas cabinas de televisión. Podrían dar indicaciones para el control de plagas, dietas y otras clases de medicina preventiva. Podrían remitir a quienes necesitaran consejos a “mayores” que pudiesen proporcionarlo. + +El financiamiento de una red de “objetos de aprendizaje” puede encararse de dos maneras. Una comunidad podría fijar un presupuesto máximo para este fin y disponer que todas las partes de la red estuviesen abiertas a todos los visitantes a ciertas horas razonables. O bien la comunidad podría decidir proporcionar a los ciudadanos unos bonos o derechos limitados, según sus edades, que les darían acceso especial a ciertos materiales costosos y escasos, dejando en cambio otros materiales más simples a disposición de todos. + +Encontrar recursos para materiales hechos específicamente para educar es sólo un aspecto —y tal vez el menos costoso— de la construcción de un mundo educativo. El dinero que hoy se gasta en la parafernalia sagrada del ritual escolar podría liberarse para proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos un mejor acceso a la vida real de la ciudad. Podrían otorgarse incentivos tributarios especiales a quienes emplearan niños de ocho a 14 años durante un par de horas diarias si las condiciones de empleo fuesen humanas. Deberíamos volver a la tradición de la _bar mitzvah_ o de la confirmación. Quiero decir con esto que debiéramos primero restringir y luego eliminar la privación de derechos y deberes civiles de los menores, y permitir que un muchacho de 12 años llegue a ser plenamente responsable de su participación en la vida de la comunidad. Muchas personas de “edad escolar” saben más acerca de su vecindario que los trabajadores sociales o los concejales. Naturalmente que hacen también preguntas más incómodas y proponen soluciones que amenazan a la burocracia. Debería permitírseles llegar a la mayoría de edad de modo que pusieran sus conocimientos y capacidad de indagación al servicio de un gobierno popular. + +Hasta hace poco era fácil subestimar los peligros de la escuela en comparación con los peligros de un periodo de aprendizaje en la policía, en el cuerpo de bomberos o en la industria del espectáculo. Este argumento deja de ser válido con gran frecuencia. Visité recientemente una iglesia metodista de Harlem ocupada por un grupo de los llamados _Young Lords_ como protesta por la muerte de Julio Rodan, un muchacho puertorriqueño al que se encontró ahorcado en su celda carcelaria. Yo conocía a los líderes del grupo, que habían pasado un semestre en Cuernavaca. Cuando me sorprendí al no hallar a uno de ellos, Juan, en el grupo, me dijeron: “Volvió a la heroína y a la Universidad del Estado”. + +Para desencadenar el potencial educativo encerrado en la gigantesca inversión de nuestra sociedad en instalaciones y útiles pueden usarse el planteamiento, los incentivos y la legislación. No existirá el acceso pleno a los objetos educativos mientras se permita a empresas comerciales conjugar las defensas legales que la Carta Fundamental reserva a la vida privada de las personas con el poder económico que les confieren sus millones de clientes y miles de empleados, accionistas y proveedores. Una parte considerable de los conocimientos prácticos y teóricos del mundo y la mayoría de sus procesos y equipos de producción están encerrados entre los muros de firmas comerciales, apartados de sus clientes, empleados y accionistas, como también del público en general, cuyas leyes e instalaciones les permiten funcionar. El dinero que se gasta en publicidad en los países capitalistas podrían canalizarse hacia la educación en y por parte de la General Electric, NBC-TV o cervezas Budweiser. Es decir, las fábricas y oficinas deberían reorganizarse de forma tal que su funcionamiento cotidiano fuese más accesible al público y de maneras que hiciesen posible el aprendizaje, y, en verdad, podrían hallarse modos de pagar a las compañías lo que la gente aprendiese en ellas. + +Es posible que un conjunto de objetos e informaciones científicas aún más valioso esté apartado del acceso general —e incluso de los científicos competentes— bajo el pretexto de la seguridad nacional. Hasta hace poco la ciencia era el único foro que funcionaba como el sueño de un anarquista. Cada hombre capaz de realizar investigaciones tenía más o menos las mismas oportunidades que otros en cuanto a acceso a su instrumental y a ser escuchado por la comunidad de iguales. Ahora la burocratización y la organización han puesto a gran parte de la ciencia fuera del alcance del público. En efecto, lo que solía ser una red internacional de información científica ha sido escindida en una lid de grupos competidores. Tanto a los miembros como a los artefactos de la comunidad científica se les ha encerrado en programas nacionales y corporativos para logros prácticos y para el radical empobrecimiento de los hombres que mantienen estas naciones y corporaciones. + +En un mundo que controlan y poseen naciones y compañías, nunca será posible sino un acceso limitado a los objetos educativos. Pero un mejor acceso a aquellos objetos que pueden compartirse para fines educativos puede ilustrarnos lo suficiente como para traspasar estas barreras políticas finales. Las escuelas públicas transfieren el control sobre los usos educativos de los objetos de manos privadas a manos profesionales. La inversión institucional de las escuelas podría dar al individuo el poder de volver a exigir el derecho a usarlos para su educación. Si el control privado o corporativo sobre el aspecto educativo de las “cosas” se lograse extinguir gradualmente, podría comenzar a aparecer un tipo de propiedad realmente pública. + + +## Servicios de habilidades + +Al revés de lo que ocurre con una guitarra, a un profesor de ese instrumento no se le puede clasificar en un museo, ni lo puede poseer el público, ni se le puede tomar en alquiler en un almacén de elementos educativos. Los profesores de habilidades pertenecen a una clase de recursos que es diferente de la de los objetos necesarios para aprender una habilidad. Esto no quiere decir que sean indispensables en todos los casos. Puedo alquilar no sólo una guitarra, sino también lecciones de guitarra grabadas en cintas y gráficos que ilustren los acordes, y con estos elementos puedo enseñarme yo mismo a tocar la guitarra. De hecho, este sistema puede presentar ventajas si las cintas disponibles son mejores que los profesores disponibles, o si las únicas horas en que puedo aprender guitarra son nocturnas o si las melodías que quiero interpretar son desconocidas en mi país o si soy tímido y prefiero meter la pata sin testigos. + +El canal que se usa para registrar a los profesores de habilidades y comunicarse con ellos debe ser diferente al descrito para objetos. Una cosa está disponible a petición del usuario —o podría estarlo— mientras una persona llega formalmente a ser una fuente de enseñanza de habilidades sólo cuando considere serlo y pueda asimismo restringir la ocasión, el lugar y el método a su tamaño. + +Es también necesario distinguir a los profesores de los iguales de los que uno desearía aprender. Los iguales que desean seguir una búsqueda común deben partir de capacidades o intereses comunes; se juntan para ejercitar o mejorar una habilidad que comparten: baloncesto, baile, construcción de un campamento, debate sobre las próximas elecciones. Por otra parte, la primera transmisión de una habilidad supone el reunir a alguien que posea una destreza con alguien que no la posea y quiera adquirirla. + +Un “modelo de habilidad” es una persona que posee una habilidad y está dispuesta a demostrar su práctica. Frecuentemente el aprendiz en potencia precisa el recurso de una demostración de esta clase. Los inventos modernos nos permiten registrar demostraciones en cinta, en película o en gráficos; no obstante, sería de esperar que la demostración personal continuase gozando de gran demanda, especialmente en las habilidades de comunicación. En nuestro Centro, en Cuernavaca, han aprendido español unos 10 000 adultos —en su mayoría personas muy motivadas que deseaban obtener una cuasi-fluidez en un segundo idioma—. Cuando se les plantea la elección entre una instrucción cuidadosamente programada en un laboratorio de idiomas o sesiones rutinarias con otros dos estudiantes y una persona cuyo idioma nativo es el español y que se ciñe a una rutina rígida, la mayoría prefiere la segunda alternativa. + +Respecto de la mayor parte de las habilidades ampliamente compartidas, que una persona demuestre su habilidad es el único recurso humano que llegamos a necesitar u obtener. Ya sea para hablar o para conducir, para cocinar o para usar equipos de comunicaciones, a menudo apenas nos damos cuenta de la instrucción y el aprendizaje formales, especialmente después de nuestra primera experiencia con los materiales en cuestión. No veo razón por la cual no pudiesen aprenderse de igual manera otras habilidades complejas, tales como los aspectos mecánicos de la cirugía, tocar el violín, leer o usar listas y catálogos. + +Un estudiante bien motivado que no lucha contra una desventaja determinada a menudo no necesita más ayuda humana que la que puede proporcionar alguien que puede demostrar a quien lo solicite cómo hacer lo que el aprendiz quiere hacer. Aquello de insistir a personas diestras en que antes de demostrar su habilidad certifiquen que son pedagogos es el resultado de la insistencia de una de dos alternativas: o que la gente aprenda lo que no quiere saber, o bien que todos —incluso quienes sufren de alguna desventaja especial— aprendan ciertas cosas, en un momento dado de sus vidas, y preferentemente en circunstancias específicas. + +Lo que crea una escasez de habilidades en el mercado educativo de hoy es el requisito institucional de que quienes pueden demostrarlas no pueden hacerlo a menos de otorgárseles pública confianza por medio de un certificado. Insistimos en que aquellos que ayudan a terceros a adquirir una habilidad habrían de saber también diagnosticar las dificultades de aprendizaje y ser capaces de motivar a la gente a aprender habilidades. En resumen, les exigimos ser pedagogos. Habría abundancia de personas que pueden demostrar habilidades tan pronto aprendiéramos a reconocerlas fuera de la profesión de la enseñanza. + +Cuando se está enseñando a unos principitos, es comprensible, aunque ha dejado de ser justificable, la insistencia de sus padres en que el profesor y la persona dotada de habilidades se conjuguen en una misma persona. Pero el que todos los padres aspiren a tener un Aristóteles para su Alejandro es obviamente insostenible. Las personas que pueden inspirar a los estudiantes y demostrar una técnica son tan escasas, y tan difíciles de reconocer, que hasta los principitos consiguen con mayor frecuencia un sofista y no un verdadero filósofo. + +Una demanda de habilidades escasas puede satisfacerse rápidamente aun cuando hay un número pequeño de personas que las demuestren, pero debe facilitarse el acceso a dichas personas. Durante la década de 1940-1950, los reparadores de radios, la mayoría de los cuales no estudiaron su trabajo en escuelas, penetraron en el interior de América con no más de dos años de retraso respecto a la llegada de los radios a la región. Permanecieron allí hasta que los radios de transistores, baratos e imposibles de reparar, los dejaron cesantes. Las escuelas técnicas no logran realizar lo que algunos reparadores de radios podrían hacer sin problemas: restauraciones útiles y duraderas. + +Ciertos intereses privados y convergentes conspiran hoy para impedir que una persona comparta su habilidad. A quien posee la habilidad le beneficia su escasez y no su reproducción. Al maestro que se especializa en transmitir la habilidad le beneficia la renuencia del artesano a ofrecer su propio taller para aprendices. Al público se le adoctrina con la creencia de que las habilidades son valiosas y de fiarse sólo si son el resultado de una escolarización formal. El mercado de trabajo depende de hacer escasas las habilidades y de mantenerlas escasas, ya sea proscribiendo su uso a transmisión no autorizada, o bien haciendo cosas que puedan operar y reparar sólo quienes tengan acceso a herramientas o informaciones que se mantienen en déficit. + +De este modo, las escuelas producen escasez de personas especializadas. Un buen ejemplo de esto es el número decreciente de enfermeras en Estados Unidos, debido al rápido aumento de programas universitarios de cuatro años en ese ramo. Las mujeres de familias más pobres que anteriormente se habrían alistado en un programa de dos o tres años, se han alejado por completo de dicha profesión. + +Otra manera de mantener la escasez de habilidades es insistir en maestros diplomados. Si se alentara a las enfermeras a adiestrar a otras enfermeras, y si a las enfermeras se les empleara de acuerdo con su habilidad demostrada para poner inyecciones, trazar gráficos y dar medicinas, pronto se terminaría la escasez de enfermeras capacitadas. Los certificados tienden hoy a coartar la libertad de la educación al convertir el derecho civil de compartir conocimientos en el privilegio de la libertad académica que ahora se confiere sólo a los empleados de alguna escuela. Para garantizar el acceso a un intercambio eficaz de habilidades necesitamos leyes que generalicen la libertad académica. El derecho a enseñar cualquier habilidad debería estar amparado por la libertad de expresión. Una vez que se eliminen las restricciones sobre la enseñanza, pronto desaparecerán también las relativas al aprendizaje. + +El profesor de habilidades necesita algún incentivo para otorgar sus servicios a un alumno. Hay por lo menos dos maneras sencillas de comenzar a canalizar fondos públicos hacia profesores no diplomados. Una sería institucionalizar los servicios de habilidades mediante la creación de centros de habilidades, libres y abiertos al público. Dichos centros podrían y deberían establecerse en zonas industriales, al menos para habilidades que son un requisito indispensable para ingresar en ciertos noviciados o aprendizajes —habilidades tales como la lectura, la mecanografía, la contabilidad, los idiomas extranjeros, la programación de computadoras y la manipulación de números, la lectura de lenguajes especiales (como el de los circuitos eléctricos), la manipulación de ciertas máquinas, etc.—. Otro planteamiento sería proporcionar a ciertos grupos de la población una moneda educativa válida para asistir a centros de habilidades en los que otros clientes habrían de pagar tarifas comerciales. + +Un planteamiento mucho más radical consistiría en crear un “banco” para el intercambio de habilidades. A cada ciudadano se le abriría un crédito básico con el que pudiese adquirir habilidades fundamentales. Luego, se beneficiaría con créditos adicionales enseñando, ya fuera en centros de habilidades organizados, en casa o sobre la marcha. Sólo aquellos que hubiesen enseñado a otros durante un lapso equivalente podrían solicitar el tiempo de profesores más avanzados. Se promovería una élite enteramente nueva, una élite formada por quienes hubiesen ganado su educación compartiéndola. + +¿Deberían los padres tener el derecho a ganar crédito educativo para sus hijos? Como una disposición de este tipo daría nuevas ventajas a las clases privilegiadas, podría compensarse otorgando un crédito mayor a los desfavorecidos. El funcionamiento de un servicio de habilidades dependería de la existencia de organismos que facilitarían el desarrollo de información —listas de personas— y asegurarían su uso libre y barato. Dicho organismo podría proporcionar servicios auxiliares de prueba y certificación y ayudaría a poner en vigor la legislación necesaria para quebrar e impedir las prácticas monopólicas. + +La libertad de un servicio universal de habilidades podría estar garantizada fundamentalmente por leyes que permitiesen la discriminación sólo de acuerdo con habilidades verificadas y no según el historial educativo. Una garantía semejante requiere inevitablemente un control público sobre las pruebas que puedan usarse para determinar quiénes están capacitados para el mercado laboral. De otra manera sería posible reintroducir subrepticiamente complejas baterías de _test_ en el lugar mismo de trabajo que servirían para selección social. Mucho podría hacerse a fin de lograr objetividad en las pruebas de competencia en habilidades, como por ejemplo permitir que se comprobara sólo el manejo de máquinas o sistemas específicos. Las pruebas de mecanografía (en las que se mediría la velocidad, el número de errores y se valoraría el saber tomar dictados), el dominio de un sistema contable o de una grúa hidráulica, la codificación en Cobol,[^n17] etc., pueden fácilmente hacerse objetivas. + +De hecho, muchas de las verdaderas habilidades de importancia práctica pueden verificarse de ese modo. Y para los fines de administración de personal es mucho más útil una prueba sobre el nivel presente de competencia en determinada habilidad que la información sobre el hecho de que 20 años atrás una persona dejó satisfecho a su profesor respecto de un currículum en el que se enseñaba mecanografía, taquigrafía y contabilidad. Naturalmente puede ponerse en duda la necesidad misma de una comprobación oficial de habilidades: yo tengo la convicción de que el hecho de imponer ciertas restricciones constituye una mejor garantía para el derecho que un hombre tiene a que su reputación no sufra daños indebidos provenientes de una rotulación, que la garantía lograda al prohibir pruebas de competencia. + + +## Servicio de búsqueda de compañero + +En el peor de los casos, las escuelas reúnen condiscípulos en la misma habitación y los someten a la misma secuencia de tratamiento en matemáticas, educación cívica y lenguaje. En el mejor, permiten a cada estudiante elegir un curso de entre un número limitado de ellos. En cualquier caso, se forman grupos de iguales en torno a las metas de los profesores. Un sistema conveniente de educación permitiría a cada persona especificar la actividad para la cual busca un compañero. + +La escuela ofrece efectivamente a los niños una oportunidad para escapar de sus casas y encontrar nuevos amigos. Pero al mismo tiempo, este proceso inculca en ellos la idea de que deberían elegir sus amigos entre aquellos con quienes han sido congregados. El invitar a los menores desde su más tierna infancia a conocer, evaluar y buscar a otros los prepararía para mantener durante toda su vida el interés por buscar nuevos asociados para nuevos empeños. + +A un buen jugador de ajedrez siempre le gusta hallar un buen adversario, y a un novato le alegra hallar otro. Los clubes les sirven para este fin. Las personas que quieren conversar sobre determinados libros o artículos probablemente pagarían por hallar compañeros de debate. Los que quieren practicar juegos, ir de excursión, construir estanques para peces o motorizar bicicletas se tomarán molestias considerables para hallar compañeros para ello. El premio de sus esfuerzos es encontrar esos compañeros. Las buenas escuelas tratan de poner al descubierto los intereses comunes de los estudiantes matriculados en los mismos programas. Lo inverso de la escuela sería una institución que aumentase las posibilidades de que las personas que en un determinado momento compartiesen el mismo interés específico, pudiesen encontrarse independientemente de que tuviesen otra cosa en común. + +La enseñanza de habilidades no proporciona beneficios iguales a ambas partes, como lo hace la reunión de iguales. Tal como he señalado, al profesor de habilidades debe ofrecérsele algún otro incentivo aparte de las satisfacciones de enseñar. La enseñanza de habilidades es un asunto de repetir una y otra vez ciertas rutinas y de hecho es más tediosa para los alumnos que más la necesitan. Un servicio de habilidades necesita dinero o créditos u otros incentivos tangibles para funcionar, aun cuando el servicio mismo produjese su propia moneda. Un sistema de búsqueda de compañero no precisaría tales incentivos, sino sólo una red de comunicaciones. + +Las cintas, los sistemas de informática, la instrucción programada y la reproducción de formas y de sonidos tienden a disminuir la necesidad de recurrir a profesores humanos para muchas habilidades; aumentan la eficiencia de los profesores y el número de habilidades que uno puede conseguir a lo largo de su vida. Paralelamente a este aspecto se ha creado la necesidad creciente de encontrarse con gente interesada en disfrutar de la habilidad recientemente adquirida. Una estudiante que haya aprendido griego antes de sus vacaciones querrá conversar en griego sobre política cretense cuando regrese. Un mexicano de Nueva York quiere hallar a otros lectores de la revista _Siempre!_ o de _Los Agachados_ , la más popular de las historietas. Algún otro quiere encontrar compañeros que, como él, desearían aumentar su interés en la obra de James Baldwin o de Bolívar. + +El funcionamiento de una red para búsqueda de compañeros sería simple. El usuario se identificaría por su nombre y dirección y describiría la actividad para la cual estuviese buscando compañero. Una computadora le remitiría los nombres y direcciones de todos aquellos que hubiesen introducido la misma descripción. Es asombroso que un servicio público tan sencillo no se haya usado nunca en gran escala para actividades de valor público. + +En su forma más rudimentaria, la comunicación entre cliente y computadora podría establecerse por correo. En las grandes ciudades, unas máquinas de escribir conectadas a una computadora podrían proporcionar respuestas instantáneas. La única manera de conseguir que la computadora entregase un nombre y dirección sería anotar una actividad para la cual se buscase un compañero. Las personas que utilizasen el sistema llegarían a ser conocidas únicamente por sus posibles compañeros de actividad. + +Un complemento de la computadora podría ser una red de pizarras o cuadros de anuncios y de avisos clasificados de periódico, consistentes en listas de actividades para las cuales no se hubiese hallado compañero mediante la computadora. No sería necesario dar nombres. Los lectores interesados introducirían entonces sus nombres en el sistema. Es posible que un sistema de búsqueda de compañero, con patrocinio público, sea la única manera de garantizar la libertad de reunión y de adiestrar a la gente en el ejercicio de esta actividad cívica tan fundamental. + +El derecho a la libre reunión ha sido reconocido políticamente y aceptado socialmente. Deberíamos entender ahora que este derecho está restringido por leyes que hacen obligatorias ciertas formas de reunión. Éste es en particular el caso de las instituciones que reclutan según edad, clase o sexo, y que consumen muchísimo tiempo. El ejército es un ejemplo. La escuela es otro aún más ofensivo. + +Desescolarizar significa abolir el poder de una persona para obligar a otra a asistir a una reunión. Significa también reconocer el derecho de cualquier persona, de cualquier edad o sexo, a convocar una reunión. Este derecho se ha visto drásticamente disminuido por la institucionalización de las reuniones. “Reunión” se refería originalmente al resultado del acto individual de juntarse. Ahora se refiere al producto institucional de algún organismo. + +La capacidad de las instituciones de servicio para adquirir clientes ha sobrepasado con mucho la capacidad de las personas para ser oídas con independencia de los medios de información institucional, que reaccionan ante personas individuales sólo si son noticias vendibles. Deberían existir servicios de búsqueda de compañero para personas que quisiesen reunir a otras, de modo que fuese tan fácil como la campana de la aldea que convocaba a los aldeanos a un cabildo. Los edificios escolares —dudosamente adaptables para otros fines— podrían cumplir en muchos casos este objetivo. + +De hecho, el sistema escolar puede encontrarse pronto con un problema que las Iglesias han enfrentado anteriormente: qué hacer con el espacio sobrante que ha quedado con la defección de los fieles. Las escuelas son difíciles de vender como templos. Una manera de continuar manteniéndolas en uso sería entregar esos edificios al vecindario. Cada cual podría manifestar lo que haría en el aula y cuándo, y algunos anuncios pondrían los programas disponibles en conocimiento de quien indagara. El acceso a “clase” sería gratis —o se compraría con bonos educativos—. El “profesor” podría incluso pagarse según el número de alumnos que atrajese por cualquier periodo completo de dos horas. Me imagino que los líderes muy jóvenes y los grandes educadores serían los dos tipos de persona más destacados en semejante sistema. Podría seguirse igual planteamiento respecto de la educación superior. Podría dotarse a los estudiantes de bonos educativos que los hicieran acreedores a 10 horas anuales de consulta con el profesor de su elección y, para el resto de su aprendizaje, se apoyaría en la biblioteca, la red para búsqueda de compañeros y los periodos de aprendiz. + +Naturalmente, debemos reconocer la probabilidad de que se abuse de esos dispositivos públicos de búsqueda para fines inmorales y de explotación, tal como se ha abusado de los teléfonos y del correo. Se requeriría cierta protección semejante a la que se usa para esas redes. En otras páginas he propuesto un sistema de búsqueda de compañero que permitiría usar sólo una información impresa pertinente, más el nombre y la dirección del averiguador. Un sistema de esta especie sería prácticamente a prueba de abusos. Otra medida sería permitir que se agregase cualquier libro, película, programa de televisión u otro artículo que figurase en un catálogo especial. La preocupación acerca de los peligros del sistema no debe hacernos perder de vista sus beneficios, tanto mayores. + +Algunos que comparten mi preocupación por la libertad de expresión y la reunión alegarán que el sistema de búsqueda de compañero es un medio artificial de juntar personas y que no lo utilizarían los pobres —que son quienes más lo necesitan—. Hay personas que auténticamente se alborotan cuando uno sugiere montar encuentros _ad hoc_ que no tengan su raíz en la vida de una comunidad local. Otros reaccionan cuando uno sugiere usar una computadora para entresacar y conjuntar intereses que algunos clientes del sistema hayan definido. No es posible reunir a las personas de una manera tan impersonal, dicen. La búsqueda en común debe estar arraigada en una historia de experiencias compartidas a muchos niveles, y debe nacer de esta experiencia —el desarrollo de instituciones vecinales, por ejemplo—. + +Simpatizo con estas objeciones, pero creo que no comprenden el verdadero sentido de lo que persigo y no dan tampoco con lo que ellos mismos persiguen. En primer lugar, el retorno a la vida vecinal como centro primario de expresión creativa podría de hecho ser contraproducente para volver a establecer los vecindarios como unidades políticas. Centrar las demandas sobre el barrio o vecindario podría, en efecto, descuidar un importante aspecto liberador de la vida urbana —el que una persona pueda participar simultáneamente en varios grupos de sus iguales—. Además, existe un sentido importante: personas que jamás han vivido juntas en una comunidad física pueden tener ocasionalmente muchas más experiencias por compartir que quienes se han conocido desde la infancia. Las grandes religiones han reconocido siempre la importancia de estos encuentros lejanos, y los fieles han hallado siempre libertad mediante ellos: los peregrinajes, el monacato y el mutuo apoyo de templos y santuarios son reflejos de este reconocimiento. La conjunción de iguales podría ayudar significativamente a hacer explícitas las numerosas comunidades en potencia, aunque reprimidas, que existen en la ciudad. + +Las comunidades locales son valiosas. Son también una realidad que se desvanece conforme los hombres dejan que las instituciones definan cada vez más sus círculos de relación social. En un libro reciente, Milton Kotler mostró que el imperialismo del “centro” de la ciudad priva al barrio de su significación política. El intento proteccionista de resucitar la barriada como unidad cultural sólo sirve de apoyo a este imperialismo burocrático. Lejos de apartar artificialmente a la gente de su contexto local para unirla con grupos abstractos, el servicio de búsqueda de compañero alentaría un renacer de la vida local en las ciudades de las cuales está desapareciendo hoy en día. Un hombre que recupere su iniciativa para llamar a sus prójimos a sostener una conversación significativa, puede dejar de conformarse con estar separado de ellos por el protocolo oficinesco o por la etiqueta suburbana. Habiendo visto por una vez que el hacer cosas en conjunto depende del decidir hacerlo, la gente posiblemente insista incluso en que su comunidad local se haga más abierta al intercambio político creativo. + +Debemos reconocer que la vida urbana tiende a hacerse inmensamente costosa conforme a los habitantes de la ciudad se les enseña a confiar en complejos servicios institucionales para satisfacer cada una de sus necesidades. Es extraordinariamente costoso incluso mantenerla en un nivel mínimo de habitabilidad. El servicio de búsqueda de compañero de aprendizaje en la ciudad podría ser un primer paso para romper la dependencia de los ciudadanos respecto de servicios burocráticos. + +Sería también una medida esencial para proporcionar nuevos medios de establecer la confianza pública. En una sociedad escolarizada hemos llegado a confiar cada día más en el juicio profesional de educadores sobre el efecto de su propia labor para decidir en quién podemos o no confiar: vamos al médico, al abogado o al psicólogo porque confiamos en que cualquiera que ha tenido la cantidad requerida de tratamiento educativo especializado a manos de otros colegas merece nuestra confianza. + +En una sociedad desescolarizada, los profesionales ya no pueden reclamar la confianza de sus clientes a partir de su historial curricular o asegurar su prestigio con sólo remitir a sus clientes a otros profesionales que dieron aprobación a su escolarización. En vez de depositar su confianza en profesionales, debería ser posible, en cualquier momento, que cualquier presunto cliente consultase con otros clientes experimentados sobre la calidad del servicio prestado por un profesional mediante otra red de comunicación de intereses comunes fácilmente montada en una computadora o mediante muchos otros medios. Podría considerarse a tales redes como servicios de utilidad pública que permitiesen a los estudiantes elegir a sus profesores o a los pacientes, sus médicos. + + +## Educadores profesionales + +Conforme los ciudadanos tengan nuevas posibilidades de elección, nuevas posibilidades de aprendizaje, su disposición a buscar directivos debiera aumentar. Podemos contar con que experimentarán más hondamente tanto su propia independencia como su necesidad de guía. Conforme estén liberados de la manipulación por parte de terceros, debieran aprender a beneficiarse de la disciplina que otros han adquirido durante toda su vida. El desescolarizar la educación debiera más bien aumentar, y no ahogar, la búsqueda de hombres de sabiduría práctica que estuviesen dispuestos a apoyar al recién llegado en su aventura educativa. Conforme los maestros en su arte abandonan la pretensión de ser informantes superiores o modelos de habilidades, comenzará a parecer verdadera la sabiduría superior que parecen poseer. + +Al aumentar la demanda de maestros debiera aumentar también la oferta. Conforme se desvanezca el maestro de escuela, se suscitarán condiciones que harán aparecer la vocación del educador independiente. Esto puede parecer casi contradictorio; a tal punto han llegado a ser complementarios escuelas y profesores. Sin embargo éste es exactamente el resultado a que tendería el desarrollo de los primeros servicios educativos —y lo que se precisaría para hacer posible el aprovecharlos plenamente—, pues los padres y otros “educadores naturales” necesitan un guía, las personas que aprenden necesitan ayuda, y las redes necesitan personas que las hagan funcionar. + +Los padres necesitan orientación para dirigir a sus hijos por el camino que conduce a la independencia educativa responsable. Los aprendices necesitan líderes experimentados cuando se topan con un terreno arduo. Estas dos necesidades son muy distintas: la primera es una necesidad de pedagogía, la segunda una necesidad de dirección intelectual en todas las demás ramas del conocimiento. La primera exige conocimiento del aprendizaje humano y de los recursos educativos, la segunda exige sabiduría fundada en la experiencia en cualquier clase de exploración. Ambos tipos de experiencia son indispensables para una empresa educativa eficaz. Las escuelas envasan estas funciones en un solo papel —y hacen que el ejercicio independiente de cualquiera de ellas se vuelva, si no algo lleno de desdoro, al menos sospechoso—. + +De hecho deberían distinguirse tres tipos de competencia educativa especial: una, crear y manejar los tipos de servicios o redes educativas esbozadas aquí; otra, guiar a estudiantes y padres en el uso de estas redes, y una tercera, actuar como _primus inter pares_ al emprender difíciles viajes de exploración intelectual. Sólo las dos primeras pueden concebirse como ramas de una profesión independiente: administradores educativos y consejeros pedagógicos. No se precisaría mucha gente para proyectar y gestionar las redes que he estado describiendo, pero sí gente con un profundo entendimiento de la educación y la administración, con una perspectiva muy diferente y hasta opuesta a la de las escuelas. + +Si bien una profesión educativa independiente de esta especie daría la bienvenida a muchas personas que las escuelas excluyen, excluiría asimismo a muchas que las escuelas declaran aptas. El establecimiento y gestión de redes educativas precisaría de algunos proyectistas y administradores, pero no en la cantidad ni del tipo que exige la administración de escuelas. La disciplina estudiantil, las relaciones públicas, la contratación, supervisión y despido de profesores no tendrían lugar ni equivalente en las redes que he estado describiendo. Tampoco la creación de currícula, la compra de libros de texto, el entretenimiento de lugares e instalaciones, ni la supervisión de competencias atléticas interescolares. La custodia de niños, el planteamiento de lecciones y la anotación de datos archivables, que ocupan ahora tanto tiempo de los profesores, tampoco figurarían en la gestión de las redes educativas. En cambio, para el funcionamiento de las tramas de aprendizaje se necesitarían algunas de las habilidades y actitudes que se esperan actualmente del personal de un museo, de una biblioteca, de una agencia para contratación de directivos o de un _maître d’hôtel_.[^n18] + +Los administradores educativos de hoy en día se preocupan de controlar a profesores y estudiantes de modo que queden satisfechos unos terceros —fideicomisarios, legislaturas y jefes de empresas—. Los constructores y administradores de las redes antedichas tendrían que demostrar tener genio para ponerse a sí mismos y a terceras personas donde no estorbasen a la gente, para facilitar encuentros entre estudiantes, modelos de habilidades, líderes educativos y objetos educativos. Muchas de las personas a las que hoy atrae la enseñanza son profundamente autoritarias y no serían capaces de hacerse cargo de esta tarea: construir servicios o bolsas de intercambio educativo significaría facilitar a la gente —en especial a los jóvenes— el ir en pos de metas que pudieren contradecir los ideales del gerente que hiciese posible tal empeño. + +Si pudiesen hacer su aparición las redes que he descrito, el recorrido educativo que siguiese cada estudiante sería cosa suya o propia, y sólo mirado retrospectivamente podría adquirir las características de un programa reconocible. El estudiante sensato buscaría periódicamente el consejo profesional: ayuda para fijarse una nueva meta, comprensión penetrante de las dificultades habidas, elección entre algunos métodos posibles. Incluso ahora, la mayoría de las personas admitirán que los servicios importantes que les prestaron sus profesores fueron consejos o asesoramiento de esta especie, dados en una reunión casual o durante una conversación personal. En un mundo desescolarizado, los pedagogos también harían valer sus métodos y serían capaces de realizar aquello que los profesores frustrados pretenden emprender hoy en día. + +Mientras los administradores de redes se concentrarían principalmente en la construcción y el mantenimiento de cambios que dieran acceso a recursos, el pedagogo ayudaría al estudiante a hallar el sendero que le pudiese conducir a mayor velocidad hacia su meta. Si un estudiante quisiese aprender cantonés hablado de un vecino chino, el pedagogo estaría a mano para juzgar el aprovechamiento y pericia de ambos y para ayudarles a elegir el libro de texto y los métodos más adecuados para sus talentos, caracteres y tiempo disponible para estudiar. Podría aconsejar al mecánico de aviación en ciernes sobre los mejores lugares para practicar como aprendiz. Podría recomendar libros o alguno que quisiese hallar compañeros con garra para debatir sobre historia de África. Al igual que el administrador de redes, el consejero pedagógico se vería a sí mismo como un educador profesional. El acceso a cualquiera de ambos podrían lograrlo las personas usando sus bonos educativos. + +El papel del iniciador o líder educativo, del maestro o “verdadero” líder es algo más elusivo que el de administrador profesional o de pedagogo. Esto se debe a que el liderazgo es en sí algo difícil de definir. En la práctica, una persona es un líder si la gente sigue su iniciativa y se convierten en aprendices de sus descubrimientos progresivos. Esto frecuentemente presupone una visión profética de normas enteramente nuevas —muy comprensibles en el presente— en las cuales el “error” actual se convertirá en “acierto”. En una sociedad que respetaría el derecho a convocar asambleas a través del sistema de búsqueda de compañero, la capacidad de tomar la iniciativa educativa sobre un tema específico sería tan amplia como el acceso mismo al aprendizaje. Pero, naturalmente, hay una enorme diferencia entre la iniciativa que toma alguien para convocar una provechosa reunión para debatir este ensayo y la capacidad de alguien para servir de líder en la exploración sistemática de sus implicaciones. + +El liderazgo tampoco depende del hecho de estar en lo cierto. Tal como señala Thomas Kuhn, en un periodo de paradigmas en constante variación, la mayoría de los más distinguidos líderes tiene la probabilidad de haber incurrido en error cuando se someten a una prueba retrospectiva. La condición de líder intelectual se funda en una disciplina intelectual y una imaginación superiores, y en la disposición a asociarse con otros en el ejercicio de aquéllas. Por ejemplo, el aprendiz puede pensar que existe una analogía entre el Movimiento Antiesclavista de Estados Unidos o la Revolución cubana y lo que está ocurriendo en Harlem. El educador que sea al mismo tiempo historiador podría mostrarle cómo advertir las fallas de dicha analogía. Puede recorrer de nuevo su camino como historiador. Puede invitar al aprendiz a participar en las investigaciones que realice. En ambos casos iniciará a su alumno en el aprendizaje de un arte crítico —que es escaso en la escuela— y que no puede comprarse ni con dinero ni con favores. + +La relación entre maestro y discípulo no se limita a la disciplina intelectual. Tiene su equivalente en las artes, en física, en religión, en psicoanálisis y en pedagogía. Encaja en el montañismo, en la platería y en política, en ebanistería y en administración de personal. Lo que es común en todas las verdaderas relaciones maestro-discípulo es el hecho de que ambos tienen conciencia de que su mutua relación es literalmente inapreciable y de maneras muy diferentes constituye un privilegio para ambos. + +Los charlatanes, los demagogos, los proselitistas, los maestros corrompidos, los sacerdotes simoniacos, los pillos, los taumaturgos y los mesías han demostrado ser capaces de asumir el papel de líderes y han demostrado así los peligros que para un discípulo tiene la dependencia respecto del maestro. Las diversas sociedades han adoptado diversas medidas para protegerse de estos maestros falsificados. Los hindúes se apoyaron en el sistema de castas. Los judíos orientales, en la condición de discípulo espiritual de los rabinos, los grandes periodos de la cristiandad en una vida ejemplar de virtud monástica, y otros periodos en el orden jerárquico. Nuestra sociedad confía en los certificados dados por escuelas. Es dudoso que ese procedimiento constituya una criba más eficaz, pero si se pretendiese que lo es, podría alegarse en contra que lo hace al costo de casi hacer desaparecer la condición de discípulo personal. + +En la práctica el límite entre el profesor de habilidades y los líderes educadores antes señalados será siempre confuso, y no hay razones prácticas para que no pueda lograrse el acceso a ciertos líderes descubriendo al “maestro” en el profesor rutinario que inicia a unos estudiantes en su disciplina. + +Por otra parte, lo que caracteriza la verdadera relación maestro-discípulo es su carácter de inapreciable. Aristóteles dice de ella: “Es un tipo de amistad moral, no fundada en términos fijos: hace un regalo, o hace lo que hace, como a un amigo”. Tomás de Aquino dice de este tipo de enseñanza que inevitablemente es un acto de amor y de compasión. Este tipo de enseñanza es siempre un lujo para el profesor y una forma de recreación (en griego, _schole_) para él y para su discípulo: una actividad significativa para ambos, sin propósito ulterior. + +Contar con que haya personas dotadas dispuestas a proveer una auténtica dirección intelectual es obviamente necesario incluso en nuestra sociedad, pero podría dictarse como norma ahora. Debemos construir primero una sociedad en la cual los actos profesionales mismos recuperen un valor más elevado que el de hacer cosas y manipular gente. En una sociedad así, la enseñanza exploratoria, inventiva, creativa, se contaría lógicamente entre las formas más elevadas del “ocio”. Pero no es necesario esperar hasta el advenimiento de la utopía. Incluso ahora, una de las consecuencias más importantes de la desescolarización y del establecimiento de sistemas para búsqueda de compañero sería la iniciativa que algunos “maestros” pudiesen tomar para congregar discípulos que congeniasen. Daría también, como hemos visto, oportunidades amplias para que los discípulos en potencia compartiesen informaciones o seleccionasen un maestro. + +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones que pervierten una profesión al meter en un solo paquete varios papeles por desempeñar. Los hospitales hacen cada vez más imposible la atención en el hogar —y luego justifican la hospitalización como un beneficio para el enfermo—. Simultáneamente, la legitimidad y las posibilidades de ejercer de un médico vienen a depender de modo creciente de su asociación con un hospital, si bien su dependencia es mucho menor que la de los profesores respecto de las escuelas. Igual cosa podría decirse de los tribunales, que atiborran sus calendarios conforme nuevas transacciones adquieren solemnidad legal, demorando así la justicia. En cada uno de estos casos el resultado es un servicio escaso a un coste mayor, y un mayor ingreso para los miembros menos competentes de la profesión. + +Mientras las profesiones más antiguas monopolicen los mayores ingresos y prestigio, será difícil reformarlas. La profesión de maestro de escuela debiera ser fácil de reformar, no sólo debido a su origen más reciente. La profesión educativa pretende ahora un monopolio global; reclama ser la única competente para impartir el aprendizaje no sólo a sus propios novicios sino también a los de otras profesiones. Esta expansión excesiva la hace vulnerable ante cualquier otra profesión que reclame el derecho a enseñar a sus propios aprendices. Los maestros de escuela están abrumadoramente mal pagados y frustrados por la estrecha fiscalización del sistema escolar. Los más emprendedores y dotados de entre ellos hallarían probablemente un trabajo más simpático, una mayor independencia y hasta mejores ingresos al especializarse como modelos de habilidades, administradores de redes o especialistas en orientación. + +Finalmente, es más fácil romper la dependencia del alumno matriculado respecto del profesor diplomado que su dependencia de otros profesionales —por ejemplo, que la de un paciente hospitalizado respecto de su médico—. Si las escuelas dejaran de ser obligatorias, aquellos profesores cuya satisfacción reside en el ejercicio de la autoridad pedagógica en el aula se quedarían sólo con los alumnos para quienes fuese atractivo ese estilo. La desaparición de nuestra actual estructura profesional podría comenzar con la deserción del maestro de escuela. + +La desaparición de las escuelas ocurriría inevitablemente —y ocurriría a velocidad sorprendente—. No puede postergarse por más tiempo, y no hace ninguna falta promoverlo vigorosamente, porque ya está ocurriendo. Lo que vale la pena es tratar de orientarla en una dirección prometedora, pues puede dirigirse en dos direcciones diametralmente opuestas. + +La primera sería la ampliación del mandato del pedagogo y su control creciente sobre la sociedad, incluso fuera de la escuela. Con la mejor intención y tan sólo ampliando la retórica usada hoy como en las aulas, la crisis actual de las escuelas podría proporcionar a los educadores la excusa para usar todas las redes de la sociedad contemporánea para enviarnos sus mensajes —para nuestro bien—. La desescolarización que no podemos detener, podría significar el advenimiento de un “mundo feliz” dominado por algunos bien intencionados administradores de instrucción programada. + +Por otra parte, el hecho de que tanto los gobiernos como los empleados, los contribuyentes, los pedagogos despiertos y los administradores escolares advierten con creciente claridad que la enseñanza graduada de currícula en pro de unos certificados se ha hecho perjudicial, podría ofrecer a grandes masas humanas una oportunidad única: la de preservar el derecho de tener un acceso parejo a los instrumentos tanto para aprender, como para competir con otros lo que saben o creen. Pero esto exigiría que la revolución educativa estuviese guiada por ciertas metas: + +_1._ Liberar el acceso a las cosas, mediante la abolición del control que hoy ejercen unas personas e instituciones sobre sus valores educativos. + +_2._ Liberar la coparticipación de habilidades al garantizar la libertad de enseñarlas o de ejercitarlas a pedido. + +_3._ Liberar los recursos críticos y creativos de la gente por medio de un regreso a la capacidad de las personas para convocar y organizar reuniones —capacidad crecientemente monopolizada por instituciones que afirman estar al servicio del público—. + +_4._ Liberar al individuo de la obligación de moldear sus expectativas según los servicios ofrecidos por cualquier profesión establecida —proporcionándole la oportunidad de aprovechar la experiencia de sus iguales y de confiarse al profesor, guía, consejero o curandero de su elección—. La desescolarización de la sociedad difuminará inevitablemente las distinciones entre economía, educación y política, sobre las que se funda ahora la estabilidad del orden mundial y de las naciones. + +Nuestra reseña de las instituciones educativas nos lleva a modificar nuestra imagen del hombre. La criatura que las escuelas necesitan como cliente no tiene ni la autonomía ni la motivación para crecer por su cuenta. Podemos reconocer la escolarización como la culminación de una empresa prometeica, y hablar acerca de su alternativa refiriéndonos a un mundo adecuado para que en él viva un hombre epimeteico. Ya que nos es posible imaginar el reemplazo del embudo escolástico por una trama de intercambios y hacer que el mundo vuelva a ser visible mediante múltiples posibilidades de comunicación, sólo nos queda, al final de este esfuerzo, esperar que la naturaleza epimeteica del hombre aparezca, porque este renacimiento no depende de nuestros proyectos ni de nuestra voluntad. + +# Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico + +Nuestra sociedad se parece a la máquina implacable que una vez vi en una juguetería neoyorquina consistía en un cofrecillo metálico con un interruptor que, al tocarlo se abría de golpe descubriendo una mano mecánica. Unos dedos cromados se estiraban hacia la tapa y la cerraban desde el interior. Era una caja; uno esperaba poder sacar algo de ella, pero no contenía sino un mecanismo para cerrarla. Este artilugio es lo opuesto a la “caja” de Pandora. + +La Pandora original, “la dadora de todo”, era una diosa de la Tierra en la Grecia prehistórica y matriarcal que dejó escapar todos los males de su ánfora (_pythos_). Pero cerró la tapa antes de que pudiera escapar la esperanza. La historia del hombre moderno comienza con la degradación del mito de Pandora y llega a su término con el cofrecillo que se cierra solo. Es la historia del empeño prometeico por forjar instituciones a fin de encerrar los males desencadenados. Es la historia de una esperanza que declina y de unas expectativas crecientes. + +Para comprender lo que esto significa debemos redescubrir la diferencia entre expectativa y esperanza. Esperanza, en su sentido vigoroso, significa fe confiada en la bondad de la naturaleza; mientras expectativa, tal como la emplearé aquí, significa fiarse en resultados planificados y controlados por el hombre. La esperanza centra el deseo en una persona de la que aguardamos un regalo. La expectativa promete una satisfacción que proviene de un proceso predecible que producirá aquello que tenemos el derecho de exigir. El _ethos_ prometeico ha eclipsado actualmente la esperanza. La supervivencia de la raza humana depende de que se la descubra como fuerza social. + +La Pandora original fue enviada a la Tierra con un frasco que contenía todos los males; de las cosas buenas, contenía sólo la esperanza. El hombre primitivo vivía en este mundo de la esperanza. Para subsistir confiaba en la munificencia de la naturaleza, en los regalos de los dioses y en los instintos de su tribu. Los griegos del periodo clásico comenzaron a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. En la versión que dieron de Pandora, ésta soltó tanto males como bienes. La recordaban principalmente por los males que había desencadenado. Y, lo que es más significativo, olvidaron que “la dadora de todo” era también la custodia de la esperanza. + +Los griegos contaban la historia de dos hermanos, Prometeo y Epimeteo. El primero advirtió al segundo que no se metiera con Pandora. Éste, en cambio, casó con ella. En la Grecia clásica, al nombre Epimeteo, que significa “percepción tardía” o “visión ulterior”, se le daba el significado de “lerdo” o “tonto”. Para la época en que Hesíodo relataba el cuento en su forma clásica, los griegos se habían convertido en patriarcas moralistas y misóginos que se espantaban ante el pensamiento de la primera mujer. Construyeron una sociedad racional y autoritaria. Los hombres proyectaron instituciones mediante las cuales programaron enfrentarse a todos los males desencadenados. Llegaron a percatarse de su poder para conformar el mundo y hacerlo producir servicios que aprendieron también a esperar. Querían que sus artefactos moldearan sus propias necesidades y las exigencias futuras de sus hijos. Se convirtieron en legisladores, arquitectos y autores, hacedores de constituciones, ciudades y obras de arte que sirviesen de ejemplo para su progenie. El hombre primitivo contaba con la participación mística en ritos sagrados para iniciar a los individuos en las tradiciones de la sociedad, pero los griegos clásicos reconocieron como verdaderos hombres sólo a aquellos ciudadanos que permitían que la _paideia_ (educación) los hiciera aptos para ingresar en las instituciones que sus mayores habían proyectado. + +El mito en desarrollo refleja la transición desde un mundo en que se _interpretaban_ los sueños a un mundo en que _se hacían_ oráculos. Desde tiempos inmemoriales, se había adorado a la diosa de la Tierra en las laderas del monte Parnaso, que era el centro y el ombligo de la tierra. Allí, en Delphos (de _delphys_ , la matriz), dormía Gaia, hermana de Caos y de Eros. Su hijo, Pitón, el dragón, cuidaba sus sueños lunares y húmedos de rocío, hasta que Apolo, el dios del Sol, el arquitecto de Troya, se alzó al Oriente, mató al dragón y se apoderó de la cueva de Gaia. Los sacerdotes de Apolo se hicieron cargo del templo de la diosa. Emplearon a una doncella de la localidad, la sentaron en un trípode, sobre el ombligo humeante de la tierra, y la adormecieron con emanaciones. Luego pusieron sus declaraciones extáticas en hexámetros rimados de profecías que se cumplían por la misma influencia que ejercían. De todo el Peloponeso venían hombres a traer sus problemas ante Apolo. Se consultaba el oráculo sobre posibles alternativas sociales, tales como las medidas que se debían adoptar frente a una peste o una hambruna, sobre cuál era la constitución conveniente para Esparta o cuáles los emplazamientos propicios para ciudades que más tarde se llamaron Bizancio y Caledonia. La flecha que nunca yerra se convirtió en un símbolo de Apolo. Todo lo referente a él adquirió un fin determinado y útil. + +En la _República_ , al describir el Estado ideal, Platón ya excluye la música popular. En las ciudades se permitiría sólo el arpa y la lira de Apolo, porque únicamente la armonía de éstas crea “la tensión de la necesidad y la tensión de la libertad, la tensión de lo infortunado y la tensión de lo afortunado, la tensión del valor y la tensión de la templanza, dignas del ciudadano”. Los habitantes de la ciudad se espantaron ante la flauta de Pan y su poder para despertar los instintos. Sólo “los pastores pueden tocar las flautas (de Pan) y esto sólo en el campo”. + +El hombre se hizo responsable de las leyes bajo las cuales quería vivir y de moldear el medio ambiente a su propia semejanza. La iniciación primitiva que daba la Madre Tierra a una vida mítica se transformó en la educación (_paideia_) del ciudadano que se sentiría a gusto en el foro. + +Para el primitivo, el mundo estaba regido por el destino, los hechos y la necesidad. Al robar el fuego de los dioses, Prometeo convirtió los hechos en problemas, puso en tela de juicio la necesidad y desafió al destino. El hombre clásico tramó un contexto civilizado para la perspectiva humana. Se percataba de que podía desafiar al trío destino-naturaleza-entorno, pero sólo bajo su propio riesgo. El hombre contemporáneo va aún más lejos; intenta crear el mundo a su semejanza, contribuir y planificar su entorno, y descubre entonces que sólo puede hacerlo a condición de rehacerse continuamente para ajustarse a él. Debemos enfrentarnos ahora al hecho de que es el hombre mismo el que está en juego. + +La vida en Nueva York produce una visión peculiar de lo que es y de lo que podría ser, y sin esta visión, la vida en Nueva York se hace imposible. En las calles de Nueva York, un niño jamás toca nada que no haya sido ideado, proyectado, planificado y vendido científicamente a alguien. Hasta los árboles están allí porque el Departamento de Parques así lo decidió. Los chistes que el niño escucha por televisión han sido programados a gran coste. La basura con que juega en las calles de Harlem está hecha de paquetes deshechos ideados para un tercero. Hasta los deseos y los temores están moldeados institucionalmente. El poder y la violencia están organizados y administrados: las pandillas, frente a la policía. El aprendizaje mismo se define como el consumo de una materia, que es el resultado de programas investigados, planificados y promocionados. Lo que allí haya de bueno, es el producto de alguna institución especializada. Sería tonto pedir algo que no pudiese producir alguna institución. El niño de la ciudad no puede esperar nada que esté más allá del posible desarrollo del proceso institucional. Hasta a su fantasía se le urge a producir ciencia ficción. Puede experimentar la sorpresa poética de lo no planificado sólo a través de sus encuentros con la “mugre”, el desatino o el fracaso: la cáscara de naranja en la cuneta, el charco en la calle, el quebrantamiento del orden, del programa o de la máquina son los únicos despegues para el vuelo de la fantasía creadora. El “viaje” se convierte en la única poesía al alcance de la mano. + +Como nada deseable hay que no haya sido planificado, el niño ciudadano pronto llega a la conclusión de que siempre podremos idear una institución para cada una de nuestras apetencias. Toma por descontado el poder del proceso para crear valor. Ya sea que la meta fuere juntarse con un compañero, integrar un barrio o adquirir habilidades de lectura, se la definirá de tal modo que su logro pueda proyectarse técnicamente. El hombre que sabe que nada que está en demanda deja de producirse llega pronto a esperar que nada de lo que se produce pueda carecer de demanda. Si puede proyectarse un vehículo lunar, también puede proyectarse la demanda de viajes a la Luna. No ir donde uno puede sería subversivo. Desenmascararía, mostrándola como una locura, la suposición de que cada demanda satisfecha trae consigo el descubrimiento de otra, mayor aún, e insatisfecha. Esa percepción detendría el progreso. No producir lo que es posible dejaría a la ley de las “expectativas crecientes” al descubierto, en calidad de eufemismo para expresar una brecha creciente de frustración, que es el motor de la sociedad, fundado en la coproducción de servicios y en la demanda creciente. + +El estado mental del habitante de la ciudad moderna aparece en la tradición mitológica sólo bajo la imagen del Infierno: Sísifo, que por un tiempo había encadenado a Tánatos (la muerte), debe empujar una pesada roca cerro arriba hasta el pináculo del Infierno, y la piedra siempre se escapa de sus manos cuando está a punto de llegar a la cima. Tántalo, a quien los dioses invitaron a compartir la comida olímpica, y que aprovechó la ocasión para robarles el secreto de la preparación de la ambrosía que todo lo cura, sufre hambre y sed eternas, de pie en un río cuyas aguas se le escapan y a la sombra de árboles cuyos frutos no alcanza. Un mundo de demandas siempre crecientes no sólo es malo; el único término adecuado para nombrarlo es “Infierno”. + +El hombre ha desarrollado la frustradora capacidad de pedir cualquier cosa porque no puede visualizar nada que una institución no pueda hacer por él. Rodeado por herramientas todopoderosas, el hombre queda reducido a ser instrumento de sus instrumentos. Cada una de las instituciones ideadas para exorcizar alguno de los males primordiales se ha convertido en un ataúd a prueba de errores y de cierre automático y hermético para el hombre. El hombre está atrapado en las cajas que fabrica para encerrar los males que Pandora dejó escapar. El oscurecimiento de la realidad por el _smog_ producido por nuestras propias herramientas nos rodea. Súbitamente nos hallamos en la oscuridad de nuestra propia trampa. + +Hasta la realidad ha llegado a depender de la decisión humana. El mismo presidente que ordenó la ineficaz invasión de Camboya podría ordenar de igual manera el uso eficaz del átomo. El “interruptor Hiroshima” puede cortar hoy el ombligo de la tierra. El hombre ha adquirido el poder de hacer que Caos anonade a Eros y a Gaia. Esta nueva capacidad del hombre, el poder cortar el ombligo de la tierra, es un recuerdo constante de que nuestras instituciones no sólo crean sus propios fines, sino que tienen también el poder de señalar su propio fin y el nuestro. El absurdo de las instituciones modernas se evidencia en el caso de la institución militar. Las armas modernas pueden defender la libertad, la civilización y la vida únicamente aniquilándolas. En lenguaje militar, seguridad significa la capacidad de eliminar la Tierra. + +El absurdo subyacente en las instituciones no militares no es menos manifiesto. No hay en ellas un interruptor que active sus poderes destructores, pero tampoco lo necesitan. Sus dedos ya atenazan la tapa del mundo. Crean a mayor velocidad necesidades que satisfacciones, y en el proceso de tratar de satisfacer las necesidades que engendran, consumen la tierra. Esto vale para la agricultura y la manufactura, y no menos para la medicina y la educación. La agricultura moderna envenena y agota el suelo. La “revolución verde” puede, mediante nuevas semillas, triplicar la producción de una hectárea —pero sólo con un aumento proporcionalmente mayor de fertilizantes, insecticidas, agua y energía—. Fabricar estas cosas, como los demás bienes, contamina los océanos y la atmósfera y degrada recursos irreemplazables. Si la combustión continúa aumentando según los índices actuales, pronto consumiremos el oxígeno de la atmósfera sin poder reemplazarlo con igual presteza. No tenemos razones para creer que la fisión o la fusión puedan reemplazar la combustión sin peligros iguales o mayores. Los expertos en medicina reemplazan a las parteras y prometen convertir al hombre en otra cosa: genéticamente planificado, farmacológicamente endulzado y capaz de enfermedades más prolongadas. El ideal contemporáneo es un mundo panhigiénico: un mundo en el que todos los contactos entre los hombres, y entre los hombres y su mundo, sean el resultado de la previsión y la manipulación. La escuela se ha convertido en el proceso planificado que labra al hombre para un mundo planificado, en la trampa principal para entrampar al hombre en la trampa humana. Se supone que moldea a cada hombre a un nivel adecuado para desempeñar un papel en este juego mundial. De manera inexorable, cultivamos, elaboramos, producimos y escolarizamos el mundo hasta acabar con él. + +La institución militar es evidentemente absurda. Más difícil se hace enfrentar el absurdo de las instituciones no militares. Es aún más aterrorizante, precisamente porque funciona inexorablemente. Sabemos qué interruptor debe quedar abierto para evitar un holocausto atómico. No hay interruptor para detener un apocalipsis ecológico. + +En la antigüedad clásica, el hombre descubrió que el mundo podía forjarse según los planes del hombre, y, junto con este descubrimiento, advirtió que ello era inherentemente precario, dramático y cómico. Fueron creándose las instituciones democráticas y dentro de su estructura se supuso que el hombre era digno de confianza. Lo que se esperaba del debido proceso legal y la confianza en la naturaleza humana se mantenía en equilibrio recíproco. Se desarrollaron las profesiones tradicionales y con ellas las instituciones necesarias para el ejercicio de aquéllas. + +Subrepticiamente, la confianza en el proceso institucional ha reemplazado la dependencia respecto de la buena voluntad humana personal. El mundo ha perdido su dimensión humana y ha readquirido la necesidad de los tiempos primitivos. Pero mientras el caos de los bárbaros estaba constantemente ordenado en nombre de dioses misteriosos y antropomórficos, hoy en día la única razón que puede ofrecerse para que el mundo esté como está es la planificación del hombre. El hombre se ha convertido en el juguete de científicos, ingenieros y planificadores. + +Vemos esta lógica en otros y en nosotros mismos. Conozco una aldea mexicana en la que no pasa más de media docena de autos cada día. Un mexicano estaba jugando al dominó sobre la nueva carretera asfaltada frente a su casa —en donde probablemente se había sentado y había jugado desde muchacho—. Un coche pasó velozmente y lo mató. El turista que me informó del hecho estaba profundamente conmovido y, sin embargo, dijo: “Tenía que sucederle”. + +A primera vista, la observación del turista no difiere de la de un bosquimano que relata la muerte de algún fulano que se hubiera topado con un tabú y por consiguiente hubiera muerto. Pero las dos afirmaciones poseen significados diferentes. El primitivo puede culpar a alguna entidad trascendente, tremenda y ciega, mientras el turista está pasmado ante la inexorable lógica de la máquina. El primitivo no siente responsabilidad; el turista la siente, pero la niega. Tanto en el primitivo como en el turista están ausentes la modalidad clásica del drama, el estilo de la tragedia, la lógica del empeño individual y de la rebelión. El hombre primitivo no ha llegado a tener conciencia de ello, y el turista la ha perdido. El mito del bosquimano y el mito del norteamericano están compuestos ambos de fuerzas inertes, inhumanas. Ninguno de los dos experimenta una rebeldía trágica. Para el bosquimano, el suceso se ciñe a las leyes de la magia, para el norteamericano se ciñe a las leyes de la ciencia. El suceso le pone bajo el hechizo de las leyes de la mecánica, que para él gobiernan los sucesos físicos, sociales y psicológicos. + +El estado de ánimo de 1971 es propicio para un cambio importante de dirección en busca de un futuro esperanzador. A las metas institucionales las contradicen continuamente los resultados institucionales. El programa para la pobreza produce más pobres, la guerra en Asia acrecienta los Vietcong, la ayuda técnica engendra más subdesarrollo. Las clínicas para control de nacimientos incrementan los índices de supervivencia y provocan aumentos de población; las escuelas producen más desertores, y el atajar un tipo de contaminación suele aumentar otro tipo. + +Los consumidores se enfrentan al claro hecho de que cuanto más pueden comprar, tanto más engaño han de tragar. Hasta hace poco parecía lógico que pudiera echarse la culpa de esta inflación pandémica de disfunciones ya fuese al retraso de los descubrimientos científicos respecto de las exigencias tecnológicas, ya fuese a la perversidad de los enemigos étnicos, ideológicos o de clase. Han declinado las expectativas tanto respecto de un milenario científico como de una guerra que acabe con las guerras. + +Para el consumidor avezado no hay manera de regresar a una ingenua confianza en las tecnologías mágicas. Demasiadas personas han tenido la experiencia de computadoras que se descomponen, infecciones hospitalarias y saturación dondequiera que haya tráfico en la carretera, en el aire o en el teléfono. Hace apenas 10 años, la sabiduría convencional preveía una mejor vida fundada en los descubrimientos científicos. Ahora, los científicos asustan a los niños. Los viajes a la Luna proporcionan una fascinante demostración de que el fallo humano puede casi eliminarse entre los operarios de sistemas complejos —sin embargo, esto no mitiga los temores ante la posibilidad de que un fallo humano que consista en no consumir conforme a las instrucciones pueda escapar a todo control—. + +Para el reformador social tampoco hay modo de regresar a las premisas de la década de los años cuarenta. Se ha desvanecido la esperanza de que el problema de distribuir con justicia los bienes pueda evadirse creándolos en abundancia. El coste de la cesta mínima que satisfaga los gustos contemporáneos se ha ido a las nubes, y lo que hace que un gusto sea moderno es el hecho de que aparezca como anticuado antes de haber sido satisfecho. + +Los límites de los recursos de la tierra ya se han evidenciado. Ninguna nueva avenida de la ciencia o la tecnología podría proveer a cada hombre del mundo de los bienes y servicios de que disponen ahora los pobres de los países ricos. Por ejemplo, se precisaría extraer 100 veces las cantidades actuales de hierro, estaño, cobre y plomo para lograr esa meta, incluso con la alternativa tecnológica más “liviana”. + +Por fin, los profesores, médicos y trabajadores sociales caen en la cuenta de que sus diversos tratamientos profesionales tienen un aspecto —por lo menos— en común: crean nuevas demandas para los tratamientos profesionales que proporcionan, a una mayor rapidez con la que pueden proporcionar instituciones de servicio. + +Se está haciendo sospechosa no sólo una parte, sino la lógica misma de la sabiduría convencional. Incluso las leyes de la economía parecen poco convincentes fuera de los estrechos parámetros aplicables a la región social y geográfica en la que se encuentra la mayor parte del dinero. En efecto, el dinero es el circulante más barato, pero sólo en una economía encaminada hacia una eficiencia medida en términos monetarios. Tanto los países capitalistas como los comunistas en sus diversas formas están dedicados a medir la eficiencia en relación con el coste/beneficio expresado en dólares. El capitalismo se jacta de un nivel más elevado de vida para afirmar su superioridad. El comunismo hace alarde de una mayor tasa de crecimiento como índice de su triunfo final. Pero bajo cualquiera de ambas ideologías el coste total de aumentar la eficiencia se incrementa geométricamente. Las instituciones de mayor tamaño compiten con fiereza por los recursos que no están anotados en ningún inventario: el aire, el océano, el silencio, la luz del sol y la salud. Ponen en evidencia la escasez de estos recursos ante la opinión pública sólo cuando están casi irremediablemente degradados. Por doquiera, la naturaleza se vuelve ponzoñosa, la sociedad inhumana, la vida interior se ve invadida y la vocación personal ahogada. + +Una sociedad dedicada a la institucionalización de los valores identifica la producción de bienes y servicios con la demanda de los mismos. La educación que le hace a uno necesitar el producto está incluida en el precio del producto. La escuela es la agencia de publicidad que le hace a uno creer que necesita la sociedad tal y como está. En dicha sociedad el valor marginal ha llegado a ser constantemente autotrascendente. Obliga a los consumidores más grandes —son pocos— a competir por tener el poder de agotar la tierra, por llenarse sus propias panzas hinchadas, por disciplinar a los consumidores de menor tamaño, y por poner fuera de acción a quienes aún encuentran satisfacción en arreglárselas con lo que tienen. El _ethos_ de la insaciabilidad es por tanto la fuente misma de la depredación física, de la polarización social y de la pasividad psicológica. + +Cuando los valores se han institucionalizado en procesos planificados y técnicamente construidos, los miembros de la sociedad moderna creen que la buena vida consiste en tener instituciones que definan los valores que tanto ellos como su sociedad creen que necesitan. El valor institucional puede definirse como el nivel de producción de una institución. El valor correspondiente del hombre se mide por su capacidad para consumir y degradar estas producciones institucionales y crear así una demanda nueva —y aún mayor—. El valor del hombre institucionalizado depende de su capacidad como incinerador. Para emplear una imagen, ha llegado a ser el ídolo de sus artesanías. El hombre se autodefiende ahora como el horno en que se queman los valores producidos por sus herramientas. Y no hay límites para su voracidad. Su acto es el acto de Prometeo llevado al extremo. + +El agotamiento y la contaminación de los recursos de la tierra es, por encima de todo, el resultado de una corrupción de la imagen que el hombre tiene de sí mismo, de una regresión en su conciencia. Algunos tienden a hablar acerca de una mutación de la conciencia colectiva que conduce a concebir al hombre como un organismo que no depende de la naturaleza y de las personas, sino más bien de instituciones. Esta institucionalización de valores esenciales, esta creencia en que un proceso planificado de tratamiento da finalmente unos resultados deseados por quien recibe el tratamiento, este _ethos_ de consumidor, se halla en el núcleo mismo de la falacia prometeica. + +Los empeños por encontrar un nuevo equilibrio en el medio ambiente global dependen de la desinstitucionalización de los valores. La sospecha de que algo estructural anda mal en la visión del _homo faber_ es común en una creciente minoría de países tanto capitalistas como comunistas y “subdesarrollados”. Esta sospecha es la característica compartida por una nueva élite. A ella pertenece gente de todas las clases, ingresos, creencias y civilizaciones. Se han vuelto suspicaces respecto de los mitos de la mayoría: de las utopías científicas, del diabolismo ideológico y de la expectativa de que la distribución de bienes y servicios se hará con igualdad. Comparten con la mayoría la sensación de estar atrapados, de percatarse de que la mayor parte de las nuevas pautas adoptadas por amplio consenso conducen a resultados que se oponen descaradamente a sus metas propuestas. No obstante, mientras la mayoría de los prometeicos astronautas en ciernes sigue evadiendo el problema fundamental, la minoría emergente se muestra crítica respecto del _deus ex machina_ científico, de la panacea ideológica y de la cacería de diablos y brujas. Esta minoría comienza a dar forma a su sospecha de que nuestros constantes engaños nos atan a las instituciones contemporáneas como las cadenas ataban a Prometeo a su roca. La esperanza, la confianza y la ironía (_eironeia_) clásica deben conspirar para dejar al descubierto la falacia prometeica. + +Solía pensarse que Prometeo significaba “previsión” y aun llegó a traducirse por “aquel que hace avanzar la Estrella Polar”. Privó astutamente a los dioses del monopolio del fuego, enseñó a los hombres a usarlo para forjar el hierro, se convirtió en el dios de los tecnólogos y terminó con cadenas de hierro. + +La Pitonisa de Delfos fue reemplazada por una computadora que se cierne sobre cuadros de instrumentos y tarjetas perforadas. Los exámenes del oráculo cedieron el paso a los códigos de programación. El timonel humano entregó el rumbo a la máquina cibernética. Emerge la máquina definitiva para dirigir nuestros destinos. Los niños se imaginan volando en sus máquinas espaciales, lejos de una Tierra crepuscular. + +Mirando desde las perspectivas del Hombre de la Luna, Prometeo pudo reconocer a Gaia como el planeta de la Esperanza y como el Arco de la Humanidad. Un sentido nuevo de la finitud de la Tierra y una nueva nostalgia pueden ahora abrir los ojos del hombre y hacerle ver por qué su hermano Epimeteo, al desposar a Pandora, eligió desposar a la Tierra. + +Al llegar aquí el mito griego se convierte en esperanzada profecía, pues nos dice que el hijo de Prometeo fue Deucalión, el Timonel del Arca, quien, como Noé, navegó sobre el Diluvio para convertirse en el padre de la humanidad nueva que, con ayuda de Pirra, hija de Epimeteo y de Pandora, sacó de la tierra. Por ello nos es necesario comprender el sentido de ese Pithos que Pandora obtuvo de los dioses y que es el inverso de la Caja: nuestro Vaso y nuestra Arca. + +Necesitamos ahora un nombre para quienes valoran más la esperanza que las expectativas. Necesitamos un nombre para quienes aman más a la gente que a los productos, para aquellos que creen que + +``` +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros. +``` + +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que aman la tierra en la que podemos encontrarnos unos con otros, + +``` +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés. +``` + +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que colaboran con su hermano Prometeo en alumbrar el fuego y en dar forma al hierro, pero que lo hacen para acrecentar así su capacidad de entender y cuidar y ser guardián del prójimo, sabiendo que + +``` +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes. +``` + +[^n19] A esto hermanos y hermanas esperanzados sugiero llamarlos hombres epimeteicos. + +# Apéndice: una elección que hacer + +De generación en generación nos hemos esforzado por llegar a la educación de un mundo mejor y para hacerlo hemos desarrollado sin cesar la escolaridad. Hasta ahora, la empresa se ha pagado con un fracaso. ¿Y qué hemos aprendido si no es a constreñir a los niños para que suban la escalera sin fin de la educación que, lejos de conducir a la igualdad buscada, sólo favorece al que se adelantó a los otros o al que tiene mejor salud o al que se beneficia de una mejor preparación? Peor aún, la enseñanza obligatoria parece minar la voluntad personal de aprender. Por último, al saber considerado como una mercancía, que hay que almacenar y distribuir, pronto se le considera como un bien sometido a las garantías de la propiedad individual y, por lo mismo, tiende a volverse escaso. + +Comenzamos a percibir que este esfuerzo por desarrollar la educación pública mediante una escolaridad obligatoria está a punto de perder su legitimidad desde el punto de vista social, pedagógico y económico. Frente a esta crisis, los espíritus críticos no se contentan ya con remedios clásicos, ¡sino que proponen unos mucho más violentos! Imaginan, por ejemplo, sistemas de crédito educativo que permitirían a cada uno comprar la educación de su elección en un mercado no controlado, o bien, proponen retirarle a las escuelas la responsabilidad en materia de educación para dársela a los medios modernos de información y al aprendizaje en los sitios de trabajo. Algunos, aislados, entrevén la necesidad de destruir los fundamentos institucionales de la escuela, como le sucedió a la Iglesia en el transcurso de los dos últimos siglos. Ciertos reformadores proponen reemplazar la escuela universal por nuevos y diferentes sistemas que pretenden preparar mejor para la vida en una sociedad moderna… En síntesis, estamos frente a una elección: podemos contentarnos con desmantelar las escuelas o podemos ir más lejos y desescolarizar por completo la sociedad. + +Todas esas proposiciones en favor de instituciones educativas nuevas se reparten, de hecho, en tres categorías: las reformas que llevan al “salón de clases” sin tocar el sistema escolar; luego, la dispersión de clases “liberadas” en toda la sociedad; por último, la transformación de la misma sociedad en un inmenso salón de clases. Pero estos tres enfoques del problema —clase reformada, liberada o que englobe al mundo entero— los consideramos como tres etapas de la escalada del proceso educativo a través de las cuales se afirmará la empresa de un control todavía más sutil y más invasor del que habrá reemplazado. + +Si por mi parte estoy convencido de que conviene poner un término al reino de la escuela (desenlace que, por otra parte, creo ineluctable), es porque me parece que esta desaparición de una convicción ilusoria nos debería llenar de esperanza. Sin embargo, no estoy por ello menos consciente de que, llegados a este término de la “era escolar”, podríamos muy bien entrar en la de una escuela totalitaria que sólo el nombre distinguiría del asilo de alienados o de un campo de concentración donde educación, corrección y reajuste serían por fin sinónimos. Creo, en consecuencia, que el desmantelamiento de la escuela nos fuerza a ver más allá de su inminente desaparición y nos constriñe a enfrentar las posibilidades fundamentales de elección en materia de educación: ya sea que elijamos trabajar en la constitución de un arsenal educativo aterrador, con el objeto de acrecentar de golpe la fuerza de una enseñanza que trata de un mundo sin cesar más ensombrecido, más amenazador para el hombre; ya sea que intentemos poner en orden las condiciones necesarias para el surgimiento de una nueva era donde la tecnología se pondrá al servicio de una sociedad más simple, más transparente, de suerte que todos los hombres puedan descubrir lo que los rodea y servirse de las herramientas que hoy en día dan forma a sus propias vidas. + + +## La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas + +Debemos distinguir entre “educación” y “escolaridad” si queremos ver surgir más claramente esa elección que se nos ofrece. Comprendo que conviene distinguir entre los objetivos humanistas del profesor y los efectos inherentes a la estructura inalterable de la escuela. Con toda seguridad esta estructura no es evidente a primera vista, pero sólo su existencia explica cierta forma de instrucción transmitida a todos y que escapa al control del docente o del consejo de profesores. En efecto, un mensaje se inscribe indeleble: sólo la escolaridad es capaz de preparar la entrada en la sociedad. Por ello, lo que no se enseña en la escuela se le retira su valor y, por lo mismo ¡lo que se aprende fuera de ella no vale la pena conocerse! Eso es lo que llamo la enseñanza oculta de las escuelas que define los límites en los cuales se efectúan los pretendidos cambios de programas. + +Sin defendernos de ella, esta enseñanza no varía de una escuela a otra ni de un lugar a otro. En todas partes los niños deben congregarse en grupos, según la edad; luego, alrededor de 30 toman su lugar frente a un profesor diplomado en razón de 150, incluso 1 000 horas, al año o más, No importa si el programa oficial intenta enseñar los principios del fascismo o del liberalismo, del catolicismo o del socialismo, o si pretende ponerse al servicio de una “liberación”, ya que en todos los casos la institución se arroga el derecho de definir las actividades propias que conducen a una “educación” legitima. Poco importa, igualmente, si el objetivo confesado de la escuela es producir ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o médicos, en la medida en que sin el diploma no se es un ciudadano verdadero o un doctor reconocido… Aunque todas las reuniones no se hagan en el mismo recinto, aunque incluso se consideren, de una manera o de otra, necesarias (cortar caña es trabajo del cañero; reformarse, el del prisionero, y seguir una parte del programa, el de los estudiantes), no hay en lo anterior ninguna diferencia. + +Nos enfrentamos a una especie de directiva secreta que quiere que los estudiantes aprendan antes que nada que la educación sólo tiene valor una vez que se adquirió en el seno de la universidad mediante un método graduado de consumo, y se le promete que el éxito social dependerá de la cantidad de saber consumido, Están convencidos de que vale mucho más instruirse a distancia de lo que es el mundo. El hecho de que la escolaridad imponga esta regla secreta en un programa educativo la distingue inmediatamente de otras formas de educación planificada. Todos los sistemas escolares del planeta tienen características comunes en relación con su rendimiento institucional y la razón de ello es ese “programa oculto” común a todas las escuelas. + +Hay que entender bien que ese programa oculto modifica la concepción que tenemos de la adquisición del saber y hace de la actividad personal una mercancía de la que la escuela cree detentar el monopolio. A un bien de consumo le damos hoy en día el nombre de “educación”: un producto cuya fabricación la asegura una institución oficial llamada “escuela”. En consecuencia, henos ahí con el fin de medir la duración y el costo del tratamiento aplicado al estudiante (en Estados Unidos, el diplomado de una pequeña universidad regional y el de uno de los colegios de la “liga de la hieda”[^n20] tienen cubiertos los mismos 135 “créditos”,[^n21] ¡pero están plenamente conscientes de la diferente cotización de sus “títulos” en la bolsa de valores educativos!). + +En todos los países convertidos al ideal escolar, el saber se considera como un bien de primera necesidad, como un asunto de sobrevivencia y, de la misma forma, como una moneda de cambio más fácilmente convertible que los rublos y los dólares. Cuando hablamos de alienación estamos de tal manera habituados al vocabulario marxista que sólo pensamos frecuentemente en la del trabajador en relación con su trabajo desde la perspectiva de una sociedad de clases; hoy en día nos sería necesario reconocer otra forma de la alienación, la del hombre frente al saber cuando este último, transformado en producto de un servicio, hace de quien lo adquiere un consumidor. + +Entre más educación “consume” un ser humano, más hace fructificar su posesión y se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del conocimiento. La educación definió una nueva pirámide de clases, en la medida en que los grandes consumidores de saber —esos portadores de bonos del tesoro del conocimiento— pueden inmediatamente pretender dar servicios de un valor más eminente a su sociedad. Ellos representan las inversiones seguras en el portafolio del capital humano de una sociedad y sólo ellos tienen un pronto acceso a las herramientas más poderosas o menos extendidas de la producción. + +De esa manera, ese programa secreto definió implícitamente la naturaleza de la educación: permite medirla y establecer qué nivel de productividad da derecho a su consumo. Disponemos entonces de la posibilidad de justificar la creciente correlación entre los empleos y los privilegios que manan de ellos. En ciertas sociedades esos privilegios se conocerán bajo la forma de ingresos personales más considerables; en otras, será un acceso fácil a servicios todavía poco desarrollados o a una formación más favorecida, sin olvidar un creciente prestigio (por otra parte, en el momento mismo en que, en nombre de la educación, se reclaman crecientes privilegios, la fosa entre la formación y la competencia profesional se acrecienta, como lo muestran ciertos estudios, en particular el de Ivar Berg, _La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación_). + +Querer hacer pasar a todos los seres humanos por las etapas sucesivas de la adquisición del saber nos lleva a recordar la búsqueda de los alquimistas y a mirar bien ahí: en el “gran arte” del final de la Edad Media encontraremos con toda seguridad los orígenes profundos de la idea de escolaridad. Consideramos a justo título que Jan Amos Komensky fue uno de los grandes precursores de las teorías de la escuela moderna. Más conocido con el nombre de Comenius, Jan Amos era obispo de Moravia y se decía “pansofista” y pedagogo. En su _Didactica Magna_ describe las escuelas como medios para “enseñar todo a todo el mundo” y podemos ver en él como un anteproyecto de la producción en la cadena del saber, ya que quería hacer la educación a la vez mejor y menos costosa, con el fin de permitir a todos el acceso a la condición de hombre. Pero sería insuficiente ver en Comenius una suerte de predecesor de nuestros expertos en métodos pedagógicos. Experto en alquimia, utilizaba su jerga para describir el arte de educar a los niños. Como se sabe, los alquimistas buscaban trasmutar el plomo vil, los elementos vulgares, en oro, haciendo pasar sus espíritus destilados por las 12 etapas del enriquecimiento. Es evidente que si veían en eso una manera de enriquecerse a sí mismos, pretendían trabajar en nombre del interés general, y sus sucesivos fracasos no los desalentaban, ya que su “ciencia” les permitía encontrar en ella las razones y justificar la continuación de sus esfuerzos. + +En esta perspectiva, la pedagogía abría un nuevo capítulo en la historia de la _Ars Magna_ : la educación se volvía, en efecto, la búsqueda de una especie de método alquímico destinado a hacer surgir un nuevo tipo de hombre capaz de adaptarse a un medio creado por la magia científica. Y, al igual que en la alquimia, cualquiera que fuera la suma consagrada a cada generación para edificar escuelas, el resultado es que la mayoría de aquellos a los que se les enseña no responden a esa “afinación” y pronto hay que rechazarlos como no aptos para existir en un mundo concebido por el hombre. + +Los reformadores en materia de educación que admiten el fracaso de las escuelas se reparten en tres categorías. Los más respetables son seguramente los grandes maestros en alquimia que prometen mejores escuelas; los más seductores, esos magos populares que anuncian la transformación de cada cocina en un laboratorio alquímico; los más aterradores, esos nuevos “masones” del universo que buscan transformar el mundo en un vasto templo de la enseñanza. + +Veamos, en particular, entre esos maestros alquimistas del momento, a los directores de investigación que emplean o patrocinan las grandes fundaciones. Están persuadidos de que las escuelas, si pudieran de alguna manera mejorarse, se volverían empresas más económicamente viables que venderían un más vasto conjunto de servicios. En cuanto a aquellos cuyo interés se dirige hacia los programas, pretenden que éstos no están adaptados o están sobrepasados. De esa manera se conciben nuevos programas en los que se introducen mercancías al gusto del momento: cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación femenina, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. Se denuncia la pasividad (con toda seguridad es un mal) y, para remediarla, se concede a los estudiantes que ellos mismos decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y de qué manera. Algunos dicen que las escuelas son prisiones y, en consecuencia, se aconseja a los jefes de establecimientos dar su asentimiento a salidas educativas: un horizonte de pupitres y de muros se sustituye, por ejemplo, por una calle de Harlem cuidadosamente delimitada. Por último, la psicología está de moda y se instaura la terapia de grupos en el salón de clases. La escuela, que se consideraba el todo aprender de todos, se vuelve hoy en día el universo de todos los niños. + +Otros críticos se levantan para subrayar que las escuelas no utilizan suficientemente los recursos de la ciencia moderna. Surge el deseo de que los hombres de ciencia inventen algún medicamento que consuman los niños para que el instructor pueda modificar más fácilmente sus comportamientos. Se habla de transformar las escuelas en casinos educativos. Hay quienes quisieran “electrificar” el salón de clases y, por poco que crean ser buenos discípulos de McLuhan, helos ahí reemplazando el pizarrón y los manuales por _happenings_ en los que se ofrece toda la batería de aparatos de comunicación. Si admiran a Skinner, afirman que la aplicación de sus teorías permitirá una acción más eficaz sobre el comportamiento de los estudiantes que la de los antiguos maestros, hoy pasados de moda. + +Que algunas de estas reformas tengan efectos felices, es innegable. La práctica de la escuela tradicional está en un fuerte proceso de disminución en las escuelas experimentales. A veces los padres tienen un sentimiento mayor de participación. Los alumnos designados por sus profesores para seguir cursillos de aprendizaje adquieren frecuentemente un mayor _savoir faire_[^n22] que el de sus camaradas que permanecen en clase (conocí niños que mejoraban sus conocimientos de español en el laboratorio de lengua, porque preferían jugar con los botones de las grabadoras que conversar con sus iguales puertorriqueños). Sin embargo, todas esas mejoras intervienen en límites estrechos y previsibles, ya que no llegan al programa oculto de las escuelas. + +A algunos reformadores les gustaría liberarse de esa regla secreta de las escuelas públicas, pero sólo lo logran raras veces. Las escuelas “activas”, que conducen al desarrollo de otras escuelas del mismo tipo, sólo crean una engañosa ilusión: la liberación permanece como un espejismo, incluso si la constricción a los cursos obligatorios se interrumpe con frecuencia por periodos de ociosidad. Que se busque agradar a alguien para convencerlo de asistir a los cursos es, bien mirado, ¡más insidioso todavía que la obligación legal y el apoyo de la brigada de los menores! Mejor que una presencia consentida a disgusto, la que embauca lleva más fácilmente a creer en la necesidad del tratamiento educativo. El docente tolerante hace al alumno correr un creciente riesgo de sentirse incapaz de vivir fuera del refugio acolchado. + +¿En qué difiere la enseñanza suministrada en las nuevas escuelas? Aunque se facilite por el consenso de un grupo, más que por los decretos del cuerpo docente, se trata siempre de adquirir competencias que la sociedad reconoce, lo que no cambia en nada el problema. La apariencia cambia; la realidad profunda permanece. + +Para ser verdaderas escuelas de libertad, les sería necesario llenar dos condiciones. En primer lugar, deben administrarse de tal suerte que no permitan a la regla secreta de la enseñanza aplicarse, es decir, que los escolares, definidos como tales, ubicados frente a profesores reconocidos, no asistan a una sucesión de cursos graduados. En segundo lugar, esas escuelas deberían proporcionar un marco en el que todos los participantes, docentes y alumnos, puedan liberarse de los postulados sobre los que reposa, sin que lo sepamos, una sociedad escolarizada. A veces escuchamos enunciar la primera condición en los objetivos que se propone una escuela “activa”. En cuanto a la segunda, por lo general no se le pone atención, y ciertamente no es el objetivo de esas escuelas. + + +## Los postulados secretos de la educación + +No es necesario, en esta fase, distinguir entre la regla secreta y aquélla sobre la que, sin darnos cuenta, se funda la idea de la escolaridad. El programa oculto constituye una especie de ritual iniciático que podemos concebir como un preparativo para el ingreso en la sociedad moderna. Por intermedio de la escuela el programa adquiere su dimensión institucional. Detrás del velo de la ceremonia ritual, las contradicciones se encuentran disimuladas para los participantes. ¿Cómo, en efecto, conciliar el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad social fundada en el reconocimiento de un orden jerárquico que finalmente el rito impone? Pero una vez reconocidos en lo que son, los ritos ya no llegan a mantener la ilusión; ese fenómeno es aparente en el caso de la escolaridad. No obstante, la ceremonia reposa sobre postulados aceptados inconscientemente a los que las escuelas “privadas” podrían dar nuevo vigor. + +A primera vista, se nos reprochará que hagamos un juicio de orden general sobre las escuelas “activas” y más precisamente, en 1971, sobre las de Estados Unidos, las de Canadá y las de Alemania del Oeste en donde ellas parecen querer ser el más hermoso adorno de un renacimiento. A decir verdad, nuestra generalización sólo se dirige a las empresas experimentales que pretenden ser instituciones educativas. Para evitar cualquier menosprecio debemos examinar con más atención la relación que hay entre “educación” y “escolaridad”. + +Con mucha frecuencia olvidamos que la educación no es una invención antigua. Ese sustantivo se desconocía antes de la Reforma. En Francia se habla por vez primera de la educación de los niños en un manuscrito de 1498. Era el año en que Erasmo llegó a residir en Oxford, en que a Savonarola lo quemaron en Florencia, en que Durero trazaba los primeros apuntes de su _Apocalipsis_ , que todavía hoy evoca con fuerza la atmósfera sombría, la impresión de un inminente desastre que pesaba sobre ese periodo. En inglés, la palabra _educación_ apareció por primera vez en 1530. Ese año, Enrique VIII repudiaba a Catalina de Aragón y la Iglesia luterana se separaba de Roma con la dieta de Augsburgo. Hay que esperar todavía un siglo para que la idea de “educación” se manifieste en el imperio español. En 1611, Lope de Vega habla de la educación como de una novedad. Ese año, la universidad de San Marcos en Lima celebraba su 60 aniversario. Centros de saber existían antes de que la palabra “educación” formara parte del lenguaje familiar. Se “leía” a los autores clásicos; se estudiaba el derecho; no se enseñaba a vivir… + +En el siglo XVI, en el corazón de todas las disputas teológicas se encontraba la necesidad de encontrar justificaciones, de las que la política supo servirse bien para explicar las grandes masacres de la época. En la Iglesia, cismas intervinieron y se hizo posible sostener convicciones diferentes sobre el punto de saber en qué medida el hombre nace pecador, corrompido o sometido a la predestinación. Desde el siglo XVII, el acuerdo se rehizo sobre un punto: el hombre nace no apto para la vida social, en consecuencia es necesario prepararlo proponiéndole una educación. Así, la educación se volvió lo opuesto de la competencia adquirida en la vida cotidiana y terminó por significar un método de tratamiento más que el simple saber de hechos de la existencia y la capacidad de servirse de herramientas que dan forma a la vida concreta del hombre. Progresivamente la educación se transformó en un servicio que había que producir, para el bien de todos, mercancía intangible que se recibía de la misma manera en que la Iglesia visible había conferido anteriormente la gracia invisible. El hombre, nacido en la estupidez original, debía ahora presentar cartas de creencia a la sociedad. + +La escuela y la educación mantuvieron relaciones comparables a las de la Iglesia y la religión o, en una perspectiva más general, a las que se establecen entre el rito y el mito; el rito crea y sostiene al mito; detenta una función mitopoiética. El mito inspira el “programa” por el que se perpetúa. La educación representa a la vez todo un conjunto de justificaciones sobre el plano social y un concepto para el que no podemos encontrar análogos específicos en otras culturas (fuera de la teología cristiana). La educación por el método de la escolaridad distingue fundamentalmente a las escuelas de otras instituciones de enseñanza que existieron en otras épocas. Ése es un aspecto que no hay que despreciar si queremos hacer aparecer las insuficiencias de las “escuelas” llamadas privadas, no estructuradas o independientes. + +Con el fin de sobrepasar una simple reforma de la clase, una escuela activa debe todavía rechazar el programa secreto de la escolaridad descrito anteriormente. Una escuela activa ideal intentaría proporcionar una educación esforzándose en evitar que esa educación se utilice para establecer o justificar una estructura de clase y se vuelva un patrón maestro para medir al alumno con cierto rasero. Debería, en consecuencia, no someter a este último a una represión, a un control o intentar definirlo de cualquier manera. Pero mientras las escuelas activas intenten proporcionar una “educación general”, no están en condiciones de sobrepasar una concepción fundada en los postulados secretos de la escuela. + +Entre sus principios, hay uno que Peter Schrag, en una perspectiva particular, definió como el “síndrome de inmigración”, que nos incita a tratar a todos los seres humanos como si fueran recién llegados que deben someterse a un proceso de naturalización. Sólo los consumidores garantizados del saber se admiten en la ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen iguales, sólo por el periodo de gestación en el seno del _Alma mater_ podrán acceder a esta igualdad. + +Otro postulado conduce a creer que el hombre, nacido inmaduro, debe adquirir su “madurez” en el transcurso del primer periodo de su existencia para después formar parte de una sociedad civilizada. Esta idea de una “maduración” es, con toda seguridad, contraria a otra convicción que define al hombre como el mamífero que, por el mecanismo de la evolución y con el concurso de la selección natural entre sus maestros primates, adquirió el carácter específico de permanecer durante toda su vida “inmaduro” —lo que constituye su “gracia” particular—. Pero, en conformidad con la fijación ideológica sobre la madurez, nos persuadimos de que es necesario, después de su nacimiento, mantener al ser humano apartado de su medio natural y hacerlo pasar por una matriz social para que adquiera las cualidades necesarias para la vida cotidiana. Las escuelas activas son capaces de llenar esta función frecuentemente mucho mejor que escuelas de un modelo menos atractivo. + +Los establecimientos educativos liberados comparten con quienes lo son menos otra característica: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la educación. Ponen una institución _in loco parentis_. Perpetúan la idea de que la enseñanza, si se realiza fuera del círculo familiar, debe estar asegurada por una “agencia” cuyo docente es sólo un representante. En una sociedad escolarizada, la misma familia se reduce a ser sólo una “agencia de aculturación”. En cuanto a los organismos educativos que emplean profesores para promover la política de su consejo administrativo, se vuelven instrumentos al servicio de una despersonalización de las relaciones entre personas privadas. + +Naturalmente, numerosas escuelas activas funcionan sin profesores acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una amenaza seria para los sindicatos de maestros, pero, no por ello, ponen en peligro la estructura social fundada en un reconocimiento de las profesiones. Una escuela en la que los miembros del consejo administrativo eligen y nombran a los profesores, sin preocuparse de saber si detentan certificados, una licencia o una credencial sindical, no atenta contra la legitimidad de la profesión de enseñante; no más que una encargada de un prostíbulo clandestino, en un país donde un trabajo así, para ser legal, debe hacerse bajo el control de la policía, ¡no cuestiona la legitimidad de la profesión más antigua del mundo! + +La mayoría de los que enseñan en escuelas activas no tienen la oportunidad de trabajar en su nombre. Aseguran la tarea de la enseñanza en nombre de un consejo; en nombre de sus alumnos asumen la función menos evidente de la enseñanza y sirven a la educación bajo su aspecto casi místico en nombre de toda “la sociedad”. La mejor prueba de ello es que pasan todavía más tiempo que sus colegas de la enseñanza pública reuniéndose en comisiones con el objeto de planificar el método por el cual la escuela debería educar. La duración de esas reuniones ha incitado a muchos docentes de alma generosa, una vez que sus ilusiones se han disipado, a pasar de la escuela pública a la enseñanza privada, para luego ir todavía más allá… + +Todos los establecimientos de enseñaza pretenden “formar hombres” en una tarea de mejoramiento del futuro, pero no les permiten cumplirla antes de que hayan adquirido una sólida tolerancia frente a las maneras de vivir de sus mayores. Es siempre una educación que prepara para la vida, más que adquirida en la vida cotidiana. Muy pocas escuelas activas pueden evitar esa trampa. Sin embargo, hay que reconocer que contribuyen a la aparición de un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán sus diplomas sobre la sociedad, sino más bien porque los padres que eligen educar a sus hijos sin beneficiarse de los servicios de enseñanza “ordenados según la regla” pertenecen frecuentemente a una minoría radical, y porque el interés que aportan a ese problema, el gusto que tienen de educar a sus hijos, los mantiene en su modo de vida. + + +## Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación + +La especie más peligrosa entre los reformadores en materia de educación es la que pretende demostrar que el saber puede producirse y venderse de manera mucho más eficaz en un mercado libre que en el que controla la escuela. Pretenden que una capacidad puede fácilmente adquirirse por medio de un modelo, aunque el aprendiz considere poco esta adquisición como de interés evidente. Afirman también que un sistema de asignación individualizado proporciona un poder de compra más igualitario en materia de educación. Piden, por último, que se distinga entre el método de adquisición y el que mide los resultados (lo que me parece una necesidad muy evidente). Pero sería erróneo creer que la instauración de un mercado abierto del saber representaría una solución opuesta a la de hoy en día. + +Esta sustitución aboliría, ciertamente, lo que llamamos el programa secreto de la escolaridad (el hecho de que hay que seguir a determinadas edades programas graduados). Un mercado abierto daría, en primer lugar, la impresión de que vamos al encuentro de esos principios en los que reposa una sociedad escolarizada: el “síndrome de la inmigración”, el monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el rito de la integración progresiva. Pero, por lo mismo, un mercado libre de educación proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables ocasiones para influir en secreto, con el fin de encerrar a cada hombre en los múltiples y pequeños compartimentos que una tecnocracia todavía más desarrollada podría crear. + +La confianza puesta desde hace decenios en la escolarización del ser humano ha hecho del saber una mercancía de una especie particular. Como lo hemos visto, todos consideran ahora el saber como un artículo de primera necesidad y, al mismo tiempo, como la moneda de cambio más preciosa de la sociedad. Esta transformación del saber en bien de consumo se refleja, igualmente, en nuestro comportamiento de todos los días, incluso en el lenguaje familiar. Así, verbos que describen una actividad personal, como “aprender”, “alojarse”, “sanarse”, nos hacen irresistiblemente pensar en servicios cuya distribución está más o menos asegurada. Pensamos que es necesario resolver los problemas de la habitación, de los cuidados médicos, etc., sin recordar un solo instante que los hombres podrían curarse o edificar sus casas por ellos mismos. Todo es cuestión de servicios y el adolescente, en lugar de aprender, por ejemplo, a ocuparse de su abuela, aprende a manifestarse frente al asilo de ancianos donde no hay camas disponibles. ¿El desmantelamiento de la escuela sería, pues, suficiente para conducir a la desaparición de esas actitudes? (Mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución norteamericana se continuaba exigiendo la filiación a una Iglesia como condición para cualquier candidatura a un puesto oficial). Con mayor razón, ¿el cierre de las escuelas permitiría evitar que tuviéramos acceso a baterías de pruebas para medir el nivel de educación? Si ése no es el caso, esta nueva situación conduciría a la obligación, para cada uno, de adquirir un mínimo de mercancías en el depósito del saber. La ambición de medir científicamente el valor de cada hombre se vincula sin dificultad con el sueño del alquimista de hacer a todo hombre “educable” con el fin de guiarlo hacia una humanidad “verdadera”. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado libre, llegaremos a un entorno sometido al control de los terapeutas-pedagogos, a una matriz universal donde cada hombre se alimentaría con fluidos elegidos. + +Las escuelas limitan por ahora la competencia del profesor al salón de clases. No le permiten reivindicar la existencia del hombre para una región. Desde esta perspectiva, renunciar a la escuela haría desaparecer esta frágil barrera y conferiría una legitimidad semejante a la invasión pedagógica de la vida privada de cada uno. Podría conducir a una lucha encarnizada por la adquisición del saber en un mercado libre del conocimiento y a la edificación, bajo apariencias igualitarias, de una meritocracia. + +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones (ni incluso las más eficaces) que pretenden hacer de la información, de la comprensión y de la sabiduría rasgos d comportamiento susceptibles de contrastarse (y medirlos conduce a detentar la llave que abre las puertas del éxito y del poder). El sistema chino, por ejemplo, ofrecía, en el plano de la educación, una estimulante eficacia definiendo una clase relativamente abierta, cuyos privilegios dependían de la adquisición de un saber mesurable. Alrededor de 2 000 años antes de Cristo, parece que el emperador de China interrogaba cada tres años a sus administradores. Después de tres veces, les daba responsabilidades mayores o los echaba para siempre. Algunos 1 000 años más tarde, el primer emperador Chang estableció un verdadero examen para sus funcionarios. Música, tiro con arco y aritmética constituían los temas impuestos. Cada tres años, los concursos se abrían a los candidatos. Uno sobre 100 lograba franquear las tres series de pruebas que le conferían sucesivamente los títulos de “genio en hierbas”, de “perfecto letrado” y de “dispuesto para el servicio del emperador”. La selección era, pues, muy severa, y se le dedicaba la mayor importancia a los examinadores; así, por ejemplo, en el segundo nivel, en el que era necesario redactar una composición, el texto del candidato lo volvía a copiar un secretario antes de dárselo al jurado, a fin de que sus miembros no pudieran reconocer la caligrafía del autor. + +Más tarde, la promoción a rango de mandarín no daba necesariamente derecho a uno de los puestos deseados. Permitía solamente participar en el sorteo de esos empleos. Ninguna escuela apareció en China antes de la época de las luchas con los poderes europeos. El caso del imperio chino es único entre las grandes naciones, ya que no poseía ni Iglesia oficial ni sistema escolar, pero pudo durante cerca de 3 000 años reclutar su élite gubernamental sin fundar una vasta aristocracia hereditaria. El acceso a esa élite estaba reservado a la familia del emperador y a los que pasaban los exámenes. + +Voltaire y sus contemporáneos elogiaron el sistema chino, donde la promoción se fundaba en las pruebas dadas de un saber. Los exámenes de ingreso en la administración aparecieron en Francia en 1791; después, Napoleón los abolió. ¿Qué habría sucedido si, para propagar las ideas de la Revolución, se hubiera elegido el mandarinato en lugar del sistema escolar que inevitablemente sostiene al nacionalismo y a la disciplina militar? De hecho, Napoleón se erigió en el defensor de la escuela politécnica y del colegio de pensionados… Más que inspirarse en el mandarinato, las instituciones educativas se calcaron del modelo jesuita de la promoción ritual en el interior de una estructura jerárquica cerrada; de esa forma, las sociedades occidentales eligieron legitimar a sus élites. + +Los jefes de establecimientos escolares se volvieron, de alguna forma, los abades de una cadena mundial de monasterios en donde todos se dedicaron a acumular conocimientos que les permitieran acceder a la tierra prometida, paraíso terrestre sometido a las leyes del envejecimiento planificado que se desborda sin cesar. Eso nos recuerda el esfuerzo de los calvinistas que arrasaron todos los monasterios para, finalmente, transformar Ginebra en un vasto claustro. Tenemos, por lo tanto, razones para temer que el desmantelamiento de la escuela permita la aparición de una fábrica del saber a escala mundial. A menos que transformemos la idea que nos hemos hecho de la enseñanza o del saber, la desaparición de la escuela corre el riesgo de conducir a una situación donde, de un lado, se utilizará el sistema del mandarinato para separar el aprendizaje del saber de la prueba de control y, del otro, la sociedad se comprometerá a proporcionar la terapéutica necesaria a cualquier hombre para que pueda entrar en la “edad de oro”. + +Ni los alquimistas, ni los magos, ni los masones pueden resolver el problema que nos plantea la crisis de la enseñanza, La desescolarización de nuestra concepción del mundo exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza, a la vez, ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa porque busca hacer del hombre un ser social sometiéndolo a un tratamiento con métodos técnicos apropiados. + +Adherirse al _ethos_ tecnocrático nos conduce a querer poner en marcha todo lo que es técnicamente realizable, poco importa si sus beneficiarios son forzosamente poco numerosos o si no experimentan su deseo. Sobre todo la privatización o la frustración de la mayoría de los seres humanos nunca entran en la línea de cuenta. Si, por ejemplo, es posible concebir el tratamiento mediante la bomba de cobalto, es necesario que la ciudad de Tegucigalpa disponga de aparatos adaptados en cada uno de sus dos grandes hospitales. Con todos esos créditos puestos ahí se habría podido luchar en toda Honduras contra la proliferación de parásitos… Las velocidades supersónicas sugieren que conviene inmediatamente acelerar los viajes de algunos. ¿Los vuelos a Marte? ¡Se encontrará siempre una razón para que parezcan indispensables! En el _ethos_ tecnocrático la pobreza está modernizada: ¿existían soluciones antiguas? Nuevos monopolios vienen a prohibirlas. A la penuria de los bienes de primera necesidad se agrega la conciencia de la diferencia sin cesar cada vez más grande entre los servicios técnicamente realizables y los que en la práctica son accesibles a las mayorías. + +Un profesor se vuelve “educador” desde el momento en que se incorpora a ese _ethos_ tecnocrático. Actúa inmediatamente como si la educación fuera una empresa tecnológica concebida para insertar al hombre en el entorno que crea el “progreso” de la ciencia. Se niega a ver la evidencia: el envejecimiento de todos los bienes programados se paga muy caro (el costo de la formación del personal capaz de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas es sin cesar más alto). Parece olvidar que el precio creciente de las herramientas tiene consecuencias igualmente graves en el plano de la educación: en el momento mismo en que los horarios de trabajo disminuyen, se vuelve imposible el aprendizaje en los lugares de empleo donde se ha hecho de él el privilegio de un pequeño número. En todo el mundo el precio del coste de la educación de los hombres para la sociedad crece más rápidamente que la productividad de la economía en su conjunto, mientras menos y menos hombres experimentan el sentimiento de hacerse razonablemente útiles a la comunidad. + + +## La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático + +Educar para una sociedad de consumo resulta en formar consumidores. La reforma de la clase, su desaparición o su crecimiento no son ni más ni menos que métodos que, a pesar de sus diferencias aparentes, se dirigen a la formación de consumidores de bienes inmediatamente pasados de moda. La sobrevivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden definir constantemente la dicha del hombre asimilado al consumo de los productos más recientes depende de las instituciones educativas (desde las escuelas hasta las agencias publicitarias) que transforman la educación en un medio de control social. + +En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, las considerables inversiones en materia de enseñanza hacen más evidentes las contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En esos países, el aumento ideológico del progreso ilimitado reposa en la idea de que el efecto igualitario de una formación permanente contrabalancea la influencia inversa de la regla del envejecimiento perpetuo. La legitimidad de la sociedad industrial depende de la credibilidad de la escuela, cualquiera que sea el partido en el poder. En tales condiciones, el público manifiesta un interés súbito por libros como el reporte de Charles Silberman a la comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el título _Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)_ ; esta investigación inspira confianza en la medida en que la acusación que el autor lanza contra la escuela está apoyada sólidamente. Pero tales estudios se dirigen a salvar el sistema tratando de corregir sus fallas más evidentes. Por lo mismo, pueden suscitar un nuevo ascenso de esperanzas engañosas. + +Por todas partes crecientes inversiones consagradas a las escuelas vuelven la absurdidad de la empresa escolar más evidente. Puede parecer paradójico que los pobres sean sus primeras víctimas. En el fondo, eso es lo que muestra el reporte de la comisión de encuestas Wright en Ontario: a propósito de la enseñanza superior, los miembros de la comisión señalan que las capas pobres de la población las subvencionaban desde el punto de vista de la imposición de manera desproporcionada, ya que los ricos eran casi los únicos beneficiarios. + +Esta observación podría inmediatamente hacerse en otra parte. En la URSS, un sistema de cuota aplicado durante muchos decenios parece favorecer la admisión a la universidad de los hijos de los trabajadores a expensas de las hijas e hijos de universitarios. Actualmente estos últimos son sobrerrepresentados en las clases superiores y terminales de la enseñanza rusa y en una proporción todavía más grande que en Estados Unidos. + +El 8 de marzo de 1971, el juez Warren E. Burger hacía público el veredicto unánime de la corte en el caso Griggs contra la sociedad Duke Power. Fundándose en la voluntad expresada por el Congreso en el artículo que concierne a la igualdad de oportunidades en la ley de 1964, la corte resolvió por unanimidad que cualquier “diploma” exigido a un candidato por un empleo (o cualquier prueba seguida) debía “medir al hombre en relación con un trabajo dado” y no “al hombre mismo en un plano abstracto”. Además, correspondía al empresario probar que sus exigencias en materia de diplomas constituía una “medida razonable de la calificación requerida”. Mediante estas consideraciones, los jueces querían evitar que las pruebas y diplomas exigidos no se utilizaran en provecho de una discriminación racial, pero la lógica del razonamiento podría también aplicarse a cualquier exigencia de un “ _pedigree_ educativo” en materia de empleo. Es tiempo de formar causa contra la “gran estafa de la formación profesional” denunciada tan justamente por Ivar Berg. + +En los países pobres, las escuelas sirven para justificar el atraso económico de una nación: a la mayoría de los ciudadanos se le mantiene apartada de los magros medios modernos de producción y de consumo, pero todos sueñan con beneficiarse de los favores de la economía franqueando el umbral de una escuela. La repartición jerárquica de los privilegios y del poder ya no depende, en nuestros días y en el plano de la legitimidad, de una descendencia de ancestros, de la herencia, del favor del príncipe, incluso de una lucha sin cuartel en el mercado económico o en el campo de batalla. Su verdadera legitimidad la encuentra en una forma más sutil del capitalismo donde la institución encargada de conferirla se encuentra en la escolaridad obligatoria. Quien aprovechó los servicios de la escuela vuelve entonces al subprivilegiado responsable de su desgracia: es un mal consumidor del saber. Esta justificación de la desigualdad social no resiste siempre el examen de los hechos y los regímenes populares tienen cada vez más dificultades para disimular las contradicciones entre la propaganda y la realidad. + +Desde hace 10 años, Cuba se esfuerza por promover el crecimiento rápido de la educación popular dando confianza a la mano de obra disponible sin tomar en cuenta la calificación profesional. Al principio, el éxito de esta campaña (en particular la disminución espectacular del número de analfabetos) se ha citado como prueba de que las tasas de crecimiento limitadas de los otros sistemas escolares latinoamericanos eran imputables a la corrupción, al militarismo y a la economía de mercado capitalista. + +Sin embargo, la lógica de la escolarización se hace sentir manifiestamente a consecuencia de los esfuerzos de Castro por “reproducir” al hombre nuevo mediante la escuela. Incluso si los estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en la zafra y sostienen activamente los ideales igualitarios del _compañero_ Fidel, la universidad cultiva cada año una nueva cosecha de consumidores conscientes de su saber, prontos a acceder a nuevos niveles de consumo. Al mismo tiempo, el doctor Castro debe enfrentarse a la evidencia de que el sistema escolar nunca producirá suficiente mano de obra técnica diplomada. Esos diplomados que obtienen los nuevos empleos destruyen por su conservadurismo los resultados conseguidos por los cuadros no diplomados que llegaron a su posición mediante una formación en el taller. No basta con acusar a los docentes para explicar los fracasos de un gobierno revolucionario que quiere con todas sus fuerzas una institucionalización de la mano de obra siguiendo un programa secreto que garantice la producción de una burguesía universal. + + +## Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales + +Contra esta voluntad de adquirir privilegios y poder que poseen quienes detentan la competencia profesional en nombre de sus pretendidos derechos, no sabríamos imaginar una revolución sin acusar a la concepción misma de la adquisición del saber. Lo que nos conduce, en primer lugar, a considerar la cuestión de la responsabilidad en ese ámbito, ya se trate de enseñar o de instruir. Dar a conocer una mercancía sólo se consigue si imaginamos que resulta de la acción institucional o que satisface objetivos institucionales + +Para disipar este mal encantamiento, el hombre debe volver a encontrar el sentido de su responsabilidad personal cuando aprende o enseña. De esa forma se pondrá un término a esta nueva alienación donde vivir e instruirse no se toparán. + +Recobrar el poder de aprender o de enseñar tiene como consecuencia que el profesor, al tomar el riesgo de inmiscuirse en la vida privada de otros, debe asumir la responsabilidad de sus resultados; de la misma manera, el estudiante que se pone bajo la influencia de un profesor debe sentirse responsable de su propia educación. En esa perspectiva, las instituciones educativas —si realmente son necesarias— irán teniendo el aspecto de centros abiertos a todos, donde cada uno pueda encontrar lo que busca, donde uno, por ejemplo, tenga acceso a un piano, el otro, a un horno de cerámica o a registros, libros, diapositivas, etc. Hoy en día, las escuelas, los estudios de televisión y otros sitios similares están concebidos para que los profesionales los utilicen. Desescolarizar la sociedad quiere decir, ante todo, rechazar el estatus profesional del oficio que, por orden de antigüedad, viene, justo después, del más viejo del mundo, por el que entiendo la enseñanza. La calificación de los profesores constituye ahora una traba al derecho a la palabra, de igual forma que la estructura corporativa y la credencial profesional de los periodistas representan una traba al derecho de la libertad de información. La regla de la presencia obligatoria es contraria a la libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad sólo sabría concebirse como una mutación cultural por la que un pueblo vuelve a encontrar el poder de gozar de sus libertades constitucionales. + +Instruirse, enseñar, concierne a hombres que saben que nacieron libres y que no tienen, para adquirir esa libertad, que recurrir a un tratamiento apropiado. ¿Cuándo, por lo general, aprendemos? Cuando hacemos lo que nos interesa. ¿No somos, la mayor parte de nosotros, curiosos? Queremos comprender, darle un sentido a lo que se encuentra frente a nosotros, a lo que nos concierne. ¿No somos capaces de una relación personal con otros a menos de que seamos embrutecidos por un trabajo inhumano o fascinados por el ideal escolar? + +El hecho de que los habitantes de países ricos apenas se instruyan por sí mismos no constituye una prueba de lo contrario. Es más bien la consecuencia de una vida en un entorno donde paradójicamente no encuentran nada que aprender en la medida en que su medio está en gran parte “programado”. Están sin cesar frustrados por la estructura de una sociedad contemporánea en la que lo real, sobre lo que las decisiones podrían apoyarse, se ha vuelto de una naturaleza inasible. Viven, efectivamente, en un medio donde las herramientas que sería posible utilizar con fines creadores se vuelven productos de lujo, donde los canales de comunicación pertenecen a algunos que únicamente pueden hablar a la multitud. + + +## Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación + +Un mito moderno quisiera hacemos creer que el sentimiento de impotencia que hoy en día experimenta la mayoría de los hombres sería consecuencia de la tecnología capaz de crear solamente vastos sistemas. Pero no es sólo la tecnología la que inventa esos sistemas, la que crea herramientas inmensamente poderosas, la que teje canales de comunicación en sentido único; por el contrario, mejor utilizada, la tecnología podría proporcionar a cada hombre la posibilidad de entender mejor su medio, de trabajarlo con sus propias manos, de comunicar mejor que en el pasado. Esta utilización de la tecnología, contrariamente a las tendencias actuales, constituye la verdadera alternativa al problema de la educación. + +Para que un hombre pueda crecer, lo que necesita es el libre acceso a las cosas, a los sitios, a los métodos, a los acontecimientos, a los documentos. Tiene necesidad de ver, de tocar, de manipular, gustoso de asir todo lo que le rodea en un medio que no esté desprovisto de sentido. Ese acceso se le rehúsa hoy en día. Cuando el saber se ha vuelto un producto, adquiere la protección que se dispensa a la propiedad privada, De esa forma, un principio que se concibió para preservar la vida personal de cada uno se utiliza para justificar las prohibiciones que se lanzan contra aquellos que no portan los documentos necesarios. En las escuelas los profesores conservan sus propios conocimientos, a menos que esos conocimientos se inserten en el programa del momento. Los media informan, pero omiten todo lo que se considera impropio para la difusión. Los especialistas se encierran en su jerga y se necesitan vulgarizadores para asegurar su traducción. Los cuerpos profesionales protegen los diplomas y la burocracia los secretos. Todas las profesiones detentan el poder de echar de su ámbito a las personas no autorizadas; sucede lo mismo con las instituciones y las naciones. + +Ni la estructura política ni la estructura profesional de nuestras sociedades, tanto en el Oeste como en el Este, podrían resistir la desaparición de estas prohibiciones, el trastrocamiento de esta posibilidad de tener a capas enteras de la población apartadas de lo que podría servirles. El acceso a los hechos que preconizamos no se satisface con una simple operación “etiquetas-verdad”. Es necesario construir este acceso a la realidad (y todo lo que pedimos de la publicidad es una garantía que no sea mentirosa). El acceso a la realidad constituye la alternativa fundamental en materia de educación frente a un sistema de enseñanza que sólo se propone hablar de él. + +Abolir el derecho al secreto profesional (incluso cuando la opinión del hombre profesional es que ese secreto sirve al bien común) representa, como hemos querido demostrarlo, un objetivo político mucho más radical que la reivindicación tradicional de nacionalizar o de controlar democráticamente las herramientas de producción. La socialización de las herramientas, sin la socialización efectiva de los conocimientos técnicos, tiende a poner el “capital del saber” en la posición que anteriormente ocupaba el financiero. Si el tecnócrata pretende apoderarse del poder es que él detenta una parte capital en la sociedad del saber secreto y reservado al pequeño número. Para proteger el valor de sus acciones y para aumentarlo, imagina una vasta organización que hace difícil, incluso imposible, el acceso al saber técnico. + +El hombre motivado necesita un tiempo relativamente corto para adquirir una capacidad que quiere utilizar —lo que tendemos a olvidar en una sociedad donde los profesores monopolizan la posibilidad de acceder a cualquier actividad y detentan el poder de acusar de charlatanería a todos aquellos que no se someten—. ¿En las industrias y en la investigación se requieren muchas capacidades que sean tan terribles, complejas y peligrosas como manejar un coche? Ese saber se adquiere muy pronto con la ayuda de un igual. No todos los seres están dotados para el ejercicio de la lógica matemática, pero quienes lo están hacen progresos rápidos desafiándose mutuamente en partidos de juegos educativos. En Cuernavaca uno de 20 niños es capaz de vencerme en esos juegos después de 15 días de entrenamiento. En cuatro meses, la gran mayoría de los adultos que vinieron a nuestro centro a aprender español llegaron a un nivel de conocimiento suficiente para atacar problemas abstractos. + +Una primera etapa de acceso a conocimientos consistiría en encontrar ventajas diversas para aquellos que, poseedores de una capacidad, quisieran compartirla. Eso, inevitablemente, chocaría con intereses de grupos profesionales y sindicatos. Esta multiplicidad de posibles aprendizajes tiene, sin embargo, con qué seducirnos. ¿Está prohibido imaginar a alguien que sabe a la vez conducir, reparar el teléfono, instalar plomería, actuar como partera y dibujar planos arquitectónicos? A esos, como decimos, se opondrían los grupos de interés y los consumidores disciplinados, diciendo muy alto que el público no podría prescindir de una garantía profesional (argumento cuya validez es cada vez menos evidente a los ojos de las asociaciones de defensa del consumidor). Debemos tomar mucho más en serio la objeción que los economistas harían de esta socialización de las capacidades: el “progreso”, dirían, se frenaría si el saber (títulos, capacidades y todo lo demás…) se democratiza. La mejor respuesta ¿no sería mostrar las tasas de crecimiento de los absurdos en materia económica que engendra el sistema escolar? + +Poder aproximar a quienes están deseosos de compartir sus conocimientos no es garantía de que haya adquisición de un saber. Dicho acceso está limitado no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos y el de los sindicatos, sino también por una tecnología de penuria. Las capacidades que hoy en día valen son las que se aplican al funcionamiento de “herramientas” concebidas de tal manera que no puedan generalizarse. Efectivamente, esas “herramientas” sirven para producir bienes o servicios de los que todos quieren gozar, pero esto último sólo se concede a un pequeño número y sólo pocos saben utilizarlas. Únicamente algunos privilegiados, por ejemplo, sobre el conjunto de los que sufren una determinada enfermedad, pueden beneficiarse de los descubrimientos de una investigación médica compleja, y todavía son menos los médicos que obtienen los conocimientos necesarios para utilizar dichas tecnologías. + +Sin embargo, la investigación médica ha permitido crear un maletín de auxilios que permite a los enfermeros de la armada, después de sólo algunos meses de formación, obtener en el campo de batalla resultados muy superiores a los de los verdaderos médicos de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A un nivel todavía más inmediato, ¿no podría cualquier campesina aprender a reconocer y a curar las enfermedades infecciosas más comunes si investigadores médicos prepararan los remedios y las instrucciones necesarias para un determinado sector geográfico? + +Todos estos ejemplos buscan ilustrar el hecho de que simples consideraciones educativas bastan para exigir una importante reducción de la importancia dada a las profesiones que se oponen a las relaciones entre los hombres de ciencia y la mayoría de quienes quieren tener acceso a esta ciencia. Si se prestara atención a esta demanda, todos los hombres podrían aprender a utilizar las herramientas de ayer, vueltas más eficaces y más durables gracias a la ciencia de hoy, para crear el mundo de mañana. + +Por desgracia, es la tendencia contraria la que impera. Conozco una zona costera de América del Sur donde la mayoría de los habitantes viven de la pesca. Disponen de pequeñas embarcaciones y la introducción del motor auxiliar ha representado para ellos una verdadera revolución, de consecuencias a veces dramáticas. En el sector que estudié, la mitad de los motores comprados entre 1945 y 1950 funcionan todavía gracias a constante mantenimiento; por el contrario, los que se compraron en 1965 ya no funcionan porque no se concibieron para repararse. El progreso técnico proporciona a la mayoría de los seres humanos instrumentos inútiles, demasiado costosos, privándolos de las herramientas más simples que necesitan. + +Desde 1940, considerables progresos se han realizado en el ámbito de los materiales metálicos, plásticos y de fibrocemento que se utilizan en la construcción, lo que debería darle a muchos seres humanos la posibilidad de construir sus propias casas. Pero en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, mientras que en 1948 más de 30% de las habitaciones individuales las habían construido sus propietarios, a fines de 1960 ese porcentaje había caído a menos de 20 puntos. + +El descenso del nivel de las capacidades por efecto de lo que se llama el “desarrollo económico” es aún más visible en América Latina. Ahí, la mayoría de los habitantes construyen todavía ellos mismos sus casas. Utilizan frecuentemente adobe y cal, materiales cuya utilidad es muy alta en clima cálido y húmedo. En otros sitios edifican casas con placas de chapa, cartón y otros desperdicios de la civilización industrial… En lugar de proporcionar a los habitantes herramientas simples y elementos estandarizados, sólidos, fácilmente reemplazables o reparables, los gobernantes de esos países se lanzaron a una política de producción masiva de habitaciones de interés social. Es, sin embargo, evidente que ninguno de ellos puede darse el lujo de proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas a la mayoría de los habitantes. Por todas partes esta política prohibí a las masas adquirir los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para la construcción de casas más decentes. + + +## Una pobreza libremente consentida + +Darse cuenta de las posibilidades de educación nos permite ver que cualquier sociedad posindustrial debe disponer de un herramental de base cuya misma naturaleza no permita el desarrollo del control tecnocrático. Debemos, en efecto, esforzarnos por hacer surgir una sociedad donde el saber científico pueda estar, de alguna forma, abierto a las herramientas útiles, a las piezas de ensamble en unidades de dimensiones limitadas, para que sean comprensibles a los hombres. Dicho herramental permite asociarse para cumplir una tarea o, como todo mil usos lo sabe instintivamente, descubrirlas sirviéndose de ellas para nuevas posibilidades de uso. Por la combinación de posibilidades de acceso siempre abiertas a lo que sucede a nuestro alrededor y por los límites impuestos al poder de las herramientas será posible visualizar una “economía de subsistencia” capaz de utilizar las ventajas de la ciencia moderna. + +Desarrollar dicha economía servirá a los intereses de la aplastante mayoría de los habitantes de países pobres, pero también es la única alternativa posible en los países ricos frente a la creciente contaminación, la explotación, la construcción de un mundo cada vez más ensombrecido. Como lo hemos señalado, derribar el mito del “producto nacional bruto” no se concibe sin atacar al mismo tiempo el de la “educación nacional bruta” (que conduce a la capitalización de la mano de obra). Una economía igualitaria no podría existir en una sociedad en la que el derecho de producir lo confieren las escuelas. + +Construir una economía de subsistencia moderna no depende de invenciones científicas nuevas. Su edificación pasa por una elección deliberada del conjunto de la sociedad que debe definir límites fundamentales al desarrollo de las burocracias y de las tecnocracias. + +Estos límites pueden definirse de diferente manera, pero su utilidad dependerá de que se tomen en cuenta las verdaderas dimensiones de la existencia. (La posición del Congreso contra el desarrollo del transporte supersónico va en buena dirección.) Estas restricciones que se impondría voluntariamente la sociedad deben dirigirse a problemas simples, accesibles a todos; podríamos aquí retomar el ejemplo de los aviones supersónicos. Lo que guiaría la elección sería la conciencia de la necesidad de un disfrute igual de los frutos del saber científico. Los franceses dicen que se necesitarían mil años para enseñarle a un país a ocuparse de una vaca; no se necesitarían dos generaciones para ayudar a todos los habitantes de América Latina o de África a utilizar (o a reparar) motores auxiliares de vehículos simplificados, de bombas, de maletines médicos, de construcciones de hormigón, si la concepción de esos equipamientos no cambiara casi cada año. Obtener igual provecho de las adquisiciones de la técnica conduciría, sin duda, a una vida donde el gozo estaría presente, gozo, con sentido, de las relaciones establecidas entre los hombres, y como al mismo tiempo los hombres vivirían en un medio en donde el absurdo ya no tendría sitio, el derecho igual a los bienes de la sociedad se confundiría finalmente con la igualdad en materia de educación. + +Hoy en día es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre la austeridad. La razón que por costumbre se da para explicar la impotencia actual de la mayoría se sitúa en una perspectiva (económica o política) de clases, y por lo general no nos damos cuenta de que las nuevas estructuras de clase impuestas por una sociedad escolarizada son más fácilmente controladas por los intereses establecidos. Sin duda alguna, una organización imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad definió un conjunto social en el interior del cual una minoría posee una influencia desproporcionada sobre la opinión de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática, el poder de un pequeño número de “capitalistas del saber” es capaz de impedir la formación de una verdadera opinión pública por el control de las técnicas científicas y de los medios de comunicación entre los hombres. + +Las garantías constitucionales dadas a la libertad de expresión, de prensa, de reunión, se dirigían a asegurar el acceso del gobierno por el pueblo. La electrónica moderna, las prensas offset, las computadoras, los teléfonos podrían representar un equipamiento capaz de dar un sentido completamente nuevo a esas libertades. Por desgracia, todas esas conquistas técnicas se utilizan para acrecentar el poder de los banqueros del conocimiento, en lugar de servir para tejer las verdaderas redes que proporcionarían oportunidades iguales de encuentro a la mayoría de los seres humanos. + +Desescolarizar la estructura social y cultural exige utilizar la tecnología para hacer posible una política de participación. Sobre la base de una coalición de la mayoría se podrían determinar los límites del secreto y del poder creciente sin que exista dictadura. + +Necesitamos un entorno nuevo en el cual crecer para conocer una sociedad sin clases o entraremos en el “mundo feliz” donde el _big brother_[^n23] estará ahí para educarnos a todos. + +[^n01]: Penrose B. Jackson, _Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968_ , U. S. Office of Education, Office of Program and Planning Evaluation, junio de 1969. + +[^n02]: En español en el original. + +[^n03]: _Agua_ , _tierra_ , _casa_ son algunas de las palabras generadoras que Paulo Freire incluye en la relación educador-educando. + +[^n04]: _Atomic Ballistic Missile_. (T.) + +[^n05]: Respecto a las historias paralelas del capitalismo moderno y la niñez moderna véase Philippe Ariès, _L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime,_ Seuil, 1973. + +[^n06]: Agency for International Development: organismo del Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos. (T.) + +[^n07]: El autor se refiere a las Enmiendas a la Constitución de Estados Unidos (1971), que establecen, respectivamente: _a)_ las libertades de religión, expresión, reunión y de ser oídos para pedir justicia, y _b)_ de no ser llamado a responder por delitos graves sin ser declarado reo, de no ser condenado dos veces a muerte por una misma causa, ni a testimoniar contra sí mismo, de no ser privado de la libertad o de las propiedades sin un debido proceso legal, ni a ser expropiado sin justa compensación. (T.) + +[^n08]: Buen riesgo: en el lenguaje de los aseguradores, el que tiene muy pocas oportunidades de concretarse en una pérdida. (T.) + +[^n09]: Culto creado por indígenas de Nueva Guinea, que atribuye un origen mágico a los artículos occidentales (aviones, radios, relojes, plásticos, etc.). (T.) + +[^n10]: _Truant officer_. El que lleva a la escuela a quienes deben cumplir con la instrucción legal obligatoria. (T.) + +[^n11]: _Ética a Nicómaco_ , 1140. + +[^n12]: Este capítulo fue presentado originalmente en una sesión de la American Educational Research Association, en la ciudad de Nueva York, el 6 de febrero de 1971. + +[^n13]: Véase Joel Spring, _Education and the Rise of the Corporate State_ , Cuaderno núm. 50, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, México, 1971. + +[^n14]: Equivalente a los grados primero, segundo y tercero de secundaria, o los antiguos tres primeros años de bachillerato —cuando había seis—. (T.) + +[^n15]: En francés, en el original. + +[^n16]: Office of Economic Opportunity, organismo oficial en Estados Unidos. (T.) + +[^n17]: Lenguaje usado en informática para fines comerciales. (T.) + +[^n18]: En el francés, en el original. + +[^n19]: Las tres citas provienen de “People” (“Gente”), del libro _Poemas escogidos_ de Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Traducidos por Robin Milner-Gulland y Peter Levi, y con una introducción de los traductores. Publicado por E. P. Dutton & Co., 1962, y reimpreso con su autorización. + +[^n20]: Las 14 más célebres universidades de Estados Unidos constituyen esta “liga de la hiedra” _(ivy league)_. (Son miembros de ella, por ejemplo, Yale, Harvard, Princeton…) Es una asociación sin objetivo definido, pero que conserva la tradición de grandeza. Saca su nombre de la hiedra que recubre los edificios más antiguos. (T.) + +[^n21]: El hecho de asistir a los cursos representa cierto número de créditos por semestre. Para tener acceso al diploma es necesario haber cubierto un número de 135 en cuatro años. (T.) + +[^n22]: En francés, en el original. (T.) + +[^n23]: Alusiones al libro de Aldous Huxley, _Un mundo feliz_ , y al de George Orwell, _1984._ diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.pdf b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.pdf Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f24cf7e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.pdf diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.tex b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fdb137 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.tex @@ -0,0 +1,5770 @@ +\documentclass[spanish,]{article} + +% For redefining the \chapter command +\usepackage[explicit]{titlesec} + +% To make the headers nicer (lowercase) +\usepackage{fancyhdr} +\renewcommand{\chaptermark}[1]{\markboth{#1}{}} +\renewcommand{\sectionmark}[1]{\markright{#1}} +\pagestyle{fancy} +\fancyhf{} +\fancyhead[LE,RO]{\thepage} +\fancyhead[LO]{\itshape\nouppercase{\rightmark}} +\fancyhead[RE]{\itshape\nouppercase{\leftmark}} +\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt} + +\usepackage{lmodern} +\usepackage{amssymb,amsmath} +\usepackage{ifxetex,ifluatex} +\usepackage{fixltx2e} % provides \textsubscript +\ifnum 0\ifxetex 1\fi\ifluatex 1\fi=0 % if pdftex + \usepackage[T1]{fontenc} + \usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} +\else % if luatex or xelatex + \ifxetex + %\usepackage{mathspec} + \else + \usepackage{fontspec} + \fi + \defaultfontfeatures{Ligatures=TeX,Scale=MatchLowercase} +\fi +% use upquote if available, for straight quotes in verbatim environments +\IfFileExists{upquote.sty}{\usepackage{upquote}}{} +% use microtype if available +\IfFileExists{microtype.sty}{% +\usepackage{microtype} +\UseMicrotypeSet[protrusion]{basicmath} % disable protrusion for tt fonts +}{} +\usepackage{hyperref} +\hypersetup{unicode=true, + pdftitle={La sociedad desescolarizada}, + pdfauthor={Ivan Illich}, + pdfborder={0 0 0}, + breaklinks=true} +\urlstyle{same} % don't use monospace font for urls +\ifnum 0\ifxetex 1\fi\ifluatex 1\fi=0 % if pdftex + \usepackage[shorthands=off,main=spanish]{babel} +\else + \usepackage{polyglossia} + \setmainlanguage[]{spanish} +\fi +\IfFileExists{parskip.sty}{% +\usepackage{parskip} +}{% else +\setlength{\parindent}{0pt} +\setlength{\parskip}{6pt plus 2pt minus 1pt} +} +\setlength{\emergencystretch}{3em} % prevent overfull lines +\providecommand{\tightlist}{% + \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}} +\setcounter{secnumdepth}{0} +% Redefines (sub)paragraphs to behave more like sections +\ifx\paragraph\undefined\else +\let\oldparagraph\paragraph +\renewcommand{\paragraph}[1]{\oldparagraph{#1}\mbox{}} +\fi +\ifx\subparagraph\undefined\else +\let\oldsubparagraph\subparagraph +\renewcommand{\subparagraph}[1]{\oldsubparagraph{#1}\mbox{}} +\fi +% Overwrite \begin{figure}[htbp] with \begin{figure}[H] +\usepackage{float} +\let\origfigure=\figure +\let\endorigfigure=\endfigure +\renewenvironment{figure}[1][]{% +\origfigure[H] +}{% +\endorigfigure +} +\title{La sociedad desescolarizada} +\author{Ivan Illich} +\date{1970} + +\begin{document} +\maketitle +\begin{abstract} +https://illich.test/es:book:deschooling:es?rev=1621776698 +\end{abstract} + + +% Redefine chapter title after table of contents +\titleformat{\chapter}[display]{\normalfont\bfseries}{}{0pt}{\huge\thechapter.\,#1} + +\hypertarget{introducciuxf3n}{% +\section{Introducción}\label{introducciuxf3n}} + +Debo a Everett Reimer el interés que tengo por la educación pública +hasta el día de 1958 en que nos conocimos en Puerto Rico jamás había yo +puesto en duda el valor de hacer obligatoria la escuela para todos. +Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los +seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación +de asistir a la escuela. + +Desde 1966 en adelante, Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del +CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca, organizó +anualmente dos seminarios alrededor de mi diálogo con Reimer. Centenares +de personas de todo el mundo participaron en estos encuentros. Quiero +recordar en este lugar a dos de ellos que contribuyeron particularmente +a nuestro análisis y que en el entretiempo murieron: Augusto Salazar +Bondy y Paul Goodman. Los ensayos escritos para el boletín \emph{Cidoc +Informa} y reunidos en este libro se desarrollaron a partir de mis notas +de seminario. El último capítulo contiene ideas que me surgieron después +de mis conversaciones con Erich Fromm en torno al Mutterrecht de +Bachofen. + +Durante estos años Valentina Borremans constantemente me urgía a poner a +prueba nuestro pensar enfrentándolo a las realidades de América Latina y +de África. Este libro refleja su convencimiento de que no sólo las +instituciones sino el \emph{ethos} de la sociedad deben ser +``desescolarizados''. + +La educación universal por medio de la escolarización no es factible. No +sería más factible si se intentara mediante instituciones alternativas +construidas según el estilo de las escuelas actuales. Ni nuevas +actitudes de los maestros hacia sus alumnos, ni la proliferación de +nuevas herramientas y métodos físicos o mentales (en el aula o en el +dormitorio), ni, finalmente, el intento de ampliar la responsabilidad +del pedagogo hasta que englobe las vidas completas de sus alumnos, dará +por resultado la educación universal. La búsqueda actual de nuevos +\emph{embudos} educacionales debe revertirse hacia la búsqueda de su +antípoda institucional: \emph{tramas} educacionales que aumenten la +oportunidad para que cada cual transforme cada momento de su vida en un +momento de aprendizaje, de compartir, de interesarse. Confiamos en estar +aportando conceptos necesarios para aquellos que realizan +investigaciones sobre la educación ---y asimismo para aquellos que +buscan alternativas para otras industrias de servicio establecidas---. + +Me propongo examinar algunas cuestiones inquietantes que surgen una vez +que adoptamos como hipótesis que la sociedad puede desescolarizarse, +buscar pautas que puedan ayudarnos a discernir instituciones dignas de +desarrollo por cuanto apoyan el aprendizaje en un medio desescolarizado, +y esclarecer las metas personales que ampararían el advenimiento de una +Edad de Ocio \emph{(schole)} opuesta como tal a una economía dominada +por las industrias de servicio. + +IVÁN ILLICH + +\emph{Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978} + +\hypertarget{por-quuxe9-debemos-privar-de-apoyo-oficial-a-la-escuela}{% +\section{Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la +escuela}\label{por-quuxe9-debemos-privar-de-apoyo-oficial-a-la-escuela}} + +Muchos estudiantes en especial los que son pobres saben intuitivamente +qué hacen por ellos las escuelas los adiestran a confundir proceso y +sustancia. Una vez que estos dos términos se hacen indistintos, se +adopta una nueva lógica: cuanto más tratamiento haya, tanto mejor serán +los resultados. Al alumno se le ``escolariza'' de ese modo para +confundir enseñanza con saber, promoción al curso siguiente con +educación, diploma con competencia, y fluidez con capacidad para decir +algo nuevo. A su imaginación se la ``escolariza'' para que acepte +servicio en vez de valor. Se confunde el tratamiento médico tomándolo +por cuidado de la salud, el trabajo social por mejoramiento de la vida +comunitaria, la protección policiaca por tranquilidad, el equilibrio +militar por seguridad nacional, la mezquina lucha cotidiana por trabajo +productivo. La salud, el saber, la dignidad, la independencia y el +quehacer creativo quedan definidos como poco más que el desempeño de las +instituciones que afirman servir a estos fines, y su mejoramiento se +hace dependiente de la asignación de mayores recursos a la +administración de hospitales, escuelas y demás organismos +correspondientes. + +En estos ensayos mostraré que la institucionalización de los valores +conduce inevitablemente a la contaminación física, a la polarización +social y a la impotencia psicológica: tres dimensiones en un proceso de +degradación global y de miseria modernizada. Explicaré cómo este proceso +de degradación se acelera cuando unas necesidades no materiales se +transforman en demanda de bienes; cuando a la salud, a la educación, a +la movilidad personal, al bienestar o a la cura psicológica se las +define como el resultado de servicios o de ``tratamientos''. Hago esto +porque creo que la mayoría de las investigaciones actualmente en curso +acerca del futuro tienden a abogar por incrementos aún mayores en la +institucionalización de valores y que debemos definir algunas +condiciones que permitieran que ocurriese lo contrario. Precisamos +investigaciones sobre el posible uso de la tecnología para crear +instituciones que atiendan a la acción recíproca, creativa y autónoma +entre personas y a la emergencia de valores que los tecnócratas no +puedan controlar sustancialmente. Necesitamos investigación en líneas +generales para la futurología actual. + +Quiero suscitar la cuestión general acerca de la mutua definición, de la +naturaleza del hombre y de la naturaleza de las instituciones modernas, +que caracteriza nuestra visión del mundo y nuestro lenguaje. Para +hacerlo, he elegido a la escuela como mi paradigma, y por consiguiente +trato sólo indirectamente de otros organismos burocráticos del Estado +corporativo: la familia consumidora, el partido, el ejército, la +Iglesia, los medios informativos. Mi análisis del currículum oculto de +la escuela debería poner en evidencia que la educación pública se +beneficiaría con la desescolarización de la sociedad, tal como la vida +familiar, la política, la seguridad, la fe y la comunicación se +beneficiarían con un proceso análogo. + +Quiero comenzar este estudio esforzándome en hacer comprender qué es lo +que la desescolarización de una sociedad escolarizada podría significar. +En este contexto debiera ser más fácil entender mi elección de los cinco +aspectos específicos pertinentes respecto de este proceso, los cuales +abordaré en los capítulos siguientes. + +No sólo la educación sino la propia realidad social se han escolarizado. +Cuesta más o menos lo mismo escolarizar tanto al rico como al pobre en +igual dependencia. El gasto anual por alumno en los arrabales y los +suburbios ricos de cualquiera de 20 ciudades de Estados Unidos está +comprendido dentro de unos mismos márgenes ---y hasta es favorable al +pobre en ciertos casos---.\footnote{Penrose B. Jackson, \emph{Trends in + Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban + Comparisons 1965 to 1968} , U. S. Office of Education, Office of + Program and Planning Evaluation, junio de 1969.} + +Tanto el pobre como el rico dependen de escuelas y hospitales que guían +sus vidas, forman su visión del mundo y definen para ellos qué es +legítimo y qué no. Ambos consideran irresponsable medicarse uno mismo, y +ven a la organización comunitaria, cuando no la pagan quienes detentan +la autoridad, como una forma de agresión y subversión. Para ambos +grupos, apoyarse en el tratamiento institucional hace sospechoso el +logro independiente. El subdesarrollo progresivo de la confianza en sí +mismo y en la comunidad es incluso más típico en Westchester que en el +norte de Brasil. Por doquiera, no tan sólo la educación sino la sociedad +en conjunto, necesitan ``desescolarización''. + +Las burocracias del bienestar social pretenden un monopolio profesional, +político y financiero sobre la imaginación social, fijando normas sobre +qué es valedero y qué es factible. Este monopolio está en las raíces de +la modernización de la pobreza. Cada necesidad simple para la que se +halla una respuesta institucional permite la invención de una nueva +clase de pobres y una nueva definición de la pobreza. Hace 10 años, lo +normal en México era nacer y morir en su propia casa, y ser enterrado +por sus amigos. Sólo las necesidades del alma las atendía la Iglesia +institucionalizada. Ahora, comenzar y acabar la vida en casa se +convierten en \emph{signos} , ya sea de pobreza, ya sea de privilegio +especial. El morir y la muerte han quedado bajo la administración +institucional del médico y de los empresarios de pompas fúnebres. + +Una vez que una sociedad ha convertido ciertas necesidades básicas en +demandas de bienes producidos científicamente, la pobreza queda definida +por normas que los tecnócratas pueden cambiar a voluntad. ``Pobre'' es +quien no llega a satisfacer ciertas normas del consumo obligatorio. En +México son pobres aquellos que carecen de tres años de escolaridad, y en +Nueva York aquellos que carecen de doce. + +Los pobres siempre han sido socialmente impotentes. Apoyarse cada vez +más en la atención y el cuidado institucionales agrega una nueva +dimensión a su indefensión: la impotencia psicológica, la incapacidad de +valerse por sí mismos. Los campesinos del altiplano andino son +explotados por el terrateniente y el comerciante ---una vez que se +asientan en Lima llegan a depender, además, de los jefazos políticos y +están desarmados por su falta de escolaridad---. La pobreza moderna +conjuga la pérdida del poder sobre las circunstancias con una pérdida de +la potencia personal. Esta modernización de la pobreza es un fenómeno +mundial y está en el origen del subdesarrollo contemporáneo. Adopta +aspectos diferentes, por supuesto, en países ricos y países pobres. + +Probablemente se siente más intensamente en las ciudades estadunidenses. +En ninguna otra parte se da un tratamiento más costoso a la pobreza. En +ninguna otra parte el tratamiento de la pobreza produce tanta +dependencia, ira, frustración y nuevos requerimientos. Y en ninguna otra +parte es tan evidente que la pobreza ---una vez modernizada--- ha +llegado a hacerse resistente al tratamiento con dólares y requiere de +una revolución institucional. + +Hoy en día, en Estados Unidos, el negro y hasta el vagabundo pueden +aspirar a un nivel de tratamiento profesional que habría sido +inconcebible hace dos generaciones y que a la mayoría de la gente del +Tercer Mundo le parece grotesca. Por ejemplo, los pobres de Estados +Unidos pueden contar con un vigilante escolar que lleve a sus hijos de +regreso a la escuela hasta que lleguen a los 17 años o con un médico que +les remita a una cama de hospital que cuesta 60 dólares diarios ---el +equivalente al ingreso de tres meses para la mayor parte de la gente en +el mundo---. Pero ese cuidado los hace sólo más dependientes de un +tratamiento ulterior, y los hace cada vez más incapaces de organizar sus +propias vidas en torno a sus propias experiencias y recursos dentro de +sus propias comunidades. + +Los estadunidenses pobres están en una posición singular para hablar +sobre el predicamento que amenaza a todos los pobres de un mundo en vías +de modernización. Están descubriendo que no hay cantidad alguna de +dólares que pueda eliminar la destructividad inherente de las +instituciones de bienestar social, una vez que las jerarquías +profesionales de estas instituciones han convencido a la sociedad de que +sus servicios son moralmente necesarios. Los pobres de los núcleos +urbanos centrales de Estados Unidos pueden demostrar con su propia +experiencia la falacia sobre la que está construida la legislación +social en una sociedad ``escolarizada''. + +William O. Douglas, miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, hizo la +observación de que ``la única manera de establecer una observación es +financiarla''. El corolario es asimismo verdadero. Sólo al desviar los +dólares que ahora afluyen a las instituciones que actualmente tratan la +salud, la educación y el bienestar social, podrá detenerse el progresivo +empobrecimiento que ahora proviene del aspecto paralizante de las mismas +instituciones. + +Debemos tener esto presente al evaluar los programas de ayuda federales. +A modo de ejemplo: entre 1965 y 1968, en las escuelas de Estados Unidos +se gastaron más de 3 000 millones de dólares para compensar las +desventajas de unos seis millones de niños. Al programa se le conoce con +el nombre de \emph{Title One} (Artículo Primero). Es el programa +compensatorio más costoso que jamás se haya intentado en parte alguna en +materia de educación y, sin embargo, no es posible discernir ningún +mejoramiento significativo en el aprendizaje de estos niños +``desfavorecidos''. En comparación con sus condiscípulos del mismo curso +que provienen de hogares de ingresos medios, han quedado aún más +retrasados. Por lo demás, a lo largo de este programa, los profesionales +descubrieron otros 10 millones de niños que se esforzaban sometidos a +desventajas económicas y educativas. Se dispone ahora de nuevas razones +para reclamar nuevos fondos federales. + +Este fracaso total en el intento de mejorar la educación de los pobres a +pesar de un tratamiento más costoso puede explicarse de tres maneras: + +\emph{1)} Tres mil millones de dólares son insuficientes para mejorar el +aprovechamiento de seis millones de niños de modo apreciable; o bien, + +\emph{2)} el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente: se requieren +diferentes planes de estudio, una mejor administración, una +concentración aún mayor de fondos sobre el niño pobre, y más +investigaciones. Con ello se lograría el objetivo: o bien, + +\emph{3)} la desventaja educativa no puede curarse apoyándose en una +educación dentro de la escuela. + +Lo primero es sin duda cierto en cuanto que el dinero se ha gastado a +través del presupuesto escolar. El dinero se destinó efectivamente a las +escuelas donde estaban la mayoría de los niños desfavorecidos, pero no +se gastó en los niños mismos. Estos niños, a los que estaba destinado el +dinero, constituían sólo alrededor de la mitad de los que asistían a las +escuelas que añadieron el subsidio federal a sus presupuestos. De modo +que el dinero se gastó en inspección y custodia, en indoctrinación y +selección de papeles sociales, como también en educación, todo ello +inextricablemente mezclado con los edificios e instalaciones, planes de +estudio, profesores, administradores y otros componentes básicos de +estas escuelas y, por consiguiente, con sus presupuestos. + +Los fondos adicionales permitieron a las escuelas atender +desproporcionadamente a los niños relativamente más ricos que estaban +``desfavorecidos'' por tener que asistir a la escuela en compañía de los +pobres. En el mejor de los casos, una pequeña proporción de cada dólar +destinado a remediar las desventajas del niño pobre en su aprendizaje +podía llegar hasta ese niño a través del presupuesto de la escuela. + +Podría ser igualmente cierto que el dinero se gastó de manera +incompetente. Pero ni siquiera la incompetencia poco común puede superar +la del sistema escolar. Las escuelas resisten, por su estructura misma, +la concentración del privilegio en quienes son, por otra parte, +desfavorecidos. Los planes especiales de estudio, las clases separadas o +más horas de estudio constituyen tan sólo más discriminación a un coste +más elevado. + +Los contribuyentes no se han acostumbrado aún a ver que 3 000 millones +de dólares se desvanezcan en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y +Bienestar como si se tratara del Pentágono. El gobierno actual tal vez +estime que puede afrontar la ira de los educadores. Los estadunidenses +de clase media no tienen nada que perder si se interrumpe el programa. +Los padres pobres creen que sí pierden, pero, más todavía, están +exigiendo el control de los fondos destinados a sus hijos. Un sistema +lógico de recortar el presupuesto y, sería de esperar, de aumentar sus +beneficios, consistiría en un sistema de becas escolares como el +propuesto por Milton Friedman y otros. Los fondos se canalizarían al +beneficiario, permitiéndole comprar su parte de escolaridad que elija. +Si dicho crédito se limitara a unas compras que se ajustasen a un plan +escolar de estudios, tendería a proporcionar una mayor igualdad de +tratamiento, pero no aumentaría por ello la igualdad de las exigencias +sociales. + +Debería ser obvio que incluso con escuelas de igual calidad un niño +pobre rara vez se pondrá a la par de uno rico. Incluso si asisten a las +mismas escuelas y comienzan a la misma edad, los niños pobres carecen de +la mayoría de las oportunidades educativas que, al parecer, dispone el +niño de clase media. Estas ventajas van desde la conversación y los +libros en el hogar hasta el viaje de vacaciones y un sentido diferente +de sí mismo, y actúan, para el niño que goza de ellas, tanto dentro de +la escuela como fuera de ella. De modo que el estudiante más pobre se +quedará atrás en tanto dependa de la escuela para progresar o aprender. +Los pobres necesitan fondos que les permitan aprender y no obtener +certificados del tratamiento de sus deficiencias presuntamente +desproporcionadas. + +Todo esto es válido para naciones tanto ricas como pobres, pero aparece +con aspecto diferente. En las naciones pobres, la pobreza modernizada +afecta a más gente y más visiblemente, pero también ---por ahora--- más +superficialmente. Dos de cada tres del total de niños latinoamericanos +dejan la escuela antes de terminar el quinto grado, pero estos +\emph{desertores}\footnote{En español en el original.} no están tan mal, +como lo estarían en Estados Unidos. + +Hoy en día son pocos los países víctimas de la pobreza clásica, que era +estable y menos paralizante. La mayoría de los países de América Latina +han llegado al punto de ``despegue'' hacia el desarrollo económico y el +consumo competitivo y, por lo tanto, hacia la pobreza modernizada: sus +ciudadanos aprenden a pensar como ricos y a vivir como pobres. Sus leyes +establecen un periodo escolar obligatorio de seis a 10 años. No sólo en +Argentina, sino también en México o en Brasil, el ciudadano medio define +una educación adecuada según las pautas estadunidenses, aun cuando la +posibilidad de lograr esa prolongada escolarización esté restringida a +una diminuta minoría. En estos países la mayoría ya está enviciada con +la escuela, es decir, ha sido ``escolarizada'' para sentirse inferior +respecto de quienes tienen una mejor escolaridad. Su fanatismo en favor +de la escuela hace posible explotarlos por partida doble: permite +aumentar la asignación de fondos públicos para la educación de unos +pocos y aumentar la aceptación del control social por parte de la +mayoría. + +Es paradójico que la creencia en la escolarización universal se mantenga +más firme en los países en que el menor número de personas ha sido ---y +será--- servido por las escuelas. Sin embargo, en América Latina la +mayoría de los padres y de los hijos podrían seguir aún senderos +diferentes hacia la educación. La proporción del ahorro nacional +invertido en escuelas y maestros tal vez sea mayor que en los países +ricos, pero estas inversiones son totalmente insuficientes para atender +a la mayoría haciendo posible siquiera cuatro años de asistencia a la +escuela. Fidel Castro habla como si quisiese avanzar directo a la +desescolarización, cuando promete que para 1980 Cuba estará en +condiciones de disolver su universidad, puesto que toda la vida cubana +será una \emph{experiencia educativa}. Sin embargo, en los niveles de +primaria y secundaria, Cuba, al igual que otros países latinoamericanos, +actúa como si el paso a través de un periodo definido como ``la edad +escolar'' fuese una meta incuestionable para todos, sólo postergada por +una escasez momentánea de recursos. + +Los dos engaños gemelos de un tratamiento más a fondo, tal como de hecho +se proporciona en Estados Unidos ---y como tan sólo se promete en +América Latina--- se complementan entre sí. Los pobres del Norte están +siendo tullidos por el mismo tratamiento de 12 años cuya carencia marca +a los pobres del Sur como irremediablemente retrasados. Ni en +Norteamérica ni en América Latina logran los pobres igualdad a partir de +escuelas obligatorias. Pero en ambas partes la sola existencia de la +escuela desanima al pobre y lo invalida para asir el control de su +propio aprendizaje. En todo el mundo la escuela tiene un efecto +antieducacional sobre la sociedad: se le reconoce como la institución +que se especializa en educación. La mayoría de las personas considera +los fracasos de la escuela como una prueba de que la educación es una +tarea muy costosa, muy compleja, siempre arcana y frecuentemente casi +imposible. + +La escuela se apropia del dinero, de los hombres y de la buena voluntad +disponibles para educación, y fuera de eso desalienta a otras +instituciones respecto a asumir tareas educativas. El trabajo, el tiempo +libre, la política, la vida ciudadana e incluso la vida familiar +dependen de las escuelas, en lo concerniente a los hábitos y +conocimientos que presuponen, en vez de convertirse ellos mismos en +medios de educación. Tanto las escuelas como las otras instituciones que +dependen de aquéllas llegan simultáneamente a tener un precio imposible. + +En Estados Unidos, los costes per cápita de la escolaridad han aumentado +casi con igual rapidez que el coste del tratamiento médico. Pero este +tratamiento más completo impartido por doctores y maestros ha mostrado +resultados en continua declinación. Los gastos médicos concentrados +sobre los mayores de 45 años se han duplicado varias veces durante un +periodo de 40 años, dando como fruto un aumento de 3\% en las +probabilidades de vida de los varones. El incremento de los gastos +educativos ha producido resultados aún más extraños; de otra manera el +presidente Nixon no se habría sentido inclinado a prometer esta +primavera que todo niño tendrá pronto el ``derecho a leer'' antes de +dejar la escuela. + +En Estados Unidos se precisarían 80 000 millones de dólares por año para +proporcionar lo que los educadores consideran como tratamiento +igualitario para todos en escuelas primaria y secundaria. Esto es +bastante más del doble de los 36 000 millones que se están gastando +ahora. Las predicciones de costes preparadas de modo independiente en el +Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar y en la Universidad de +Florida indican que para 1974 las cifras comparables serán de 107 000 +millones contra los 45 000 millones proyectados ahora, y estas cifras +omiten totalmente los enormes costes de lo que se denomina ``educación +superior'', cuya demanda está creciendo de manera más veloz. Estados +Unidos, que en 1969 gastó casi 80 000 millones de dólares en +``defensa'', incluyendo su despliegue en Vietnam, es obviamente +demasiado pobre como para proporcionar igual escolaridad. El comité +nombrado por el presidente para el estudio del financiamiento de las +escuelas debiera preguntar no cómo mantener o cómo recortar tales +costes, crecientes, sino cómo evitarlos. + +La escuela igual y obligatoria para todos debiera reconocerse por lo +menos como algo económicamente impracticable. En América Latina, la +cantidad de erario que se gasta en cada estudiante graduado oscila entre +350 y 1 500 veces el monto gastado en el ciudadano medio (es decir, el +ciudadano que está en un término medio entre el más pobre y el más +rico). En Estados Unidos la discrepancia es menor, pero la +discriminación más aguda. Los padres más ricos, cerca de 10\%, pueden +permitirse proporcionar a sus hijos educación privada y ayudarles a +beneficiarse de las donaciones de fundaciones. Pero además consiguen 10 +veces el monto per cápita de fondos públicos si éste se compara con el +gasto per cápita que se efectúa en los hijos de 10\% de los más pobres. +Las razones principales de que esto ocurra son que los muchachos ricos +permanecen más tiempo en la escuela, que un año de universidad es +desproporcionadamente más costoso que un año de escuela secundaria, y +que la mayoría de las universidades privadas dependen ---al menos +indirectamente--- de un financiamiento derivado de desgravámenes. + +La escuela obligatoria polariza inevitablemente a una sociedad y +califica asimismo a las naciones del mundo según un sistema +internacional de castas. A los países se los califica como castas cuya +dignidad la determina el promedio de años de escolaridad de sus +ciudadanos, tabla de calificación que se relaciona íntimamente con el +producto nacional bruto per cápita y es mucho más dolorosa. + +La paradoja de las escuelas es evidente: el gasto creciente hace +aumentar su destructividad en su propio país y en el extranjero. Esta +paradoja debe convertirse en tema de debate público. Hoy por hoy se +reconoce de manera general que el medio ambiente físico quedará +destruido dentro de poco por la contaminación bioquímica a menos que +invirtamos las tendencias actuales de producción de bienes físicos. +Debería reconocerse asimismo que la vida social y personal está +igualmente amenazada por la contaminación del Ministerio de Salud, +Educación y Bienestar, subproducto inevitable del consumo obligatorio y +competitivo del bienestar. + +La escalada de las escuelas es tan destructiva como la de las armas, si +bien de manera menos visible. En todo el mundo, los costes de la escuela +han aumentado con mayor velocidad que las matrículas y más velozmente +por el producto nacional bruto (PNB); en todas partes los gastos en la +escuela se quedan cada vez más cortos frente a las expectativas de +padres, maestros y alumnos. Por doquiera, esta situación desalienta +tanto la motivación como el financiamiento para una planificación en +gran escala del aprendizaje no escolar. Estados Unidos está demostrando +al mundo que ningún país puede ser lo bastante rico como para permitirse +un sistema escolar que satisfaga las demandas que este mismo sistema +crea con sólo existir, porque un sistema escolar que logre su meta +escolariza a padres y alumnos en el valor supremo de un sistema escolar +aún mayor, cuyo coste crece desproporcionadamente conforme se crea una +demanda de grados superiores y éstos se hacen escasos. + +En vez de decir que una escolaridad pareja es impracticable por el +momento, debemos reconocer que, en principio, es económicamente absurda, +y que intentarla es intelectualmente castrante, socialmente polarizante +y destruye la verosimilitud del sistema político que la promueve. + +La ideología de la escolaridad obligatoria no admite límites lógicos. La +Casa Blanca proporcionó hace poco un buen ejemplo. El doctor +Hutschnecker, el ``psiquiatra'' que atendió al señor Nixon antes de que +fuese admitido como candidato, recomendó al presidente que todos los +niños de seis a ocho años fueran examinados profesionalmente para cazar +a aquellos que tuviesen tendencias destructivas, y que se les +proporcionase a éstos tratamiento obligatorio. En caso necesario se +exigiría su reeducación en instituciones especiales. Este memorándum +enviado al presidente por su doctor pasó al Ministerio de Salud, +Educación y Bienestar para que examinaran su valía. En efecto, unos +campos de concentración preventivos para predelincuentes serían un +adelanto lógico respecto del sistema escolar. + +El que todos tengan iguales oportunidades de educarse es una meta +deseable y factible, pero identificar con ello la escolaridad +obligatoria es confundir la salvación con la Iglesia. La escuela ha +llegado a ser la religión del proletariado modernizado, y hace promesas +huecas a los pobres de la era tecnológica. La nación-Estado la ha +adoptado, reclutando a todos los ciudadanos dentro de un currículum +graduado que conduce a diplomas consecutivos no distintos a los rituales +de iniciación y promociones hieráticas de antaño. El Estado moderno se +ha arrogado el deber de hacer cumplir el juicio de sus educadores +mediante vigilantes bien intencionados y cualificaciones exigidas para +conseguir trabajos, de modo muy semejante al que siguieron los reyes +españoles que hicieron cumplir los juicios de sus teólogos mediante los +conquistadores y la Inquisición. + +Hace dos siglos Estados Unidos dio al mundo la pauta en un movimiento +para privar de apoyo oficial al monopolio de una sola Iglesia. Ahora +necesitamos la separación constitucional respecto del monopolio de la +escuela quitando de esa manera el apoyo oficial a un sistema que conjuga +legalmente el prejuicio con la discriminación. El primer artículo de una +Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre apropiada para una sociedad +moderna, humanista, concordaría con la Primera Enmienda de la +Constitución de Estados Unidos: ``El Estado no dictará ley alguna +respecto del establecimiento de la educación''. No habrá ningún ritual +obligatorio para todos. + +Para poner en vigencia esta separación entre Estado y escuela, +necesitamos una ley que prohíba la discriminación en la contratación de +personal, en las votaciones o en la admisión a los centros de enseñanza +fundados en la previa asistencia a algún plan de estudios. Esta garantía +no excluiría pruebas de competencia para una función o cargo, pero +eliminaría la absurda discriminación actual en favor de una persona que +aprende una destreza determinada con el mayor de los gastos del erario +público o ---lo que es igualmente probable--- que ha podido obtener un +diploma que no tiene relación con ninguna habilidad o trabajo útiles. +Una separación constitucional del Estado y la escuela puede llegar a ser +psicológicamente eficaz sólo si protege al ciudadano de la posibilidad +de ser descalificado por cualquier aspecto de su carrera escolar. + +Con la escolaridad no se fomenta ni el deber ni la justicia porque los +educadores insisten en aunar la instrucción y la certificación. El +aprendizaje y la asignación de funciones sociales se funden en la +escolarización. No obstante que aprender significa adquirir una nueva +habilidad o entendimiento, la promoción depende de la opinión que otros +se hayan formado de uno. Aprender es con frecuencia el resultado de una +instrucción, pero ser elegido para una función o categoría en el mercado +del trabajo depende cada vez más del tiempo que se ha asistido a un +centro de instrucción. + +Instrucción es la selección de circunstancias que facilitan el +aprendizaje. Las funciones se asignan fijando un currículum de +condiciones que el candidato debe satisfacer para pasar la valla. La +escuela vincula la instrucción ---pero no el aprendizaje--- con estas +funciones. Esto no es ni razonable ni liberador. No es razonable porque +no liga unas cualidades o competencias sobresalientes con las funciones +por desempeñar, sino con el proceso mediante el cual se supone que +habrán de adquirirse dichas cualidades. No libera ni educa porque la +escuela reserva la instrucción para aquellos cuyos pasos en el +aprendizaje se ajustan a unas medidas aprobadas de control social. + +El currículum se ha empleado siempre para asignar el rango social. En +ocasiones podía ser prenatal: el karma le adjudica a uno a determinada +casta y el linaje a la aristocracia. El currículum podía adoptar la +forma de un ritual de ordenaciones sacras y secuenciales, o bien podía +consistir en una sucesión de hazañas guerreras o cinegéticas, o bien las +promociones ulteriores podían depender de una serie de previos favores +regios. La escolaridad universal tenía por objeto separar la +adjudicación de las funciones de la historia personal de cada uno: se +ideó para dar a todos una oportunidad igual de obtener cualquier cargo. +Aún ahora muchos creen erróneamente que la escuela asegura que la +confianza pública dependa de unos logros sobresalientes en el saber. +Pero en vez de haber igualado las posibilidades, el sistema escolar ha +monopolizado su distribución. + +Para separar la competencia del currículum, debe convertirse en tabú +toda indagación acera del historial de aprendizaje de cada persona, tal +como las indagaciones acerca de su filiación política, su asistencia a +la iglesia, linaje, hábitos sexuales o antecedentes raciales. Deben +dictarse leyes que prohíban la discriminación basada en una previa +escolaridad. Evidentemente, las leyes no pueden impedir el prejuicio +contra el no escolarizado ---ni se pretende con ellas obligar a nadie a +casarse con un autodidacta---, pero pueden desaprobar la discriminación +justificada. + +Otra gran ilusión en la que se apoya el sistema escolar es la creencia +de que la mayor parte del saber es el resultado de la enseñanza. La +enseñanza puede, en verdad, contribuir a ciertos tipos de aprendizaje en +ciertas circunstancias. Pero la mayoría de las personas adquieren la +mayor parte de su conocimiento fuera de la escuela, y cuando este +conocimiento se da en ella, sólo es en la medida en que, en unos cuantos +países ricos, la escuela se ha convertido en el lugar de confinamiento +de las personas durante una parte cada vez mayor de sus vidas. + +Lo principal del aprendizaje sobreviene casualmente, e incluso el +aprendizaje más intelectual no es el resultado de una instrucción +programada. Los niños normales aprenden su lenguaje de manera informal, +aunque con mayor rapidez si sus padres les prestan atención. La mayoría +de las personas que aprenden bien un segundo idioma lo hacen a +consecuencia de circunstancias aleatorias y no de una enseñanza +ordenada. Llegan a vivir con sus abuelos, o viajan o se enamoran de +algún extranjero. La lectura fácil proviene con igual frecuencia de la +escuela o de actividades extracurriculares de este tipo. La mayoría de +quienes leen profusamente y con placer tan sólo creen que aprendieron a +hacerlo en la escuela; cuando se les discute esto, descartan fácilmente +este espejismo. + +Pero el hecho de que aún ahora gran parte del aprendizaje parece suceder +al azar y como subproducto de alguna otra actividad definida como +trabajo u ocio no significa que el aprendizaje planificado no beneficie +la instrucción planificada. Al estudiante poderosamente motivado que se +enfrenta con la tarea de adquirir una habilidad nueva y compleja puede +aprovecharle mucho la disciplina que hoy en día se asocia mentalmente +con el maestro de viejo cuño que antaño enseñaba lectura, hebreo, +catecismo o multiplicación de memoria. La escuela ha hecho que este tipo +de enseñanza rutinaria sea escasa y mal reputada; no obstante hay muchas +destrezas que un estudiante motivado puede dominar en pocos meses si se +le enseña de este modo tradicional. Esto vale tanto para los códigos +como para su desciframiento; tanto para los segundos o terceros idiomas +como para la lectura y la escritura, e igualmente para lenguajes +especiales como el álgebra, la programación de computadoras, el análisis +químico, o para destrezas manuales como la mecanografía, la relojería, +la fontanería, las instalaciones domésticas de electricidad, la +reparación de televisores, o para bailar, conducir vehículos y bucear. + +En algunos casos, ser aceptado en un programa de aprendizaje dirigido a +una determinada habilidad podría presuponer competencia en alguna otra +habilidad, pero ciertamente no se haría depender del proceso mediante el +cual se hubieran adquirido tales habilidades previamente requeridas. La +reparación de televisores presupone saber leer y algo de matemáticas; el +bucear, ser buen nadador, y el conducir, muy poco de ambas cosas. + +El progreso en el aprendizaje es mensurable. Es fácil calcular los +recursos óptimos de tiempo y materiales que un adulto corriente motivado +necesita. El coste de enseñar un segundo idioma europeo occidental hasta +un elevado nivel de fluidez oscila entre 400 y 600 dólares en Estados +Unidos, y para una lengua oriental el tiempo requerido de instrucción +podría duplicarse. Esto sería todavía poquísimo en comparación con el +coste de 12 años de escolaridad en la ciudad de Nueva York (condición +para ingresar en el Departamento de Higiene) ---casi 15 000 dólares---. +Sin duda no sólo el maestro, sino también el impresor y el farmacéutico +protegen sus oficios mediante el espejismo público de que el +adiestramiento para aprenderlos es muy costoso. + +En la actualidad, las escuelas se apropian de antemano de la mayor parte +de los fondos para educación. La instrucción rutinaria, que cuesta menos +que una escolarización comparable, es ahora un privilegio de quienes son +lo bastante ricos como para pasarse por alto las escuelas, y de aquellos +a quienes el ejército o las grandes firmas les proporcionan un +adiestramiento en el trabajo mismo. En un programa de desescolarización +progresiva para Estados Unidos, en un comienzo habría escasez de +recursos para el adiestramiento rutinario. Pero finalmente no habría +impedimento alguno para cualquiera que en cualquier momento de su vida +quisiese elegir una instrucción entre centenares de habilidades +definibles y a cargo del Estado. + +Ahora mismo podrían proporcionarse calificaciones educativas aceptables +en cualquier centro de enseñanza de oficios en cantidades limitadas para +personas de cualquier edad, y no sólo para pobres. Yo concibo dicha +calificación (o crédito) en forma de un pasaporte educativo o de una +``tarjeta de educrédito'' entregada a cada ciudadano al nacer. A fin de +favorecer a los pobres, que probablemente no usarían sus cuotas anuales +a temprana edad, podría estipularse que los usuarios tardíos de tales +``títulos'' acumulados ganasen interés. Dichos créditos permitirían a la +mayoría adquirir las habilidades de mayor demanda, cuando les conviene, +de manera mejor, más rápida, más barata y con menos efectos subsidiarios +desfavorables que en la escuela. + +Se me objetará la falta de profesores, pero esto es plantear mal el +problema, pues, por una parte, la demanda de una habilidad crece sólo al +ponerse en práctica en una comunidad y, por otra, un hombre que ejerza +una habilidad puede también enseñarla. Pero, actualmente, aquellos que +usan una habilidad que está en demanda y que precisan un profesor humano +tienen estímulos negativos para compartir con otros estas habilidades. +Esto lo hacen o maestros que monopolizan las licencias, o sindicatos que +protegen sus intereses gremiales. Unos centros de enseñanza de oficios o +habilidades a los que los clientes juzgaran por sus resultados, y no por +el personal que empleasen o por el proceso que se utilizasen, abrirían +oportunidades insospechables de trabajo, frecuentemente incluso para +aquellos que hoy se consideran inempleables. Verdaderamente no hay +motivo para que tales centros no estuviesen en el lugar mismo de +trabajo; el patrono y su personal proporcionarían tanto la instrucción +como trabajos a quienes eligiesen utilizar sus créditos educativos de +esta manera. + +En 1956 se suscitó la necesidad de enseñar rápidamente español a varios +centenares de maestros, trabajadores sociales y curas de la +arquidiócesis de Nueva York, de modo que pudiesen comunicarse con los +puertorriqueños. Mi amigo Gerry Morris anunció en español por una +radioemisora que necesitaba hispanohablantes nativos que viviesen en +Harlem. Al día siguiente unos 200 adolescentes se alineaban frente a su +oficina; de entre ellos eligió cuatro docenas ---muchos de ellos +desertores escolares---. Los instruyó en el uso del Manual de +Instrucción del Instituto del Servicio Exterior de Estados Unidos, para +español, concebido para el uso de lingüistas con licenciatura, y al cabo +de una semana sus profesores se manejaban solos ---cada uno de ellos a +cargo de cuatro neoyorkinos que querían hablar el idioma---. En el plazo +de seis meses se había cumplido la misión. El cardenal Spellman podía +afirmar que tenía 127 parroquias en cada una de las cuales había por lo +menos tres miembros de su personal que podían conversar en español. +Ningún programa escolar podría haber logrado iguales resultados. + +Los profesores de habilidades escasean por la creencia en el valor de +los títulos. La certificación es una manera de manipular el mercado y es +concebible sólo para una mente escolarizada. La mayoría de los +profesores de artes y oficios son menos diestros, tienen menor inventiva +y son menos comunicativos que los mejores artesanos y maestros. La +mayoría de los profesores de español o de francés de bachillerato no +hablan esos idiomas con la corrección con que lo harían alumnos después +de un semestre de rutinas competentes. Unos experimentos llevados a cabo +por Ángel Quintero en Puerto Rico sugieren que muchos adolescentes, si +se les dan los adecuados incentivos, programas y acceso a las +herramientas, son mejores que la mayoría de los maestros de escuela para +iniciar a los de su edad en la exploración científica de las plantas, +las estrellas y la materia, y en el descubrimiento de cómo y por qué +funciona un motor o un radio. + +Las oportunidades para el aprendizaje de habilidades pueden +multiplicarse enormemente si abrimos el ``mercado''. Esto depende de +reunir al maestro correcto con el alumno correcto cuando éste está +altamente motivado dentro de un programa inteligente, sin la restricción +del currículum. + +La instrucción libre y rutinaria es una blasfemia subversiva para el +educador ortodoxo. Ella desliga la adquisición de destrezas de la +educación ``humana'', que la escuela empaca conjuntamente, y fomenta así +el aprendizaje sin título no menos que la enseñanza sin título para +fines imprevisibles. + +Hay actualmente una propuesta registrada que a primera vista parece +sumamente sensata. La preparó Christopher Jencks, del Center for the +Study of Public Policy, y está patrocinada por la Office of Economic +Opportunity. Propone poner unos ``bonos'' o ``títulos'' educativos o +donaciones, para pagar el coste de los estudios, en manos de padres y +estudiantes para que los gasten en las escuelas que elijan. Tales bonos +individuales podrían ser un importante avance en la dirección correcta. +Necesitamos que se garantice a cada ciudadano el derecho a una parte +igual de los recursos educativos derivados de los impuestos, el derecho +a verificar esa parte, y el derecho a entablar juicio si le es denegada. +Es una forma de garantía contra la tributación regresiva. + +Pero la propuesta de Jencks comienza con la ominosa declaración de que +``los conservadores, los liberales y los radicales se han quejado en una +u otra ocasión de que el sistema educativo estadunidense da a los +educadores profesionales un incentivo demasiado pequeño para que +proporcionen una educación de gran calidad a la mayoría de los niños''. +La propuesta se condena sola al proponer donaciones para pagar unos +estudios que tendrían que gastar en escolarizarse. + +Esto es como dar a un inválido un par de muletas, advirtiéndole que las +use sólo si les amarra los extremos. En su forma actual, la propuesta de +estos bonos educativos hace el juego no sólo a los educadores +profesionales sino también a los racistas, a los promotores de escuelas +religiosas y a otros cuyos intereses son socialmente disociantes. Sobre +todo, los bonos educativos, cuyo uso se restrinja a las escuelas, hace +el juego de quienes quieren continuar viviendo en una sociedad en la que +el progreso social está ligado no al conocimiento comprobado, sino al +historial de aprendizaje mediante el cual presuntamente se adquiere. +Esta discriminación en favor de las escuelas que domina la exposición de +Jencks sobre el refinamiento de la educación podría desacreditar uno de +los principios que más perentoriamente se precisan para la reforma +educativa: el retorno de la iniciativa y la responsabilidad del +aprendizaje al aprendiz o a su tutor más inmediato. + +La desescolarización de la sociedad implica el reconocimiento de la +naturaleza ambivalente del aprendizaje. La insistencia en la sola rutina +podría ser un desastre; igual énfasis debe hacerse en otros tipos de +aprendizaje. Pero si las escuelas son el lugar inapropiado para aprender +una destreza, son lugares aún peores para adquirir una educación. La +escuela realiza mal ambas tareas, en parte porque no distingue entre +ellas. La escuela es ineficiente para instruir en destrezas por ser +curricular. En la mayoría de las escuelas, un programa cuyo objetivo es +mejorar una habilidad está siempre concatenado con otra tarea no +pertinente. La historia está amarrada al derecho de usar el patio de +juegos. + +Las escuelas son todavía menos eficientes en la creación de +circunstancias que alienten el uso irrestricto, exploratorio, de +habilidades adquiridas, para lo cual reservaré el término de ``educación +liberal''. El principal motivo es que la escuela es obligatoria y llega +a convertirse en la escolaridad por la escolaridad: una estadía forzosa +en compañía de profesores, que paga con el dudoso privilegio de +continuar en dicha compañía. Así como la instrucción de destrezas debe +ser liberada de restricciones curriculares, a la educación liberal debe +desligársela de la asistencia obligatoria. Mediante dispositivos +institucionales puede ayudarse tanto al aprendizaje de habilidades como +a la educación encaminada a un comportamiento creativo e inventivo, pero +ambas cosas son de naturaleza diferente y frecuentemente contraria. + +La mayoría de las destrezas pueden adquirirse y perfeccionarse mediante +rutinas; porque la destreza o habilidad implica el dominio de una +conducta definible y predecible. La instrucción de una destreza puede +apoyarse, por consiguiente, en la simulación de las circunstancias en +que se utilizará dicha destreza. En cambio, la educación en el empleo +exploratorio y creativo de destrezas no puede descansar en sistemas +rutinarios. La educación puede ser el resultado de la instrucción, +aunque de una instrucción fundamentalmente opuesta a la rutina. Se apoya +en la relación entre asociaciones que ya poseen algunas de la llaves que +dan acceso a memorias almacenadas en la comunidad y por la comunidad. Se +apoya en la sorpresa de la pregunta inesperada que abre nuevas puertas +al cuestionario y a su asociado. + +El instructor de destrezas utiliza un conjunto de condiciones dadas que +permiten al aprendiz desarrollar ciertas reacciones o respuestas +precisas y definidas. El guía o maestro en educación se ocupa de ayudar +a unos asociados a que se reúnan de modo que se dé el aprendizaje. Reúne +a personas que parten de sus propias y no resueltas interrogantes. A lo +más, ayuda al alumno a formular su perplejidad puesto que sólo un +planteamiento claro le dará el poder de encontrar a su pareja, moverse +como ella, explorar en ese momento la misma cuestión en el mismo +contexto. + +En un comienzo parecería más difícil imaginar unos asociados o +compañeros para fines educativos que hallar instructores de destrezas y +compañeros para un juego. Una de las razones de que esto ocurra es el +profundo temor que la escuela nos ha inculcado, un miedo que nos pone +criticones. El intercambio intitulado de destrezas ---a menudo destrezas +inconvenientes--- es más predecible y por tanto parece menos peligroso +que las oportunidades ilimitadas de reunión para personas que comparten +una cuestión en debate que es, en ese momento, social, intelectual y +emocionalmente importante para ellas. + +El profesor brasileño Paulo Freire sabe esto por experiencia. Descubrió +que cualquier adulto puede comenzar a leer en cosa de 40 horas si las +primeras palabras que descifra están cargadas de significado político. +Freire adiestra a sus maestros para trasladarse a una aldea y descubrir +las palabras que designan asuntos actuales importantes, tales como el +acceso a un pozo, o el interés compuesto de las deudas que han contraído +con el \emph{patrón}. Por la tarde, los aldeanos se reúnen para +conversar sobre esas palabras clave. Comienzan a percatarse de que cada +palabra permanece en el pizarrón incluso después de haberse desvanecido +su sonido. Las letras continúan abriendo, como llaves, la realidad y +haciéndola manejable como problema. Frecuentemente he presenciado cómo +en unos participantes crece la conciencia social y cómo se ven impelidos +a actuar políticamente con la misma velocidad con que aprenden a leer. +Parecen tomar la realidad en sus manos conforme la escriben. + +Recuerdo a un hombre que se quejó del peso de los lápices: eran +difíciles de manipular porque no pesaban como una pala, y recuerdo a +otro que camino al trabajo se detuvo con sus compañeros y escribió con +su azadón en el suelo la palabra de la que venía conversando: +\emph{agua}.\footnote{\emph{Agua} , \emph{tierra} , \emph{casa} son + algunas de las palabras generadoras que Paulo Freire incluye en la + relación educador-educando.} Desde 1962, mi amigo Freire ha pasado de +exilio en exilio, principalmente porque rehúsa llevar a cabo sus +sesiones en torno a palabras que hayan sido preseleccionadas por +educadores aprobados y prefiere utilizar aquellas que los participantes +llevan consigo a las clases. + +La reunión de personas con fines educativos sólo es posible cuando se +han beneficiado de una verdadera escolaridad. Los que no necesitan de +esa ayuda son una minoría, incluso entre aquellos que leen revistas +serias. La mayoría no puede ni debe ser congregada en torno a una +consigna, a una palabra, a una imagen, sino en torno a un problema +elegido y definido por iniciativa de los participantes. El aprendizaje +creativo, exploratorio, requiere sujetos de igual perplejidad ante los +mismos términos o problemas. Las grandes universidades realizan el vano +intento de aparejarlos multiplicando sus cursos y por lo general +fracasan en la medida en que están ligados al currículum, a la +estructura de cursos y a una administración burocrática. En las +escuelas, tal como en las universidades, la mayoría de los recursos se +gasta en comprar el tiempo y la motivación de un número reducido de +personas para encarar problemas predeterminados en un escenario definido +de forma ritual. La alternativa más radical para la escuela sería una +red o servicio que diera a cada hombre la misma oportunidad de compartir +sus intereses actuales con otros motivados por iguales cuestiones. + +Permítaseme dar, como ejemplo de mi planteamiento, una descripción de +cómo podría funcionar esta ``unión'' intelectual en la ciudad de Nueva +York. Cada hombre, en cualquier momento y a un precio mínimo, podría +identificarse ante una computadora con su dirección y su número de +teléfono, indicando libro, artículos, película o grabación acerca de los +cuales busca un compañero con el cual conversar. En un plazo de días +podría recibir por correo la lista de otros que hubieran tomado +recientemente la misma iniciativa. Esta lista le permitiría concertar +por teléfono una reunión con personas que inicialmente se conocerían +exclusivamente por el hecho de haber solicitado un diálogo sobre el +mismo tema. + +Juntar personas de acuerdo con el interés que tengan sobre un título +dado es radicalmente simple. Permite la identificación sobre la base de +un deseo mutuo de conversar sobre una afirmación registrada por un +tercero, y deja al individuo la iniciativa de concertar la reunión. +Normalmente se hacen tres objeciones contra esta pureza esquelética. Las +recojo no sólo para esclarecer la teoría que quiero ilustrar mediante mi +propuesta ---pues destacan la acendrada resistencia a desescolarizar la +educación, a separar el aprendizaje del control social---, sino también +porque pueden ayudar a sugerir unos recursos que no se emplean ahora +para fines de aprendizaje. + +La primera objeción es: ¿por qué no podría la identificación de cada uno +basarse en una idea o en un tema de debate? Ciertamente dichos términos +subjetivos podrían usarse también en un sistema informático. Los +partidos políticos, Iglesias, sindicatos, clubes, centros vecinales y +sociedades profesionales organizan ya sus actividades educativas de este +modo y, en efecto, actúan como escuelas. Todos ellos reúnen personas con +el fin de explorar ciertos ``temas'', que se abordan en cursos, +seminarios y planes de estudio en los que unos presuntos ``intereses +comunes'' están preen-vasados. Dicha ``reunión por tema'' está, por +definición, centrado en el profesor: precisa una presencia autoritaria +para definir ante los participantes el punto de partida de su debate. + +Por el contrario, reunirse para hablar de un libro, de una película, +etc., sin otra explicación que un título o una referencia, deja al autor +definir el lenguaje especial, los términos y el marco de referencia +dentro del cual se plantea un determinado problema o hecho, y permite a +quienes acepten este punto de partida identificarse uno con otro. Por +ejemplo, reunir gente en torno a la idea de ``revolución cultural'' +conduce generalmente o a la confusión o a la demagogia. Por otra parte, +reunir a quienes se interesen en ayudarse mutuamente a entender un +determinado artículo de Mao, Marcuse, Freud o Goodman se inscribe en la +gran tradición del aprendizaje liberal, desde los \emph{Diálogos} de +Platón, que están construidos en torno a presuntas declaraciones de +Sócrates, hasta los comentarios de Tomás de Aquino sobre Pedro Lombardo. +La idea de reunir a las personas alrededor de un título es pues +radicalmente diferente de la teoría sobre la que se fundaban, por +ejemplo, los clubes de los ``Grandes Libros'': en vez de apoyarse en la +selección realizada por algunos catedráticos de Chicago, cualquier par +de personas puede, como compañero de juego, elegir cualquier libro para +analizarlo. + +La segunda objeción pregunta: ¿por qué la identificación de quienes +buscan compañero no podría incluir información sobre edad, antecedentes, +visión del mundo, competencia, experiencia y otras características +definitorias? No hay en este caso razón alguna para que tales +restricciones discriminatorias no pudiesen (y no debiesen) incorporarse +en algunas de las numerosas universidades ---con o sin muros--- que +podrían usar la reunión alrededor de títulos como el dispositivo básico +para organizarse. Puedo imaginar un sistema ideal para fomentar las +reuniones de personas interesadas en las que el autor del libro elegido +podría estar presente o representado, o un sistema que garantice la +presencia de un asesor competente, o uno al que tuviesen acceso sólo +estudiantes matriculados en una facultad o escuela, o personas capaces +de presentar una investigación específica sobre la obra que se discute. +Cada una de estas restricciones, se me dirá, serviría a metas +específicas de aprendizaje. Pero me temo que, en la mayoría de los +casos, el motivo real para proponer tales restricciones es el desdén que +proviene de presuponer que la gente es ignorante: los educadores quieren +evitar que el ignorante se junte con el ignorante en torno a un texto +que podrían no entender y que leen \emph{sólo} porque están interesados +en él. + +La tercera objeción: ¿por qué no proporcionar a quienes buscan compañero +una ayuda incidental que facilite sus reuniones ---espacio, horarios, +selección de participantes, protección---? Esto lo hacen actualmente las +escuelas con toda la ineficiencia que caracteriza a las grandes +burocracias. Si dejáramos la iniciativa de las reuniones a los +interesados en reunirse, unas organizaciones que nadie clasifica hoy +como educativas harían mucho mejor este trabajo. Pienso en dueños de +restaurantes, editores, servicios de recados telefónicos, directivos de +trenes suburbanos que podrían promover sus servicios al hacerlos +atractivos para reuniones educativas. + +En una primera reunión en, digamos, un café, los interesados podrían +establecer sus identidades colocando el libro en debate junto a sus +tazas. Las personas que tomaran la iniciativa de concertar tales +reuniones aprenderían pronto qué elementos citar para encontrarse con la +gente que buscan. El riesgo de que una conversación que uno mismo ha +elegido le lleve a una pérdida de tiempo, a una decepción, e incluso a +un desagrado es ciertamente menor que el riesgo que corre quien solicita +ingresar en una universidad. Una reunión concertada por computadora para +debatir un artículo de una revista de circulación nacional, celebrada en +un café de la Cuarta Avenida, no obligaría a ninguno de los +participantes a permanecer en compañía de sus nuevos conocidos por más +tiempo del necesario para beber una taza de café, ni tendría que +encontrarse con ellos de nuevo. La probabilidad de que ello le ayudara a +disipar la opacidad de la vida en una ciudad moderna, a fomentar nuevas +amistades, a abrir nuevos horizontes y profundizar en un trabajo +elegido, es elevada. (El hecho de que de este modo el FBI podría +conseguir un registro de las reuniones y lecturas que se hacen es +innegable; el que esto pueda aún preocupar a alguien en 1970 es sólo +divertido para un hombre libre, quien, quiéralo o no, aporta su cuota +para ahogar a los espías en las nimiedades que recolectan.) + +Tanto el intercambio de destrezas como el encuentro con copartícipes se +fundan en el supuesto de que educación \emph{para todos} significa +educación \emph{por parte de todos}. No es el reclutamiento en una +institución especializada, sino sólo la movilización de toda la +población lo que puede conducir a una cultura popular. Los maestros +titulados se han apropiado del derecho que todo hombre tiene de ejercer +su competencia para aprender e instruir igualmente. La competencia del +maestro está a su vez restringida a lo que pueda hacerse en la escuela. +Además, el trabajo y el tiempo libre están, a consecuencia de ello, +alienados el uno del otro: tanto del trabajador como del espectador se +espera que lleguen al lugar de trabajo prestos a encajar en una rutina +preparada para ellos. La adaptación en forma de diseño, instrucción y +publicidad de un producto los moldea para desempeñar su papel de modo +muy semejante a como lo hace la educación mediante la escolaridad. Una +alternativa radical para una sociedad escolarizada exige no sólo +mecanismos para la adquisición formal de destrezas y el uso educativo de +éstas, implica un nuevo modo de encarar la educación informal o +incidental. + +La educación incidental ya no puede regresar a las formas que el +aprendizaje adoptó en la aldea o en la ciudad medieval. Mientras la +sociedad tradicional se asemejaba más a un grupo de círculos +concéntricos de estructuras significativas, el hombre moderno debe +aprender cómo hallar significación en muchas estructuras con las que +está relacionado de manera sólo marginal. En la aldea, el lenguaje, la +arquitectura, el trabajo, la religión y las costumbres familiares eran +compatibles entre sí, se explicaban y reforzaban mutuamente. +Desarrollarse en una implicaba un desarrollo en las otras. Incluso el +aprendizaje especializado era el subproducto de actividades +especializadas, tales como la fabricación de zapatos o el canto de los +salmos. Si un aprendiz no llegaba jamás a ser maestro o erudito, +contribuía sin embargo a la fabricación de zapatos o a hacer solemnes +los servicios litúrgicos. La educación no competía en tiempo ni con el +trabajo ni con el ocio. Casi toda la educación era compleja, vitalicia y +no planificada. + +La sociedad contemporánea es el resultado de diseños e intenciones +conscientes, y las oportunidades educativas han de ser incorporadas a +esos diseños. Ahora disminuirá la confianza que depositamos en la +instrucción especializada y de tiempo completo a través de la escuela, y +hemos de hallar nuevas maneras de aprender y enseñar: la calidad +educativa de todas las instituciones debe aumentar una vez más. Pero +ésta es una previsión muy ambigua. Podría significar que los hombres de +la ciudad moderna serán cada día más las víctimas de un proceso eficaz +de instrucción total y manipulación una vez que estén privados incluso +del tenue asomo de independencia crítica que proporcionan hoy en día las +escuelas liberales, cuando menos a algunos de sus alumnos. + +Podría significar también que los hombres se escudarán menos tras +certificados adquiridos en la escuela y adquirirán así valor para ser +``respondones'' y controlar e instruir de ese modo a las instituciones +en que participen. Para lograr esto último debemos darnos cuenta del +valor social del trabajo y del ocio por el intercambio educativo que +permiten. La participación efectiva en la política de una calle, de un +puesto de trabajo o de un hospital es por lo tanto el mejor patrón para +evaluar el valor de las diferentes instituciones en el plan de la +educación. + +Hace poco dirigí la palabra a un grupo de estudiantes de los primeros +años de bachillerato, empeñados en organizar un movimiento de +resistencia a su enrolamiento obligatorio en la clase siguiente. Tenían +por consigna ``participación-no simulación''. Les decepcionaba que esto +se entendiera como una petición de menos educación en vez de lo +contrario, y me hicieron recordar la resistencia que opuso Karl Marx a +un párrafo en el programa de Gotha que ---hace 100 años--- quería hacer +ilegal el trabajo infantil. Se opuso a la proposición diciendo que la +ecuación de los jóvenes solo podía producirse en el trabajo. Si el mayor +fruto del trabajo del hombre debiera ser la educación que se deriva de +éste y la oportunidad que el trabajo le da para iniciar la educación de +otros, entonces la alimentación de la sociedad moderna en un sentido +pedagógico es aún peor que su alienación económica. + +El mayor obstáculo en el camino de una sociedad que educa verdaderamente +lo definió muy bien un amigo mío, negro de Chicago, quien me dijo que +nuestra imaginación estaba ``totalmente escuelada''. Permitimos al +Estado verificar las deficiencias educativas universales de sus +ciudadanos y establecer un organismo especializado para tratarlos. +Compartimos así la ilusión de que podemos distinguir entre qué es +educación necesaria para otros y qué no lo es, tal como generaciones +anteriores establecieron leyes que definían qué era sagrado y qué +profano. + +Durkheim reconoció que esta capacidad para dividir la realidad social en +dos ámbitos era la esencia misma de la religión formal. Existen +---razonó--- religiones sin lo sobrenatural y religiones sin Dios, pero +no hay ninguna que no subdivida el mundo en cosas, tiempo y personas que +son sagradas y en otras que por consecuencia son profanas. Este +penetrante alcance de Durkheim puede aplicarse a la sociología de la +educación, pues la escuela es radicalmente divisoria de manera parecida. + +La existencia misma de las escuelas obligatorias divide cualquier +sociedad en dos ámbitos: ciertos lapsos, procesos, tratamientos y +profesiones son ``académicos'' y ``pedagógicos'', y otros no lo son. +Así, el poder de la escuela para dividir la realidad social no conoce +límites: la educación se hace no terrenal, en tanto que el mundo se hace +no educacional. + +A partir de Bonhoeffer, los teólogos contemporáneos han señalado la +confusión que reina hoy en día entre el mensaje bíblico y la religión +institucionalizada. Señalan la experiencia que la libertad y la fe +cristianas suelen ganar con la secularización. Sus afirmaciones suenan +inevitablemente blasfemas para muchos clérigos. En incuestionable que el +proceso educativo ganará con la desescolarización de la sociedad aun +cuando esta exigencia les suene a muchos escolares como una traición a +la cultura. Pero es la cultura misma la que está siendo apagada hoy en +las escuelas. + +La secularización de la fe cristiana depende de la dedicación que pongan +en ello los cristianos arraigados en la Iglesia. De manera muy parecida, +la desescolarización de la educación depende del liderazgo de quienes se +criaron en las escuelas. El currículum que cumplieron no puede servirles +como excusa para la tarea: cada uno de nosotros sigue siendo responsable +de lo que se ha hecho por él, aun cuando puede que no sea capaz sino de +aceptar esta responsabilidad y servir de advertencia para otros. + +\hypertarget{fenomenologuxeda-de-la-escuela}{% +\section{Fenomenología de la +escuela}\label{fenomenologuxeda-de-la-escuela}} + +Algunas palabras llegan a ser tan flexibles que pierden cualquier +significación precisa y se usan para cualquier cosa entre éstas se +cuentan ``escuela'' y ``enseñanza''. Se filtran, como una amiba, por +cualquier intersticio del lenguaje. Así, decimos que el ABM\footnote{\emph{Atomic + Ballistic Missile}. (T.)} enseñará a los rusos, la IBM enseñará a los +niños negros, y el ejército puede llegar a ser la escuela de la nación. + +Por consiguiente, la búsqueda de alternativas en educación debe comenzar +por un acuerdo acerca de lo que entendemos por ``escuela''. Esto puede +hacerse de varias maneras. Podemos comenzar por anotar las funciones +latentes desempeñadas por los sistemas escolares modernos, tales como +los de custodia, selección, adoctrinamiento y aprendizaje. Podríamos +hacer un análisis de clientela y verificar cuál de estas funciones +latentes favorece o desfavorece a maestros, patronos, niños, padres o a +las profesiones. Podríamos repasar la historia de la cultura occidental +y la información reunida por la antropología a fin de encontrar +instituciones que desempeñaron un papel semejante al que hoy cumple la +escolarización. Podríamos finalmente recordar los numerosos dictámenes +normativos que se han hecho desde el tiempo de Comenius, o incluso desde +Quintiliano, y descubrir a cuál de éstos se aproxima más el moderno +sistema escolar. Pero cualquiera de estos enfoques nos obligaría a +comenzar con ciertos supuestos acerca de una relación entre escuela y +educación. + +Para crear un lenguaje en el que podamos hablar sobre la escuela sin ese +incesante recurrir a la educación, he querido comenzar por algo que +podría llamarse fenomenología de la escuela pública. Con este objeto +definiré ``escuela'' como el proceso que especifica edad, se relaciona +con maestros y exige asistencia de tiempo completo y un currículum +obligatorio. + +1. \emph{Edad}. La escuela agrupa a las personas según sus edades. Este +agrupamiento se funda en tres premisas indiscutidas. A los niños les +corresponde estar en la escuela. Los niños aprenden en la escuela. A los +niños puede enseñárseles solamente en la escuela. Creo que estas tres +premisas no sometidas a examen merecen ser seriamente puestas en duda. + +Nos hemos ido acostumbrando a los niños. Hemos decidido que deberían ir +a la escuela, hacer lo que se les dice y no tener ingresos propios. +Esperamos que sepan el lugar que ocupan y se comporten como niños. +Recordamos, ya sea con nostalgia o con amargura, el tiempo en que +también fuimos niños. Se espera de nosotros que toleremos la conducta +infantil de los niños. La humanidad es, para nosotros, una especie +simultáneamente atribulada y bendecida con la tarea de cuidar niños. No +obstante, olvidamos que nuestro actual concepto de ``niñez'' sólo se +desarrolló recientemente en Europa occidental, y hace aún menos en +América.\footnote{Respecto a las historias paralelas del capitalismo + moderno y la niñez moderna véase Philippe Ariès, \emph{L'Enfant et la + vie familiale sous l'Ancien Régime,} Seuil, 1973.} + +La niñez como algo diferente de la infancia, la adolescencia o la +juventud fue algo desconocido para la mayoría de los periodos +históricos. Algunos siglos del cristianismo no tuvieron ni siquiera una +idea de sus proporciones corporales. Los artistas pintaban al niño como +un adulto en miniatura sentado en el brazo de su madre. Los niños +aparecieron en Europa junto con el reloj de bolsillo y los prestamistas +cristianos del Renacimiento. Antes de nuestro siglo ni los ricos ni los +pobres supieron nada acerca de vestidos para niños, juegos para niños o +de la inmunidad del niño ante la ley. Esas ideas comenzaron a +desarrollarse en la burguesía. El hijo del obrero, el del campesino y el +del noble vestían todos como lo hacían sus padres, jugaban como éstos y +eran ahorcados igual que ellos. Después de que la burguesía descubriera +la ``niñez'', todo esto cambió. Sólo algunas Iglesias continuaron +respetando por algún tiempo la dignidad y la madurez de los menores. +Hasta el Concilio Vaticano II, se le decía a cada niño que un cristiano +llega a tener discernimiento moral y libertad a la edad de siete años y +a partir de entonces es capaz de caer en pecados por los cuales podrá +ser castigado por toda una eternidad en el infierno. A mediados de este +siglo, los padres de clase media comenzaron a tratar de evitar a sus +niños el impacto de esta doctrina, y su modo de pensar sobre los niños +es el que hoy prevalece en la Iglesia. + +Hasta el siglo pasado, los ``niños'' de padres de clase media se +fabricaban en casa con la ayuda de preceptores y escuelas privadas. Sólo +con el advenimiento de la sociedad industrial la producción en masa de +la ``niñez'' comenzó a ser factible y a ponerse al alcance de la +multitud. El sistema escolar es un fenómeno moderno, como lo es la niñez +que lo produce. + +Puesto que hoy en día la mayoría de las personas viven fuera de las +ciudades industriales, la mayoría de la gente no experimenta la niñez. +En los Andes, uno labra la tierra cuando ha llegado a ser ``útil''. +Antes de esa edad, uno cuida las ovejas. Si se está bien nutrido, debe +llegar a ser útil hacia los 11 años de edad, y de otro modo a los 12. +Estaba yo conversando hace poco con Marcos, mi celador nocturno, sobre +su hijo de 11 años que trabaja en una barbería. Hice en español la +observación de que su hijo era todavía un \emph{niño}. Marcos, +sorprendido, contestó con inocente sonrisa: ``Don Iván, creo que usted +tiene razón''. Percatándome de que hasta el momento de mi observación +Marcos había pensado en el muchacho en primer lugar como su ``hijo'', me +sentí culpable de haber hecho surgir el fantasma de la niñez entre dos +personas sensatas. Naturalmente que si yo fuese a decir a un habitante +de los barrios bajos de Nueva York que su hijo que trabaja es todavía un +``niño'', no mostraría ninguna sorpresa. Sabe muy bien que a su hijo de +11 años debería permitírsele su niñez, y se resiente de que no sea así. +El hijo de Marcos no ha sido afectado aún por el anhelo de tener niñez, +el hijo del neoyorkino se siente desposeído. + +Así pues, la mayoría de la gente en el mundo o no quiere o no puede +conceder una niñez moderna a sus críos. Pero también parece que la niñez +es una carga para esos pocos a quienes se les concede. A muchos +simplemente se les obliga a pasar por ella y no están en absoluto +felices de desempeñar el papel de niños. Crecer pasando por la niñez +significa estar condenado a un proceso de conflicto inhumano entre la +conciencia de sí y el papel que impone una sociedad que está pasando por +su propia edad escolar. Ni Stephen Dédalus ni Alexander Portnoy gozaron +de la niñez y, según sospecho, tampoco nos gustó a muchos de nosotros +ser tratados como niños. + +Si no existiese una institución de aprendizaje obligatorio y para una +edad determinada, la ``niñez'' dejaría de fabricarse. Los menores de los +países ricos se librarían de su destructividad, y los países pobres +dejarían de rivalizar con la niñería de los ricos. Para que la sociedad +pudiese sobreponerse a su edad de la niñez, tendría que hacerse vivible +para los menores. La disyunción actual entre una sociedad adulta que +pretende ser humanitaria y un ambiente escolar que remeda la realidad no +puede seguir manteniéndose. + +El hecho de privar de apoyo oficial a las escuelas podría terminar +también con la discriminación contra los nenes, los adultos y los +ancianos en favor de los niños durante su adolescencia y juventud. Es +probable que la decisión social de asignar recursos educativos +preferentemente a aquellos ciudadanos que han dejado atrás la +extraordinaria capacidad de aprendizaje de sus primeros años y no han +llegado a la cúspide de su aprendizaje automotivado parezca grotesca +cuando se vea retrospectivamente. + +La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños necesitan la escuela. +La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños aprenden en la +escuela. Pero esta sabiduría institucional es en sí el producto de +escuelas, porque el sólido sentido común nos dice que sólo a niños se +les puede enseñar en la escuela. Sólo segregando a los seres humanos en +la categoría de la niñez podremos someterlos alguna vez a la autoridad +de un maestro de escuela. + +2. \emph{Profesores y alumnos}. Por definición, los niños son alumnos. +La demanda por el medio ambiente escolar crea un mercado ilimitado para +los profesores titulados. La escuela es una institución construida sobre +el axioma de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza. Y la +sabiduría institucional continúa aceptando este axioma, pese a las +pruebas abrumadoras en sentido contrario. + +Todos hemos aprendido la mayor parte de lo que sabemos fuera de la +escuela. Los alumnos hacen la mayor parte de su aprendizaje sin sus +maestros y, a menudo, a pesar de éstos. Lo que es más trágico es que a +la mayoría de los hombres las escuelas les enseñan su lección, aun +cuando nunca vayan \emph{a} la escuela. + +Toda persona aprende a vivir fuera de la escuela. Aprendemos a hablar, a +pensar, a amar, a sentir, a jugar, a blasfemar, a politiquear y a +trabajar sin la interferencia de un profesor. Ni siquiera los niños que +están día y noche bajo la tutela de un maestro constituyen excepciones a +la regla. Los huérfanos, los cretinos y los hijos de maestros de escuela +aprenden la mayor parte de lo que aprenden fuera del proceso +``educativo'' programado para ellos. Los profesores han quedado mal +parados en sus intentos de aumentar el aprendizaje entre los pobres. A +los padres pobres que quieren que sus hijos vayan a la escuela no les +preocupa tanto lo que aprendan como el certificado y el dinero que +obtendrán. Y los padres de clase media confían sus hijos a un profesor +para evitar que aprendan aquello que los pobres aprenden en la calle. +Las investigaciones sobre educación están demostrando cada día más que +los niños aprenden aquello que sus maestros pretenden enseñarles, no de +éstos, sino de sus iguales, de las tiras cómicas, de la simple +observación al pasar y, sobre todo, del solo hecho de participar en el +ritual de la escuela. Las más de las veces los maestros obstruyen el +aprendizaje de materias de estudio conforme se dan en la escuela. + +La mitad de la gente en nuestro mundo jamás ha estado en una escuela. No +se han topado con profesores y están privados del privilegio de llegar a +ser desertores escolares. No obstante, aprenden eficazmente el mensaje +que la escuela enseña: que deben tener escuela y más y más escuela. La +escuela les instruye acerca de su propia inferioridad mediante el +cobrador de impuestos que les hace pagar por ella, mediante el demagogo +que les suscita las esperanzas de tenerla, o bien mediante sus niños +cuando éstos se ven enviciados por ella. De modo que a los pobres se les +quita su respeto por sí mismos al suscribirse a un credo que concede la +salvación sólo a través de la escuela. La Iglesia les da al menos la +posibilidad de arrepentirse en la hora de su muerte. La escuela les deja +con la esperanza (una esperanza falsificada) de que sus nietos la +conseguirán. Esa esperanza es, por cierto, otro aprendizaje más que +proviene de la escuela, pero no de los profesores. + +Los alumnos jamás han atribuido a sus maestros lo que han aprendido. +Tanto los brillantes como los lerdos han confiado siempre en la +memorización, la lectura y el ingenio para pasar sus exámenes, movidos +por el garrote o por la obtención de una carrera ambicionada. + +Los adultos tienden a crear fantasías románticas sobre su periodo de +escuela. Atribuyen retrospectivamente su aprendizaje al maestro cuya +paciencia aprendieron a admirar. Pero esos mismos adultos se preocuparán +por la salud mental de un niño que corriera a casa a contarles qué ha +aprendido de cada uno de sus profesores. Las escuelas crean trabajos +para maestros de escuela, independientemente de lo que aprendan de ellos +sus alumnos. + +3. \emph{Asistencia a jornada completa}. Cada mes veo una nueva lista de +propuestas que hace al AID\footnote{Agency for International + Development: organismo del Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos. + (T.)} alguna industria estadunidense, sugiriéndole reemplazar a los +``practicantes del aula'' latinoamericanos por unos disciplinados +administradores de sistemas o simplemente por la televisión. Pero, +aunque el profesor sea una maestra de primaria o un equipo de tipos con +delantales blancos, y que logren enseñar la materia indicada en el +catálogo o fracasen en el intento, el maestro profesional crea un +entorno sagrado. + +La incertidumbre acerca del futuro de la enseñanza profesional pone al +aula en peligro. Si los educadores profesionales se especializan en +fomentar el aprendizaje tendrían que abandonar un sistema que exige +entre 750 y 1 500 reuniones por año. Pero naturalmente los profesores +hacen mucho más que eso. La sabiduría institucional de la escuela dice a +los padres, a los alumnos y a los educadores que el profesor, para que +pueda enseñar, debe ejercer su autoridad en un recinto sagrado. Esto es +válido incluso para profesores cuyos alumnos pasan la mayor parte de su +tiempo escolar en un aula sin muros. + +La escuela, por su naturaleza misma, tiende a reclamar la totalidad del +tiempo y las energías de sus participantes. Esto a su vez hace del +profesor un custodio, un predicador y un terapeuta. + +El maestro funda su autoridad sobre una pretensión diferente en cada uno +de estos tres papeles. \emph{El profesor-como-custodio} actúa como +maestro de ceremonias que guía a sus alumnos a lo largo de un ritual +dilatado y laberíntico. Es árbitro del cumplimiento de las normas y +administra las intrincadas rúbricas de iniciación a la vida. En el mejor +de los casos, monta la escena para la adquisición de una habilidad como +siempre han hecho los maestros de escuela. Sin hacerse ilusiones acerca +de producir ningún saber profundo, somete a sus alumnos a ciertas +rutinas básicas. + +El \emph{profesor-como-moralista} reemplaza a los padres, a Dios, al +Estado. Adoctrina al alumno acerca de lo bueno y lo malo, no sólo en la +escuela, sino en la sociedad en general. Se presenta \emph{in loco +parentis} para cada cual y asegura así que todos se sientan hijos del +mismo Estado. + +El \emph{profesor-como-terapeuta} se siente autorizado a inmiscuirse en +la vida privada de su alumno a fin de ayudarle a desarrollarse como +persona. Cuando esta función la desempeña un custodio y predicador, +significa por lo común que persuade al alumno a someterse a una +domesticación de su visión de la verdad y de su sentido de lo justo. + +La afirmación de que una sociedad liberal puede basarse en la escuela +moderna, es paradójica. Todas las defensas de la libertad individual +quedan anuladas en los tratos de un maestro de escuela con su alumno. +Cuando el maestro funde en su persona las funciones de juez, ideólogo y +médico, el estilo fundamental de la sociedad es pervertido por el +proceso mismo que debiera preparar para la vida. Un maestro que combine +estos tres poderes contribuye mucho más a la deformación del niño que +las leyes que dictan su menor edad legal o económica, o que restringen +su libertad de reunión o de vivienda. + +Los maestros no son en absoluto los únicos en ofrecer servicios +terapéuticos. Los psiquiatras, los consejeros vocacionales y laborales, +y hasta los abogados ayudan a sus clientes a decidir, a desarrollar sus +personalidades y a aprender. Pero el sentido común le dice al cliente +que dichos profesionales deben abstenerse de imponer sus opiniones sobre +lo bueno y lo malo, o de obligar a nadie a seguir su consejo. Los +maestros de escuelas y los curas son los únicos profesionales que se +sienten con derecho para inmiscuirse en los asuntos privados de sus +clientes al mismo tiempo que predican a un público obligado. + +Los niños no están protegidos ni por la Primera ni por la Quinta +Enmienda\footnote{El autor se refiere a las Enmiendas a la Constitución + de Estados Unidos (1971), que establecen, respectivamente: \emph{a)} + las libertades de religión, expresión, reunión y de ser oídos para + pedir justicia, y \emph{b)} de no ser llamado a responder por delitos + graves sin ser declarado reo, de no ser condenado dos veces a muerte + por una misma causa, ni a testimoniar contra sí mismo, de no ser + privado de la libertad o de las propiedades sin un debido proceso + legal, ni a ser expropiado sin justa compensación. (T.)} cuando están +frente a ese sacerdote secular, el profesor. El niño tiene que +enfrentarse con un hombre que usa una triple corona invisible y que, +como la tiara papal, es el símbolo de la triple autoridad conjugada en +una persona. Para el niño, el maestro pontifica como pastor, profeta y +sacerdote ---es a un mismo tiempo guía, maestro y administrador de un +ritual sagrado---. Conjuga las pretensiones de los papas medievales en +una sociedad constituida bajo la garantía de que tales pretensiones no +serán jamás ejercidas conjuntamente por una institución establecida y +obligatoria ---la Iglesia o el Estado---. + +Definir a los niños como alumnos a jornada completa permite al profesor +ejercer sobre sus personas una especie de poder que está mucho menos +limitado por restricciones constitucionales o consuetudinarias que el +poder detentado por el guardián de otros enclaves sociales. La edad +cronológica de los niños los descalifica respecto de las salvaguardas +que son de rutina para adultos situados en un asilo moderno ---un +manicomio, un monasterio o una cárcel---. + +Bajo la mirada autoritaria del maestro, los valores se confunden y las +diferencias se borran. Las distinciones entre moralidad, legalidad y +valor personal se difuminan y eventualmente se eliminan. Se hace sentir +cada transgresión como un delito múltiple. Se cuenta con que el +delincuente sienta que ha quebrantado una norma, que se ha comportado de +modo inmoral y se ha abandonado. A un alumno que ha conseguido +hábilmente ayuda en un examen se le dice que es un delincuente, un +corrompido y un mequetrefe. + +La asistencia a clases saca a los niños del mundo cotidiano de la +cultura occidental y los sumerge en un ambiente mucho más primitivo, +mágico y mortalmente serio. La escuela no podría crear un enclave como +éste, dentro del cual se suspende físicamente a los menores durante +muchos años sucesivos de las normas de la realidad ordinaria, si no +tuviera el poder de encarcelar físicamente a los menores durante esos +años en su territorio sagrado. La norma de asistencia posibilita que el +aula sirva de útero mágico, del cual el niño es dado periódicamente a +luz al terminar el día escolar y el año escolar, hasta que es finalmente +lanzado a la vida adulta. Ni la niñez universalmente prolongada ni la +atmósfera sofocante del aula podrían existir sin las escuelas. Sin +embargo, las escuelas, como canales obligatorios de aprendizaje, podrían +existir sin ninguna de ambas y ser más represivas y destructivas que +todo lo que hayamos podido conocer hasta la fecha. Para entender lo que +significa desescolarizar la sociedad y no tan sólo reformar el sistema +educativo establecido, debemos concentrarnos ahora en el currículum +oculto de la escolarización. No nos ocupamos en este caso, y +directamente, del currículum oculto de las calles del gueto, que deja +marcado al pobre, o del currículum camuflado de salón, que beneficia al +rico. Nos interesa más bien llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que el +ceremonial o ritual de la escolarización misma constituye un currículum +escondido de este tipo. Incluso el mejor de los maestros no puede +proteger del todo a sus alumnos contra él. Este currículum oculto de la +escolarización añade inevitablemente prejuicio y culpa a la +discriminación que una sociedad practica contra algunos de sus miembros +y realza el privilegio de otros con un nuevo título con el cual tener en +menos a la mayoría. De modo igualmente inevitable, este currículum +oculto sirve como ritual de iniciación a una sociedad de consumo +orientada hacia el crecimiento, tanto para ricos como para pobres. + +\hypertarget{ritualizaciuxf3n-del-progreso}{% +\section{Ritualización del +progreso}\label{ritualizaciuxf3n-del-progreso}} + +El graduado en una universidad ha sido escolarizado para cumplir un +servicio selectivo entre los ricos del mundo sean cuales fueren sus +afirmaciones de solidaridad con el Tercer Mundo, cada estadunidense que +ha conseguido su título universitario ha tenido una educación que cuesta +una cantidad cinco veces mayor que los ingresos medios de toda una vida +en el seno de la mitad desheredada de la humanidad. A un estudiante +latinoamericano se le introduce en esta exclusiva fraternidad +acordándole para su educación un gasto por lo menos 350 veces mayor que +el de sus conciudadanos de clase media. Salvo muy raras excepciones, el +graduado universitario de un país pobre se siente más a gusto con sus +colegas norteamericanos o europeos que con sus compatriotas no +escolarizados, y a todos los estudiantes se les somete a un proceso +académico que les hace sentirse felices sólo en compañía de otros +consumidores de los productos de la máquina educativa. + +La universidad moderna sólo confiere el privilegio de disentir a +aquellos que han sido comprobados y clasificados como fabricantes de +dinero o detentadores de poder en potencia. A nadie se le conceden +fondos provenientes de impuestos para que tengan así tiempo libre para +autoeducarse o el derecho de educar a otros, a menos que al mismo tiempo +puedan certificarse sus logros. Las escuelas eligen para cada nivel +superior sucesivo a aquellos que en las primeras etapas del juego hayan +demostrado ser buenos riesgos\footnote{Buen riesgo: en el lenguaje de + los aseguradores, el que tiene muy pocas oportunidades de concretarse + en una pérdida. (T.)} para el orden establecido. Al tener un monopolio +sobre los recursos para el aprendizaje y sobre la investidura de los +papeles por desempeñar en la sociedad, la universidad invita a sus filas +al descubridor y al disidente en potencia. Un grado siempre deja su +tinta indeleble con el precio en el currículum de su consumidor. Los +graduados universitarios diplomados encajan sólo en un mundo que pone un +marbete con el precio en sus cuellos dándoles así el poder de pertenecer +a un mundo donde todo recibe un valor mercantil. En cada país, el monto +que consume el graduado universitario fija la pauta para todos los +demás; si fueran gente civilizada con trabajo o cesantes habrán de +aspirar al estilo de vida de los graduados universitarios. + +De este modo, la universidad tiene por efecto imponer normas de consumo +en el trabajo o en el hogar, y lo hace en todo el mundo y bajo todos los +sistemas políticos. Cuanto menos graduados universitarios hay en un +país, tanto más sirven de modelo para el resto de la población sus +ilustradas exigencias. La brecha entre el consumo de un graduado +universitario y el de un ciudadano corriente es incluso más ancha en +Rusia, China y Argelia que en Estados Unidos. Los coches, los viajes en +avión y los magnetófonos confieren una distinción más notoria en un país +socialista en donde únicamente un título, y no tan sólo el dinero, puede +procurarlos. + +La capacidad de la universidad para fijar metas de consumo es algo +nuevo. En muchos países la universidad adquirió este poder sólo en la +década de los años sesenta, conforme la ilusión de acceso parejo a la +educación pública comenzó a difundirse. Antes de entonces la universidad +protegía la libertad de expresión de un individuo, pero no convertía +automáticamente su conocimiento en riqueza. Durante la Edad Media, ser +un estudioso significaba ser pobre y hasta mendicante. En virtud de su +vocación, el estudioso medieval aprendía latín, se convertía en un +\emph{outsider} digno tanto de la mofa como de la estimación del +campesino y del príncipe, del burgués y del clérigo. + +Para triunfar en el mundo, el escolástico tenía que ingresar primero en +él, entrando en la carrera funcionaria, preferiblemente la eclesiástica. +La universidad antigua era una zona liberada para el descubrimiento y el +debate de ideas nuevas y viejas. Los maestros y los estudiantes se +reunían para leer los textos de otros maestros, muertos mucho antes, y +las palabras vivas de los maestros difuntos daban nuevas perspectivas a +las falacias del mundo presente. La universidad era entonces una +comunidad de búsqueda académica y de inquietud endémica. + +En la universidad multidisciplinaria moderna esta comunidad ha huido +hacia las márgenes, en donde se junta en un apartamento, en la oficina +de un profesor o en los aposentos del capellán. El propósito estructural +de la universidad moderna guarda poca relación con la búsqueda +tradicional. Desde los días de Gutenberg, el intercambio de la +indagación disciplinada y crítica se ha trasladado en su mayor parte de +la ``cátedra'' a la imprenta. La universidad moderna ha perdido por +incumplimiento su posibilidad de ofrecer un escenario simple para +encuentros que sean autónomos y anárquicos, enfocados hacia un interés y +sin embargo espontáneos y vivaces, y ha elegido en cambio administrar el +proceso mediante el cual se produce lo que ha dado en llamarse +investigación y enseñanza. + +Desde el \emph{Sputnik} , la universidad estadunidense ha estado +tratando de ponerse a la par con el número de graduados que sacan los +soviéticos. Ahora los alemanes están abandonando su tradición académica +y están construyendo unos \emph{campus} para ponerse a la par con los +estadunidenses. Durante esta década quieren aumentar sus erogaciones en +escuelas primarias y secundarias de 14 000 a 59 000 millones de marcos +alemanes y triplicar los desembolsos para la instrucción superior. Los +franceses se proponen elevar para 1980 a 10\% de su PNB el monto gastado +en escuelas, y la Fundación Ford ha estado empujando a países pobres de +América Latina a elevar sus desembolsos per cápita para los graduados +``respetables'' a los niveles estadunidenses. Los estudiantes consideran +sus estudios como la inversión que produce el mayor rédito monetario, y +las naciones los ven como un factor clave para el desarrollo. + +Para la mayoría que va en pos de un grado universitario, la universidad +no ha perdido prestigio, pero desde 1968 ha perdido notoriamente +categoría entre sus creyentes. Los estudiantes se niegan a prepararse +para la guerra, la contaminación y la perpetuación del prejuicio. Los +profesores les ayudan en su recusación de la legitimidad del gobierno, +de su política exterior, de la educación y del sistema de vida +norteamericano. No pocos rechazan títulos y se preparan para una vida en +una contracultura, fuera de la sociedad diplomada. Parecen elegir la vía +de los Fraticelli medievales o de los Alumbrados de la Reforma, que +fueron los \emph{hippies} y desertores escolares de su época. Otros +reconocen el monopolio de las escuelas sobre los recursos que ellos +necesitan para construir una contrasociedad. Buscan apoyo el uno en el +otro para vivir con integridad mientras se someten al ritual académico. +Forman, por así decirlo, focos de herejía en medio de la jerarquía. + +No obstante, grandes sectores de la población general miran al místico +moderno y al heresiarca moderno con alarma. Éstos amenazan la economía +consumista, el privilegio democrático y la imagen que de sí mismo tiene +Estados Unidos. Pero no es posible eliminarlos con sólo desearlo. Son +cada vez menos aquellos a los que es posible reconvertir y reincorporar +en las filas mediante sutilezas ---como, por ejemplo, darles el cargo de +enseñar como profesores su herejía---. De aquí la búsqueda de medios que +hagan posible ya sea librarse de disidentes, ya sea disminuir la +importancia de la universidad que les sirve de base para protestar. + +A los estudiantes y a la facultad que ponen en tela de juicio la +legitimidad de la universidad, y lo hacen pagando un alto costo +personal, no les parece por cierto estar fijando normas de consumo ni +favoreciendo un sistema determinado de producción. Aquellos que han +fundado grupos tales como el Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars y el +North American Congress of Latin America (NACLA) han sido de los más +eficaces para cambiar radicalmente la visión que millones de personas +jóvenes tenían de países extranjeros. Otros más han tratado de formular +interpretaciones marxistas de la sociedad norteamericana o han figurado +entre los responsables de la creación de comunas. Sus logros dan nuevo +vigor al argumento de que la existencia de la universidad es necesaria +para una crítica social sostenida. + +No cabe duda de que en este momento la universidad ofrece una +combinación singular de circunstancias que permite a algunos de sus +miembros criticar el conjunto de la sociedad. Proporciona tiempo, +movilidad, acceso a los iguales y a la información, así como cierta +impunidad ---privilegios de que no disponen igualmente otros sectores de +la población---. Pero la universidad permite esta libertad sólo a +quienes ya han sido profundamente iniciados en la sociedad de consumo y +en la necesidad de alguna especie de escolaridad pública obligatoria. + +El sistema escolar de hoy en día desempeña la triple función que ha sido +común a las Iglesias poderosas a lo largo de la historia. Es +simultáneamente el depósito del mito de la sociedad, la +institucionalización de las contradicciones de ese mito y el lugar donde +ocurre el ritual que reproduce y encubre las disciplinas entre el mito y +la realidad. El sistema escolar, y en particular la universidad, +proporciona hoy grandes oportunidades para criticar el mito y para +rebelarse contra las perversiones institucionales. Pero el ritual que +exige tolerancia para con las contradicciones fundamentales entre mito e +institución pasa todavía por lo general sin ponerse en tela de juicio, +pues ni la crítica ideológica ni la acción social pueden dar a luz una +nueva sociedad. Sólo el desencanto del ritual social central, el +desligarse del mismo y reformarlo pueden llevar a cabo un cambio +radical. + +La universidad estadunidense ha llegado a ser la etapa final del rito de +iniciación más global que el mundo haya conocido. Ninguna sociedad +histórica ha logrado sobrevivir sin ritual o mito, pero la nuestra es la +primera que ha necesitado una iniciación tan aburrida, morosa, +destructiva y costosa a su mito. La civilización mundial contemporánea +es también la primera que estimó necesario racionalizar su ritual +fundamental de iniciación en nombre de la educación. No podemos iniciar +una reforma de la educación a menos que entendamos primero que ni el +aprendizaje individual ni la igualdad social pueden acrecentarse +mediante el ritual de la escolarización. No podremos ir más allá de la +sociedad de consumo a menos que entendamos primero que las escuelas +públicas obligatorias reproducen inevitablemente dicha sociedad, +independientemente de lo que se enseñe en ellas. + +El proyecto de desmitologización que propongo no puede limitarse tan +sólo a la universidad. Cualquier intento de reformar la universidad sin +ocuparse del sistema del que forma parte integral es como tratar de +hacer la reforma urbana en Nueva York, desde el piso decimosegundo hacia +arriba. La mayor parte de las reformas introducidas en la enseñanza +superior, equivalen a rascacielos construidos sobre chozas. Sólo una +generación que se críe sin escuelas obligatorias será capaz de recrear +la universidad. + +\hypertarget{el-mito-de-los-valores-institucionalizados}{% +\subsection{El mito de los valores +institucionalizados}\label{el-mito-de-los-valores-institucionalizados}} + +La escuela inicia asimismo el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin. Este mito +moderno se funda en la creencia según la cual el sistema de producción +produce inevitablemente algo de valor y que, por consiguiente, la +producción produce necesariamente demanda. La escuela nos enseña que la +instrucción produce aprendizaje. La existencia de las escuelas produce +la demanda de escolaridad. Una vez que hemos aprendido a necesitar la +escuela, todas nuestras actividades tienden a tomar la forma de +relaciones de clientes respecto de otras instituciones especializadas. +Una vez que se ha desacreditado al hombre o a la mujer autodidactos, +toda actividad no profesional se hace sospechosa. En la escuela se nos +enseña que el resultado de la asistencia es un aprendizaje valioso; que +el valor del aprendizaje aumenta con el monto de la información de +entrada y, finalmente, que este valor puede medirse y documentarse +mediante grados y diplomas. + +De hecho, el aprendizaje es la actividad humana que menos manipulación +de terceros necesita. La mayor parte del aprendizaje no es la +consecuencia de una instrucción. Es más bien el resultado de una +participación a la que no se estorba en un entorno significativo. La +mayoría de la gente aprende mejor ``metiendo la cuchara'' y, sin +embargo, la escuela les hace identificar su desarrollo cognoscitivo +personal con una programación y una manipulación complicadas. + +Una vez que un hombre o una mujer ha aceptado la necesidad de la +escuela, es presa fácil de otras instituciones. Una vez que los jóvenes +han permitido que a su imaginación la forme la instrucción curricular, +están condicionados para las planificaciones institucionales de toda +especie. La ``institución'' les ahoga el horizonte imaginativo. No se +les puede traicionar, sólo engañar en el precio, porque se les ha +enseñado a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. Para bien o +para mal, ya no serán sorprendidos por terceros, pues se les ha enseñado +qué pueden esperar de cualquier otra persona que ha sido enseñada como +ellos. Esto es válido para el caso de otra persona o de una máquina. + +Esta transferencia de responsabilidad desde sí mismo a una institución +garantiza la regresión social, especialmente desde el momento en que se +ha aceptado como una obligación. Así, los rebeldes contra el \emph{Alma +Mater} a menudo ``la consiguen'' e ingresan en su facultad en vez de +desarrollar la valentía de infectar a otros con su enseñanza personal y +de asumir la responsabilidad de las consecuencias de tal enseñanza. Esto +sugiere la posibilidad de una nueva historia de Edipo ---Edipo Profesor, +que ``consigue'' a su madre a fin de engendrar hijos de ella---. El +hombre adicto a ser enseñado busca su seguridad en la enseñanza +compulsiva. La mujer que experimenta su conocimiento como el resultado +de un proceso quiere reproducirlo en otros. + +\hypertarget{el-mito-de-la-mediciuxf3n-de-los-valores}{% +\subsection{El mito de la medición de los +valores}\label{el-mito-de-la-mediciuxf3n-de-los-valores}} + +Los valores institucionalizados que infunde la escuela son valores +cuantificados. La escuela inicia a los jóvenes en un mundo en el que +todo puede medirse, incluso su imaginación y hasta el hombre mismo. + +Pero el desarrollo personal no es una entidad mensurable. Es crecimiento +en disensión disciplinada, que no puede medirse respecto a ningún +cartabón, a ningún currículum, ni compararse con lo logrado por algún +otro. En ese aprendizaje podemos emular a otros sólo en el empeño +imaginativo, y seguir sus huellas más bien que remedar sus maneras de +andar. El aprendizaje que yo aprecio es una recreación inmensurable. + +Las escuelas pretenden desglosar el aprendizaje en ``materias'', para +incorporar en el alumno un currículum hecho con estos ladrillos +prefabricados y para medir el resultado con una escala internacional. +Las personas que se someten a la norma de otros para la medida de su +propio desarrollo personal pronto se aplican el mismo cartabón a sí +mismos. Ya no es necesario ponerlos en su lugar, pues se colocan solos +en sus casilleros correspondientes, se comprimen en el nicho que se les +ha enseñado a buscar y, en el curso de este mismo proceso, colocan +asimismo a sus prójimos en sus lugares, hasta que todo y todos encajan. + +Las personas que han sido escolarizadas hasta su talla dejan que la +experiencia no mensurada se les escape entre los dedos. Para ellas, lo +que no puede medirse se hace secundario, amenazante. No es necesario +robarles su creatividad. Con la instrucción, han desaprendido a +``hacer'' lo suyo o a ``ser'' ellas mismas, y valoran sólo aquello que +ha sido fabricado o podría fabricarse. + +Una vez que se ha escolarizado a las personas con la idea de que los +valores pueden producirse y medirse, tienden a aceptar toda clase de +clasificaciones jerárquicas. Existe una escala para el desarrollo de las +naciones, otra para la inteligencia de los nenes, e incluso el avance +hacia la paz puede medirse según un recuento de personas. En un mundo +escolarizado, el camino hacia la felicidad está pavimentado con un +índice de precios para el consumidor. + +\hypertarget{el-mito-de-los-valores-envasados}{% +\subsection{El mito de los valores +envasados}\label{el-mito-de-los-valores-envasados}} + +La escuela vende currículum: un atado de mercancías hecho con el mismo +proceso y con la misma estructura que cualquier otra mercancía. La +producción del currículum para la mayoría de las escuelas comienza con +la investigación presuntamente científica; fundados en ella los +ingenieros de la educación predicen la demanda futura y las herramientas +para la línea de montaje, dentro de los límites establecidos por +presupuestos y tabúes. El distribuidor-profesor entrega el producto +terminado al consumidor-alumno, cuyas reacciones son cuidadosamente +estudiadas y tabuladas a fin de proporcionar datos para la investigación +que servirán para preparar el modelo siguiente que podrá ser +``desgraduado'', ``concebido para alumnado'', ``concebido para un +trabajo en equipo'', ``con ayudas visuales'' o ``centrado en temas''. + +El resultado del proceso de producción de un currículum se asemeja a +cualquier otro artículo moderno de primera necesidad. Es un paquete de +significados planificados, una mercancía cuyo ``atractivo equilibrado'' +la hace comercializable para una clientela lo bastante grande como para +justificar su elevado coste de producción. A los consumidores-alumnos se +les enseña a ajustar sus deseos a valores comercializables. De modo que +se les hace sentir culpables si no se comportan en conformidad con los +resultados de los análisis de mercado y si no obtienen los grados y +diplomas que los colocarán en la categoría laboral que se les ha +inducido a esperar. + +Los educadores pueden justificar unos currícula más costosos fundándose +en lo que han observado, a saber, que las dificultades de aprendizaje se +elevan en proporción al costo del currículum. Ésta es una aplicación de +aquella ley de Parkinson que dice que una labor se expande junto con los +recursos disponibles para ejecutarla. Esta ley puede verificarse en +todos los niveles de la escuela: por ejemplo, las dificultades de +lectura han sido un tema principal de debate en que los grados per +cápita en ellas se han aproximado a los niveles estadunidenses de 1950 +---año en el cual las dificultades para aprender a leer llegaron a ser +tema de importancia en las escuelas de Estados Unidos. + +De hecho, los estudiantes saludables redoblan su resistencia a la +enseñanza conforme se ven más cabalmente manipulados. Su resistencia no +se debe al estilo autoritario de una escuela pública o al estilo +seductor de algunas escuelas libres, sino al planteamiento fundamental +común a todas las escuelas ---la idea de que el juicio de una persona +debiera determinar qué y cuándo debe aprender otra persona---. + +\hypertarget{el-mito-del-progreso-que-se-perpetuxfaa-a-suxed-mismo}{% +\subsection{El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí +mismo}\label{el-mito-del-progreso-que-se-perpetuxfaa-a-suxed-mismo}} + +Los crecientes costes per cápita de la instrucción, aun cuando vayan +acompañados por réditos de aprendizaje decrecientes, aumentan +paradójicamente el valor del alumno o alumna ante sus propios ojos y su +valor en el mercado. La escuela, casi al coste que sea, iza a empellones +al alumno hasta el nivel del consumo curricular competitivo, hasta +meterlo en el progreso hacia unos niveles cada vez más elevados. Los +gastos que motivan al alumno a permanecer en la escuela se desbocan +conforme asciende la pirámide. En niveles más altos adoptan el disfraz +de nuevos estadios de futbol o programas llamados de Educación +Internacional. Aunque no enseña ninguna otra cosa, la escuela enseña al +menos el valor de la escalada: el valor de la manera estadunidense de +hacer las cosas. + +La guerra de Vietnam se ajusta a la lógica prevaleciente. Su éxito se ha +medido por el número de personas efectivamente tratadas con balas +baratas descargadas a un coste inmenso, y a este cálculo salvaje se le +llama desvergonzadamente ``recuento de cuerpos''. Así como los negocios +son los negocios, la acumulación inacabable de dinero, así también la +guerra es el matar, la acumulación inacabable de cuerpos muertos. De +manera semejante, la educación es escolarización, y este proceso sin +término se cuenta en alumnos-hora. Los diferentes procesos son +irreversibles y se justifican por sí mismos. Según las normas +económicas, el país se hace cada vez más rico. Según las normas de la +contabilidad mortal, la nación continúa ganando perennemente sus +guerras. Y conforme a las normas escolares, la población se va haciendo +cada vez más educada. + +El programa escolar está hambriento de un bocado cada vez mayor de +instrucción, pero aun cuando esta hambre conduzca a una absorción +sostenida, nunca da el gozo de saber algo a satisfacción. Cada tema +llega envasado con la instrucción de continuar consumiendo una +``oferta'' tras otra, y el envase del año anterior es siempre anticuado +para el consumidor del año en curso. El fraudulento negocio de los +libros de texto está construido sobre esta demanda. Los reformadores de +la educación prometen a cada generación lo último y lo mejor, y al +público se le escolariza para pedir lo que ellos ofrecen. Tanto el +desertor, a quien se le hace recordar a perpetuidad lo que se perdió, +como el graduado, a quien se le hace sentir inferior a la nueva casta de +estudiantes, saben exactamente dónde están situados en el ritual de +engaños crecientes, y continúan apoyando una sociedad que, para +denominar la brecha cada vez más ancha de frustración, usa el eufemismo +de ``revolución de expectativas crecientes''. + +Pero el crecimiento concebido como un consumo sin términos ---el +progreso eterno--- no puede conducir jamás a la madurez. El compromiso +con un ilimitado aumento cuantitativo vicia la posibilidad de un +desarrollo orgánico. + +\hypertarget{el-juego-ritual-y-la-nueva-religiuxf3n-mundial}{% +\subsection{El juego ritual y la nueva religión +mundial}\label{el-juego-ritual-y-la-nueva-religiuxf3n-mundial}} + +En las naciones desarrolladas, la edad para salir de la escuela excede +el aumento de los años de vida probable. Dentro de una década se +cortarán ambas curvas y crearán un problema para Jessica Mitford y para +los profesionales que se interesan por la ``educación terminal''. Me +hace recordar la Edad Media tardía, cuando la demanda por los servicios +de la Iglesia sobrepasó la duración de la vida, y se creó el +``purgatorio'' para purificar a las almas bajo el control papal antes de +que pudiesen ingresar en la paz eterna. Lógicamente, esto condujo +primero a un tráfico de indulgencias y luego a un intento de Reforma. El +Mito del Consumo Sin Fin ocupa ahora el lugar de la creencia en la vida +eterna. + +Arnold Toynbee señaló que la decadencia de una gran cultura suele ir +acompañada por el surgimiento de una nueva Iglesia Universal que lleva +la esperanza al proletariado interior mientras atiende al mismo tiempo +las necesidades de una nueva casta guerrera. La escuela parece +eminentemente apta para ser la Iglesia Universal de nuestra decadente +cultura. Ninguna institución podría ocultar mejor a sus participantes la +profunda discrepancia entre los principios sociales y la realidad social +en el mundo de hoy. Secular, científica y negadora de la muerte, se ciñe +estrechamente al ánimo moderno. Su apariencia clásica, crítica, la hace +aparecer, si no antirreligiosa, al menos pluralista. Su currículum +define la ciencia y la define a ella misma mediante la llamada +investigación científica. Nadie completa la escuela ---todavía---. No +cierra sus puertas a nadie sin antes ofrecerle una oportunidad más: +educación de recuperación, para adultos y de continuación. + +La escuela sirve como una eficaz creadora y preservadora del mito social +debido a su estructura como juego ritual de promociones graduadas. La +introducción a este ritual es mucho más importante que el asunto +enseñado o el cómo se enseña. Es el juego mismo el que escolariza, el +que se mete en la sangre y se convierte en hábito. Se inicia a una +sociedad entera en el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin de servicios. Esto ocurre +hasta tal punto que la formalidad de participar en el ritual sin término +se hace obligatoria y compulsiva por doquier. La escuela ordena una +rivalidad ritual en forma de juego internacional que obliga a los +competidores a achacar los males del mundo a aquellos que no pueden o no +quieren jugar. La escuela es un ritual de iniciación que introduce al +neófito en la sagrada carrera del consumo progresivo, un ritual +propiciatorio cuyos sacerdotes académicos son mediadores entre los +creyentes y los dioses del privilegio y del poder, un ritual de +expiación que sacrifica a sus desertores, marcándolos a fuego como +chivos expiatorios del subdesarrollo. + +Incluso aquellos que en el mejor de los casos pasan unos pocos años en +la escuela ---y éste es el caso de la abrumadora mayoría en América +Latina, Asia y África--- aprenden a sentirse culpables debido a su +subconsumo de escolarización. En México es obligatorio aprobar seis +grados de escuela. Los niños nacidos en el tercio económico inferior +tienen sólo dos posibilidades sobre tres de aprobar el primer grado. Si +lo aprueban, tienen cuatro probabilidades sobre 100 de terminar la +escolaridad obligatoria en el sexto grado. Si nacen en el tercio medio, +sus probabilidades aumentan a 12 sobre 100. Con estas pautas, México ha +tenido más éxito que la mayoría de las otras 26 repúblicas +latinoamericanas en cuanto a proporcionar educación pública. + +Todos los niños saben, en todas partes, que se les ha dado una +posibilidad, aunque desigual, en una lotería obligatoria, y la supuesta +igualdad de la norma internacional realza ahora la pobreza original de +esos niños con la discriminación autoinfligida que el desertor acepta. +Se les ha escolarizado en la creencia de las expectativas crecientes y +pueden racionalizar ahora su creciente frustración fuera de la escuela +aceptando el rechazo de la gracia escolástica que les ha caído en +suerte. Se les expulsa del paraíso porque, habiendo sido bautizados, no +fueron a la Iglesia. Nacidos en pecado original, se les bautiza en el +primer grado, pero van al Gehenna (que en hebreo significa +``conventillo'') debido a sus faltas personales. Así como Max Weber +examinó los efectos sociales de la creencia en que la salvación +pertenecía a quienes acumulaban riqueza, podemos observar ahora que la +gracia está reservada para aquellos que acumulan años de escuela. + +\hypertarget{el-reino-venidero-la-universalizaciuxf3n-de-las-expectativas}{% +\subsection{El reino venidero la universalización de las +expectativas}\label{el-reino-venidero-la-universalizaciuxf3n-de-las-expectativas}} + +La escuela conjuga las expectativas del consumidor expresadas en sus +pretensiones, con las creencias del productor expresadas en su ritual. +Es una expresión litúrgica del \emph{cargocult}\footnote{Culto creado + por indígenas de Nueva Guinea, que atribuye un origen mágico a los + artículos occidentales (aviones, radios, relojes, plásticos, etc.). + (T.)} que recorrió la Melanesia en la década de 1940-1950, que +inyectaba en sus cultores la creencia de que si se colocaban una corbata +negra sobre el torso desnudo, Jesús llegaría en un vapor trayendo una +nevera, un par de pantalones y una máquina de coser para cada creyente. + +La escuela funde el crecimiento en humillante dependencia de un maestro +con el crecimiento en el vano sentido de omnipotencia que es tan típico +del alumno que quiere ir a enseñar a todas las naciones a salvarse. El +ritual está moldeado según los severos hábitos de trabajo de los obreros +de la construcción, y su finalidad es celebrar el mito de un paraíso +terrestre de consumo sin fin, que es la única esperanza del desgraciado +y el desposeído. + +A lo largo de la historia ha habido epidemias de insaciables +expectativas en este mundo, especialmente entre grupos colonizados y +marginales en todas las culturas. Los judíos tuvieron durante el Imperio +romano sus Esenios y Mesías judíos, los siervos en la Reforma tuvieron +su Thomas Münzer, los desposeídos indios desde el Paraguay hasta Dakota +sus contagiosos bailarines. Estas sectas estaban siempre dirigidas por +un profeta, y limitaban sus promesas a unos pocos elegidos. En cambio la +espera del reino a que induce la escuela es impersonal más que +profética, y universal más que local. El hombre ha llegado a ser el +ingeniero de su propio Mesías y promete las limitadas recompensas de la +ciencia a aquellos que somete a una progresiva tecnificación para su +reino. + +\hypertarget{la-nueva-alienaciuxf3n}{% +\subsection{La nueva alienación}\label{la-nueva-alienaciuxf3n}} + +La escuela no sólo es la Nueva Religión Mundial. Es también el mercado +de trabajo de crecimiento más veloz del mundo. La tecnificación de los +consumidores ha llegado a ser el principal sector de crecimiento de la +economía. Conforme el coste de la producción disminuye en las naciones +ricas, se produce una concentración creciente de capital y trabajo en la +vasta empresa de equipar al hombre para un consumo disciplinario. +Durante la década pasada las inversiones de capital relacionadas +directamente con el sistema escolar aumentaron con velocidad incluso +mayor que los gastos para defensa. El desarme tan sólo aceleraría el +proceso por el cual la industria del aprendizaje se encamina al centro +de la economía nacional. La escuela proporciona oportunidades ilimitadas +para el derroche legitimizado, mientras su destructividad pasa +inadvertida y crece el coste de los paliativos. + +Si a quienes asisten a jornada completa agregamos los que enseñan a +jornada completa, nos percatamos de que esta llamada superestructura ha +llegado a ser el principal patrono de la sociedad. En Estados Unidos hay +62 millones en la escuela y 80 millones trabajando en otras cosas. Esto +a menudo lo han olvidado los analistas neomarxistas cuando dicen que el +proceso de desescolarización debe posponerse o dejarse pendiente hasta +que otros desórdenes, considerados tradicionalmente como más +importantes, los haya corregido una revolución económica y política. +Pero hay que comprender que la escuela es una industria antes de querer +edificar una estrategia revolucionaria realista. Para Marx, el coste de +producir las demandas de bienes apenas si era significativo. +Actualmente, la mayor parte de la mano de obra está empleada en la +producción de demandas que puede satisfacer la industria que hace un uso +intenso del capital. La mayor parte de este trabajo se realiza en la +escuela. + +En el esquema tradicional, la alienación era una consecuencia directa de +que el trabajo se convirtiera en labor asalariada que privaba al hombre +de su oportunidad para crear y recrearse. Ahora a los menores los +prealienan las escuelas que los aíslan del mundo mientras juegan a ser +productores y consumidores de su propio conocimiento, al que se concibe +como una mercancía en el mercado en la escuela. La escuela hace de la +alienación una preparación para la vida, privando así a la educación de +realidad y al trabajo de creatividad. La escuela prepara para la +alienante institucionalización de la vida al enseñar la necesidad de ser +enseñado. Una vez que se aprende esta lección, la gente pierde su +incentivo para desarrollarse con independencia; ya no encuentra +atractivos en relacionarse y se cierra a las sorpresas que la vida +ofrece cuando no está predeterminada por la definición institucional. La +escuela emplea directa o indirectamente a una mayor parte de la +población. La escuela o bien guarda a la gente de por vida o asegura el +que encaje en alguna otra institución. + +La Nueva Iglesia Mundial es la industria del conocimiento, proveedora de +opio y banco de trabajo durante un número creciente de años de la vida +de un individuo. La desescolarización es por consiguiente fundamental +para cualquier movimiento de liberación del hombre. + +\hypertarget{la-potencialidad-revolucionaria-de-la-desescolarizaciuxf3n}{% +\subsection{La potencialidad revolucionaria de la +desescolarización}\label{la-potencialidad-revolucionaria-de-la-desescolarizaciuxf3n}} + +La escuela no es de ningún modo, por cierto, la única institución +moderna cuya finalidad primaria es moldear la visión de la realidad en +el hombre. El currículum escondido de la vida familiar, de la +conscripción militar, del llamado profesionalismo o de los medios +informativos desempeña un importante papel en la manipulación +institucional de la visión del mundo que tiene el hombre, de su lenguaje +y de sus demandas. Pero la escuela esclaviza más profunda y +sistemáticamente, puesto que sólo a ella se le acredita la función +principal de formar el juicio crítico y, paradójicamente, trata de +hacerlo haciendo que el aprender sobre sí mismo, sobre los demás y sobre +la naturaleza dependa de un proceso preempacado. La escuela nos alcanza +de manera tan íntima que ninguno puede esperar liberarse de ella +mediante algo externo. + +Muchos de los que se autodenominan revolucionarios son víctimas de la +escuela. Incluso ven la ``liberación'' como el producto de algo +institucional. Sólo al librarse uno mismo de la escuela se disipa esa +ilusión. El descubrimiento de que la mayor parte del aprendizaje no +requiere enseñanza no puede ser ni manipulado ni planificado. Cada uno +de nosotros es responsable de su propia desescolarización, y sólo +nosotros tenemos el poder de hacerlo. No puede excusarse a nadie si no +logra liberarse de la escolarización. El pueblo no pudo liberarse de la +Corona sino hasta que al menos algunos de ellos se liberaron de la +Iglesia establecida. No pueden liberarse del consumo progresivo hasta +que no se liberen de la escuela obligatoria. + +Todos estamos metidos en la escolarización, tanto desde el aspecto de la +producción como desde el del consumo. Estamos supersticiosamente +convencidos de que el buen aprendizaje puede y debería producirse en +nosotros ---y de que podemos producirlo en otros---. Nuestro intento de +desligarnos del concepto de escuela hará surgir las resistencias que +hallamos en nosotros mismos cuando tratamos de renunciar al consumo +ilimitado y a la ubicua suposición de que a los otros se les puede +manipular por su propio bien. Nadie está totalmente exento de explotar a +otros en el proceso de escolarización. + +La escuela es el más grande y más anónimo de todos los patrones. De +hecho es el mejor empleo de un nuevo tipo de empresa, sucesora del +gremio, de la fábrica y de la sociedad anónima. Las empresas +multinacionales que han dominado la economía están siendo complementadas +ahora, y puede que algún día sean suplantadas por organismos de servicio +con planificación supranacional. Estas empresas presentan sus servicios +de manera que hacen que todos los hombres se sientan obligados a +consumirlos. Se rigen por una normativa internacional, redefiniendo el +valor de sus servicios periódicamente y por doquiera a un ritmo +aproximadamente parejo. + +El ``transporte'' que se apoya en nuevos coches y supercarreteras +atiende a la misma necesidad institucionalmente envasada de comodidad, +prestigio, velocidad y equipamiento, independientemente de que sus +componentes los produzca o no el Estado. El aparato de la ``atención +médica'' define una especie peculiar de salud, poco importa que sea el +individuo o el Estado quien pague el servicio. La promoción graduada a +fin de obtener diplomas ajusta al estudiante para ocupar un lugar en la +misma pirámide internacional de mano de obra cualificada, +independientemente de quien dirija la escuela. + +En todos estos casos el empleo es un beneficio oculto: el chofer de un +automóvil privado, el paciente que se somete a hospitalización o el +alumno en el aula deben considerase como parte de una nueva clase de +``empleados''. Un movimiento de liberación que se inicie en la escuela +y, sin embargo, esté fundado en maestros y alumnos como explotados y +explotadores simultáneamente, podría anticiparse a las estrategias +revolucionarias del futuro; pues un programa radical de +desescolarización podría adiestrar a la juventud en el nuevo estilo de +revolución necesaria para desafiar a un sistema social que exhibe una +``salud'', una ``riqueza'' y una ``seguridad'' obligatorias. + +Los riesgos de una rebelión contra la escuela son imprevisibles, pero no +son tan horribles como los de una revolución que se inicie en cualquier +otra institución principal. La escuela no está todavía organizada para +defenderse con tanta eficacia como una nación-Estado, o incluso como una +gran sociedad anónima. La liberación de la opresión de las escuelas +podría ser incruenta. Las armas del vigilante escolar\footnote{\emph{Truant + officer}. El que lleva a la escuela a quienes deben cumplir con la + instrucción legal obligatoria. (T.)} y de sus aliados en los +tribunales y en las agencias de empleo podrían tomar medidas muy crueles +contra el o la delincuente individual, especialmente si fuese pobre, +pero podrían ser a su vez impotentes si surgiera un movimiento de masas. + +La escuela se ha convertido en un problema social; se le ataca por todas +partes, y los ciudadanos y los gobiernos patrocinan experimentos no +convencionales en todo el mundo. Recurren a insólitos expedientes +estadísticos a fin de preservar la fe y salvar las apariencias. El ánimo +que existe entre algunos educadores es muy parecido al ánimo de los +obispos católicos después del Concilio Vaticano. Los planes de estudio +de las llamadas ``escuelas libres'' se parecen a las liturgias de las +misas con música folclórica y rock. Las exigencias de los estudiantes de +bachillerato para tener voz y voto en la elección de sus profesores son +tan estridentes como las de los feligreses que exigen seleccionar a sus +párrocos. Pero para la sociedad está en juego algo mucho mayor si una +minoría significativa pierde su fe en la escolaridad. Esto pondría en +peligro la supervivencia no sólo del orden económico construido sobre la +coproducción de bienes y demandas, sino igualmente del orden político +construido sobre la nación-Estado dentro del cual los estudiantes son +dados a la luz por la escuela. + +Nuestras alternativas posibles son harto claras. O continuamos creyendo +que el aprendizaje institucionalizado es un producto que justifica una +inversión ilimitada, o redescubrimos que la legislación, la +planificación y la inversión, si de alguna manera encajan en la +educación formal, debieran usarse principalmente para derribar las +barreras que ahora obstaculizan las posibilidades de aprendizaje, el +cual sólo puede ser una actividad personal. + +Si no ponemos en tela de juicio el supuesto de que el conocimiento +valedero es una mercancía que en ciertas circunstancias puede metérsele +a la fuerza al consumidor, la sociedad se verá cada día más dominada por +siniestras seudoescuelas y totalitarios administradores de la +información. Los terapeutas pedagógicos drogarán más a sus alumnos a fin +de enseñarles mejor, y los estudiantes se drogarán más a fin de +conseguir aliviarse de las presiones de los profesores y de la carrera +por diplomas. Ejércitos cada día mayores de burócratas presumirán de +maestros. El lenguaje del escolar ya se lo ha apropiado el publicista. +Ahora el general y el policía tratarán de dignificar sus profesiones +disfrazándose de educadores. En una sociedad escolarizada, las guerras y +la represión civil encuentran una justificación racional educativa. La +guerra pedagógica al estilo Vietnam se justificará cada vez más como la +única manera de enseñar a la gente el valor superior del progreso +inacabable. + +La represión se considerará como un empeño de misioneros por apresurar +la venida del Mesías mecánico. Más y más países recurrirán a la tortura +pedagógica puesta ya en práctica en Brasil y Grecia. Esta tortura +pedagógica no se usa para extraer información o para satisfacer las +necesidades psíquicas de unos sádicos. Se apoya en el terror aleatorio +para romper la integridad de toda una población y convertirla en un +material plástico para las enseñanzas inventadas por tecnócratas. La +naturaleza totalmente destructiva y en constante progreso de la +instrucción obligatoria cumplirá cabalmente su lógica final a menos que +comencemos a librarnos desde ahora de nuestra \emph{hybris} pedagógica, +nuestra creencia de que el hombre puede hacer lo que no puede Dios, a +saber, manipular a otros para salvarlos. + +Muchos comienzan recientemente a darse cuenta de la inexorable +destrucción que las tendencias actuales de producción implican para el +medio ambiente, pero las personas aisladas tienen un poder muy +restringido para cambiar estas tendencias. La manipulación de hombres y +mujeres iniciada en la escuela ha llegado también a un punto sin +retorno, y la mayoría de las personas aún no se han percatado de ello. +Fomentan todavía la reforma escolar, tal como Henry Ford II propone unos +nuevos automóviles ponzoñosos. + +Daniel Bell dice que nuestra época se caracteriza por una extrema +disyunción entre las estructuras cultural y social; una dedicada a +actitudes apocalípticas y la otra a la toma tecnocrática de decisiones. +Esto es sin duda verdadero respecto de muchos reformadores de la +educación que se sienten impulsados a condenar casi todo aquello que +caracteriza a las escuelas modernas ---y proponen simultáneamente nuevas +escuelas---. + +En su \emph{Estructura de las revoluciones científicas} , Thomas Kuhn +aduce que dicha disonancia precede inevitablemente a la aparición de un +nuevo paradigma cognoscitivo. Los hechos que informaban aquellos que +observaban la caída libre, aquellos que volvían del otro lado de la +Tierra y aquellos que usaban el nuevo telescopio, no se ajustaban a la +visión cósmica tolemaica. Súbitamente, se aceptó el paradigma +newtoniano. La disonancia que caracteriza a muchos jóvenes de hoy no es +tanto cognoscitiva como un asunto de actitudes ---un sentimiento acerca +de cómo \emph{no} puede ser una sociedad tolerable---. Lo sorprendente +respecto de esta disonancia es la capacidad de un número muy grande de +personas para tolerarla. + +La capacidad para ir tras metas incongruentes exige una explicación. +Según Max Gluckman, todas las sociedades poseen procedimientos para +ocultar tales disonancias de sus miembros. Los rituales pueden ocultar a +sus participantes incluso discrepancias y conflictos entre principio +social y organización social. Mientras un individuo no sea +explícitamente consciente del carácter ritual del proceso a través del +cual se le inició en las fuerzas que moldean su cosmos, no puede romper +el conjuro y moldear un nuevo cosmos. Mientras no nos percatemos del +ritual a través del cual la escuela moldea al consumidor progresivo +---el recurso principal de la economía---, no podremos romper el conjuro +de esta economía y dar forma a una nueva. + +\hypertarget{espectro-institucional}{% +\section{Espectro institucional}\label{espectro-institucional}} + +La mayoría de los esquemas utópicos y escenarios futurísticos requieren +nuevas y costosas tecnologías que habrían de venderse a las naciones +ricas y pobres por igual. Herman Kahn ha encontrado alumnos en +Venezuela, Argentina y Colombia. Las fantasías de Sergio Bernardes para +su Brasil del año 2000 centellean con más maquinaria nueva de la que hoy +posee Estados Unidos, que para entonces estará recargado con los +obsoletos emplazamientos para misiles, aeropuertos para reactores y +ciudades de las décadas de los años sesenta-setenta. Los futuristas +inspirados en Buckminster Fuller se apoyarían más bien en dispositivos +más baratos y exóticos. Cuentan con que se acepte una tecnología nueva +pero posible, que al parecer nos permitiría hacer más con menos +---monorrieles ligeros en vez de transporte supersónico, viviendas +verticales en vez de dispersión horizontal---. Todos los planificadores +futuristas de hoy tratan de hacer económicamente factible lo +técnicamente posible, negándose a la vez a enfrentar las inevitables +consecuencias sociales: el creciente anhelo de todos los hombres por +bienes y servicios que seguirán siendo privilegio de unos pocos. + +Creo que un futuro deseable depende, en primer lugar, de nuestra +voluntad de elegir una vida de acción en vez de una vida de consumo, de +que engendremos un estilo de vida que nos permita ser espontáneos, +independientes y, sin embargo, relacionarnos uno con otro, en vez de +mantener un estilo de vida que sólo nos permite hacer y deshacer, +producir y consumir ---un estilo de vida que es sólo una estación en el +camino hacia el agotamiento y la contaminación del entorno---. El futuro +depende más de nuestra elección de instituciones que mantengan una vida +de acción y menos de que desarrollemos nuevas ideologías y tecnologías. +Necesitamos un conjunto de pautas que nos permitan reconocer aquellas +instituciones que apoyan el desarrollo personal en vez del +enviciamiento, como también la voluntad de dedicar nuestros recursos +tecnológicos preferentemente a dichas instituciones de desarrollo. + +La elección se sitúa entre dos tipos institucionales radicalmente +opuestos, ejemplificados ambos en ciertas instituciones existentes, +aunque uno de esos tipos caracteriza de tal manera la época +contemporánea que casi la define. A este tipo dominante yo propondría +llamarlo la institución manipulativa. El otro tipo existe, pero sólo +precariamente. Las instituciones que se ajustan a él son más humildes y +menos notorias. No obstante, las tomo como modelos de un futuro más +deseable. Las llamo ``convivenciales'' y sugiero colocarlas a la +izquierda institucional, para mostrar que hay instituciones situadas +entre ambos extremos y para ilustrar cómo las instituciones históricas +pueden cambiar de color conforme se desplazan desde un facilitar la +actividad a un organizar la producción. + +Dicho espectro, que se desplaza de izquierda a derecha, se ha usado por +lo general para caracterizar a los hombres y sus ideologías, y no a +nuestras instituciones sociales y a sus estilos. Esta categorización de +los hombres, sea como individuos o como grupos, suele producir más calor +que luz. Pueden suscitarse poderosas objeciones contra el uso de una +convención corriente, pero al hacerlo espero desplazar los términos del +debate de un plano estéril a uno fértil. Se evidenciará que los hombres +de izquierda no siempre se caracterizan por su oposición a las +instituciones manipulativas, a las que coloco en el extremo derecho del +espectro. + +Las instituciones modernas más influyentes se agolpan al lado derecho +del espectro. Hacia él se ha desplazado la coerción legal, conforme ha +pasado de las manos del \emph{sheriff} a las del FBI y del Pentágono. La +guerra moderna se ha convertido en una empresa sumamente profesional +cuyo negocio es matar. Ha llegado al punto en que su eficiencia se mide +por el recuento de cuerpos. Sus capacidades pacificadoras dependen de su +poder para convencer a amigos y enemigos de la ilimitada potencia letal +de la nación. Las balas y los productos químicos modernos son tan +eficaces que a un ínfimo precio son capaces de matar o mutilar +infaliblemente al ``cliente''. Pero los costos de entrega aumentan +vertiginosamente; el coste de un vietnamita muerto subió de 360 000 +dólares en 1967 a 450 000 dólares en 1969. Sólo economías a una escala +cercana al suicidio de la raza harían económicamente eficiente el arte +militar moderno. Se está haciendo más obvio el efecto \emph{boomerang} +en la guerra: cuanto mayor es el recuento de cuerpos de vietnamitas +muertos, tantos más enemigos consigue Estados Unidos por todo el mundo; +asimismo, tanto más debe gastar Estados Unidos en crear otra institución +manipulativa ---motejada cínicamente como de ``pacificación''--- en un +vano intento por absorber los efectos secundarios de la guerra. + +En este mismo lado del espectro hallamos también organismos sociales que +se especializan en la manipulación de sus clientes. Semejante a la +organización militar, tienden a crear efectos contrarios a sus objetivos +conforme crece el ámbito de sus operaciones. Estas instituciones +sociales son igualmente contraproductivas, pero lo son de manera menos +evidente. Muchas adoptan una imagen simpática y terapéutica para +encubrir este efecto paradójico. Por ejemplo, hasta hace un par de +siglos, las cárceles servían como medio para detener a las personas +hasta que se les sentenciaba, se les mutilaba, se les mataba o se les +exiliaba; en ocasiones se usaban deliberadamente como forma de tortura. +Sólo recientemente comenzamos a pretender que encerrar a la gente en +jaulas tendrá un efecto benéfico sobre su carácter y comportamiento. +Ahora, más que unos pocos están empezando a entender que la cárcel +incrementa tanto la calidad de los criminales como su cantidad, que es +perfectamente capaz de hacer de un simple inconforme un criminal +endurecido. No obstante, es mucho menor el número de los que al parecer +entienden que las clínicas psiquiátricas, hogares de reposo y orfanatos +hacen algo muy parecido. Estas instituciones proporcionan a sus clientes +la destructiva autoimagen del psicótico, del excedido en años o del niño +abandonado, y proveen la justificación lógica para la existencia de +ciertas profesiones, tal como las cárceles poseen sus guardias. La +afiliación a instituciones que se encuentran en este extremo del +espectro se consigue de dos maneras, ambas coercitivas: mediante +compromiso obligado o mediante servicio selectivo. + +En el extremo opuesto del espectro se sitúan unas instituciones que se +distinguen por el uso espontáneo ---las instituciones +``convivenciales''---. Las conexiones telefónicas, las líneas de metro, +los recorridos de los carteros, los mercados y lonjas no tienen +necesidad de convencernos de su necesidad. Los sistemas de +alcantarillado, de agua potable, los parques y veredas son instituciones +que los hombres usan sin tener que estar institucionalmente convencidos +de que les conviene hacerlo. Todas las instituciones exigen, por cierto, +cierta reglamentación. Pero el funcionamiento de instituciones que +existen para usarse más que para producir algo, requiere de normas cuya +índole es totalmente diferente de la que exigen las +instituciones-tratamiento, que son manipulativas. Las normas que rigen a +las instituciones para uso tienen por fin principal evitar abusos que +frustrarían su accesibilidad general. Las veredas deben mantenerse +libres de obstrucciones, el uso industrial de agua potable debe +someterse a ciertos límites y el juego de pelota debe restringirse a +zonas especiales dentro de un parque. Actualmente necesitamos una +legislación especial para evitar el abuso de nuestras líneas telefónicas +por parte de computadoras, el abuso del servicio de correo por parte de +los anunciantes y la contaminación de nuestros sistemas de +alcantarillado por los desechos industriales. La reglamentación de las +instituciones convivenciales fija límites para su empleo; conforme uno +pasa del extremo convivencial del espectro al manipulativo, las normas +van exigiendo cada vez más un consumo o participación no queridos. El +diferente coste de la adquisición de clientes es precisamente una de las +características que distingue a las instituciones conviviales de las +manipulativas. + +En ambos extremos del espectro encontramos instituciones de servicio, +pero a la derecha, el servicio es una manipulación impuesta y al cliente +se le convierte en víctima de la publicidad, la agresión, el +adoctrinamiento, la prisión o el electrochoque. A la izquierda, el +servicio es una mayor oportunidad de límites definidos formalmente, +mientras el cliente sigue siendo un agente libre. Las instituciones del +ala derecha tienden a procesos de producción altamente complejos y +costosos en los que gran parte de la complicación y el gasto se ocupan +en convencer a los consumidores de que no pueden vivir sin el producto o +tratamiento ofrecido por la institución. Las instituciones del ala +izquierda tienden a redes que facilitan la composición o cooperación +iniciada por el cliente. + +Las instituciones manipulativas de la derecha son formadoras de hábito, +``adictivas'', social y psicológicamente. La adicción social, o +escalada, consiste en la tendencia a prescribir un tratamiento +intensificado si dosis menores no han rendido los resultados deseados. +La adicción psicológica, o habituamiento, se produce cuando los +consumidores se envician con la necesidad de una cantidad cada vez mayor +del proceso o del producto. Las instituciones de la izquierda que uno +mismo pone en actividad tienden a autolimitarse. Al revés de los +procesos de producción que identifican la satisfacción con el mero acto +del consumo, estas redes sirven a un objetivo que va más allá de su uso +repetido. Una persona levanta el teléfono cuando quiere decir algo a +otra, y cuelga una vez terminada la comunicación deseada. A excepción +hecha de los adolescentes, no usa el teléfono por el puro placer de +hablar ante el receptor. Si el teléfono no es el mejor modo de ponerse +en comunicación, las personas escribirán una carta o harán un viaje. Las +instituciones de la derecha, como podemos ver claramente en el caso de +las escuelas, invitan compulsivamente al uso repetitivo y frustran las +maneras alternativas de lograr resultados similares. + +Hacia la izquierda del espectro institucional, pero no en el extremo +mismo, podemos colocar a las empresas que compiten entre sí en la +actividad que les es propia, pero que no han empezado a ocupar la +publicidad de manera notable. Encontramos aquí las lavanderías manuales, +las pequeñas panaderías, los peluqueros y, para hablar de profesionales, +algunos abogados y profesores de música. Son por consiguiente +característicamente del ala izquierda las personas que han +institucionalizado sus servicios, pero no su publicidad. Consiguen +clientes mediante su contacto personal y la calidad relativa de sus +servicios. + +Los hoteles y las cafeterías se acercan algo más al centro. Las grandes +cadenas hoteleras como la Hilton que gastan inmensas cantidades en +vender su imagen, a menudo se comportan como si estuvieran dirigiendo +instituciones de la derecha. No obstante, las empresas Hilton y Sheraton +no ofrecen nada más ---de hecho dan frecuentemente menos--- que +alojamientos de precio similar y dirigidos independientemente. En lo +esencial, un letrero de hotel atrae al viajero como lo hace un signo +caminero. Dice más bien: ``Detente, aquí hay una cama para ti'', y no: +``¡Deberías preferir una cama de hotel a una banca en el parque!'' + +Los productores de artículos de primera necesidad y de la mayoría de los +bienes efímeros pertenecen a la parte central de nuestro espectro. +Satisfacen demandas genéricas y agregan al costo de producción y +distribución todo lo que el mercado soporte en costos publicitarios, en +anuncios y envases. Cuanto más básico sea el producto ---trátese de +bienes o de servicios--- tanto más tiende la competencia a limitar el +costo de venta del artículo. + +La mayoría de los fabricantes de bienes de consumo se han ido mucho más +a la derecha. Tanto directa como indirectamente, producen demandas de +accesorios que hinchan el precio real de compra muy por encima del coste +de producción. La General Motors y la Ford producen medios de +transporte, pero también, y esto es más importante, manipulan el gusto +del público de manera tal que la necesidad de transporte se expresa como +una demanda de coches privados y no de autobuses públicos. Venden el +deseo de controlar una máquina, correr a grandes velocidades con lujosa +comodidad, al tiempo que ofrecen el espejismo de la evasión. Pero lo que +venden no es tan sólo un asunto de motores inútilmente poderosos, de +artilugios superfluos o de suplementos nuevos que los fabricantes han +tenido que agregar obligados por Ralph Nader y los grupos que presionan +en pro de un aire limpio. La lista de precios incluye dispositivos +anticontaminantes, cinturones de seguridad, climatización; pero también +comprende otros costes que no se le declaran abiertamente al conductor: +los gastos de publicidad y de ventas de la empresa, el combustible, el +mantenimiento y las refacciones, el seguro, el interés sobre el crédito, +como también costes menos tangibles, como la pérdida de tiempo, el buen +humor y el aire respirable en nuestras congestionadas ciudades. + +Un corolario particularmente interesante de nuestro examen de +instituciones socialmente útiles es el sistema de carreteras +``públicas''. Este importante elemento del coste total de los +automóviles merece un análisis más dilatado, pues conduce directamente a +la institución derechista en la que estoy más interesado, a saber, la +escuela. + +\hypertarget{falsos-servicios-de-utilidad-puxfablica}{% +\subsection{Falsos servicios de utilidad +pública}\label{falsos-servicios-de-utilidad-puxfablica}} + +El sistema de carreteras es una red para la locomoción a través de +distancias relativamente grandes. En su condición de red, parecería +corresponderle estar a la izquierda en el espectro institucional. Pero +en este caso debemos hacer una distinción que esclarecerá tanto la +naturaleza de las carreteras como la naturaleza de los verdaderos +servicios de utilidad pública. Los caminos que son genuinamente para +todos, son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Las supercarreteras +son cotos privados, cuyo coste se le encaja parcialmente al público. + +Los sistemas de teléfonos, correos y caminos son redes, y ninguno es +gratis. El acceso a la red de teléfonos está limitado por cobros sobre +tiempo ocupado en cada llamada. Estas tarifas son relativamente bajas y +podrían reducirse sin cambiar la naturaleza del sistema. El uso del +sistema telefónico no está en absoluto limitado por lo que se transmita, +aunque lo emplean mejor quienes pueden hablar frases coherentes en el +lenguaje del interlocutor, una capacidad que poseen todos los que desean +usar la red. El franqueo suele ser barato. El uso del sistema postal se +ve ligeramente limitado por el precio de la pluma y el papel, y algo más +por la capacidad de escribir. Aún así, cuando alguien que no sabe +escribir tiene un pariente o un amigo a quien pueda dictarle una carta, +el sistema postal está a su disposición, tal como lo está si quiere +despachar una cinta grabada. + +El sistema de carreteras no llega a estar disponible de manera similar +para alguien que tan sólo aprenda a conducir. Las redes telefónica y +postal existen para servir a quienes deseen usarlas, mientras el sistema +de carreteras sirve principalmente como accesorio del automóvil privado. +Las primeras son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública, mientras el +último es un servicio público para los dueños de coches, camiones y +autobuses. Los servicios de utilidad pública existen en pro de la +comunicación entre los hombres: las carreteras, como otras instituciones +de la derecha, existen en pro de un producto. Tal como hicimos notar, +los fabricantes de automóviles \emph{producen} simultáneamente tanto los +coches como la demanda de coches. Asimismo \emph{producen} la demanda de +carreteras de varias vías, puentes y campos petrolíferos. El coche +privado es el foco de una constelación de instituciones del ala derecha. +El elevado coste de cada elemento lo dicta la complicación del producto +básico, y vender el producto básico es enviciar a la sociedad en el +paquete conjunto. + +Planificar un sistema vial como un verdadero servicio de utilidad +pública discriminaría a aquellos para quienes la velocidad y el confort +individualizado son los valores primarios de transporte, y favorecería a +aquellos que valoran la fluidez y el lugar de destino. Es la diferencia +entre una red extendidísima con acceso máximo para los viajeros y otra +que ofrezca sólo un acceso privilegiado a una zona restringida. + +La transferencia de una institución moderna a las naciones en desarrollo +permite probar esto con mejor claridad. En los países muy pobres, los +caminos suelen ser apenas lo bastante buenos como para permitir el +tránsito mediante camiones especiales de eje elevado, cargados de +víveres, reses o personas. Este tipo de país debería usar sus limitados +recursos para construir una telaraña de pistas que llegaran a todas sus +regiones y debería restringir la importancia de vehículos a dos o tres +modelos diferentes muy duraderos que puedan transitar por malos caminos +a baja velocidad. Esto simplificaría el mantenimiento continuo de estos +vehículos y proporcionaría una máxima fluidez y elección de puntos de +destino a todos los ciudadanos. Esto exigiría proyectar vehículos para +todo servicio con la simplicidad del Ford T, utilizando las aleaciones +más modernas para garantizar su durabilidad, con un límite de velocidad +incorporado de unos 25 kilómetros por hora a lo más, y lo bastante firme +como para rodar por el terreno más áspero. No se ofrecen estos vehículos +en el mercado porque no hay demanda de ellos. De hecho sería preciso +cultivar esa demanda, muy posiblemente al amparo de una legislación +estricta. Actualmente, cada vez que una demanda de esta especie se hace +sentir un poco, se le descarta rápida y desdeñosamente mediante una +publicidad contraria, encaminada a la venta universal de las máquinas +que extraen hoy de los contribuyentes estadunidenses el dinero necesario +para construir supercarreteras. + +Para ``mejorar'' el transporte, todos los países, hasta los más pobres, +proyectan ahora sistemas viales concebidos para coches de pasajeros y +remolques de alta velocidad que se ajustan a la minoría, pendiente del +velocímetro, compuesta por productores y consumidores en las clases +selectas. Este planteamiento a menudo se justifica racionalmente +pintándolo como un ahorro del recurso más precioso de un país pobre: el +tiempo del médico, del inspector escolar o del funcionario público. +Estos hombres, naturalmente, sirven casi exclusivamente a la misma gente +que posee un coche o espera tenerlo algún día. Los impuestos locales y +las escasas divisas se derrochan en \emph{falsos servicios de utilidad +pública}. + +La tecnología ``moderna'' transferida a los países pobres puede +dividirse en tres categorías: bienes, fábricas que los hacen e +instituciones de servicios ---principalmente escuelas--- que convierten +a los hombres en productores y consumidores modernos. La mayor parte de +los países gastan la mayor proporción de su presupuesto, y con mucho, en +escuelas. Los graduados fabricados con escuelas crean entonces una +demanda de otros servicios conspicuos de utilidad pública, tales como +potencia industrial, carreteras pavimentadas, hospitales modernos y +aeropuertos, y éstos crean a su vez un mercado para los bienes hechos +para países ricos y, al cabo de un tiempo, la tendencia a importar +fábricas anticuadas para producirlos. + +De todos los ``falsos servicios de utilidad pública'', la escuela es el +más insidioso. Los sistemas de carreteras producen sólo demanda de +coches. Las escuelas crean una demanda para el conjunto completo de +instituciones modernas que llenan el extremo derecho del espectro. A un +hombre que pusiera en duda la necesidad de carreteras se le tacharía de +romántico; al que ponga en tela de juicio la necesidad de escuelas se le +ataca de inmediato: un ser sin entrañas o un imperialista. + +\hypertarget{las-escuelas-como-falsos-servicios-de-utilidad-puxfablica}{% +\subsection{Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad +pública}\label{las-escuelas-como-falsos-servicios-de-utilidad-puxfablica}} + +Al igual que las carreteras, las escuelas dan a primera vista la +impresión de estar igualmente abiertas para todos los interesados. De +hecho están abiertas sólo para quienes renueven sin cejar sus +credenciales. Así como las carreteras crean la impresión de que su nivel +actual de costes anuales es necesario para que la gente pueda moverse, +así se supone que las escuelas son indispensables para alcanzar la +competencia que exige una sociedad que use la tecnología moderna. Hemos +expuesto las autopistas como servicios de utilidad pública espurios +observando cómo dependen de los automóviles privados. Las escuelas se +fundan en la hipótesis igualmente espuria de que el aprendizaje es el +resultado de la enseñanza curricular. + +Las carreteras son las consecuencias del deseo y la necesidad de +movilizarse que se pervierten para convertirlos en demanda de coches +privados. Las escuelas pervierten la natural inclinación a desarrollarse +y aprender convirtiéndola en demanda de instrucción. La demanda de una +madurez manufacturada es mucho más la abnegación de la actividad +iniciada por uno mismo que la demanda de bienes manufacturados. Las +escuelas no sólo están a la derecha de las carreteras y los coches, +tienen su lugar cerca del extremo del espectro institucional ocupado por +los asilos totales. Incluso los productores de recuentos de cuerpos +matan solamente cuerpos. Al hacer que los hombres abdiquen de la +responsabilidad de su propio desarrollo, la escuela conduce a muchos a +una especie de suicidio espiritual. + +Las carreteras las pagan en parte quienes las utilizan, puesto que los +peajes e impuestos al combustible se obtienen sólo de los conductores. +La escuela, en cambio, es un sistema perfecto de tributación regresiva, +en el que los privilegios cabalgan sobre el lomo de todo público +pagador. La escuela fija un gravamen por cabeza sobre la promoción. El +subconsumo de distancias recorridas por carretera no es nunca tan +costoso como el subconsumo de escolarización. El hombre que no posea un +coche en Los Ángeles posiblemente esté casi inmovilizado, pero si se +ingenia de algún modo para llegar a su lugar de trabajo, podrá conseguir +y conservar un empleo. El desertor escolar carece de vía alternativa. El +habitante suburbano en su Lincoln nuevo y su primo campesino que conduce +una vieja carcacha se aprovechan más o menos igual de la carretera, +aunque el vehículo del uno cueste 30 veces más que el del otro. El valor +de la escolarización de un hombre es función del número de años que ha +permanecido en escuelas y de la carestía de éstas. La ley no obliga a +conducir, en cambio obliga a ir a la escuela. + +El análisis de las instituciones según su actual emplazamiento en un +espectro continuo izquierda-derecha me permite esclarecer mi convicción +de que el cambio social fundamental debe comenzar con un cambio en la +conciencia que se tiene de las instituciones y explicar por qué la +dimensión de un futuro viable recae en el rejuvenecimiento del estilo +institucional. + +Durante la década 1960-1970, unas instituciones, nacidas en diversas +épocas después de la Revolución francesa, llegaron a su vejez; los +sistemas de escuelas públicas fundados en la época de Jefferson o de +Atatürk, junto con otros que se iniciaron después de la segunda Guerra +Mundial, se hicieron todos burocráticos, autojustificantes y +manipulativos. Lo mismo les ocurrió a los sistemas de seguridad social, +a los sindicatos, a las principales Iglesias y cuerpos diplomáticos, a +la atención de los ancianos y a los servicios funerarios. + +Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay un mayor parecido ente los sistemas +escolares de Colombia, Inglaterra, la Unión Soviética y Estados Unidos, +que entre las escuelas de este último de fines del siglo pasado y las de +hoy o las de Rusia en ese tiempo. Las escuelas son hoy obligatorias, sin +término definido y competitivo. Esa misma convergencia en el estilo +institucional afecta la atención médica, la comercialización, la +administración de personal y la vida política. Todos estos procesos +institucionales tienden a apilarse en el extremo manipulativo del +espectro. + +La consecuencia de esta convergencia de instituciones es la fusión de +burocracias mundiales. El estilo, el sistema de ordenamiento jerárquico +y la parafernalia (desde el libro de texto a la computadora) se +normalizan en los consejos de planificación de Costa Rica o de +Afganistán, según los modelos de Europa occidental. + +Las burocracias parecen centrarse en todas partes en la misma tarea: +promover el crecimiento de las instituciones de la derecha. Se ocupan de +la fabricación de cosas, la fabricación de normas rituales y la +fabricación ---y remodelación--- de la ``verdad ejecutiva'', la +ideología o el \emph{fiat} que establece el valor presente que debiera +atribuirse a lo que ellas producen. La tecnología proporciona a estas +burocracias un poder creciente a la mano derecha de la sociedad. La mano +izquierda parece marchitarse y no porque la tecnología sea menos capaz +de aumentar el ámbito de la actividad humana y de proporcionar tiempo +para el despliegue de la imaginación individual y para la creatividad +personal, sino porque ese uso de la tecnología no aumenta el poder de la +élite que la administra. El director de correos no tiene control sobre +el uso esencial de ese servicio; la telefonista o el directivo de la +compañía telefónica carecen de poder para impedir que se preparen +adulterios, asesinatos o subversiones usando sus líneas. + +En la elección entre la derecha y la izquierda institucional está en +juego la naturaleza misma de la vida humana. El hombre debe elegir entre +ser rico en cosas o tener libertad para usarlas. Debe elegir entre +estilos alternativos de vida y programas conexos de producción. + +Aristóteles ya había descubierto que ``hacer y actuar'' son diferentes, +y de hecho tan diferentes que lo uno jamás incluye lo otro. ``Porque ni +es el actuar una manera de hacer, ni el hacer una manera del verdadero +actuar. La arquitectura \emph{techne} es una manera de hacer\ldots{} dar +nacimiento a algo cuyo origen está en su hacedor y no en la cosa. El +hacer siempre tiene una finalidad que no es él mismo, y no así la +acción, puesto que la buena acción es en sí misma un fin. La perfección +en el hacer es un arte; la perfección en el actuar, una +virtud.''\footnote{\emph{Ética a Nicómaco} , 1140.} La palabra que +Aristóteles usó para hacer fue \emph{poesis} , y la que usó para actuar, +\emph{praxis}. El movimiento hacia la derecha de una institución indica +que se la está reestructurando para aumentar su capacidad de ``hacer'', +mientras que si se desplaza hacia la izquierda indica que se la está +reestructurando para permitir un mayor ``actuar'' o ``praxis''. La +tecnología moderna ha aumentado la capacidad del hombre para dejar a las +máquinas el ``hacer'' cosas y ha aumentado el tiempo que puede dedicar a +``actuar''. El ``hacer'' las cosas cotidianas imprescindibles ha dejado +de ocupar su tiempo. El desempleo es la consecuencia de esta +modernización: es la ociosidad del hombre para quien no hay nada que +``hacer'' y que no sabe cómo ``actuar''. El desempleo es la triste +ociosidad del hombre que, al revés de Aristóteles, cree que hacer cosas +o trabajar es virtuoso y que la ociosidad es mala. El desempleo es la +experiencia del hombre que ha sucumbido a la ética protestante. Según +Weber, el hombre necesita el ocio para poder trabajar. Según +Aristóteles, el trabajo es necesario para poder tener ocio. + +La tecnología proporciona al hombre tiempo discrecional que puede llenar +ya sea haciendo, ya sea actuando. Toda nuestra cultura tiene abierta +ahora la opción entre un triste desempleo o un ocio feliz. Depende del +estilo institucional que la cultura elija. Esta elección habría sido +inconcebible en una cultura antigua fundada en la agricultura campesina +o en la esclavitud. Ha llegado a ser inevitable para el hombre +posindustrial. + +Una manera de llenar el tiempo disponible es estimular mayores demandas +de consumo de bienes y, simultáneamente, de producción de servicios. Lo +primero implica una economía que proporciona una falange cada vez mayor +de cosas siempre novedosas que pueden hacerse, consumirse y someterse a +reciclaje. Lo segundo implica el vano intento de ``hacer'' acciones +virtuosas, haciendo aparecer como tales los productos de las +instituciones de ``servicios''. Esto conduce a la identificación de la +escolaridad con la educación, del servicio médico con la salud, de los +programas con la recreación, de la velocidad con la locomoción eficaz. +La primera opción lleva ahora el apodo de \emph{desarrollo.} + +La manera radicalmente alternativa de llenar el tiempo disponible +consiste en una gama limitada de bienes más durables y en proporcionar +acceso a instituciones que puedan aumentar la oportunidad y apetencia de +las acciones humanas recíprocas. + +Una economía de bienes duraderos es exactamente lo contrario de una +economía fundada en la obsolescencia programada. Una economía de bienes +duraderos significa una restricción en la lista de mercancías. Los +bienes habrían de ser de tal especie que diesen un máximo de oportunidad +para ``actuar'' en algo con ellos: artículos hechos para montarlos uno +mismo, para autoayudarse, para su reempleo y reparación. + +El complemento de una lista de bienes durables, reparables y +reutilizables no es un aumento de servicios producidos +institucionalmente, sino más bien una estructura institucional que +eduque constantemente en la acción, en la participación, en la +autoayuda. El movimiento de nuestra sociedad desde el presente ---en el +que todas las instituciones gravitan hacia una burocracia +posindustrial--- a un futuro de convivencialidad posindustrial ---en el +que la intensidad de la acción sería preponderante sobre la +producción--- debe comenzar con una renovación del estilo de las +instituciones de servicio y, antes que nada, por una renovación de la +educación. Un futuro deseable y factible depende de nuestra disposición +a invertir nuestro saber tecnológico en el desarrollo de instituciones +convivenciales. En el terreno de las investigaciones sobre educación, +esto equivale a exigir que se trastroquen las tendencias actuales. + +\hypertarget{compatibilidades-irracionales}{% +\section{Compatibilidades +irracionales}\label{compatibilidades-irracionales}} + +\footnote{Este capítulo fue presentado originalmente en una sesión de la + American Educational Research Association, en la ciudad de Nueva York, + el 6 de febrero de 1971.} Creo que la crisis contemporánea de la +educación nos obliga más bien a modificar la idea de un aprendizaje +públicamente prescrito y no los métodos usados para hacerlo cumplir. La +proporción de desertores ---especialmente de alumnos de los primeros +años de bachillerato y de maestros de primaria--- señala que las bases +están pidiendo un enfoque totalmente nuevo. Al ``practicante del aula'' +que se estima un profesor liberal se le ataca cada vez más por todos +lados. El movimiento pro escuela libre, que confunde disciplina con +adoctrinamiento, le ha adjudicado el papel de elemento destructivo y +autoritario. El tecnólogo educativo demuestra sostenidamente la +inferioridad del profesor para medir y modificar la conducta. Y la +administración escolar para la que trabaja lo obliga a inclinarse tanto +ante Summerhill como ante Skinner, poniendo en evidencia que el +aprendizaje obligatorio no puede ser una empresa liberal. No debe +asombrar que el índice de maestros desertores esté superando el de los +alumnos. + +El compromiso que Estados Unidos ha contraído de educar obligatoriamente +a sus menores se demuestra tan vano como el pretendido compromiso +norteamericano de democratizar obligatoriamente a los vietnamitas. Las +escuelas convencionales obviamente no pueden hacerlo. El movimiento pro +escuela libre seduce a los educadores no convencionales, pero en +definitiva lo hace en apoyo de la ideología convencional de la +escolarización. Y lo que prometen los tecnólogos de la educación, a +saber, que sus investigaciones y desarrollo ---si se les dota de fondos +suficientes--- pueden ofrecer alguna especie de solución final a la +resistencia de la juventud contra el aprendizaje obligatorio, suena tan +confiado y demuestra ser tan fatuo como las promesas hechas por los +tecnólogos militares. + +Las críticas dirigidas contra el sistema escolar estadunidense por parte +de los conductistas, y las que provienen de la nueva raza de educadores +raciales, parecen diametralmente opuestas. Los conductistas aplican las +investigaciones sobre educación a la ``inducción de instrucción +autotélica mediante paquetes de aprendizaje individualizados''. El +estilo conductista choca con la idea de hacer que los jóvenes ingresen +por voluntad propia en unas comunas liberadas que les invitan a +ingresar, las cuales estarían supervisadas por adultos. No obstante, +bajo una perspectiva histórica, ambas no son sino manifestaciones +contemporáneas de las metas, aparentemente contradictorias, pero en +verdad complementarias, del sistema escolar público. Desde los comienzos +de este siglo, las escuelas han sido protagonistas del control social +por una parte y de la cooperación libre por la otra, poniéndose ambos +aspectos al servicio de la ``buena sociedad'' a la que se concibe como +una estructura corporativa altamente organizada y de suave +funcionamiento. Sometidos al impacto de una urbanización intensa, los +niños se convierten en un recurso natural que las escuelas han de +moldear para luego alimentar la máquina industrial. Las políticas +progresistas y el culto a la eficiencia coincidieron con el crecimiento +de la escuela pública estadunidense.\footnote{Véase Joel Spring, + \emph{Education and the Rise of the Corporate State} , Cuaderno núm. + 50, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, México, 1971.} +La orientación vocacional y la \emph{junior highschool}\footnote{Equivalente + a los grados primero, segundo y tercero de secundaria, o los antiguos + tres primeros años de bachillerato ---cuando había seis---. (T.)} +fueron dos importantes resultados de este tipo de conceptos. + +Parece, por consiguiente, que el intento de producir cambios específicos +en el comportamiento, que puedan medirse y de los que pueda +responsabilizarse al encargado del proceso, es sólo el anverso de la +medalla, cuyo reverso es la pacificación de la nueva generación dentro +de enclaves especialmente proyectados que los inducirán a entrar en el +sueño de sus mayores. Estos seres pacificados en sociedad están bien +descritos por Dewey, quien quiere que ``hagamos de cada una de nuestras +escuelas una vida comunitaria en embrión, activa, con tipos de +ocupaciones que reflejen la vida de la sociedad en pleno, y la +\emph{impregnen} con el espíritu del arte, de la historia, de la +ciencia''. Bajo esta perspectiva histórica, sería un grave error +interpretar la actual controversia a tres bandas entre el +establecimiento escolar, los tecnólogos de la educación y las escuelas +libres como el preludio de una revolución en la educación. Esta +controversia refleja más bien una etapa de un intento para convertir a +grandes trancos un viejo sueño en hecho y convertir finalmente todo +aprendizaje valedero en el resultado de una enseñanza profesional. La +mayoría de las alternativas educativas propuestas convergen hacia metas +que son inmanentes a la producción del hombre cooperativo cuyas +necesidades individuales se satisfacen mediante su especialización en el +sistema estadunidense: están orientadas hacia el mejoramiento de lo que +yo llamo ---a falta de una mejor expresión--- la sociedad escolarizada. +Incluso los críticos aparentemente radicales del sistema escolar no +están dispuestos a abandonar la idea de que tienen una obligación para +con los jóvenes, especialmente para con los pobres, la obligación de +hacerlos pasar por el proceso, sea mediante amor o mediante odio, para +meterlos en una sociedad que necesita especialización disciplinada tanto +de sus productores como de sus consumidores y, asimismo, el pleno +compromiso de todos ellos con la ideología que antepone a todo el +crecimiento económico. + +La disensión enmascara la contradicción inherente a la idea misma de +escuela. Los sindicatos establecidos de profesores, los brujos de la +tecnología y los movimientos de liberación escolar refuerzan el +compromiso de la sociedad entera con los axiomas fundamentales de un +mundo escolarizado, más o menos del modo en que muchos movimientos +pacifistas y de protesta refuerzan el compromiso de sus miembros ---sean +negros, mujeres, jóvenes o pobres--- con la búsqueda de justicia +mediante el crecimiento del ingreso nacional bruto. + +Es fácil anotar algunos de los postulados que ahora pasan inadvertidos a +la crítica. En primer lugar está la creencia compartida de que la +conducta que se ha adquirido ante los ojos de un pedagogo es de especial +valor para el alumno y de especial provecho para la sociedad. Esto está +relacionado con el supuesto de que el hombre social nace sólo en la +adolescencia, y que nace adecuadamente sólo si madura en la +escuela-matriz, que algunos desean hacer dulce mediante el +\emph{laissez-faire,}\footnote{En francés, en el original.} otros +quieren llenar de artilugios mecánicos y unos terceros buscan barnizar +con una tradición liberal. Está finalmente una visión común de la +juventud, psicológicamente romántica y políticamente conservadora. Según +esta visión, los cambios de la sociedad deben llevarse a cabo agobiando +a los jóvenes con la responsabilidad de transformarla ---pero sólo +después de que en su momento se han liberado de la escuela---. Para una +sociedad fundada en tales postulados es fácil ir creando un sentido de +su responsabilidad respecto de la educación de la nueva generación, y +esto inevitablemente significa que algunos hombres pueden fijar, +especificar y evaluar las metas personales de otros. En un ``párrafo +tomado de una enciclopedia china imaginaria'' Jorge Luis Borges trata de +evocar el mareo que debe producir ese intento. Nos dice que los animales +están divididos en las clases siguientes: `` \emph{a)} pertenecientes al +Emperador, \emph{b)} embalsamados, \emph{c)} amaestrados, \emph{d)} +lechones, \emph{e)} sirenas, \emph{f)} fabulosos, \emph{g)} perros +sueltos, \emph{h)} incluidos en esta clasificación, \emph{i)} que se +agitan como locos, \emph{j)} innumerables, \emph{k)} dibujados con un +pincel finísimo de pelo de camello, \emph{l)} etcétera, \emph{m)} que +acaban de romper el jarrón, \emph{n)} que de lejos parecen moscas''. +Ahora bien, semejante taxonomía no aparece a menos que alguien estime +que puede servir para sus fines: en este caso, supongo, ese alguien era +un cobrador de impuestos. Para él, al menos, esta taxonomía bestiaria +\emph{tiene} que haber tenido sentido, tal como la taxonomía de +objetivos educativos tiene sentido para los autores científicos. + +La visión de hombres dotados de una lógica tan inescrutable, y +autorizados para evaluar su ganado, debe haber producido en el campesino +un helado sentimiento de impotencia. Los estudiantes, por motivos +parecidos, tienden a sentirse paranoicos cuando se someten seriamente a +un currículum. Inevitablemente se asustan aún más que mi imaginario +campesino chino, porque no es su ganado, sino sus objetivos vitales los +que están siendo marcados con un signo inescrutable. + +Este pasaje de Borges es fascinante, porque evoca la lógica de la +\emph{compatibilidad irracional} que hace a las burocracias de Kafka y +de Koestler tan siniestras y no obstante tan evocadoras de la vida +cotidiana. El encadenamiento implacable de las reglas parece embrujar a +quienes se vuelven cómplices de ellas y los empuja a hacer prueba de una +disciplina todavía más ciega. Es la lógica creada por la conducta +burocrática. Y se convierte en la lógica de una sociedad que exige que a +los administradores de sus instituciones educativas se les considere +públicamente responsables de la modificación del comportamiento que +producen en sus clientes. Los estudiantes a los que se puede motivar +para valorar los paquetes educativos que sus profesores les obligan a +consumir son comparables a los campesinos chinos que pueden ajustar sus +rebaños al formulario de impuestos que ofrece Borges. + +Durante el transcurso de las dos últimas generaciones triunfó en algún +momento en la cultura norteamericana un compromiso con la terapia, y +vino a considerarse a los profesores como los terapeutas cuyas recetas +todos los hombres necesitan, si es que desean gozar de la libertad y la +igualdad con las cuales, según la Constitución, han nacido. + +Ahora los profesores-terapeutas siguen adelante al proponer como paso +siguiente el tratamiento educativo vitalicio. El \emph{estudio} de este +tratamiento está sujeto a discusión: ¿debiera adoptar la forma de una +asistencia constante de los adultos al aula? ¿O la de éxtasis +electrónico? ¿O de sesiones periódicas de sensibilización? Todos los +educadores están prontos a conspirar para extender los muros del aula y +agrandarla, con la meta de transformar la cultura completa en una +escuela. + +Detrás de la retórica y del alboroto, la controversia sobre el futuro de +la educación que tiene lugar en Estados Unidos es más conservadora que +el debate en otros ámbitos de la política común. Respecto de las +relaciones exteriores, por lo menos, una minoría organizada nos recuerda +constantemente que el país debe renunciar a su papel de policía del +mundo. Los economistas radicales, y ahora incluso sus profesores, menos +radicales, ponen en duda la convivencia del crecimiento conjunto como +meta. Hay grupos de presión para favorecer la medicina preventiva y no +la curativa y otros propugnan por la fluidez en vez de la velocidad en +el transporte. Sólo en el ámbito de la educación permanecen dispersas +las voces articuladas que piden una desescolarización radical de la +sociedad. Existe una carencia de argumentación persuasiva y de un +liderazgo maduro encaminados a quitar el apoyo oficial a todas y cada +una de las instituciones que tienen por fin el \emph{aprendizaje} +obligatorio. Por el momento, la desescolarización radical de la sociedad +es todavía una causa sin partido. Esto sorprende especialmente en un +periodo de resistencia creciente, aunque caótica, a todas las formas de +instrucción planificada institucionalmente, por parte de los jóvenes de +12 a 17 años. + +Los innovadores educativos siguen suponiendo que las instituciones +educativas funcionan como embudos para los programas que ellos envasan. +Para los fines de mi argumento da lo mismo que estos embudos tengan la +forma de un aula, de un transmisor de televisión o de una ``zona +liberada''. Es igualmente ajeno al asunto si los envases suministrados +son ricos o pobres, calientes o fríos, duros y mensurables (como +Matemáticas III) o imposibles de evaluar (como la sensibilización). Lo +que interesa es que se suponga que la educación es el resultado de un +proceso institucional dirigido por el educador. Mientras las relaciones +continúen siendo aquellas que existen entre un proveedor y un +consumidor, el trabajo de investigación sobre educación continuará +siendo un proceso circular. Acumulará pruebas científicas en apoyo de la +necesidad de más paquetes educativos y del perfeccionamiento de los +métodos de entrega, tal como cierta rama de las ciencias sociales puede +probar la necesidad de acrecentar la distribución de los productos de la +institución militar. + +Una revolución educativa se apoya en una doble inversión: una nueva +orientación del trabajo de investigación y una nueva comprensión del +estilo educativo de una contracultura emergente. + +La investigación operativa trata ahora de optimizar la eficiencia de una +estructura heredada ---un marco de referencia que jamás se pone en tela +de juicio---. Este marco de referencia tiene la estructura sintáctica de +un embudo para paquetes de enseñanza. La alternativa sintáctica respecto +del mismo es una red o trama educativa para el montaje autónomo de +recursos bajo el control personal de cada aprendiz. Esta estructura +alternativa de una institución educativa yace ahora en el punto ciego +conceptual de nuestra investigación operativa. Si la investigación se +enfocara en él, ello constituiría una auténtica revolución científica. + +El punto ciego de los trabajos de investigación en educación refleja la +parcialidad cultural de una sociedad en la que el crecimiento +tecnológico se ha confundido con el control tecnocrático. Para el +tecnócrata, el valor de un entorno aumenta conforme pueda programarse un +mayor número de contactos entre un hombre y su medio ambiente. Es este +mundo, las elecciones abiertas para el observador o el planificador +deben estar acordes con los deseos de quienes están sometidos a una +observación y a quienes se denomina los ``beneficiarios''. La libertad +se reduce a la elección entre unas mercancías envasadas. + +La contracultura emergente afirma los valores del contenido semántico +por encima de la eficiencia de una sintaxis mayor y más rígida. Valora +la riqueza de la connotación por encima del poder de la sintaxis para +producir riquezas. Valora la consecuencia imprevisible de la instrucción +profesional. Esta reorientación hacia la sorpresa personal, y no hacia +los valores producidos por la institución, es capaz de perturbar el +orden establecido hasta que podamos separar la creciente disponibilidad +de las herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan el encuentro del +creciente control del tecnócrata sobre lo que ocurre cuando la gente se +reúne. + +Nuestras actuales instituciones educativas están al servicio de las +metas del profesor. Las estructuras de relación que necesitamos son las +que permitan a cada hombre definirse él mismo aprendiendo y +contribuyendo al aprendizaje de otros. + +\hypertarget{tramas-del-aprendizaje}{% +\section{Tramas del aprendizaje}\label{tramas-del-aprendizaje}} + +En un capítulo anterior examiné aquello que se está convirtiendo en una +queja común acerca de las escuelas una queja que se hace sentir por +ejemplo, en un informe reciente de la Carnegie Commission: en las +escuelas los alumnos matriculados se someten ante maestros diplomados a +fin de obtener sus propios diplomas; ambos quedan frustrados y ambos +culpan a los recursos insuficientes ---dinero, tiempo o edificios--- de +su mutua frustración. + +Una crítica semejante conduce a muchos a pensar si no será posible +concebir un estilo diferente de aprendizaje. Paradójicamente, si a esas +mismas personas se les insta a especificar cómo adquirieron lo que saben +y estiman, admitirán prontamente que con mayor frecuencia lo aprendieron +fuera y no dentro de la escuela. Su conocimiento de hechos, lo que +entienden de la vida y de su trabajo les vino de la amistad o del amor, +de leer, del ejemplo de sus iguales o de la incitación de un encuentro +callejero. O tal vez aprendieron lo que saben por medio del ritual de +iniciación de una pandilla callejera, de un hospital, de la redacción de +un periódico, de un taller de fontanería o de una oficina de seguros. La +alternativa a la dependencia respecto de las escuelas no es el uso de +recursos públicos para algún nuevo dispositivo que ``haga'' aprender a +la gente; es más bien la creación de un nuevo estilo de relación +educativa entre el hombre y su medio. Para propiciar este estilo será +necesaria una modificación de la idea que nos hacemos del crecimiento, +de los útiles necesarios para aprender y de la calidad y estructura de +la vida cotidiana. + +Las actitudes ya están cambiando. Ha desaparecido la orgullosa +dependencia respecto de la escuela. En la industria del conocimiento se +acrecienta la resistencia del consumidor. Muchos profesores y alumnos, +contribuyentes y patronos, economistas y policías, preferirían no seguir +dependiendo de las escuelas. Lo que impide que su frustración dé forma a +otras instituciones es una carencia no sólo de imaginación, sino +también, con frecuencia, de un lenguaje apropiado y de un interés +personal ilustrado. No pueden visualizar ya sea una sociedad +desescolarizada, ya sean unas instituciones educativas en una sociedad +que haya privado de apoyo oficial a la escuela. + +En este capítulo me propongo mostrar que lo contrario de la escuela es +posible: que podemos apoyarnos en el aprendizaje automotivado en vez de +contratar profesores para sobornar u obligar al estudiante a hallar el +tiempo y la voluntad de aprender, que podemos proporcionar al aprendiz +nuevos vínculos con el mundo en vez de continuar canalizando todos los +programas educativos por medio del profesor. Examinaré algunas de las +características que distinguen la escolarización del aprendizaje y +esbozaré cuatro categorías principales de instituciones que serían +atractivas no sólo para muchas personas, sino también para muchos grupos +de intereses comunes. + +\hypertarget{una-objeciuxf3n-a-quiuxe9n-pueden-servirle-unos-puentes-hacia-la-nada}{% +\subsection{Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la +nada}\label{una-objeciuxf3n-a-quiuxe9n-pueden-servirle-unos-puentes-hacia-la-nada}} + +Estamos acostumbrados a considerar las escuelas como una variable que +depende de la estructura política y económica. Si podemos cambiar el +estilo de la dirección política o promover los intereses de una clase u +otra, suponemos que el sistema escolar cambiará también. En cambio, las +instituciones educativas que propondré están ideadas para servir a una +sociedad que no existe ahora, aunque la actual frustración respecto de +las escuelas tiene en sí el potencial de una fuerza importante para +poner en movimiento un cambio hacia nuevas configuraciones sociales. +Contra este planteamiento se ha suscitado una objeción de peso: ¿por qué +canalizar energías para construir puentes hacia ninguna parte, en vez de +organizarlas primero para cambiar no las escuelas, sino el sistema +político y económico? + +No obstante, esta objeción subestima la naturaleza política y económica +del sistema escolar en sí, así como el potencial político inherente a +cualquier oposición eficaz a ella. + +En un sentido fundamental, las escuelas han dejado de ser dependientes +de la ideología profesada por cualquier gobierno u organización de +mercados. Otras instituciones pueden diferir de un país a otro: la +familia, el partido, la Iglesia, la prensa. Pero el sistema escolar +tiene por doquier la misma estructura, y en todas partes el currículum +oculto tiene el mismo efecto. De modo invariable, modela al consumidor +que valora los bienes institucionales sobre los servicios no +profesionales de un prójimo. + +El currículum oculto de la escolarización inicia en todas partes al +ciudadano en el mito de que algunas burocracias guiadas por el +conocimiento científico son eficientes y benevolentes. Por doquiera, +este mismo currículum inculca en el alumno el mito de que la mayor +producción proporcionará una vida mejor. Y por doquiera crea el hábito +---que se contradice a sí mismo--- de consumo de servicios y de +producción enajenante, la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional y +el reconocimiento de los escalafones institucionales. El currículum +oculto sustenta la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional, el +reconocimiento por los profesores y cualquiera que sea la ideología +preponderante. + +En otras palabras, las escuelas son fundamentalmente semejantes en todos +los países, sean éstos fascistas, democráticos o socialistas, grandes o +pequeños, ricos o pobres. La identidad del sistema escolar nos obliga a +reconocer la profunda identidad en todo el mundo, del mito, del modo de +producción y del método de control social, pese a la gran variedad de +mitologías en las cuales encuentra expresión el mito. + +En vista de esta identidad, es ilusorio pretender que las escuelas son, +en algún sentido profundo, unas variables dependientes. Esto significa +que esperar un cambio social o económico concebido convencionalmente, es +también una ilusión. Más aún, esta ilusión concede a la escuela ---el +órgano de reproducción de la sociedad de consumo--- una inmunidad casi +indiscutida. + +Al llegar a este punto es cuando adquiere importancia el ejemplo de +China. Durante tres milenios, China protegió el aprendizaje superior por +medio de un divorcio total entre el proceso del aprendizaje y el +privilegio conferido por los exámenes para optar a altos cargos +públicos. Para llegar a ser una potencia mundial y una nación-Estado +moderno, China tuvo que adoptar el estilo internacional de +escolarización. Sólo una mirada retrospectiva nos permitirá descubrir si +la Gran Revolución Cultural resultará haber sido el primer intento +logrado de desescolarizar las instituciones de la sociedad. + +Incluso la creación a retazos de nuevos organismos educativos que fuesen +lo inverso de la escuela sería un ataque sobre el eslabón más sensible +de un fenómeno ubicuo, el cual es organizado por el Estado en todos los +países. Un programa político que no reconozca explícitamente la +necesidad de la desescolarización no es revolucionario; es demagogia que +pide más de lo mismo. Todo programa político importante de esta década +debiera medirse con este rasero: ¿hasta dónde es claro afirmar la +necesidad de la desescolarización ---y qué directrices ofrece para +asignar la calidad educativa de la sociedad hacia la cual se +encamina---? + +La lucha contra el dominio que ejercen el mercado mundial y la política +de las grandes potencias puede estar fuera del alcance de ciertas +comunidades o países pobres, pero esta debilidad es una razón más para +hacer hincapié en la importancia que tiene liberar a cada sociedad +mediante una inversión de su estructura educativa, cambio este que no +está más allá de los medios de ninguna sociedad. + +\hypertarget{caracteruxedsticas-generales-de-unas-nuevas-instituciones-educativas-formales}{% +\subsection{Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones +educativas +formales}\label{caracteruxedsticas-generales-de-unas-nuevas-instituciones-educativas-formales}} + +Un buen sistema educativo debería tener tres objetivos: proporcionar a +todos aquellos que lo quieren el acceso a recursos disponibles en +cualquier momento de sus vidas; dotar a todos los que quieran compartir +lo que saben del poder de encontrar a quienes quieran aprender de ellos, +y, finalmente, dar a todo aquel que quiera presentar al público un tema +de debate la oportunidad de dar a conocer su argumento. Un sistema como +éste exigiría que se aplicaran a la educación unas garantías +constitucionales. Los aprendices no podrían ser sometidos a un +currículum obligatorio o a una discriminación fundada en la posesión o +carencia de un certificado o diploma. Ni se obligaría tampoco al público +a mantener, mediante una retribución regresiva, un gigantesco aparato +profesional de educadores y edificios que de hecho disminuye las +posibilidades que el público tiene de acceder a los servicios que la +profesión está dispuesta a ofrecer en el mercado. Debería usar la +tecnología moderna para lograr que la libre expresión, la libre reunión +y la prensa libre fuesen universales y, por consiguiente, plenamente +educativas. + +Las escuelas están proyectadas a partir del supuesto de que cada cosa en +la vida tiene un secreto; de que la calidad de la vida depende de +conocer ese secreto; de que los secretos pueden conocerse en ordenadas +sucesiones, y de que sólo los profesores pueden revelar adecuadamente +esos secretos. Una persona de mente escolarizada concibe el mundo como +una pirámide de paquetes clasificados accesible sólo a aquellos que +llevan los rótulos apropiados. Las nuevas instituciones educativas +destrozarían esta pirámide. Su propósito debe ser facilitar el acceso al +aprendiz, permitirle mirar al interior de la sala de control o del +parlamento, si no puede entrar por la puerta. Además, esas nuevas +instituciones deberían ser canales a los que el aprendiz tuviese acceso +sin credenciales ni títulos de linaje ---espacios públicos en los que +iguales y mayores situados fuera de su horizonte inmediato se harían +accesibles---. + +Pienso que no más de cuatro ---y posiblemente hasta tres--- ``canales'' +distintos o centros de intercambio podrían contener todos los recursos +necesarios para el aprendizaje real. El niño crece en un mundo de cosas, +rodeado de personas que sirven de modelos para habilidades y valores. +Encuentra seres como él, sus iguales, que le incitan a discutir, a +competir, a cooperar, a entender, y si el niño es afortunado, se ve +expuesto a la confrontación o a la crítica de un mayor experimentado que +realmente se preocupe. Cosas, modelos, iguales y mayores son cuatro +recursos, cada uno de los cuales requiere un tipo diferente de +ordenamiento para asegurar que todos tengan acceso a él. + +Usaré las palabras ``trama de oportunidad'' en vez de ``red'' para +designar las maneras específicas de proporcionar acceso a cada uno de +los cuatro conjuntos de recursos. Desafortunadamente, ``red'' se emplea +con frecuencia para designar los canales reservados a los materiales +seleccionados por terceros para el adoctrinamiento, la instrucción y la +recreación. Pero también puede usarse para los servicios postal o +telefónico, que son primariamente accesibles para personas que quieren +enviarse mensajes entre sí. Ojalá tuviésemos otra palabra para designar +tales estructuras reticulares a fin de tener un acceso recíproco, una +palabra que no evocase tanto una trampa, menos degradada por el uso +corriente, y que sugiriese más el hecho de que cualquier ordenamiento de +esta especie abarca aspectos legales, organizativos y técnicos. No +habiendo hallado dicho término, trataré de redimir el único disponible, +usándolo como sinónimo de ``trama educativa''. + +Lo que se precisa son nuevas redes, de la cuales el público pueda +disponer fácilmente y que estén concebidas para difundir una igualdad de +oportunidades para aprender y enseñar. + +Para dar un ejemplo: en la televisión y en los magnetófonos se usa el +mismo nivel de tecnología. Todos los países latinoamericanos han +introducido la televisión: en Bolivia, el gobierno financió una estación +transmisora de televisión, que se construyó hace siete años, y no hay +más de 7 000 televisores para cuatro millones de ciudadanos. El dinero +empozado hoy en instalaciones de televisión por toda América Latina +podría haber dotado de magnetófonos a un ciudadano de cada cinco. +Además, el dinero habría bastado para proporcionar un número casi +ilimitado de cintas grabadas, con puestos de entrega incluso en aldeas +perdidas, como también para un amplio suministro de cintas no grabadas. + +Esta red de magnetófonos sería, por supuesto, radicalmente diferente de +la red actual de televisión. Proporcionaría oportunidades a la libre +expresión: letrados y analfabetos podrían, por igual, registrar, +preservar, difundir y repetir sus opiniones. La inversión actual en +televisión, en cambio, proporciona a los burócratas, sean políticos o +educadores, el poder de rociar el continente con programas producidos +institucionalmente, que ellos ---o sus patrocinadores--- deciden que son +buenos para el pueblo o que éste los pide. + +\hypertarget{cuatro-redes}{% +\subsection{Cuatro redes}\label{cuatro-redes}} + +El planteamiento de nuevas instituciones educativas no debiera comenzar +por las metas administrativas de un rector director, ni por las metas +pedagógicas de un educador profesional, ni por las metas de aprendizaje +de una clase hipotética de personas. No debe iniciarse con la pregunta: +``¿Qué debiera aprender alguien?'', sino con la pregunta: ``¿Con qué +tipos de cosas y personas podrían querer ponerse en contacto los que +buscan aprender a fin de aprender?'' + +Alguien que quiera aprender sabe que necesita tanto información como +reacción crítica respecto del uso de esta información por parte de otra +persona. La información puede almacenarse en personas y en cosas. En un +buen sistema educativo el acceso a las cosas debiera estar disponible +con sólo pedirlo el aprendiz, mientras el acceso a los informantes +requeriría además el conocimiento de terceros. La crítica puede asimismo +provenir de dos direcciones: de los iguales o de los mayores, esto es, +de compañeros de aprendizaje cuyos intereses inmediatos concuerden con +los míos, o de aquellos que me concederán una parte de su experiencia +superior. Los iguales pueden ser colegas con quienes suscitar un debate, +compañeros para una caminata o lectura juguetona y deleitable (o ardua), +retadores en cualquier clase de juegos. Los mayores pueden ser asesores +acerca de qué destreza aprender, qué método usar, qué compañía buscar en +un momento dado. Pueden ser guías respecto a la pregunta correcta que +hay que plantear entre iguales y a la deficiencia de las respuestas a +que lleguen. La mayoría de estos recursos son abundantes. Pero +convencionalmente ni se les percibe como recursos educativos, ni es +fácil el acceso a ellos para fines de aprendizaje, especialmente para +los pobres. Debemos idear nuevas estructuras de relación que se monten +con el deliberado propósito de facilitar el acceso a estos recursos para +el uso de cualquiera que esté motivado a buscarlos para su educación. +Para montar estas estructuras tramadas se requieren disposiciones +administrativas, tecnológicas y especialmente legales. + +Los recursos educativos suelen rotularse según las metas curriculares de +los educadores. Propongo hacer lo contrario, y rotular cuatro enfoques +diferentes que permitan al estudiante conseguir el acceso a cualquier +recurso educativo que pueda ayudarle a definir y lograr sus propias +metas: + +\emph{1}. Servicios de referencia respecto de Objetos Educativos. Que +faciliten el acceso a cosas o procesos usados para el aprendizaje +formal. Algunas de estas cosas pueden reservarse para ese fin, +almacenadas en bibliotecas, agencias de alquiler, laboratorios y salas +de exposición, tales como museos y teatros; otras pueden estar en uso +cotidiano en fábricas, aeropuertos o puestas en granjas, pero a +disposición de estudiantes como aprendices o en horas de descanso. + +\emph{2}. Servicios de habilidades. Que permitan a unas personas hacer +una lista de sus habilidades, las condiciones según las cuales están +dispuestas a servir de modelos a otros que quieran aprender esas +habilidades y las direcciones en que se les puede hallar. + +\emph{3}. Servicio de búsqueda de Compañero. Una red de comunicaciones +que permita a las personas describir la actividad de aprendizaje a la +que desean dedicarse, con la esperanza de hallar un compañero para la +búsqueda. + +\emph{4}. Servicios de referencia respecto de Educadores Independientes, +los cuales pueden figurar en un catálogo que indique las direcciones y +las descripciones ---hechas por ellos mismos--- de profesionales, +paraprofesionales e independientes, conjuntamente con las condiciones de +acceso a sus servicios. Tales educadores, como veremos, podrían elegirse +mediante encuestas o consultando a sus clientes anteriores. + +\hypertarget{servicios-de-referencia-respecto-de-objetos-educativos}{% +\subsection{Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos +educativos}\label{servicios-de-referencia-respecto-de-objetos-educativos}} + +Las cosas son recursos básicos para aprender. La calidad del entorno y +la relación de una persona con él determinarán cuánto aprenderá +incidentalmente. El aprendizaje formal exige el acceso especial a cosas +corrientes, por una parte o, por la otra, el acceso fácil y seguro a +cosas especiales hechas con fines educativos. Un ejemplo del primer caso +es el derecho especial a hacer funcionar o a desarmar una máquina en un +garaje. Un ejemplo del segundo caso es el derecho general a usar un +ábaco, una computadora, un libro, un jardín botánico o una máquina +retirada de la producción y puesta a plena disposición de unos +estudiantes. + +En la actualidad, la atención se centra en la disparidad entre niños +ricos y pobres en cuanto a su acceso a cosas y en la manera en que +pueden aprender de ellas. La OEO\footnote{Office of Economic + Opportunity, organismo oficial en Estados Unidos. (T.)} y otros +organismos, siguiendo este planteamiento, se concentran en igualar las +posibilidades de cada cual, tratando de proveer de un mayor instrumental +educativo a los pobres. Un punto de partida más radical sería reconocer +que, en la ciudad, a ricos y pobres se les mantiene igualmente alejados +de manera artificial de las cosas que los rodean. Los niños nacidos en +la era de los plásticos y de los expertos en eficiencia deben traspasar +dos barreras que obstaculizan sus entendimientos: una incorporada a las +cosas y la otra construida en torno a las instituciones. El diseño +industrial crea un mundo de cosas que ofrecen resistencia a la +comprensión de su naturaleza interna, y las escuelas tapian al aprendiz +respecto del mundo de las cosas en su escenario significativo. + +Después de una breve visita a Nueva York, una mujer de una aldea +mexicana me dijo que le había impresionado que las tiendas vendiesen +``solamente productos muy maquillados con cosméticos''. Entendí que ella +quería decir que los productos industriales ``hablan'' a sus clientes +acerca de sus encantos y no acerca de su naturaleza. La industria ha +rodeado a la gente de artefactos hechos de manera que sólo a los +especialistas les está permitido entender su mecanismo interno. Al no +especialista que intenta hacer marchar el reloj o hacer sonar el +teléfono o hacer funcionar la máquina de escribir, se le desalienta con +la advertencia de que se romperá si lo intenta. Puede que se le diga qué +hace funcionar un radio de transistores, pero no puede descubrirlo por +sí mismo. Este tipo de diseño tiende a reforzar una sociedad no +inventiva, en la que los expertos encuentran cada vez más fácil +esconderse detrás de su pericia y más allá de una evaluación. + +El entorno creado por el hombre ha llegado a ser tan inescrutable como +la naturaleza lo es para el primitivo. Al mismo tiempo, los materiales +educativos los ha monopolizado la escuela. Los objetos educativos +simples han sido costosamente empacados por la industria del +conocimiento. Se han convertido en herramientas especializadas para los +educadores profesionales, y se ha inflado su coste al obligarles a +estimular ya sea entornos, ya sea profesores. + +El profesor es celoso del libro de texto al que define como su +instrumento profesional. El estudiante puede llegar a odiar el +laboratorio porque lo asocia con tareas escolares. El administrador +racionaliza su actitud protectora hacia la biblioteca como una defensa +de un instrumental público costoso contra quienes quisieran jugar con +ella más bien que aprender. En esta atmósfera, el estudiante usa con +excesiva frecuencia el mapa, el laboratorio, la enciclopedia o el +microscopio sólo en los escasos momentos en que el currículum le dice +que debe hacerlo. Incluso los grandes clásicos se convierten en arte de +la ``novatada'' universitaria, en vez de señalar una nueva dirección en +la vida de una persona. La escuela aparta las cosas del uso cotidiano al +rotularlas como instrumentos educativos. + +Para que podamos desescolarizar será preciso invertir ambas tendencias. +El entorno físico general debe hacerse accesible, y aquellos recursos +físicos de aprendizaje que han sido reducidos a instrumentos de +enseñanza deben llegar a estar disponibles para el aprendizaje +autodirigido. Usar cosas sólo como partes de un currículum puede tener +un efecto incluso peor que apartarlas del entorno general. Puede +corromper las actitudes de los alumnos. + +Los juegos son un caso de este tipo. No me refiero a los ``juegos'' del +departamento de educación física (tales como el futbol o el baloncesto), +que las escuelas usan para generar ingresos y prestigio y en los que han +hecho sustanciosas inversiones de capital. Como lo saben muy bien los +mismos atletas, estas empresas, que adoptan la forma de torneos +guerreros, han minado el aspecto juguetón de los deportes y se usan para +reforzar la naturaleza competitiva de las escuelas. Hablo más bien de +los juegos educativos que pueden proporcionar una manera singular de +entender los sistemas formales. Un amigo mío fue a un mercado mexicano +con un juego llamado \emph{Wff'n Proff} , que consta de varios dados en +los que están impresos 12 símbolos lógicos. Mostró a unos niños qué +combinaciones formaban una frase bien hecha ---unas dos o tres de las +muchas posibles--- e, inductivamente, al cabo de la primera hora, +algunos mirones también captaron el principio. A las pocas horas, +jugando pruebas lógicas formales, algunos niños eran capaces de iniciar +a otros en las pruebas formales de la lógica de proposiciones. Los otros +simplemente se fueron. + +Para algunos niños dichos juegos son en efecto una forma especial de +liberar la educación, puesto que les permite descubrir que los sistemas +formales se fundan en axiomas mutables y que las operaciones +conceptuales tienen un carácter lúdico. Son asimismo simples, baratos y +en buena parte pueden organizarlos los jugadores mismos. Cuando se usan +fuera del currículum, tales juegos dan una oportunidad para identificar +y desarrollar el talento poco común, mientras que el psicólogo escolar +identificará a menudo a quienes posean dicho talento como a personas en +peligro de llegar a ser antisociales, enfermas o desequilibradas. Dentro +de la escuela, cuando se usan en forma de torneos, a los juegos no sólo +se les saca de la esfera de la recreación, a menudo se convierten en +instrumentos para transformar al alumno juguetón en un espíritu +competitivo y la falta de razonamiento abstracto en signo de +inferioridad. Un ejercicio que para ciertos tipos de carácter es +liberador, se convierte en camisa de fuerza para otros. + +El control de la escuela sobre el instrumental educativo tiene además +otro efecto. Aumenta enormemente el coste de esos materiales baratos. +Una vez que su uso se restringe a unas horas programadas, se paga a +profesionales que supervisen su adquisición, almacenamiento y uso. +Entonces los estudiantes descargan su rabia contra la escuela sobre el +instrumental, que es preciso adquirir nuevamente. + +Algo paralelo a la intocabilidad de los útiles educativos es la +impenetrabilidad de la moderna chatarra. En la década de 1930 cualquier +muchacho que se respetara sabía reparar un automóvil, pero ahora los +fabricantes de coches multiplican los alambres y apartan los manuales de +todo el que no sea un mecánico especializado. En un periodo anterior un +radio viejo contenía suficientes bobinas y condensadores como para +construir un transmisor que hiciera chillar por realimentación a todos +los radios del vecindario. Los radios de transistores son más +portátiles, pero nadie se atreve a desarmarlos. En los países altamente +industrializados sería inmensamente difícil cambiar esto, pero al menos +en los países del Tercer Mundo debemos insistir en ciertas cualidades +educativas incorporadas al objeto. + +Para ilustrar mi argumento, permítaseme presentar un modelo: gastando 10 +millones de dólares sería posible conectar 40 000 aldeas de un país como +Perú mediante una telaraña de pistas de un metro ochenta de ancho y +mantenerlas funcionando; además, dotar al país de 200 000 burros +mecánicos de tres ruedas ---cinco por aldea como promedio---. Pocos +países pobres de ese tamaño gastan menos de esa cantidad cada año en +coches y caminos, cuyo uso, el de ambos, se limita principalmente a los +ricos y a sus empleados, mientras la gente pobre queda atrapada en sus +aldeas. Cada uno de estos pequeños vehículos, simples pero duraderos, +equipados con un motor de seis caballos de fuerza, costaría 125 dólares. +Un ``burro'' podría andar a 24 kilómetros por hora, y trasladaría cargas +de unos 400 kilogramos (es decir, la mayoría de las cosas que suelen +moverse, aparte de troncos y vigas de acero). + +El atractivo político que dicho sistema de transporte tendría para el +campesinado es obvio. Igualmente obvio es el motivo por el cual quienes +detentan el poder ---y por tanto poseen, automáticamente, un coche--- no +están interesados en gastar dinero en pistas semejantes y en obstruir +los caminos con burros motorizados. El burro universal podría funcionar +sólo si los dirigentes de un país impusieran un límite de, digamos, 40 +kilómetros por hora y adaptaran sus instituciones públicas a ese límite. +El modelo no podría funcionar si estuviese concebido sólo como un +parche. + +No es éste el lugar apropiado para examinar en detalle la factibilidad +política, social, económica, financiera y técnica de este modelo. Deseo +solamente indicar que los considerandos educativos pueden ser de +primordial importancia cuando se elige una alternativa semejante frente +a un transporte que usa relativamente más capital que mano de obra. +Aumentando el coste unitario de cada burro 20\% se haría posible +planificar la producción de todas sus piezas de modo que, hasta donde +fuera posible, cada futuro dueño pasase de uno a dos meses haciendo y +entendiendo su máquina y fuese capaz de repararla. Con este coste +adicional sería asimismo posible descentralizar la producción en +fábricas dispersas. Las ventajas adicionales provendrían no sólo de +incluir los costes educativos en el proceso de construcción. Más +significativo todavía, un motor duradero que prácticamente cualquiera +podría aprender a reparar y que podría usar como arado y como bomba +aquel que lo entendiera, produciría unos beneficios educativos mucho más +elevados que los inescrutables motores de los países avanzados. + +No sólo la chatarra, sino los lugares presuntamente públicos de la +ciudad moderna se han vuelto impenetrables. En la sociedad estadunidense +se excluye a los niños de la mayoría de las cosas y lugares con el +argumento de que son privados. Pero incluso en las sociedades que han +declarado el fin de la propiedad privada se aparta a los niños de las +mismas cosas y lugares porque estos últimos se consideran un ámbito +especial y peligroso para el no iniciado. A partir de la pasada +generación el patio de los ferrocarriles se hizo tan inaccesible como el +cuartel de bomberos. Sin embargo, con un poco de ingenio no sería +difícil eliminar los peligros en esos lugares. El desescolarizar los +artefactos de la educación haría necesario poner a disposición los +artefactos y procesos ---y reconocer su valor educativo---. Algunos +trabajadores, sin duda, encontrarían molesto hacerlos accesibles a los +aprendices, pero esta molestia debe valorarse comparándola con las +ventajas educativas. + +Los automóviles privados podrían desterrarse de Manhattan. Hace cinco +años esto era impensable. Ahora, ciertas calles de Nueva York se cierran +a ciertas horas, y esta tendencia probablemente continuará. De hecho, la +mayoría de las calles transversales deberían cerrarse al tránsito +automotriz y el estacionamiento debería prohibirse en todas partes. En +una ciudad abierta al pueblo, los materiales de enseñanza, que ahora se +encierran en almacenes y laboratorios, podrían diseminarse en depósitos +abiertos a la calle y gestionarse de manera independiente para que los +adultos y los niños pudiesen visitarlos sin peligro de que los +atropellen. + +Si las metas de la educación ya no estuviesen dominadas por las escuelas +y los maestros de escuela, el mercado para los aprendices sería mucho +más variado y la definición de ``artefactos educativos'' sería menos +restrictiva. Podría haber talleres de herramientas, bibliotecas, +laboratorios y salas de juegos. Los laboratorios fotográficos y prensas +offset permitirían el florecimiento de diarios vecinales. Algunos +centros de aprendizaje abiertos a la calle podrían contener cabinas para +mirar programas de televisión en circuito cerrado, otros podrían poseer +útiles de oficina para usar y para reparar. Los tocadiscos del tipo +tragamonedas y de tipo corriente serían de uso diario, especializándose +algunos en música clásica, otros en melodías folclóricas +internacionales, otros en jazz. Las filmotecas competirían entre sí y +con la televisión comercial. Los locales de museos abiertos al público +podrían ser redes para poner en circulación muestras de arte antiguo y +moderno, originales y reproducciones, tal vez administradas por los +diversos museos metropolitanos. + +El personal profesional necesario para esta red se parecería mucho más a +unos custodios, guardias de museo o bibliotecarios de servicio público +que a unos profesores. Desde la tienda de biología de la esquina podrían +dirigir a sus clientes a la colección de caracoles del museo o +señalarles cuándo habría una exhibición de videocintas de biología en +determinadas cabinas de televisión. Podrían dar indicaciones para el +control de plagas, dietas y otras clases de medicina preventiva. Podrían +remitir a quienes necesitaran consejos a ``mayores'' que pudiesen +proporcionarlo. + +El financiamiento de una red de ``objetos de aprendizaje'' puede +encararse de dos maneras. Una comunidad podría fijar un presupuesto +máximo para este fin y disponer que todas las partes de la red +estuviesen abiertas a todos los visitantes a ciertas horas razonables. O +bien la comunidad podría decidir proporcionar a los ciudadanos unos +bonos o derechos limitados, según sus edades, que les darían acceso +especial a ciertos materiales costosos y escasos, dejando en cambio +otros materiales más simples a disposición de todos. + +Encontrar recursos para materiales hechos específicamente para educar es +sólo un aspecto ---y tal vez el menos costoso--- de la construcción de +un mundo educativo. El dinero que hoy se gasta en la parafernalia +sagrada del ritual escolar podría liberarse para proporcionar a todos +los ciudadanos un mejor acceso a la vida real de la ciudad. Podrían +otorgarse incentivos tributarios especiales a quienes emplearan niños de +ocho a 14 años durante un par de horas diarias si las condiciones de +empleo fuesen humanas. Deberíamos volver a la tradición de la \emph{bar +mitzvah} o de la confirmación. Quiero decir con esto que debiéramos +primero restringir y luego eliminar la privación de derechos y deberes +civiles de los menores, y permitir que un muchacho de 12 años llegue a +ser plenamente responsable de su participación en la vida de la +comunidad. Muchas personas de ``edad escolar'' saben más acerca de su +vecindario que los trabajadores sociales o los concejales. Naturalmente +que hacen también preguntas más incómodas y proponen soluciones que +amenazan a la burocracia. Debería permitírseles llegar a la mayoría de +edad de modo que pusieran sus conocimientos y capacidad de indagación al +servicio de un gobierno popular. + +Hasta hace poco era fácil subestimar los peligros de la escuela en +comparación con los peligros de un periodo de aprendizaje en la policía, +en el cuerpo de bomberos o en la industria del espectáculo. Este +argumento deja de ser válido con gran frecuencia. Visité recientemente +una iglesia metodista de Harlem ocupada por un grupo de los llamados +\emph{Young Lords} como protesta por la muerte de Julio Rodan, un +muchacho puertorriqueño al que se encontró ahorcado en su celda +carcelaria. Yo conocía a los líderes del grupo, que habían pasado un +semestre en Cuernavaca. Cuando me sorprendí al no hallar a uno de ellos, +Juan, en el grupo, me dijeron: ``Volvió a la heroína y a la Universidad +del Estado''. + +Para desencadenar el potencial educativo encerrado en la gigantesca +inversión de nuestra sociedad en instalaciones y útiles pueden usarse el +planteamiento, los incentivos y la legislación. No existirá el acceso +pleno a los objetos educativos mientras se permita a empresas +comerciales conjugar las defensas legales que la Carta Fundamental +reserva a la vida privada de las personas con el poder económico que les +confieren sus millones de clientes y miles de empleados, accionistas y +proveedores. Una parte considerable de los conocimientos prácticos y +teóricos del mundo y la mayoría de sus procesos y equipos de producción +están encerrados entre los muros de firmas comerciales, apartados de sus +clientes, empleados y accionistas, como también del público en general, +cuyas leyes e instalaciones les permiten funcionar. El dinero que se +gasta en publicidad en los países capitalistas podrían canalizarse hacia +la educación en y por parte de la General Electric, NBC-TV o cervezas +Budweiser. Es decir, las fábricas y oficinas deberían reorganizarse de +forma tal que su funcionamiento cotidiano fuese más accesible al público +y de maneras que hiciesen posible el aprendizaje, y, en verdad, podrían +hallarse modos de pagar a las compañías lo que la gente aprendiese en +ellas. + +Es posible que un conjunto de objetos e informaciones científicas aún +más valioso esté apartado del acceso general ---e incluso de los +científicos competentes--- bajo el pretexto de la seguridad nacional. +Hasta hace poco la ciencia era el único foro que funcionaba como el +sueño de un anarquista. Cada hombre capaz de realizar investigaciones +tenía más o menos las mismas oportunidades que otros en cuanto a acceso +a su instrumental y a ser escuchado por la comunidad de iguales. Ahora +la burocratización y la organización han puesto a gran parte de la +ciencia fuera del alcance del público. En efecto, lo que solía ser una +red internacional de información científica ha sido escindida en una lid +de grupos competidores. Tanto a los miembros como a los artefactos de la +comunidad científica se les ha encerrado en programas nacionales y +corporativos para logros prácticos y para el radical empobrecimiento de +los hombres que mantienen estas naciones y corporaciones. + +En un mundo que controlan y poseen naciones y compañías, nunca será +posible sino un acceso limitado a los objetos educativos. Pero un mejor +acceso a aquellos objetos que pueden compartirse para fines educativos +puede ilustrarnos lo suficiente como para traspasar estas barreras +políticas finales. Las escuelas públicas transfieren el control sobre +los usos educativos de los objetos de manos privadas a manos +profesionales. La inversión institucional de las escuelas podría dar al +individuo el poder de volver a exigir el derecho a usarlos para su +educación. Si el control privado o corporativo sobre el aspecto +educativo de las ``cosas'' se lograse extinguir gradualmente, podría +comenzar a aparecer un tipo de propiedad realmente pública. + +\hypertarget{servicios-de-habilidades}{% +\subsection{Servicios de habilidades}\label{servicios-de-habilidades}} + +Al revés de lo que ocurre con una guitarra, a un profesor de ese +instrumento no se le puede clasificar en un museo, ni lo puede poseer el +público, ni se le puede tomar en alquiler en un almacén de elementos +educativos. Los profesores de habilidades pertenecen a una clase de +recursos que es diferente de la de los objetos necesarios para aprender +una habilidad. Esto no quiere decir que sean indispensables en todos los +casos. Puedo alquilar no sólo una guitarra, sino también lecciones de +guitarra grabadas en cintas y gráficos que ilustren los acordes, y con +estos elementos puedo enseñarme yo mismo a tocar la guitarra. De hecho, +este sistema puede presentar ventajas si las cintas disponibles son +mejores que los profesores disponibles, o si las únicas horas en que +puedo aprender guitarra son nocturnas o si las melodías que quiero +interpretar son desconocidas en mi país o si soy tímido y prefiero meter +la pata sin testigos. + +El canal que se usa para registrar a los profesores de habilidades y +comunicarse con ellos debe ser diferente al descrito para objetos. Una +cosa está disponible a petición del usuario ---o podría estarlo--- +mientras una persona llega formalmente a ser una fuente de enseñanza de +habilidades sólo cuando considere serlo y pueda asimismo restringir la +ocasión, el lugar y el método a su tamaño. + +Es también necesario distinguir a los profesores de los iguales de los +que uno desearía aprender. Los iguales que desean seguir una búsqueda +común deben partir de capacidades o intereses comunes; se juntan para +ejercitar o mejorar una habilidad que comparten: baloncesto, baile, +construcción de un campamento, debate sobre las próximas elecciones. Por +otra parte, la primera transmisión de una habilidad supone el reunir a +alguien que posea una destreza con alguien que no la posea y quiera +adquirirla. + +Un ``modelo de habilidad'' es una persona que posee una habilidad y está +dispuesta a demostrar su práctica. Frecuentemente el aprendiz en +potencia precisa el recurso de una demostración de esta clase. Los +inventos modernos nos permiten registrar demostraciones en cinta, en +película o en gráficos; no obstante, sería de esperar que la +demostración personal continuase gozando de gran demanda, especialmente +en las habilidades de comunicación. En nuestro Centro, en Cuernavaca, +han aprendido español unos 10 000 adultos ---en su mayoría personas muy +motivadas que deseaban obtener una cuasi-fluidez en un segundo +idioma---. Cuando se les plantea la elección entre una instrucción +cuidadosamente programada en un laboratorio de idiomas o sesiones +rutinarias con otros dos estudiantes y una persona cuyo idioma nativo es +el español y que se ciñe a una rutina rígida, la mayoría prefiere la +segunda alternativa. + +Respecto de la mayor parte de las habilidades ampliamente compartidas, +que una persona demuestre su habilidad es el único recurso humano que +llegamos a necesitar u obtener. Ya sea para hablar o para conducir, para +cocinar o para usar equipos de comunicaciones, a menudo apenas nos damos +cuenta de la instrucción y el aprendizaje formales, especialmente +después de nuestra primera experiencia con los materiales en cuestión. +No veo razón por la cual no pudiesen aprenderse de igual manera otras +habilidades complejas, tales como los aspectos mecánicos de la cirugía, +tocar el violín, leer o usar listas y catálogos. + +Un estudiante bien motivado que no lucha contra una desventaja +determinada a menudo no necesita más ayuda humana que la que puede +proporcionar alguien que puede demostrar a quien lo solicite cómo hacer +lo que el aprendiz quiere hacer. Aquello de insistir a personas diestras +en que antes de demostrar su habilidad certifiquen que son pedagogos es +el resultado de la insistencia de una de dos alternativas: o que la +gente aprenda lo que no quiere saber, o bien que todos ---incluso +quienes sufren de alguna desventaja especial--- aprendan ciertas cosas, +en un momento dado de sus vidas, y preferentemente en circunstancias +específicas. + +Lo que crea una escasez de habilidades en el mercado educativo de hoy es +el requisito institucional de que quienes pueden demostrarlas no pueden +hacerlo a menos de otorgárseles pública confianza por medio de un +certificado. Insistimos en que aquellos que ayudan a terceros a adquirir +una habilidad habrían de saber también diagnosticar las dificultades de +aprendizaje y ser capaces de motivar a la gente a aprender habilidades. +En resumen, les exigimos ser pedagogos. Habría abundancia de personas +que pueden demostrar habilidades tan pronto aprendiéramos a reconocerlas +fuera de la profesión de la enseñanza. + +Cuando se está enseñando a unos principitos, es comprensible, aunque ha +dejado de ser justificable, la insistencia de sus padres en que el +profesor y la persona dotada de habilidades se conjuguen en una misma +persona. Pero el que todos los padres aspiren a tener un Aristóteles +para su Alejandro es obviamente insostenible. Las personas que pueden +inspirar a los estudiantes y demostrar una técnica son tan escasas, y +tan difíciles de reconocer, que hasta los principitos consiguen con +mayor frecuencia un sofista y no un verdadero filósofo. + +Una demanda de habilidades escasas puede satisfacerse rápidamente aun +cuando hay un número pequeño de personas que las demuestren, pero debe +facilitarse el acceso a dichas personas. Durante la década de 1940-1950, +los reparadores de radios, la mayoría de los cuales no estudiaron su +trabajo en escuelas, penetraron en el interior de América con no más de +dos años de retraso respecto a la llegada de los radios a la región. +Permanecieron allí hasta que los radios de transistores, baratos e +imposibles de reparar, los dejaron cesantes. Las escuelas técnicas no +logran realizar lo que algunos reparadores de radios podrían hacer sin +problemas: restauraciones útiles y duraderas. + +Ciertos intereses privados y convergentes conspiran hoy para impedir que +una persona comparta su habilidad. A quien posee la habilidad le +beneficia su escasez y no su reproducción. Al maestro que se especializa +en transmitir la habilidad le beneficia la renuencia del artesano a +ofrecer su propio taller para aprendices. Al público se le adoctrina con +la creencia de que las habilidades son valiosas y de fiarse sólo si son +el resultado de una escolarización formal. El mercado de trabajo depende +de hacer escasas las habilidades y de mantenerlas escasas, ya sea +proscribiendo su uso a transmisión no autorizada, o bien haciendo cosas +que puedan operar y reparar sólo quienes tengan acceso a herramientas o +informaciones que se mantienen en déficit. + +De este modo, las escuelas producen escasez de personas especializadas. +Un buen ejemplo de esto es el número decreciente de enfermeras en +Estados Unidos, debido al rápido aumento de programas universitarios de +cuatro años en ese ramo. Las mujeres de familias más pobres que +anteriormente se habrían alistado en un programa de dos o tres años, se +han alejado por completo de dicha profesión. + +Otra manera de mantener la escasez de habilidades es insistir en +maestros diplomados. Si se alentara a las enfermeras a adiestrar a otras +enfermeras, y si a las enfermeras se les empleara de acuerdo con su +habilidad demostrada para poner inyecciones, trazar gráficos y dar +medicinas, pronto se terminaría la escasez de enfermeras capacitadas. +Los certificados tienden hoy a coartar la libertad de la educación al +convertir el derecho civil de compartir conocimientos en el privilegio +de la libertad académica que ahora se confiere sólo a los empleados de +alguna escuela. Para garantizar el acceso a un intercambio eficaz de +habilidades necesitamos leyes que generalicen la libertad académica. El +derecho a enseñar cualquier habilidad debería estar amparado por la +libertad de expresión. Una vez que se eliminen las restricciones sobre +la enseñanza, pronto desaparecerán también las relativas al aprendizaje. + +El profesor de habilidades necesita algún incentivo para otorgar sus +servicios a un alumno. Hay por lo menos dos maneras sencillas de +comenzar a canalizar fondos públicos hacia profesores no diplomados. Una +sería institucionalizar los servicios de habilidades mediante la +creación de centros de habilidades, libres y abiertos al público. Dichos +centros podrían y deberían establecerse en zonas industriales, al menos +para habilidades que son un requisito indispensable para ingresar en +ciertos noviciados o aprendizajes ---habilidades tales como la lectura, +la mecanografía, la contabilidad, los idiomas extranjeros, la +programación de computadoras y la manipulación de números, la lectura de +lenguajes especiales (como el de los circuitos eléctricos), la +manipulación de ciertas máquinas, etc.---. Otro planteamiento sería +proporcionar a ciertos grupos de la población una moneda educativa +válida para asistir a centros de habilidades en los que otros clientes +habrían de pagar tarifas comerciales. + +Un planteamiento mucho más radical consistiría en crear un ``banco'' +para el intercambio de habilidades. A cada ciudadano se le abriría un +crédito básico con el que pudiese adquirir habilidades fundamentales. +Luego, se beneficiaría con créditos adicionales enseñando, ya fuera en +centros de habilidades organizados, en casa o sobre la marcha. Sólo +aquellos que hubiesen enseñado a otros durante un lapso equivalente +podrían solicitar el tiempo de profesores más avanzados. Se promovería +una élite enteramente nueva, una élite formada por quienes hubiesen +ganado su educación compartiéndola. + +¿Deberían los padres tener el derecho a ganar crédito educativo para sus +hijos? Como una disposición de este tipo daría nuevas ventajas a las +clases privilegiadas, podría compensarse otorgando un crédito mayor a +los desfavorecidos. El funcionamiento de un servicio de habilidades +dependería de la existencia de organismos que facilitarían el desarrollo +de información ---listas de personas--- y asegurarían su uso libre y +barato. Dicho organismo podría proporcionar servicios auxiliares de +prueba y certificación y ayudaría a poner en vigor la legislación +necesaria para quebrar e impedir las prácticas monopólicas. + +La libertad de un servicio universal de habilidades podría estar +garantizada fundamentalmente por leyes que permitiesen la discriminación +sólo de acuerdo con habilidades verificadas y no según el historial +educativo. Una garantía semejante requiere inevitablemente un control +público sobre las pruebas que puedan usarse para determinar quiénes +están capacitados para el mercado laboral. De otra manera sería posible +reintroducir subrepticiamente complejas baterías de \emph{test} en el +lugar mismo de trabajo que servirían para selección social. Mucho podría +hacerse a fin de lograr objetividad en las pruebas de competencia en +habilidades, como por ejemplo permitir que se comprobara sólo el manejo +de máquinas o sistemas específicos. Las pruebas de mecanografía (en las +que se mediría la velocidad, el número de errores y se valoraría el +saber tomar dictados), el dominio de un sistema contable o de una grúa +hidráulica, la codificación en Cobol,\footnote{Lenguaje usado en + informática para fines comerciales. (T.)} etc., pueden fácilmente +hacerse objetivas. + +De hecho, muchas de las verdaderas habilidades de importancia práctica +pueden verificarse de ese modo. Y para los fines de administración de +personal es mucho más útil una prueba sobre el nivel presente de +competencia en determinada habilidad que la información sobre el hecho +de que 20 años atrás una persona dejó satisfecho a su profesor respecto +de un currículum en el que se enseñaba mecanografía, taquigrafía y +contabilidad. Naturalmente puede ponerse en duda la necesidad misma de +una comprobación oficial de habilidades: yo tengo la convicción de que +el hecho de imponer ciertas restricciones constituye una mejor garantía +para el derecho que un hombre tiene a que su reputación no sufra daños +indebidos provenientes de una rotulación, que la garantía lograda al +prohibir pruebas de competencia. + +\hypertarget{servicio-de-buxfasqueda-de-compauxf1ero}{% +\subsection{Servicio de búsqueda de +compañero}\label{servicio-de-buxfasqueda-de-compauxf1ero}} + +En el peor de los casos, las escuelas reúnen condiscípulos en la misma +habitación y los someten a la misma secuencia de tratamiento en +matemáticas, educación cívica y lenguaje. En el mejor, permiten a cada +estudiante elegir un curso de entre un número limitado de ellos. En +cualquier caso, se forman grupos de iguales en torno a las metas de los +profesores. Un sistema conveniente de educación permitiría a cada +persona especificar la actividad para la cual busca un compañero. + +La escuela ofrece efectivamente a los niños una oportunidad para escapar +de sus casas y encontrar nuevos amigos. Pero al mismo tiempo, este +proceso inculca en ellos la idea de que deberían elegir sus amigos entre +aquellos con quienes han sido congregados. El invitar a los menores +desde su más tierna infancia a conocer, evaluar y buscar a otros los +prepararía para mantener durante toda su vida el interés por buscar +nuevos asociados para nuevos empeños. + +A un buen jugador de ajedrez siempre le gusta hallar un buen adversario, +y a un novato le alegra hallar otro. Los clubes les sirven para este +fin. Las personas que quieren conversar sobre determinados libros o +artículos probablemente pagarían por hallar compañeros de debate. Los +que quieren practicar juegos, ir de excursión, construir estanques para +peces o motorizar bicicletas se tomarán molestias considerables para +hallar compañeros para ello. El premio de sus esfuerzos es encontrar +esos compañeros. Las buenas escuelas tratan de poner al descubierto los +intereses comunes de los estudiantes matriculados en los mismos +programas. Lo inverso de la escuela sería una institución que aumentase +las posibilidades de que las personas que en un determinado momento +compartiesen el mismo interés específico, pudiesen encontrarse +independientemente de que tuviesen otra cosa en común. + +La enseñanza de habilidades no proporciona beneficios iguales a ambas +partes, como lo hace la reunión de iguales. Tal como he señalado, al +profesor de habilidades debe ofrecérsele algún otro incentivo aparte de +las satisfacciones de enseñar. La enseñanza de habilidades es un asunto +de repetir una y otra vez ciertas rutinas y de hecho es más tediosa para +los alumnos que más la necesitan. Un servicio de habilidades necesita +dinero o créditos u otros incentivos tangibles para funcionar, aun +cuando el servicio mismo produjese su propia moneda. Un sistema de +búsqueda de compañero no precisaría tales incentivos, sino sólo una red +de comunicaciones. + +Las cintas, los sistemas de informática, la instrucción programada y la +reproducción de formas y de sonidos tienden a disminuir la necesidad de +recurrir a profesores humanos para muchas habilidades; aumentan la +eficiencia de los profesores y el número de habilidades que uno puede +conseguir a lo largo de su vida. Paralelamente a este aspecto se ha +creado la necesidad creciente de encontrarse con gente interesada en +disfrutar de la habilidad recientemente adquirida. Una estudiante que +haya aprendido griego antes de sus vacaciones querrá conversar en griego +sobre política cretense cuando regrese. Un mexicano de Nueva York quiere +hallar a otros lectores de la revista \emph{Siempre!} o de \emph{Los +Agachados} , la más popular de las historietas. Algún otro quiere +encontrar compañeros que, como él, desearían aumentar su interés en la +obra de James Baldwin o de Bolívar. + +El funcionamiento de una red para búsqueda de compañeros sería simple. +El usuario se identificaría por su nombre y dirección y describiría la +actividad para la cual estuviese buscando compañero. Una computadora le +remitiría los nombres y direcciones de todos aquellos que hubiesen +introducido la misma descripción. Es asombroso que un servicio público +tan sencillo no se haya usado nunca en gran escala para actividades de +valor público. + +En su forma más rudimentaria, la comunicación entre cliente y +computadora podría establecerse por correo. En las grandes ciudades, +unas máquinas de escribir conectadas a una computadora podrían +proporcionar respuestas instantáneas. La única manera de conseguir que +la computadora entregase un nombre y dirección sería anotar una +actividad para la cual se buscase un compañero. Las personas que +utilizasen el sistema llegarían a ser conocidas únicamente por sus +posibles compañeros de actividad. + +Un complemento de la computadora podría ser una red de pizarras o +cuadros de anuncios y de avisos clasificados de periódico, consistentes +en listas de actividades para las cuales no se hubiese hallado compañero +mediante la computadora. No sería necesario dar nombres. Los lectores +interesados introducirían entonces sus nombres en el sistema. Es posible +que un sistema de búsqueda de compañero, con patrocinio público, sea la +única manera de garantizar la libertad de reunión y de adiestrar a la +gente en el ejercicio de esta actividad cívica tan fundamental. + +El derecho a la libre reunión ha sido reconocido políticamente y +aceptado socialmente. Deberíamos entender ahora que este derecho está +restringido por leyes que hacen obligatorias ciertas formas de reunión. +Éste es en particular el caso de las instituciones que reclutan según +edad, clase o sexo, y que consumen muchísimo tiempo. El ejército es un +ejemplo. La escuela es otro aún más ofensivo. + +Desescolarizar significa abolir el poder de una persona para obligar a +otra a asistir a una reunión. Significa también reconocer el derecho de +cualquier persona, de cualquier edad o sexo, a convocar una reunión. +Este derecho se ha visto drásticamente disminuido por la +institucionalización de las reuniones. ``Reunión'' se refería +originalmente al resultado del acto individual de juntarse. Ahora se +refiere al producto institucional de algún organismo. + +La capacidad de las instituciones de servicio para adquirir clientes ha +sobrepasado con mucho la capacidad de las personas para ser oídas con +independencia de los medios de información institucional, que reaccionan +ante personas individuales sólo si son noticias vendibles. Deberían +existir servicios de búsqueda de compañero para personas que quisiesen +reunir a otras, de modo que fuese tan fácil como la campana de la aldea +que convocaba a los aldeanos a un cabildo. Los edificios escolares +---dudosamente adaptables para otros fines--- podrían cumplir en muchos +casos este objetivo. + +De hecho, el sistema escolar puede encontrarse pronto con un problema +que las Iglesias han enfrentado anteriormente: qué hacer con el espacio +sobrante que ha quedado con la defección de los fieles. Las escuelas son +difíciles de vender como templos. Una manera de continuar manteniéndolas +en uso sería entregar esos edificios al vecindario. Cada cual podría +manifestar lo que haría en el aula y cuándo, y algunos anuncios pondrían +los programas disponibles en conocimiento de quien indagara. El acceso a +``clase'' sería gratis ---o se compraría con bonos educativos---. El +``profesor'' podría incluso pagarse según el número de alumnos que +atrajese por cualquier periodo completo de dos horas. Me imagino que los +líderes muy jóvenes y los grandes educadores serían los dos tipos de +persona más destacados en semejante sistema. Podría seguirse igual +planteamiento respecto de la educación superior. Podría dotarse a los +estudiantes de bonos educativos que los hicieran acreedores a 10 horas +anuales de consulta con el profesor de su elección y, para el resto de +su aprendizaje, se apoyaría en la biblioteca, la red para búsqueda de +compañeros y los periodos de aprendiz. + +Naturalmente, debemos reconocer la probabilidad de que se abuse de esos +dispositivos públicos de búsqueda para fines inmorales y de explotación, +tal como se ha abusado de los teléfonos y del correo. Se requeriría +cierta protección semejante a la que se usa para esas redes. En otras +páginas he propuesto un sistema de búsqueda de compañero que permitiría +usar sólo una información impresa pertinente, más el nombre y la +dirección del averiguador. Un sistema de esta especie sería +prácticamente a prueba de abusos. Otra medida sería permitir que se +agregase cualquier libro, película, programa de televisión u otro +artículo que figurase en un catálogo especial. La preocupación acerca de +los peligros del sistema no debe hacernos perder de vista sus +beneficios, tanto mayores. + +Algunos que comparten mi preocupación por la libertad de expresión y la +reunión alegarán que el sistema de búsqueda de compañero es un medio +artificial de juntar personas y que no lo utilizarían los pobres ---que +son quienes más lo necesitan---. Hay personas que auténticamente se +alborotan cuando uno sugiere montar encuentros \emph{ad hoc} que no +tengan su raíz en la vida de una comunidad local. Otros reaccionan +cuando uno sugiere usar una computadora para entresacar y conjuntar +intereses que algunos clientes del sistema hayan definido. No es posible +reunir a las personas de una manera tan impersonal, dicen. La búsqueda +en común debe estar arraigada en una historia de experiencias +compartidas a muchos niveles, y debe nacer de esta experiencia ---el +desarrollo de instituciones vecinales, por ejemplo---. + +Simpatizo con estas objeciones, pero creo que no comprenden el verdadero +sentido de lo que persigo y no dan tampoco con lo que ellos mismos +persiguen. En primer lugar, el retorno a la vida vecinal como centro +primario de expresión creativa podría de hecho ser contraproducente para +volver a establecer los vecindarios como unidades políticas. Centrar las +demandas sobre el barrio o vecindario podría, en efecto, descuidar un +importante aspecto liberador de la vida urbana ---el que una persona +pueda participar simultáneamente en varios grupos de sus iguales---. +Además, existe un sentido importante: personas que jamás han vivido +juntas en una comunidad física pueden tener ocasionalmente muchas más +experiencias por compartir que quienes se han conocido desde la +infancia. Las grandes religiones han reconocido siempre la importancia +de estos encuentros lejanos, y los fieles han hallado siempre libertad +mediante ellos: los peregrinajes, el monacato y el mutuo apoyo de +templos y santuarios son reflejos de este reconocimiento. La conjunción +de iguales podría ayudar significativamente a hacer explícitas las +numerosas comunidades en potencia, aunque reprimidas, que existen en la +ciudad. + +Las comunidades locales son valiosas. Son también una realidad que se +desvanece conforme los hombres dejan que las instituciones definan cada +vez más sus círculos de relación social. En un libro reciente, Milton +Kotler mostró que el imperialismo del ``centro'' de la ciudad priva al +barrio de su significación política. El intento proteccionista de +resucitar la barriada como unidad cultural sólo sirve de apoyo a este +imperialismo burocrático. Lejos de apartar artificialmente a la gente de +su contexto local para unirla con grupos abstractos, el servicio de +búsqueda de compañero alentaría un renacer de la vida local en las +ciudades de las cuales está desapareciendo hoy en día. Un hombre que +recupere su iniciativa para llamar a sus prójimos a sostener una +conversación significativa, puede dejar de conformarse con estar +separado de ellos por el protocolo oficinesco o por la etiqueta +suburbana. Habiendo visto por una vez que el hacer cosas en conjunto +depende del decidir hacerlo, la gente posiblemente insista incluso en +que su comunidad local se haga más abierta al intercambio político +creativo. + +Debemos reconocer que la vida urbana tiende a hacerse inmensamente +costosa conforme a los habitantes de la ciudad se les enseña a confiar +en complejos servicios institucionales para satisfacer cada una de sus +necesidades. Es extraordinariamente costoso incluso mantenerla en un +nivel mínimo de habitabilidad. El servicio de búsqueda de compañero de +aprendizaje en la ciudad podría ser un primer paso para romper la +dependencia de los ciudadanos respecto de servicios burocráticos. + +Sería también una medida esencial para proporcionar nuevos medios de +establecer la confianza pública. En una sociedad escolarizada hemos +llegado a confiar cada día más en el juicio profesional de educadores +sobre el efecto de su propia labor para decidir en quién podemos o no +confiar: vamos al médico, al abogado o al psicólogo porque confiamos en +que cualquiera que ha tenido la cantidad requerida de tratamiento +educativo especializado a manos de otros colegas merece nuestra +confianza. + +En una sociedad desescolarizada, los profesionales ya no pueden reclamar +la confianza de sus clientes a partir de su historial curricular o +asegurar su prestigio con sólo remitir a sus clientes a otros +profesionales que dieron aprobación a su escolarización. En vez de +depositar su confianza en profesionales, debería ser posible, en +cualquier momento, que cualquier presunto cliente consultase con otros +clientes experimentados sobre la calidad del servicio prestado por un +profesional mediante otra red de comunicación de intereses comunes +fácilmente montada en una computadora o mediante muchos otros medios. +Podría considerarse a tales redes como servicios de utilidad pública que +permitiesen a los estudiantes elegir a sus profesores o a los pacientes, +sus médicos. + +\hypertarget{educadores-profesionales}{% +\subsection{Educadores profesionales}\label{educadores-profesionales}} + +Conforme los ciudadanos tengan nuevas posibilidades de elección, nuevas +posibilidades de aprendizaje, su disposición a buscar directivos debiera +aumentar. Podemos contar con que experimentarán más hondamente tanto su +propia independencia como su necesidad de guía. Conforme estén liberados +de la manipulación por parte de terceros, debieran aprender a +beneficiarse de la disciplina que otros han adquirido durante toda su +vida. El desescolarizar la educación debiera más bien aumentar, y no +ahogar, la búsqueda de hombres de sabiduría práctica que estuviesen +dispuestos a apoyar al recién llegado en su aventura educativa. Conforme +los maestros en su arte abandonan la pretensión de ser informantes +superiores o modelos de habilidades, comenzará a parecer verdadera la +sabiduría superior que parecen poseer. + +Al aumentar la demanda de maestros debiera aumentar también la oferta. +Conforme se desvanezca el maestro de escuela, se suscitarán condiciones +que harán aparecer la vocación del educador independiente. Esto puede +parecer casi contradictorio; a tal punto han llegado a ser +complementarios escuelas y profesores. Sin embargo éste es exactamente +el resultado a que tendería el desarrollo de los primeros servicios +educativos ---y lo que se precisaría para hacer posible el aprovecharlos +plenamente---, pues los padres y otros ``educadores naturales'' +necesitan un guía, las personas que aprenden necesitan ayuda, y las +redes necesitan personas que las hagan funcionar. + +Los padres necesitan orientación para dirigir a sus hijos por el camino +que conduce a la independencia educativa responsable. Los aprendices +necesitan líderes experimentados cuando se topan con un terreno arduo. +Estas dos necesidades son muy distintas: la primera es una necesidad de +pedagogía, la segunda una necesidad de dirección intelectual en todas +las demás ramas del conocimiento. La primera exige conocimiento del +aprendizaje humano y de los recursos educativos, la segunda exige +sabiduría fundada en la experiencia en cualquier clase de exploración. +Ambos tipos de experiencia son indispensables para una empresa educativa +eficaz. Las escuelas envasan estas funciones en un solo papel ---y hacen +que el ejercicio independiente de cualquiera de ellas se vuelva, si no +algo lleno de desdoro, al menos sospechoso---. + +De hecho deberían distinguirse tres tipos de competencia educativa +especial: una, crear y manejar los tipos de servicios o redes educativas +esbozadas aquí; otra, guiar a estudiantes y padres en el uso de estas +redes, y una tercera, actuar como \emph{primus inter pares} al emprender +difíciles viajes de exploración intelectual. Sólo las dos primeras +pueden concebirse como ramas de una profesión independiente: +administradores educativos y consejeros pedagógicos. No se precisaría +mucha gente para proyectar y gestionar las redes que he estado +describiendo, pero sí gente con un profundo entendimiento de la +educación y la administración, con una perspectiva muy diferente y hasta +opuesta a la de las escuelas. + +Si bien una profesión educativa independiente de esta especie daría la +bienvenida a muchas personas que las escuelas excluyen, excluiría +asimismo a muchas que las escuelas declaran aptas. El establecimiento y +gestión de redes educativas precisaría de algunos proyectistas y +administradores, pero no en la cantidad ni del tipo que exige la +administración de escuelas. La disciplina estudiantil, las relaciones +públicas, la contratación, supervisión y despido de profesores no +tendrían lugar ni equivalente en las redes que he estado describiendo. +Tampoco la creación de currícula, la compra de libros de texto, el +entretenimiento de lugares e instalaciones, ni la supervisión de +competencias atléticas interescolares. La custodia de niños, el +planteamiento de lecciones y la anotación de datos archivables, que +ocupan ahora tanto tiempo de los profesores, tampoco figurarían en la +gestión de las redes educativas. En cambio, para el funcionamiento de +las tramas de aprendizaje se necesitarían algunas de las habilidades y +actitudes que se esperan actualmente del personal de un museo, de una +biblioteca, de una agencia para contratación de directivos o de un +\emph{maître d'hôtel}.\footnote{En el francés, en el original.} + +Los administradores educativos de hoy en día se preocupan de controlar a +profesores y estudiantes de modo que queden satisfechos unos terceros +---fideicomisarios, legislaturas y jefes de empresas---. Los +constructores y administradores de las redes antedichas tendrían que +demostrar tener genio para ponerse a sí mismos y a terceras personas +donde no estorbasen a la gente, para facilitar encuentros entre +estudiantes, modelos de habilidades, líderes educativos y objetos +educativos. Muchas de las personas a las que hoy atrae la enseñanza son +profundamente autoritarias y no serían capaces de hacerse cargo de esta +tarea: construir servicios o bolsas de intercambio educativo +significaría facilitar a la gente ---en especial a los jóvenes--- el ir +en pos de metas que pudieren contradecir los ideales del gerente que +hiciese posible tal empeño. + +Si pudiesen hacer su aparición las redes que he descrito, el recorrido +educativo que siguiese cada estudiante sería cosa suya o propia, y sólo +mirado retrospectivamente podría adquirir las características de un +programa reconocible. El estudiante sensato buscaría periódicamente el +consejo profesional: ayuda para fijarse una nueva meta, comprensión +penetrante de las dificultades habidas, elección entre algunos métodos +posibles. Incluso ahora, la mayoría de las personas admitirán que los +servicios importantes que les prestaron sus profesores fueron consejos o +asesoramiento de esta especie, dados en una reunión casual o durante una +conversación personal. En un mundo desescolarizado, los pedagogos +también harían valer sus métodos y serían capaces de realizar aquello +que los profesores frustrados pretenden emprender hoy en día. + +Mientras los administradores de redes se concentrarían principalmente en +la construcción y el mantenimiento de cambios que dieran acceso a +recursos, el pedagogo ayudaría al estudiante a hallar el sendero que le +pudiese conducir a mayor velocidad hacia su meta. Si un estudiante +quisiese aprender cantonés hablado de un vecino chino, el pedagogo +estaría a mano para juzgar el aprovechamiento y pericia de ambos y para +ayudarles a elegir el libro de texto y los métodos más adecuados para +sus talentos, caracteres y tiempo disponible para estudiar. Podría +aconsejar al mecánico de aviación en ciernes sobre los mejores lugares +para practicar como aprendiz. Podría recomendar libros o alguno que +quisiese hallar compañeros con garra para debatir sobre historia de +África. Al igual que el administrador de redes, el consejero pedagógico +se vería a sí mismo como un educador profesional. El acceso a cualquiera +de ambos podrían lograrlo las personas usando sus bonos educativos. + +El papel del iniciador o líder educativo, del maestro o ``verdadero'' +líder es algo más elusivo que el de administrador profesional o de +pedagogo. Esto se debe a que el liderazgo es en sí algo difícil de +definir. En la práctica, una persona es un líder si la gente sigue su +iniciativa y se convierten en aprendices de sus descubrimientos +progresivos. Esto frecuentemente presupone una visión profética de +normas enteramente nuevas ---muy comprensibles en el presente--- en las +cuales el ``error'' actual se convertirá en ``acierto''. En una sociedad +que respetaría el derecho a convocar asambleas a través del sistema de +búsqueda de compañero, la capacidad de tomar la iniciativa educativa +sobre un tema específico sería tan amplia como el acceso mismo al +aprendizaje. Pero, naturalmente, hay una enorme diferencia entre la +iniciativa que toma alguien para convocar una provechosa reunión para +debatir este ensayo y la capacidad de alguien para servir de líder en la +exploración sistemática de sus implicaciones. + +El liderazgo tampoco depende del hecho de estar en lo cierto. Tal como +señala Thomas Kuhn, en un periodo de paradigmas en constante variación, +la mayoría de los más distinguidos líderes tiene la probabilidad de +haber incurrido en error cuando se someten a una prueba retrospectiva. +La condición de líder intelectual se funda en una disciplina intelectual +y una imaginación superiores, y en la disposición a asociarse con otros +en el ejercicio de aquéllas. Por ejemplo, el aprendiz puede pensar que +existe una analogía entre el Movimiento Antiesclavista de Estados Unidos +o la Revolución cubana y lo que está ocurriendo en Harlem. El educador +que sea al mismo tiempo historiador podría mostrarle cómo advertir las +fallas de dicha analogía. Puede recorrer de nuevo su camino como +historiador. Puede invitar al aprendiz a participar en las +investigaciones que realice. En ambos casos iniciará a su alumno en el +aprendizaje de un arte crítico ---que es escaso en la escuela--- y que +no puede comprarse ni con dinero ni con favores. + +La relación entre maestro y discípulo no se limita a la disciplina +intelectual. Tiene su equivalente en las artes, en física, en religión, +en psicoanálisis y en pedagogía. Encaja en el montañismo, en la platería +y en política, en ebanistería y en administración de personal. Lo que es +común en todas las verdaderas relaciones maestro-discípulo es el hecho +de que ambos tienen conciencia de que su mutua relación es literalmente +inapreciable y de maneras muy diferentes constituye un privilegio para +ambos. + +Los charlatanes, los demagogos, los proselitistas, los maestros +corrompidos, los sacerdotes simoniacos, los pillos, los taumaturgos y +los mesías han demostrado ser capaces de asumir el papel de líderes y +han demostrado así los peligros que para un discípulo tiene la +dependencia respecto del maestro. Las diversas sociedades han adoptado +diversas medidas para protegerse de estos maestros falsificados. Los +hindúes se apoyaron en el sistema de castas. Los judíos orientales, en +la condición de discípulo espiritual de los rabinos, los grandes +periodos de la cristiandad en una vida ejemplar de virtud monástica, y +otros periodos en el orden jerárquico. Nuestra sociedad confía en los +certificados dados por escuelas. Es dudoso que ese procedimiento +constituya una criba más eficaz, pero si se pretendiese que lo es, +podría alegarse en contra que lo hace al costo de casi hacer desaparecer +la condición de discípulo personal. + +En la práctica el límite entre el profesor de habilidades y los líderes +educadores antes señalados será siempre confuso, y no hay razones +prácticas para que no pueda lograrse el acceso a ciertos líderes +descubriendo al ``maestro'' en el profesor rutinario que inicia a unos +estudiantes en su disciplina. + +Por otra parte, lo que caracteriza la verdadera relación +maestro-discípulo es su carácter de inapreciable. Aristóteles dice de +ella: ``Es un tipo de amistad moral, no fundada en términos fijos: hace +un regalo, o hace lo que hace, como a un amigo''. Tomás de Aquino dice +de este tipo de enseñanza que inevitablemente es un acto de amor y de +compasión. Este tipo de enseñanza es siempre un lujo para el profesor y +una forma de recreación (en griego, \emph{schole}) para él y para su +discípulo: una actividad significativa para ambos, sin propósito +ulterior. + +Contar con que haya personas dotadas dispuestas a proveer una auténtica +dirección intelectual es obviamente necesario incluso en nuestra +sociedad, pero podría dictarse como norma ahora. Debemos construir +primero una sociedad en la cual los actos profesionales mismos recuperen +un valor más elevado que el de hacer cosas y manipular gente. En una +sociedad así, la enseñanza exploratoria, inventiva, creativa, se +contaría lógicamente entre las formas más elevadas del ``ocio''. Pero no +es necesario esperar hasta el advenimiento de la utopía. Incluso ahora, +una de las consecuencias más importantes de la desescolarización y del +establecimiento de sistemas para búsqueda de compañero sería la +iniciativa que algunos ``maestros'' pudiesen tomar para congregar +discípulos que congeniasen. Daría también, como hemos visto, +oportunidades amplias para que los discípulos en potencia compartiesen +informaciones o seleccionasen un maestro. + +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones que pervierten una +profesión al meter en un solo paquete varios papeles por desempeñar. Los +hospitales hacen cada vez más imposible la atención en el hogar ---y +luego justifican la hospitalización como un beneficio para el +enfermo---. Simultáneamente, la legitimidad y las posibilidades de +ejercer de un médico vienen a depender de modo creciente de su +asociación con un hospital, si bien su dependencia es mucho menor que la +de los profesores respecto de las escuelas. Igual cosa podría decirse de +los tribunales, que atiborran sus calendarios conforme nuevas +transacciones adquieren solemnidad legal, demorando así la justicia. En +cada uno de estos casos el resultado es un servicio escaso a un coste +mayor, y un mayor ingreso para los miembros menos competentes de la +profesión. + +Mientras las profesiones más antiguas monopolicen los mayores ingresos y +prestigio, será difícil reformarlas. La profesión de maestro de escuela +debiera ser fácil de reformar, no sólo debido a su origen más reciente. +La profesión educativa pretende ahora un monopolio global; reclama ser +la única competente para impartir el aprendizaje no sólo a sus propios +novicios sino también a los de otras profesiones. Esta expansión +excesiva la hace vulnerable ante cualquier otra profesión que reclame el +derecho a enseñar a sus propios aprendices. Los maestros de escuela +están abrumadoramente mal pagados y frustrados por la estrecha +fiscalización del sistema escolar. Los más emprendedores y dotados de +entre ellos hallarían probablemente un trabajo más simpático, una mayor +independencia y hasta mejores ingresos al especializarse como modelos de +habilidades, administradores de redes o especialistas en orientación. + +Finalmente, es más fácil romper la dependencia del alumno matriculado +respecto del profesor diplomado que su dependencia de otros +profesionales ---por ejemplo, que la de un paciente hospitalizado +respecto de su médico---. Si las escuelas dejaran de ser obligatorias, +aquellos profesores cuya satisfacción reside en el ejercicio de la +autoridad pedagógica en el aula se quedarían sólo con los alumnos para +quienes fuese atractivo ese estilo. La desaparición de nuestra actual +estructura profesional podría comenzar con la deserción del maestro de +escuela. + +La desaparición de las escuelas ocurriría inevitablemente ---y ocurriría +a velocidad sorprendente---. No puede postergarse por más tiempo, y no +hace ninguna falta promoverlo vigorosamente, porque ya está ocurriendo. +Lo que vale la pena es tratar de orientarla en una dirección +prometedora, pues puede dirigirse en dos direcciones diametralmente +opuestas. + +La primera sería la ampliación del mandato del pedagogo y su control +creciente sobre la sociedad, incluso fuera de la escuela. Con la mejor +intención y tan sólo ampliando la retórica usada hoy como en las aulas, +la crisis actual de las escuelas podría proporcionar a los educadores la +excusa para usar todas las redes de la sociedad contemporánea para +enviarnos sus mensajes ---para nuestro bien---. La desescolarización que +no podemos detener, podría significar el advenimiento de un ``mundo +feliz'' dominado por algunos bien intencionados administradores de +instrucción programada. + +Por otra parte, el hecho de que tanto los gobiernos como los empleados, +los contribuyentes, los pedagogos despiertos y los administradores +escolares advierten con creciente claridad que la enseñanza graduada de +currícula en pro de unos certificados se ha hecho perjudicial, podría +ofrecer a grandes masas humanas una oportunidad única: la de preservar +el derecho de tener un acceso parejo a los instrumentos tanto para +aprender, como para competir con otros lo que saben o creen. Pero esto +exigiría que la revolución educativa estuviese guiada por ciertas metas: + +\emph{1.} Liberar el acceso a las cosas, mediante la abolición del +control que hoy ejercen unas personas e instituciones sobre sus valores +educativos. + +\emph{2.} Liberar la coparticipación de habilidades al garantizar la +libertad de enseñarlas o de ejercitarlas a pedido. + +\emph{3.} Liberar los recursos críticos y creativos de la gente por +medio de un regreso a la capacidad de las personas para convocar y +organizar reuniones ---capacidad crecientemente monopolizada por +instituciones que afirman estar al servicio del público---. + +\emph{4.} Liberar al individuo de la obligación de moldear sus +expectativas según los servicios ofrecidos por cualquier profesión +establecida ---proporcionándole la oportunidad de aprovechar la +experiencia de sus iguales y de confiarse al profesor, guía, consejero o +curandero de su elección---. La desescolarización de la sociedad +difuminará inevitablemente las distinciones entre economía, educación y +política, sobre las que se funda ahora la estabilidad del orden mundial +y de las naciones. + +Nuestra reseña de las instituciones educativas nos lleva a modificar +nuestra imagen del hombre. La criatura que las escuelas necesitan como +cliente no tiene ni la autonomía ni la motivación para crecer por su +cuenta. Podemos reconocer la escolarización como la culminación de una +empresa prometeica, y hablar acerca de su alternativa refiriéndonos a un +mundo adecuado para que en él viva un hombre epimeteico. Ya que nos es +posible imaginar el reemplazo del embudo escolástico por una trama de +intercambios y hacer que el mundo vuelva a ser visible mediante +múltiples posibilidades de comunicación, sólo nos queda, al final de +este esfuerzo, esperar que la naturaleza epimeteica del hombre aparezca, +porque este renacimiento no depende de nuestros proyectos ni de nuestra +voluntad. + +\hypertarget{renacimiento-del-hombre-epimeteico}{% +\section{Renacimiento del hombre +epimeteico}\label{renacimiento-del-hombre-epimeteico}} + +Nuestra sociedad se parece a la máquina implacable que una vez vi en una +juguetería neoyorquina consistía en un cofrecillo metálico con un +interruptor que, al tocarlo se abría de golpe descubriendo una mano +mecánica. Unos dedos cromados se estiraban hacia la tapa y la cerraban +desde el interior. Era una caja; uno esperaba poder sacar algo de ella, +pero no contenía sino un mecanismo para cerrarla. Este artilugio es lo +opuesto a la ``caja'' de Pandora. + +La Pandora original, ``la dadora de todo'', era una diosa de la Tierra +en la Grecia prehistórica y matriarcal que dejó escapar todos los males +de su ánfora (\emph{pythos}). Pero cerró la tapa antes de que pudiera +escapar la esperanza. La historia del hombre moderno comienza con la +degradación del mito de Pandora y llega a su término con el cofrecillo +que se cierra solo. Es la historia del empeño prometeico por forjar +instituciones a fin de encerrar los males desencadenados. Es la historia +de una esperanza que declina y de unas expectativas crecientes. + +Para comprender lo que esto significa debemos redescubrir la diferencia +entre expectativa y esperanza. Esperanza, en su sentido vigoroso, +significa fe confiada en la bondad de la naturaleza; mientras +expectativa, tal como la emplearé aquí, significa fiarse en resultados +planificados y controlados por el hombre. La esperanza centra el deseo +en una persona de la que aguardamos un regalo. La expectativa promete +una satisfacción que proviene de un proceso predecible que producirá +aquello que tenemos el derecho de exigir. El \emph{ethos} prometeico ha +eclipsado actualmente la esperanza. La supervivencia de la raza humana +depende de que se la descubra como fuerza social. + +La Pandora original fue enviada a la Tierra con un frasco que contenía +todos los males; de las cosas buenas, contenía sólo la esperanza. El +hombre primitivo vivía en este mundo de la esperanza. Para subsistir +confiaba en la munificencia de la naturaleza, en los regalos de los +dioses y en los instintos de su tribu. Los griegos del periodo clásico +comenzaron a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. En la versión +que dieron de Pandora, ésta soltó tanto males como bienes. La recordaban +principalmente por los males que había desencadenado. Y, lo que es más +significativo, olvidaron que ``la dadora de todo'' era también la +custodia de la esperanza. + +Los griegos contaban la historia de dos hermanos, Prometeo y Epimeteo. +El primero advirtió al segundo que no se metiera con Pandora. Éste, en +cambio, casó con ella. En la Grecia clásica, al nombre Epimeteo, que +significa ``percepción tardía'' o ``visión ulterior'', se le daba el +significado de ``lerdo'' o ``tonto''. Para la época en que Hesíodo +relataba el cuento en su forma clásica, los griegos se habían convertido +en patriarcas moralistas y misóginos que se espantaban ante el +pensamiento de la primera mujer. Construyeron una sociedad racional y +autoritaria. Los hombres proyectaron instituciones mediante las cuales +programaron enfrentarse a todos los males desencadenados. Llegaron a +percatarse de su poder para conformar el mundo y hacerlo producir +servicios que aprendieron también a esperar. Querían que sus artefactos +moldearan sus propias necesidades y las exigencias futuras de sus hijos. +Se convirtieron en legisladores, arquitectos y autores, hacedores de +constituciones, ciudades y obras de arte que sirviesen de ejemplo para +su progenie. El hombre primitivo contaba con la participación mística en +ritos sagrados para iniciar a los individuos en las tradiciones de la +sociedad, pero los griegos clásicos reconocieron como verdaderos hombres +sólo a aquellos ciudadanos que permitían que la \emph{paideia} +(educación) los hiciera aptos para ingresar en las instituciones que sus +mayores habían proyectado. + +El mito en desarrollo refleja la transición desde un mundo en que se +\emph{interpretaban} los sueños a un mundo en que \emph{se hacían} +oráculos. Desde tiempos inmemoriales, se había adorado a la diosa de la +Tierra en las laderas del monte Parnaso, que era el centro y el ombligo +de la tierra. Allí, en Delphos (de \emph{delphys} , la matriz), dormía +Gaia, hermana de Caos y de Eros. Su hijo, Pitón, el dragón, cuidaba sus +sueños lunares y húmedos de rocío, hasta que Apolo, el dios del Sol, el +arquitecto de Troya, se alzó al Oriente, mató al dragón y se apoderó de +la cueva de Gaia. Los sacerdotes de Apolo se hicieron cargo del templo +de la diosa. Emplearon a una doncella de la localidad, la sentaron en un +trípode, sobre el ombligo humeante de la tierra, y la adormecieron con +emanaciones. Luego pusieron sus declaraciones extáticas en hexámetros +rimados de profecías que se cumplían por la misma influencia que +ejercían. De todo el Peloponeso venían hombres a traer sus problemas +ante Apolo. Se consultaba el oráculo sobre posibles alternativas +sociales, tales como las medidas que se debían adoptar frente a una +peste o una hambruna, sobre cuál era la constitución conveniente para +Esparta o cuáles los emplazamientos propicios para ciudades que más +tarde se llamaron Bizancio y Caledonia. La flecha que nunca yerra se +convirtió en un símbolo de Apolo. Todo lo referente a él adquirió un fin +determinado y útil. + +En la \emph{República} , al describir el Estado ideal, Platón ya excluye +la música popular. En las ciudades se permitiría sólo el arpa y la lira +de Apolo, porque únicamente la armonía de éstas crea ``la tensión de la +necesidad y la tensión de la libertad, la tensión de lo infortunado y la +tensión de lo afortunado, la tensión del valor y la tensión de la +templanza, dignas del ciudadano''. Los habitantes de la ciudad se +espantaron ante la flauta de Pan y su poder para despertar los +instintos. Sólo ``los pastores pueden tocar las flautas (de Pan) y esto +sólo en el campo''. + +El hombre se hizo responsable de las leyes bajo las cuales quería vivir +y de moldear el medio ambiente a su propia semejanza. La iniciación +primitiva que daba la Madre Tierra a una vida mítica se transformó en la +educación (\emph{paideia}) del ciudadano que se sentiría a gusto en el +foro. + +Para el primitivo, el mundo estaba regido por el destino, los hechos y +la necesidad. Al robar el fuego de los dioses, Prometeo convirtió los +hechos en problemas, puso en tela de juicio la necesidad y desafió al +destino. El hombre clásico tramó un contexto civilizado para la +perspectiva humana. Se percataba de que podía desafiar al trío +destino-naturaleza-entorno, pero sólo bajo su propio riesgo. El hombre +contemporáneo va aún más lejos; intenta crear el mundo a su semejanza, +contribuir y planificar su entorno, y descubre entonces que sólo puede +hacerlo a condición de rehacerse continuamente para ajustarse a él. +Debemos enfrentarnos ahora al hecho de que es el hombre mismo el que +está en juego. + +La vida en Nueva York produce una visión peculiar de lo que es y de lo +que podría ser, y sin esta visión, la vida en Nueva York se hace +imposible. En las calles de Nueva York, un niño jamás toca nada que no +haya sido ideado, proyectado, planificado y vendido científicamente a +alguien. Hasta los árboles están allí porque el Departamento de Parques +así lo decidió. Los chistes que el niño escucha por televisión han sido +programados a gran coste. La basura con que juega en las calles de +Harlem está hecha de paquetes deshechos ideados para un tercero. Hasta +los deseos y los temores están moldeados institucionalmente. El poder y +la violencia están organizados y administrados: las pandillas, frente a +la policía. El aprendizaje mismo se define como el consumo de una +materia, que es el resultado de programas investigados, planificados y +promocionados. Lo que allí haya de bueno, es el producto de alguna +institución especializada. Sería tonto pedir algo que no pudiese +producir alguna institución. El niño de la ciudad no puede esperar nada +que esté más allá del posible desarrollo del proceso institucional. +Hasta a su fantasía se le urge a producir ciencia ficción. Puede +experimentar la sorpresa poética de lo no planificado sólo a través de +sus encuentros con la ``mugre'', el desatino o el fracaso: la cáscara de +naranja en la cuneta, el charco en la calle, el quebrantamiento del +orden, del programa o de la máquina son los únicos despegues para el +vuelo de la fantasía creadora. El ``viaje'' se convierte en la única +poesía al alcance de la mano. + +Como nada deseable hay que no haya sido planificado, el niño ciudadano +pronto llega a la conclusión de que siempre podremos idear una +institución para cada una de nuestras apetencias. Toma por descontado el +poder del proceso para crear valor. Ya sea que la meta fuere juntarse +con un compañero, integrar un barrio o adquirir habilidades de lectura, +se la definirá de tal modo que su logro pueda proyectarse técnicamente. +El hombre que sabe que nada que está en demanda deja de producirse llega +pronto a esperar que nada de lo que se produce pueda carecer de demanda. +Si puede proyectarse un vehículo lunar, también puede proyectarse la +demanda de viajes a la Luna. No ir donde uno puede sería subversivo. +Desenmascararía, mostrándola como una locura, la suposición de que cada +demanda satisfecha trae consigo el descubrimiento de otra, mayor aún, e +insatisfecha. Esa percepción detendría el progreso. No producir lo que +es posible dejaría a la ley de las ``expectativas crecientes'' al +descubierto, en calidad de eufemismo para expresar una brecha creciente +de frustración, que es el motor de la sociedad, fundado en la +coproducción de servicios y en la demanda creciente. + +El estado mental del habitante de la ciudad moderna aparece en la +tradición mitológica sólo bajo la imagen del Infierno: Sísifo, que por +un tiempo había encadenado a Tánatos (la muerte), debe empujar una +pesada roca cerro arriba hasta el pináculo del Infierno, y la piedra +siempre se escapa de sus manos cuando está a punto de llegar a la cima. +Tántalo, a quien los dioses invitaron a compartir la comida olímpica, y +que aprovechó la ocasión para robarles el secreto de la preparación de +la ambrosía que todo lo cura, sufre hambre y sed eternas, de pie en un +río cuyas aguas se le escapan y a la sombra de árboles cuyos frutos no +alcanza. Un mundo de demandas siempre crecientes no sólo es malo; el +único término adecuado para nombrarlo es ``Infierno''. + +El hombre ha desarrollado la frustradora capacidad de pedir cualquier +cosa porque no puede visualizar nada que una institución no pueda hacer +por él. Rodeado por herramientas todopoderosas, el hombre queda reducido +a ser instrumento de sus instrumentos. Cada una de las instituciones +ideadas para exorcizar alguno de los males primordiales se ha convertido +en un ataúd a prueba de errores y de cierre automático y hermético para +el hombre. El hombre está atrapado en las cajas que fabrica para +encerrar los males que Pandora dejó escapar. El oscurecimiento de la +realidad por el \emph{smog} producido por nuestras propias herramientas +nos rodea. Súbitamente nos hallamos en la oscuridad de nuestra propia +trampa. + +Hasta la realidad ha llegado a depender de la decisión humana. El mismo +presidente que ordenó la ineficaz invasión de Camboya podría ordenar de +igual manera el uso eficaz del átomo. El ``interruptor Hiroshima'' puede +cortar hoy el ombligo de la tierra. El hombre ha adquirido el poder de +hacer que Caos anonade a Eros y a Gaia. Esta nueva capacidad del hombre, +el poder cortar el ombligo de la tierra, es un recuerdo constante de que +nuestras instituciones no sólo crean sus propios fines, sino que tienen +también el poder de señalar su propio fin y el nuestro. El absurdo de +las instituciones modernas se evidencia en el caso de la institución +militar. Las armas modernas pueden defender la libertad, la civilización +y la vida únicamente aniquilándolas. En lenguaje militar, seguridad +significa la capacidad de eliminar la Tierra. + +El absurdo subyacente en las instituciones no militares no es menos +manifiesto. No hay en ellas un interruptor que active sus poderes +destructores, pero tampoco lo necesitan. Sus dedos ya atenazan la tapa +del mundo. Crean a mayor velocidad necesidades que satisfacciones, y en +el proceso de tratar de satisfacer las necesidades que engendran, +consumen la tierra. Esto vale para la agricultura y la manufactura, y no +menos para la medicina y la educación. La agricultura moderna envenena y +agota el suelo. La ``revolución verde'' puede, mediante nuevas semillas, +triplicar la producción de una hectárea ---pero sólo con un aumento +proporcionalmente mayor de fertilizantes, insecticidas, agua y +energía---. Fabricar estas cosas, como los demás bienes, contamina los +océanos y la atmósfera y degrada recursos irreemplazables. Si la +combustión continúa aumentando según los índices actuales, pronto +consumiremos el oxígeno de la atmósfera sin poder reemplazarlo con igual +presteza. No tenemos razones para creer que la fisión o la fusión puedan +reemplazar la combustión sin peligros iguales o mayores. Los expertos en +medicina reemplazan a las parteras y prometen convertir al hombre en +otra cosa: genéticamente planificado, farmacológicamente endulzado y +capaz de enfermedades más prolongadas. El ideal contemporáneo es un +mundo panhigiénico: un mundo en el que todos los contactos entre los +hombres, y entre los hombres y su mundo, sean el resultado de la +previsión y la manipulación. La escuela se ha convertido en el proceso +planificado que labra al hombre para un mundo planificado, en la trampa +principal para entrampar al hombre en la trampa humana. Se supone que +moldea a cada hombre a un nivel adecuado para desempeñar un papel en +este juego mundial. De manera inexorable, cultivamos, elaboramos, +producimos y escolarizamos el mundo hasta acabar con él. + +La institución militar es evidentemente absurda. Más difícil se hace +enfrentar el absurdo de las instituciones no militares. Es aún más +aterrorizante, precisamente porque funciona inexorablemente. Sabemos qué +interruptor debe quedar abierto para evitar un holocausto atómico. No +hay interruptor para detener un apocalipsis ecológico. + +En la antigüedad clásica, el hombre descubrió que el mundo podía +forjarse según los planes del hombre, y, junto con este descubrimiento, +advirtió que ello era inherentemente precario, dramático y cómico. +Fueron creándose las instituciones democráticas y dentro de su +estructura se supuso que el hombre era digno de confianza. Lo que se +esperaba del debido proceso legal y la confianza en la naturaleza humana +se mantenía en equilibrio recíproco. Se desarrollaron las profesiones +tradicionales y con ellas las instituciones necesarias para el ejercicio +de aquéllas. + +Subrepticiamente, la confianza en el proceso institucional ha +reemplazado la dependencia respecto de la buena voluntad humana +personal. El mundo ha perdido su dimensión humana y ha readquirido la +necesidad de los tiempos primitivos. Pero mientras el caos de los +bárbaros estaba constantemente ordenado en nombre de dioses misteriosos +y antropomórficos, hoy en día la única razón que puede ofrecerse para +que el mundo esté como está es la planificación del hombre. El hombre se +ha convertido en el juguete de científicos, ingenieros y planificadores. + +Vemos esta lógica en otros y en nosotros mismos. Conozco una aldea +mexicana en la que no pasa más de media docena de autos cada día. Un +mexicano estaba jugando al dominó sobre la nueva carretera asfaltada +frente a su casa ---en donde probablemente se había sentado y había +jugado desde muchacho---. Un coche pasó velozmente y lo mató. El turista +que me informó del hecho estaba profundamente conmovido y, sin embargo, +dijo: ``Tenía que sucederle''. + +A primera vista, la observación del turista no difiere de la de un +bosquimano que relata la muerte de algún fulano que se hubiera topado +con un tabú y por consiguiente hubiera muerto. Pero las dos afirmaciones +poseen significados diferentes. El primitivo puede culpar a alguna +entidad trascendente, tremenda y ciega, mientras el turista está pasmado +ante la inexorable lógica de la máquina. El primitivo no siente +responsabilidad; el turista la siente, pero la niega. Tanto en el +primitivo como en el turista están ausentes la modalidad clásica del +drama, el estilo de la tragedia, la lógica del empeño individual y de la +rebelión. El hombre primitivo no ha llegado a tener conciencia de ello, +y el turista la ha perdido. El mito del bosquimano y el mito del +norteamericano están compuestos ambos de fuerzas inertes, inhumanas. +Ninguno de los dos experimenta una rebeldía trágica. Para el bosquimano, +el suceso se ciñe a las leyes de la magia, para el norteamericano se +ciñe a las leyes de la ciencia. El suceso le pone bajo el hechizo de las +leyes de la mecánica, que para él gobiernan los sucesos físicos, +sociales y psicológicos. + +El estado de ánimo de 1971 es propicio para un cambio importante de +dirección en busca de un futuro esperanzador. A las metas +institucionales las contradicen continuamente los resultados +institucionales. El programa para la pobreza produce más pobres, la +guerra en Asia acrecienta los Vietcong, la ayuda técnica engendra más +subdesarrollo. Las clínicas para control de nacimientos incrementan los +índices de supervivencia y provocan aumentos de población; las escuelas +producen más desertores, y el atajar un tipo de contaminación suele +aumentar otro tipo. + +Los consumidores se enfrentan al claro hecho de que cuanto más pueden +comprar, tanto más engaño han de tragar. Hasta hace poco parecía lógico +que pudiera echarse la culpa de esta inflación pandémica de disfunciones +ya fuese al retraso de los descubrimientos científicos respecto de las +exigencias tecnológicas, ya fuese a la perversidad de los enemigos +étnicos, ideológicos o de clase. Han declinado las expectativas tanto +respecto de un milenario científico como de una guerra que acabe con las +guerras. + +Para el consumidor avezado no hay manera de regresar a una ingenua +confianza en las tecnologías mágicas. Demasiadas personas han tenido la +experiencia de computadoras que se descomponen, infecciones +hospitalarias y saturación dondequiera que haya tráfico en la carretera, +en el aire o en el teléfono. Hace apenas 10 años, la sabiduría +convencional preveía una mejor vida fundada en los descubrimientos +científicos. Ahora, los científicos asustan a los niños. Los viajes a la +Luna proporcionan una fascinante demostración de que el fallo humano +puede casi eliminarse entre los operarios de sistemas complejos ---sin +embargo, esto no mitiga los temores ante la posibilidad de que un fallo +humano que consista en no consumir conforme a las instrucciones pueda +escapar a todo control---. + +Para el reformador social tampoco hay modo de regresar a las premisas de +la década de los años cuarenta. Se ha desvanecido la esperanza de que el +problema de distribuir con justicia los bienes pueda evadirse creándolos +en abundancia. El coste de la cesta mínima que satisfaga los gustos +contemporáneos se ha ido a las nubes, y lo que hace que un gusto sea +moderno es el hecho de que aparezca como anticuado antes de haber sido +satisfecho. + +Los límites de los recursos de la tierra ya se han evidenciado. Ninguna +nueva avenida de la ciencia o la tecnología podría proveer a cada hombre +del mundo de los bienes y servicios de que disponen ahora los pobres de +los países ricos. Por ejemplo, se precisaría extraer 100 veces las +cantidades actuales de hierro, estaño, cobre y plomo para lograr esa +meta, incluso con la alternativa tecnológica más ``liviana''. + +Por fin, los profesores, médicos y trabajadores sociales caen en la +cuenta de que sus diversos tratamientos profesionales tienen un aspecto +---por lo menos--- en común: crean nuevas demandas para los tratamientos +profesionales que proporcionan, a una mayor rapidez con la que pueden +proporcionar instituciones de servicio. + +Se está haciendo sospechosa no sólo una parte, sino la lógica misma de +la sabiduría convencional. Incluso las leyes de la economía parecen poco +convincentes fuera de los estrechos parámetros aplicables a la región +social y geográfica en la que se encuentra la mayor parte del dinero. En +efecto, el dinero es el circulante más barato, pero sólo en una economía +encaminada hacia una eficiencia medida en términos monetarios. Tanto los +países capitalistas como los comunistas en sus diversas formas están +dedicados a medir la eficiencia en relación con el coste/beneficio +expresado en dólares. El capitalismo se jacta de un nivel más elevado de +vida para afirmar su superioridad. El comunismo hace alarde de una mayor +tasa de crecimiento como índice de su triunfo final. Pero bajo +cualquiera de ambas ideologías el coste total de aumentar la eficiencia +se incrementa geométricamente. Las instituciones de mayor tamaño +compiten con fiereza por los recursos que no están anotados en ningún +inventario: el aire, el océano, el silencio, la luz del sol y la salud. +Ponen en evidencia la escasez de estos recursos ante la opinión pública +sólo cuando están casi irremediablemente degradados. Por doquiera, la +naturaleza se vuelve ponzoñosa, la sociedad inhumana, la vida interior +se ve invadida y la vocación personal ahogada. + +Una sociedad dedicada a la institucionalización de los valores +identifica la producción de bienes y servicios con la demanda de los +mismos. La educación que le hace a uno necesitar el producto está +incluida en el precio del producto. La escuela es la agencia de +publicidad que le hace a uno creer que necesita la sociedad tal y como +está. En dicha sociedad el valor marginal ha llegado a ser +constantemente autotrascendente. Obliga a los consumidores más grandes +---son pocos--- a competir por tener el poder de agotar la tierra, por +llenarse sus propias panzas hinchadas, por disciplinar a los +consumidores de menor tamaño, y por poner fuera de acción a quienes aún +encuentran satisfacción en arreglárselas con lo que tienen. El +\emph{ethos} de la insaciabilidad es por tanto la fuente misma de la +depredación física, de la polarización social y de la pasividad +psicológica. + +Cuando los valores se han institucionalizado en procesos planificados y +técnicamente construidos, los miembros de la sociedad moderna creen que +la buena vida consiste en tener instituciones que definan los valores +que tanto ellos como su sociedad creen que necesitan. El valor +institucional puede definirse como el nivel de producción de una +institución. El valor correspondiente del hombre se mide por su +capacidad para consumir y degradar estas producciones institucionales y +crear así una demanda nueva ---y aún mayor---. El valor del hombre +institucionalizado depende de su capacidad como incinerador. Para +emplear una imagen, ha llegado a ser el ídolo de sus artesanías. El +hombre se autodefiende ahora como el horno en que se queman los valores +producidos por sus herramientas. Y no hay límites para su voracidad. Su +acto es el acto de Prometeo llevado al extremo. + +El agotamiento y la contaminación de los recursos de la tierra es, por +encima de todo, el resultado de una corrupción de la imagen que el +hombre tiene de sí mismo, de una regresión en su conciencia. Algunos +tienden a hablar acerca de una mutación de la conciencia colectiva que +conduce a concebir al hombre como un organismo que no depende de la +naturaleza y de las personas, sino más bien de instituciones. Esta +institucionalización de valores esenciales, esta creencia en que un +proceso planificado de tratamiento da finalmente unos resultados +deseados por quien recibe el tratamiento, este \emph{ethos} de +consumidor, se halla en el núcleo mismo de la falacia prometeica. + +Los empeños por encontrar un nuevo equilibrio en el medio ambiente +global dependen de la desinstitucionalización de los valores. La +sospecha de que algo estructural anda mal en la visión del \emph{homo +faber} es común en una creciente minoría de países tanto capitalistas +como comunistas y ``subdesarrollados''. Esta sospecha es la +característica compartida por una nueva élite. A ella pertenece gente de +todas las clases, ingresos, creencias y civilizaciones. Se han vuelto +suspicaces respecto de los mitos de la mayoría: de las utopías +científicas, del diabolismo ideológico y de la expectativa de que la +distribución de bienes y servicios se hará con igualdad. Comparten con +la mayoría la sensación de estar atrapados, de percatarse de que la +mayor parte de las nuevas pautas adoptadas por amplio consenso conducen +a resultados que se oponen descaradamente a sus metas propuestas. No +obstante, mientras la mayoría de los prometeicos astronautas en ciernes +sigue evadiendo el problema fundamental, la minoría emergente se muestra +crítica respecto del \emph{deus ex machina} científico, de la panacea +ideológica y de la cacería de diablos y brujas. Esta minoría comienza a +dar forma a su sospecha de que nuestros constantes engaños nos atan a +las instituciones contemporáneas como las cadenas ataban a Prometeo a su +roca. La esperanza, la confianza y la ironía (\emph{eironeia}) clásica +deben conspirar para dejar al descubierto la falacia prometeica. + +Solía pensarse que Prometeo significaba ``previsión'' y aun llegó a +traducirse por ``aquel que hace avanzar la Estrella Polar''. Privó +astutamente a los dioses del monopolio del fuego, enseñó a los hombres a +usarlo para forjar el hierro, se convirtió en el dios de los tecnólogos +y terminó con cadenas de hierro. + +La Pitonisa de Delfos fue reemplazada por una computadora que se cierne +sobre cuadros de instrumentos y tarjetas perforadas. Los exámenes del +oráculo cedieron el paso a los códigos de programación. El timonel +humano entregó el rumbo a la máquina cibernética. Emerge la máquina +definitiva para dirigir nuestros destinos. Los niños se imaginan volando +en sus máquinas espaciales, lejos de una Tierra crepuscular. + +Mirando desde las perspectivas del Hombre de la Luna, Prometeo pudo +reconocer a Gaia como el planeta de la Esperanza y como el Arco de la +Humanidad. Un sentido nuevo de la finitud de la Tierra y una nueva +nostalgia pueden ahora abrir los ojos del hombre y hacerle ver por qué +su hermano Epimeteo, al desposar a Pandora, eligió desposar a la Tierra. + +Al llegar aquí el mito griego se convierte en esperanzada profecía, pues +nos dice que el hijo de Prometeo fue Deucalión, el Timonel del Arca, +quien, como Noé, navegó sobre el Diluvio para convertirse en el padre de +la humanidad nueva que, con ayuda de Pirra, hija de Epimeteo y de +Pandora, sacó de la tierra. Por ello nos es necesario comprender el +sentido de ese Pithos que Pandora obtuvo de los dioses y que es el +inverso de la Caja: nuestro Vaso y nuestra Arca. + +Necesitamos ahora un nombre para quienes valoran más la esperanza que +las expectativas. Necesitamos un nombre para quienes aman más a la gente +que a los productos, para aquellos que creen que + +\begin{verbatim} +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros. +\end{verbatim} + +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que aman la tierra en la que podemos +encontrarnos unos con otros, + +\begin{verbatim} +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés. +\end{verbatim} + +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que colaboran con su hermano +Prometeo en alumbrar el fuego y en dar forma al hierro, pero que lo +hacen para acrecentar así su capacidad de entender y cuidar y ser +guardián del prójimo, sabiendo que + +\begin{verbatim} +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes. +\end{verbatim} + +\footnote{Las tres citas provienen de ``People'' (``Gente''), del libro + \emph{Poemas escogidos} de Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Traducidos por Robin + Milner-Gulland y Peter Levi, y con una introducción de los + traductores. Publicado por E. P. Dutton \& Co., 1962, y reimpreso con + su autorización.} A esto hermanos y hermanas esperanzados sugiero +llamarlos hombres epimeteicos. + +\hypertarget{apuxe9ndice-una-elecciuxf3n-que-hacer}{% +\section{Apéndice: una elección que +hacer}\label{apuxe9ndice-una-elecciuxf3n-que-hacer}} + +De generación en generación nos hemos esforzado por llegar a la +educación de un mundo mejor y para hacerlo hemos desarrollado sin cesar +la escolaridad. Hasta ahora, la empresa se ha pagado con un fracaso. ¿Y +qué hemos aprendido si no es a constreñir a los niños para que suban la +escalera sin fin de la educación que, lejos de conducir a la igualdad +buscada, sólo favorece al que se adelantó a los otros o al que tiene +mejor salud o al que se beneficia de una mejor preparación? Peor aún, la +enseñanza obligatoria parece minar la voluntad personal de aprender. Por +último, al saber considerado como una mercancía, que hay que almacenar y +distribuir, pronto se le considera como un bien sometido a las garantías +de la propiedad individual y, por lo mismo, tiende a volverse escaso. + +Comenzamos a percibir que este esfuerzo por desarrollar la educación +pública mediante una escolaridad obligatoria está a punto de perder su +legitimidad desde el punto de vista social, pedagógico y económico. +Frente a esta crisis, los espíritus críticos no se contentan ya con +remedios clásicos, ¡sino que proponen unos mucho más violentos! +Imaginan, por ejemplo, sistemas de crédito educativo que permitirían a +cada uno comprar la educación de su elección en un mercado no +controlado, o bien, proponen retirarle a las escuelas la responsabilidad +en materia de educación para dársela a los medios modernos de +información y al aprendizaje en los sitios de trabajo. Algunos, +aislados, entrevén la necesidad de destruir los fundamentos +institucionales de la escuela, como le sucedió a la Iglesia en el +transcurso de los dos últimos siglos. Ciertos reformadores proponen +reemplazar la escuela universal por nuevos y diferentes sistemas que +pretenden preparar mejor para la vida en una sociedad moderna\ldots{} En +síntesis, estamos frente a una elección: podemos contentarnos con +desmantelar las escuelas o podemos ir más lejos y desescolarizar por +completo la sociedad. + +Todas esas proposiciones en favor de instituciones educativas nuevas se +reparten, de hecho, en tres categorías: las reformas que llevan al +``salón de clases'' sin tocar el sistema escolar; luego, la dispersión +de clases ``liberadas'' en toda la sociedad; por último, la +transformación de la misma sociedad en un inmenso salón de clases. Pero +estos tres enfoques del problema ---clase reformada, liberada o que +englobe al mundo entero--- los consideramos como tres etapas de la +escalada del proceso educativo a través de las cuales se afirmará la +empresa de un control todavía más sutil y más invasor del que habrá +reemplazado. + +Si por mi parte estoy convencido de que conviene poner un término al +reino de la escuela (desenlace que, por otra parte, creo ineluctable), +es porque me parece que esta desaparición de una convicción ilusoria nos +debería llenar de esperanza. Sin embargo, no estoy por ello menos +consciente de que, llegados a este término de la ``era escolar'', +podríamos muy bien entrar en la de una escuela totalitaria que sólo el +nombre distinguiría del asilo de alienados o de un campo de +concentración donde educación, corrección y reajuste serían por fin +sinónimos. Creo, en consecuencia, que el desmantelamiento de la escuela +nos fuerza a ver más allá de su inminente desaparición y nos constriñe a +enfrentar las posibilidades fundamentales de elección en materia de +educación: ya sea que elijamos trabajar en la constitución de un arsenal +educativo aterrador, con el objeto de acrecentar de golpe la fuerza de +una enseñanza que trata de un mundo sin cesar más ensombrecido, más +amenazador para el hombre; ya sea que intentemos poner en orden las +condiciones necesarias para el surgimiento de una nueva era donde la +tecnología se pondrá al servicio de una sociedad más simple, más +transparente, de suerte que todos los hombres puedan descubrir lo que +los rodea y servirse de las herramientas que hoy en día dan forma a sus +propias vidas. + +\hypertarget{la-enseuxf1anza-oculta-de-las-escuelas}{% +\subsection{La enseñanza oculta de las +escuelas}\label{la-enseuxf1anza-oculta-de-las-escuelas}} + +Debemos distinguir entre ``educación'' y ``escolaridad'' si queremos ver +surgir más claramente esa elección que se nos ofrece. Comprendo que +conviene distinguir entre los objetivos humanistas del profesor y los +efectos inherentes a la estructura inalterable de la escuela. Con toda +seguridad esta estructura no es evidente a primera vista, pero sólo su +existencia explica cierta forma de instrucción transmitida a todos y que +escapa al control del docente o del consejo de profesores. En efecto, un +mensaje se inscribe indeleble: sólo la escolaridad es capaz de preparar +la entrada en la sociedad. Por ello, lo que no se enseña en la escuela +se le retira su valor y, por lo mismo ¡lo que se aprende fuera de ella +no vale la pena conocerse! Eso es lo que llamo la enseñanza oculta de +las escuelas que define los límites en los cuales se efectúan los +pretendidos cambios de programas. + +Sin defendernos de ella, esta enseñanza no varía de una escuela a otra +ni de un lugar a otro. En todas partes los niños deben congregarse en +grupos, según la edad; luego, alrededor de 30 toman su lugar frente a un +profesor diplomado en razón de 150, incluso 1 000 horas, al año o más, +No importa si el programa oficial intenta enseñar los principios del +fascismo o del liberalismo, del catolicismo o del socialismo, o si +pretende ponerse al servicio de una ``liberación'', ya que en todos los +casos la institución se arroga el derecho de definir las actividades +propias que conducen a una ``educación'' legitima. Poco importa, +igualmente, si el objetivo confesado de la escuela es producir +ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o médicos, en la +medida en que sin el diploma no se es un ciudadano verdadero o un doctor +reconocido\ldots{} Aunque todas las reuniones no se hagan en el mismo +recinto, aunque incluso se consideren, de una manera o de otra, +necesarias (cortar caña es trabajo del cañero; reformarse, el del +prisionero, y seguir una parte del programa, el de los estudiantes), no +hay en lo anterior ninguna diferencia. + +Nos enfrentamos a una especie de directiva secreta que quiere que los +estudiantes aprendan antes que nada que la educación sólo tiene valor +una vez que se adquirió en el seno de la universidad mediante un método +graduado de consumo, y se le promete que el éxito social dependerá de la +cantidad de saber consumido, Están convencidos de que vale mucho más +instruirse a distancia de lo que es el mundo. El hecho de que la +escolaridad imponga esta regla secreta en un programa educativo la +distingue inmediatamente de otras formas de educación planificada. Todos +los sistemas escolares del planeta tienen características comunes en +relación con su rendimiento institucional y la razón de ello es ese +``programa oculto'' común a todas las escuelas. + +Hay que entender bien que ese programa oculto modifica la concepción que +tenemos de la adquisición del saber y hace de la actividad personal una +mercancía de la que la escuela cree detentar el monopolio. A un bien de +consumo le damos hoy en día el nombre de ``educación'': un producto cuya +fabricación la asegura una institución oficial llamada ``escuela''. En +consecuencia, henos ahí con el fin de medir la duración y el costo del +tratamiento aplicado al estudiante (en Estados Unidos, el diplomado de +una pequeña universidad regional y el de uno de los colegios de la +``liga de la hieda''\footnote{Las 14 más célebres universidades de + Estados Unidos constituyen esta ``liga de la hiedra'' \emph{(ivy + league)}. (Son miembros de ella, por ejemplo, Yale, Harvard, + Princeton\ldots) Es una asociación sin objetivo definido, pero que + conserva la tradición de grandeza. Saca su nombre de la hiedra que + recubre los edificios más antiguos. (T.)} tienen cubiertos los mismos +135 ``créditos'',\footnote{El hecho de asistir a los cursos representa + cierto número de créditos por semestre. Para tener acceso al diploma + es necesario haber cubierto un número de 135 en cuatro años. (T.)} +¡pero están plenamente conscientes de la diferente cotización de sus +``títulos'' en la bolsa de valores educativos!). + +En todos los países convertidos al ideal escolar, el saber se considera +como un bien de primera necesidad, como un asunto de sobrevivencia y, de +la misma forma, como una moneda de cambio más fácilmente convertible que +los rublos y los dólares. Cuando hablamos de alienación estamos de tal +manera habituados al vocabulario marxista que sólo pensamos +frecuentemente en la del trabajador en relación con su trabajo desde la +perspectiva de una sociedad de clases; hoy en día nos sería necesario +reconocer otra forma de la alienación, la del hombre frente al saber +cuando este último, transformado en producto de un servicio, hace de +quien lo adquiere un consumidor. + +Entre más educación ``consume'' un ser humano, más hace fructificar su +posesión y se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del +conocimiento. La educación definió una nueva pirámide de clases, en la +medida en que los grandes consumidores de saber ---esos portadores de +bonos del tesoro del conocimiento--- pueden inmediatamente pretender dar +servicios de un valor más eminente a su sociedad. Ellos representan las +inversiones seguras en el portafolio del capital humano de una sociedad +y sólo ellos tienen un pronto acceso a las herramientas más poderosas o +menos extendidas de la producción. + +De esa manera, ese programa secreto definió implícitamente la naturaleza +de la educación: permite medirla y establecer qué nivel de productividad +da derecho a su consumo. Disponemos entonces de la posibilidad de +justificar la creciente correlación entre los empleos y los privilegios +que manan de ellos. En ciertas sociedades esos privilegios se conocerán +bajo la forma de ingresos personales más considerables; en otras, será +un acceso fácil a servicios todavía poco desarrollados o a una formación +más favorecida, sin olvidar un creciente prestigio (por otra parte, en +el momento mismo en que, en nombre de la educación, se reclaman +crecientes privilegios, la fosa entre la formación y la competencia +profesional se acrecienta, como lo muestran ciertos estudios, en +particular el de Ivar Berg, \emph{La educación y los empleos, la gran +estafa de la formación}). + +Querer hacer pasar a todos los seres humanos por las etapas sucesivas de +la adquisición del saber nos lleva a recordar la búsqueda de los +alquimistas y a mirar bien ahí: en el ``gran arte'' del final de la Edad +Media encontraremos con toda seguridad los orígenes profundos de la idea +de escolaridad. Consideramos a justo título que Jan Amos Komensky fue +uno de los grandes precursores de las teorías de la escuela moderna. Más +conocido con el nombre de Comenius, Jan Amos era obispo de Moravia y se +decía ``pansofista'' y pedagogo. En su \emph{Didactica Magna} describe +las escuelas como medios para ``enseñar todo a todo el mundo'' y podemos +ver en él como un anteproyecto de la producción en la cadena del saber, +ya que quería hacer la educación a la vez mejor y menos costosa, con el +fin de permitir a todos el acceso a la condición de hombre. Pero sería +insuficiente ver en Comenius una suerte de predecesor de nuestros +expertos en métodos pedagógicos. Experto en alquimia, utilizaba su jerga +para describir el arte de educar a los niños. Como se sabe, los +alquimistas buscaban trasmutar el plomo vil, los elementos vulgares, en +oro, haciendo pasar sus espíritus destilados por las 12 etapas del +enriquecimiento. Es evidente que si veían en eso una manera de +enriquecerse a sí mismos, pretendían trabajar en nombre del interés +general, y sus sucesivos fracasos no los desalentaban, ya que su +``ciencia'' les permitía encontrar en ella las razones y justificar la +continuación de sus esfuerzos. + +En esta perspectiva, la pedagogía abría un nuevo capítulo en la historia +de la \emph{Ars Magna} : la educación se volvía, en efecto, la búsqueda +de una especie de método alquímico destinado a hacer surgir un nuevo +tipo de hombre capaz de adaptarse a un medio creado por la magia +científica. Y, al igual que en la alquimia, cualquiera que fuera la suma +consagrada a cada generación para edificar escuelas, el resultado es que +la mayoría de aquellos a los que se les enseña no responden a esa +``afinación'' y pronto hay que rechazarlos como no aptos para existir en +un mundo concebido por el hombre. + +Los reformadores en materia de educación que admiten el fracaso de las +escuelas se reparten en tres categorías. Los más respetables son +seguramente los grandes maestros en alquimia que prometen mejores +escuelas; los más seductores, esos magos populares que anuncian la +transformación de cada cocina en un laboratorio alquímico; los más +aterradores, esos nuevos ``masones'' del universo que buscan transformar +el mundo en un vasto templo de la enseñanza. + +Veamos, en particular, entre esos maestros alquimistas del momento, a +los directores de investigación que emplean o patrocinan las grandes +fundaciones. Están persuadidos de que las escuelas, si pudieran de +alguna manera mejorarse, se volverían empresas más económicamente +viables que venderían un más vasto conjunto de servicios. En cuanto a +aquellos cuyo interés se dirige hacia los programas, pretenden que éstos +no están adaptados o están sobrepasados. De esa manera se conciben +nuevos programas en los que se introducen mercancías al gusto del +momento: cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación +femenina, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. Se denuncia la pasividad +(con toda seguridad es un mal) y, para remediarla, se concede a los +estudiantes que ellos mismos decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y +de qué manera. Algunos dicen que las escuelas son prisiones y, en +consecuencia, se aconseja a los jefes de establecimientos dar su +asentimiento a salidas educativas: un horizonte de pupitres y de muros +se sustituye, por ejemplo, por una calle de Harlem cuidadosamente +delimitada. Por último, la psicología está de moda y se instaura la +terapia de grupos en el salón de clases. La escuela, que se consideraba +el todo aprender de todos, se vuelve hoy en día el universo de todos los +niños. + +Otros críticos se levantan para subrayar que las escuelas no utilizan +suficientemente los recursos de la ciencia moderna. Surge el deseo de +que los hombres de ciencia inventen algún medicamento que consuman los +niños para que el instructor pueda modificar más fácilmente sus +comportamientos. Se habla de transformar las escuelas en casinos +educativos. Hay quienes quisieran ``electrificar'' el salón de clases y, +por poco que crean ser buenos discípulos de McLuhan, helos ahí +reemplazando el pizarrón y los manuales por \emph{happenings} en los que +se ofrece toda la batería de aparatos de comunicación. Si admiran a +Skinner, afirman que la aplicación de sus teorías permitirá una acción +más eficaz sobre el comportamiento de los estudiantes que la de los +antiguos maestros, hoy pasados de moda. + +Que algunas de estas reformas tengan efectos felices, es innegable. La +práctica de la escuela tradicional está en un fuerte proceso de +disminución en las escuelas experimentales. A veces los padres tienen un +sentimiento mayor de participación. Los alumnos designados por sus +profesores para seguir cursillos de aprendizaje adquieren frecuentemente +un mayor \emph{savoir faire}\footnote{En francés, en el original. (T.)} +que el de sus camaradas que permanecen en clase (conocí niños que +mejoraban sus conocimientos de español en el laboratorio de lengua, +porque preferían jugar con los botones de las grabadoras que conversar +con sus iguales puertorriqueños). Sin embargo, todas esas mejoras +intervienen en límites estrechos y previsibles, ya que no llegan al +programa oculto de las escuelas. + +A algunos reformadores les gustaría liberarse de esa regla secreta de +las escuelas públicas, pero sólo lo logran raras veces. Las escuelas +``activas'', que conducen al desarrollo de otras escuelas del mismo +tipo, sólo crean una engañosa ilusión: la liberación permanece como un +espejismo, incluso si la constricción a los cursos obligatorios se +interrumpe con frecuencia por periodos de ociosidad. Que se busque +agradar a alguien para convencerlo de asistir a los cursos es, bien +mirado, ¡más insidioso todavía que la obligación legal y el apoyo de la +brigada de los menores! Mejor que una presencia consentida a disgusto, +la que embauca lleva más fácilmente a creer en la necesidad del +tratamiento educativo. El docente tolerante hace al alumno correr un +creciente riesgo de sentirse incapaz de vivir fuera del refugio +acolchado. + +¿En qué difiere la enseñanza suministrada en las nuevas escuelas? Aunque +se facilite por el consenso de un grupo, más que por los decretos del +cuerpo docente, se trata siempre de adquirir competencias que la +sociedad reconoce, lo que no cambia en nada el problema. La apariencia +cambia; la realidad profunda permanece. + +Para ser verdaderas escuelas de libertad, les sería necesario llenar dos +condiciones. En primer lugar, deben administrarse de tal suerte que no +permitan a la regla secreta de la enseñanza aplicarse, es decir, que los +escolares, definidos como tales, ubicados frente a profesores +reconocidos, no asistan a una sucesión de cursos graduados. En segundo +lugar, esas escuelas deberían proporcionar un marco en el que todos los +participantes, docentes y alumnos, puedan liberarse de los postulados +sobre los que reposa, sin que lo sepamos, una sociedad escolarizada. A +veces escuchamos enunciar la primera condición en los objetivos que se +propone una escuela ``activa''. En cuanto a la segunda, por lo general +no se le pone atención, y ciertamente no es el objetivo de esas +escuelas. + +\hypertarget{los-postulados-secretos-de-la-educaciuxf3n}{% +\subsection{Los postulados secretos de la +educación}\label{los-postulados-secretos-de-la-educaciuxf3n}} + +No es necesario, en esta fase, distinguir entre la regla secreta y +aquélla sobre la que, sin darnos cuenta, se funda la idea de la +escolaridad. El programa oculto constituye una especie de ritual +iniciático que podemos concebir como un preparativo para el ingreso en +la sociedad moderna. Por intermedio de la escuela el programa adquiere +su dimensión institucional. Detrás del velo de la ceremonia ritual, las +contradicciones se encuentran disimuladas para los participantes. ¿Cómo, +en efecto, conciliar el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad +social fundada en el reconocimiento de un orden jerárquico que +finalmente el rito impone? Pero una vez reconocidos en lo que son, los +ritos ya no llegan a mantener la ilusión; ese fenómeno es aparente en el +caso de la escolaridad. No obstante, la ceremonia reposa sobre +postulados aceptados inconscientemente a los que las escuelas +``privadas'' podrían dar nuevo vigor. + +A primera vista, se nos reprochará que hagamos un juicio de orden +general sobre las escuelas ``activas'' y más precisamente, en 1971, +sobre las de Estados Unidos, las de Canadá y las de Alemania del Oeste +en donde ellas parecen querer ser el más hermoso adorno de un +renacimiento. A decir verdad, nuestra generalización sólo se dirige a +las empresas experimentales que pretenden ser instituciones educativas. +Para evitar cualquier menosprecio debemos examinar con más atención la +relación que hay entre ``educación'' y ``escolaridad''. + +Con mucha frecuencia olvidamos que la educación no es una invención +antigua. Ese sustantivo se desconocía antes de la Reforma. En Francia se +habla por vez primera de la educación de los niños en un manuscrito de +1498. Era el año en que Erasmo llegó a residir en Oxford, en que a +Savonarola lo quemaron en Florencia, en que Durero trazaba los primeros +apuntes de su \emph{Apocalipsis} , que todavía hoy evoca con fuerza la +atmósfera sombría, la impresión de un inminente desastre que pesaba +sobre ese periodo. En inglés, la palabra \emph{educación} apareció por +primera vez en 1530. Ese año, Enrique VIII repudiaba a Catalina de +Aragón y la Iglesia luterana se separaba de Roma con la dieta de +Augsburgo. Hay que esperar todavía un siglo para que la idea de +``educación'' se manifieste en el imperio español. En 1611, Lope de Vega +habla de la educación como de una novedad. Ese año, la universidad de +San Marcos en Lima celebraba su 60 aniversario. Centros de saber +existían antes de que la palabra ``educación'' formara parte del +lenguaje familiar. Se ``leía'' a los autores clásicos; se estudiaba el +derecho; no se enseñaba a vivir\ldots{} + +En el siglo XVI, en el corazón de todas las disputas teológicas se +encontraba la necesidad de encontrar justificaciones, de las que la +política supo servirse bien para explicar las grandes masacres de la +época. En la Iglesia, cismas intervinieron y se hizo posible sostener +convicciones diferentes sobre el punto de saber en qué medida el hombre +nace pecador, corrompido o sometido a la predestinación. Desde el siglo +XVII, el acuerdo se rehizo sobre un punto: el hombre nace no apto para +la vida social, en consecuencia es necesario prepararlo proponiéndole +una educación. Así, la educación se volvió lo opuesto de la competencia +adquirida en la vida cotidiana y terminó por significar un método de +tratamiento más que el simple saber de hechos de la existencia y la +capacidad de servirse de herramientas que dan forma a la vida concreta +del hombre. Progresivamente la educación se transformó en un servicio +que había que producir, para el bien de todos, mercancía intangible que +se recibía de la misma manera en que la Iglesia visible había conferido +anteriormente la gracia invisible. El hombre, nacido en la estupidez +original, debía ahora presentar cartas de creencia a la sociedad. + +La escuela y la educación mantuvieron relaciones comparables a las de la +Iglesia y la religión o, en una perspectiva más general, a las que se +establecen entre el rito y el mito; el rito crea y sostiene al mito; +detenta una función mitopoiética. El mito inspira el ``programa'' por el +que se perpetúa. La educación representa a la vez todo un conjunto de +justificaciones sobre el plano social y un concepto para el que no +podemos encontrar análogos específicos en otras culturas (fuera de la +teología cristiana). La educación por el método de la escolaridad +distingue fundamentalmente a las escuelas de otras instituciones de +enseñanza que existieron en otras épocas. Ése es un aspecto que no hay +que despreciar si queremos hacer aparecer las insuficiencias de las +``escuelas'' llamadas privadas, no estructuradas o independientes. + +Con el fin de sobrepasar una simple reforma de la clase, una escuela +activa debe todavía rechazar el programa secreto de la escolaridad +descrito anteriormente. Una escuela activa ideal intentaría proporcionar +una educación esforzándose en evitar que esa educación se utilice para +establecer o justificar una estructura de clase y se vuelva un patrón +maestro para medir al alumno con cierto rasero. Debería, en +consecuencia, no someter a este último a una represión, a un control o +intentar definirlo de cualquier manera. Pero mientras las escuelas +activas intenten proporcionar una ``educación general'', no están en +condiciones de sobrepasar una concepción fundada en los postulados +secretos de la escuela. + +Entre sus principios, hay uno que Peter Schrag, en una perspectiva +particular, definió como el ``síndrome de inmigración'', que nos incita +a tratar a todos los seres humanos como si fueran recién llegados que +deben someterse a un proceso de naturalización. Sólo los consumidores +garantizados del saber se admiten en la ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen +iguales, sólo por el periodo de gestación en el seno del \emph{Alma +mater} podrán acceder a esta igualdad. + +Otro postulado conduce a creer que el hombre, nacido inmaduro, debe +adquirir su ``madurez'' en el transcurso del primer periodo de su +existencia para después formar parte de una sociedad civilizada. Esta +idea de una ``maduración'' es, con toda seguridad, contraria a otra +convicción que define al hombre como el mamífero que, por el mecanismo +de la evolución y con el concurso de la selección natural entre sus +maestros primates, adquirió el carácter específico de permanecer durante +toda su vida ``inmaduro'' ---lo que constituye su ``gracia'' +particular---. Pero, en conformidad con la fijación ideológica sobre la +madurez, nos persuadimos de que es necesario, después de su nacimiento, +mantener al ser humano apartado de su medio natural y hacerlo pasar por +una matriz social para que adquiera las cualidades necesarias para la +vida cotidiana. Las escuelas activas son capaces de llenar esta función +frecuentemente mucho mejor que escuelas de un modelo menos atractivo. + +Los establecimientos educativos liberados comparten con quienes lo son +menos otra característica: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la +educación. Ponen una institución \emph{in loco parentis}. Perpetúan la +idea de que la enseñanza, si se realiza fuera del círculo familiar, debe +estar asegurada por una ``agencia'' cuyo docente es sólo un +representante. En una sociedad escolarizada, la misma familia se reduce +a ser sólo una ``agencia de aculturación''. En cuanto a los organismos +educativos que emplean profesores para promover la política de su +consejo administrativo, se vuelven instrumentos al servicio de una +despersonalización de las relaciones entre personas privadas. + +Naturalmente, numerosas escuelas activas funcionan sin profesores +acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una amenaza seria para los +sindicatos de maestros, pero, no por ello, ponen en peligro la +estructura social fundada en un reconocimiento de las profesiones. Una +escuela en la que los miembros del consejo administrativo eligen y +nombran a los profesores, sin preocuparse de saber si detentan +certificados, una licencia o una credencial sindical, no atenta contra +la legitimidad de la profesión de enseñante; no más que una encargada de +un prostíbulo clandestino, en un país donde un trabajo así, para ser +legal, debe hacerse bajo el control de la policía, ¡no cuestiona la +legitimidad de la profesión más antigua del mundo! + +La mayoría de los que enseñan en escuelas activas no tienen la +oportunidad de trabajar en su nombre. Aseguran la tarea de la enseñanza +en nombre de un consejo; en nombre de sus alumnos asumen la función +menos evidente de la enseñanza y sirven a la educación bajo su aspecto +casi místico en nombre de toda ``la sociedad''. La mejor prueba de ello +es que pasan todavía más tiempo que sus colegas de la enseñanza pública +reuniéndose en comisiones con el objeto de planificar el método por el +cual la escuela debería educar. La duración de esas reuniones ha +incitado a muchos docentes de alma generosa, una vez que sus ilusiones +se han disipado, a pasar de la escuela pública a la enseñanza privada, +para luego ir todavía más allá\ldots{} + +Todos los establecimientos de enseñaza pretenden ``formar hombres'' en +una tarea de mejoramiento del futuro, pero no les permiten cumplirla +antes de que hayan adquirido una sólida tolerancia frente a las maneras +de vivir de sus mayores. Es siempre una educación que prepara para la +vida, más que adquirida en la vida cotidiana. Muy pocas escuelas activas +pueden evitar esa trampa. Sin embargo, hay que reconocer que contribuyen +a la aparición de un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán +sus diplomas sobre la sociedad, sino más bien porque los padres que +eligen educar a sus hijos sin beneficiarse de los servicios de enseñanza +``ordenados según la regla'' pertenecen frecuentemente a una minoría +radical, y porque el interés que aportan a ese problema, el gusto que +tienen de educar a sus hijos, los mantiene en su modo de vida. + +\hypertarget{las-influencias-ocultas-en-el-mercado-de-la-educaciuxf3n}{% +\subsection{Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la +educación}\label{las-influencias-ocultas-en-el-mercado-de-la-educaciuxf3n}} + +La especie más peligrosa entre los reformadores en materia de educación +es la que pretende demostrar que el saber puede producirse y venderse de +manera mucho más eficaz en un mercado libre que en el que controla la +escuela. Pretenden que una capacidad puede fácilmente adquirirse por +medio de un modelo, aunque el aprendiz considere poco esta adquisición +como de interés evidente. Afirman también que un sistema de asignación +individualizado proporciona un poder de compra más igualitario en +materia de educación. Piden, por último, que se distinga entre el método +de adquisición y el que mide los resultados (lo que me parece una +necesidad muy evidente). Pero sería erróneo creer que la instauración de +un mercado abierto del saber representaría una solución opuesta a la de +hoy en día. + +Esta sustitución aboliría, ciertamente, lo que llamamos el programa +secreto de la escolaridad (el hecho de que hay que seguir a determinadas +edades programas graduados). Un mercado abierto daría, en primer lugar, +la impresión de que vamos al encuentro de esos principios en los que +reposa una sociedad escolarizada: el ``síndrome de la inmigración'', el +monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el rito de la integración +progresiva. Pero, por lo mismo, un mercado libre de educación +proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables ocasiones para influir en +secreto, con el fin de encerrar a cada hombre en los múltiples y +pequeños compartimentos que una tecnocracia todavía más desarrollada +podría crear. + +La confianza puesta desde hace decenios en la escolarización del ser +humano ha hecho del saber una mercancía de una especie particular. Como +lo hemos visto, todos consideran ahora el saber como un artículo de +primera necesidad y, al mismo tiempo, como la moneda de cambio más +preciosa de la sociedad. Esta transformación del saber en bien de +consumo se refleja, igualmente, en nuestro comportamiento de todos los +días, incluso en el lenguaje familiar. Así, verbos que describen una +actividad personal, como ``aprender'', ``alojarse'', ``sanarse'', nos +hacen irresistiblemente pensar en servicios cuya distribución está más o +menos asegurada. Pensamos que es necesario resolver los problemas de la +habitación, de los cuidados médicos, etc., sin recordar un solo instante +que los hombres podrían curarse o edificar sus casas por ellos mismos. +Todo es cuestión de servicios y el adolescente, en lugar de aprender, +por ejemplo, a ocuparse de su abuela, aprende a manifestarse frente al +asilo de ancianos donde no hay camas disponibles. ¿El desmantelamiento +de la escuela sería, pues, suficiente para conducir a la desaparición de +esas actitudes? (Mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Enmienda de +la Constitución norteamericana se continuaba exigiendo la filiación a +una Iglesia como condición para cualquier candidatura a un puesto +oficial). Con mayor razón, ¿el cierre de las escuelas permitiría evitar +que tuviéramos acceso a baterías de pruebas para medir el nivel de +educación? Si ése no es el caso, esta nueva situación conduciría a la +obligación, para cada uno, de adquirir un mínimo de mercancías en el +depósito del saber. La ambición de medir científicamente el valor de +cada hombre se vincula sin dificultad con el sueño del alquimista de +hacer a todo hombre ``educable'' con el fin de guiarlo hacia una +humanidad ``verdadera''. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado libre, +llegaremos a un entorno sometido al control de los terapeutas-pedagogos, +a una matriz universal donde cada hombre se alimentaría con fluidos +elegidos. + +Las escuelas limitan por ahora la competencia del profesor al salón de +clases. No le permiten reivindicar la existencia del hombre para una +región. Desde esta perspectiva, renunciar a la escuela haría desaparecer +esta frágil barrera y conferiría una legitimidad semejante a la invasión +pedagógica de la vida privada de cada uno. Podría conducir a una lucha +encarnizada por la adquisición del saber en un mercado libre del +conocimiento y a la edificación, bajo apariencias igualitarias, de una +meritocracia. + +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones (ni incluso las más +eficaces) que pretenden hacer de la información, de la comprensión y de +la sabiduría rasgos d comportamiento susceptibles de contrastarse (y +medirlos conduce a detentar la llave que abre las puertas del éxito y +del poder). El sistema chino, por ejemplo, ofrecía, en el plano de la +educación, una estimulante eficacia definiendo una clase relativamente +abierta, cuyos privilegios dependían de la adquisición de un saber +mesurable. Alrededor de 2 000 años antes de Cristo, parece que el +emperador de China interrogaba cada tres años a sus administradores. +Después de tres veces, les daba responsabilidades mayores o los echaba +para siempre. Algunos 1 000 años más tarde, el primer emperador Chang +estableció un verdadero examen para sus funcionarios. Música, tiro con +arco y aritmética constituían los temas impuestos. Cada tres años, los +concursos se abrían a los candidatos. Uno sobre 100 lograba franquear +las tres series de pruebas que le conferían sucesivamente los títulos de +``genio en hierbas'', de ``perfecto letrado'' y de ``dispuesto para el +servicio del emperador''. La selección era, pues, muy severa, y se le +dedicaba la mayor importancia a los examinadores; así, por ejemplo, en +el segundo nivel, en el que era necesario redactar una composición, el +texto del candidato lo volvía a copiar un secretario antes de dárselo al +jurado, a fin de que sus miembros no pudieran reconocer la caligrafía +del autor. + +Más tarde, la promoción a rango de mandarín no daba necesariamente +derecho a uno de los puestos deseados. Permitía solamente participar en +el sorteo de esos empleos. Ninguna escuela apareció en China antes de la +época de las luchas con los poderes europeos. El caso del imperio chino +es único entre las grandes naciones, ya que no poseía ni Iglesia oficial +ni sistema escolar, pero pudo durante cerca de 3 000 años reclutar su +élite gubernamental sin fundar una vasta aristocracia hereditaria. El +acceso a esa élite estaba reservado a la familia del emperador y a los +que pasaban los exámenes. + +Voltaire y sus contemporáneos elogiaron el sistema chino, donde la +promoción se fundaba en las pruebas dadas de un saber. Los exámenes de +ingreso en la administración aparecieron en Francia en 1791; después, +Napoleón los abolió. ¿Qué habría sucedido si, para propagar las ideas de +la Revolución, se hubiera elegido el mandarinato en lugar del sistema +escolar que inevitablemente sostiene al nacionalismo y a la disciplina +militar? De hecho, Napoleón se erigió en el defensor de la escuela +politécnica y del colegio de pensionados\ldots{} Más que inspirarse en +el mandarinato, las instituciones educativas se calcaron del modelo +jesuita de la promoción ritual en el interior de una estructura +jerárquica cerrada; de esa forma, las sociedades occidentales eligieron +legitimar a sus élites. + +Los jefes de establecimientos escolares se volvieron, de alguna forma, +los abades de una cadena mundial de monasterios en donde todos se +dedicaron a acumular conocimientos que les permitieran acceder a la +tierra prometida, paraíso terrestre sometido a las leyes del +envejecimiento planificado que se desborda sin cesar. Eso nos recuerda +el esfuerzo de los calvinistas que arrasaron todos los monasterios para, +finalmente, transformar Ginebra en un vasto claustro. Tenemos, por lo +tanto, razones para temer que el desmantelamiento de la escuela permita +la aparición de una fábrica del saber a escala mundial. A menos que +transformemos la idea que nos hemos hecho de la enseñanza o del saber, +la desaparición de la escuela corre el riesgo de conducir a una +situación donde, de un lado, se utilizará el sistema del mandarinato +para separar el aprendizaje del saber de la prueba de control y, del +otro, la sociedad se comprometerá a proporcionar la terapéutica +necesaria a cualquier hombre para que pueda entrar en la ``edad de +oro''. + +Ni los alquimistas, ni los magos, ni los masones pueden resolver el +problema que nos plantea la crisis de la enseñanza, La desescolarización +de nuestra concepción del mundo exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza, a +la vez, ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa porque busca hacer +del hombre un ser social sometiéndolo a un tratamiento con métodos +técnicos apropiados. + +Adherirse al \emph{ethos} tecnocrático nos conduce a querer poner en +marcha todo lo que es técnicamente realizable, poco importa si sus +beneficiarios son forzosamente poco numerosos o si no experimentan su +deseo. Sobre todo la privatización o la frustración de la mayoría de los +seres humanos nunca entran en la línea de cuenta. Si, por ejemplo, es +posible concebir el tratamiento mediante la bomba de cobalto, es +necesario que la ciudad de Tegucigalpa disponga de aparatos adaptados en +cada uno de sus dos grandes hospitales. Con todos esos créditos puestos +ahí se habría podido luchar en toda Honduras contra la proliferación de +parásitos\ldots{} Las velocidades supersónicas sugieren que conviene +inmediatamente acelerar los viajes de algunos. ¿Los vuelos a Marte? ¡Se +encontrará siempre una razón para que parezcan indispensables! En el +\emph{ethos} tecnocrático la pobreza está modernizada: ¿existían +soluciones antiguas? Nuevos monopolios vienen a prohibirlas. A la +penuria de los bienes de primera necesidad se agrega la conciencia de la +diferencia sin cesar cada vez más grande entre los servicios +técnicamente realizables y los que en la práctica son accesibles a las +mayorías. + +Un profesor se vuelve ``educador'' desde el momento en que se incorpora +a ese \emph{ethos} tecnocrático. Actúa inmediatamente como si la +educación fuera una empresa tecnológica concebida para insertar al +hombre en el entorno que crea el ``progreso'' de la ciencia. Se niega a +ver la evidencia: el envejecimiento de todos los bienes programados se +paga muy caro (el costo de la formación del personal capaz de adaptarse +a las técnicas nuevas es sin cesar más alto). Parece olvidar que el +precio creciente de las herramientas tiene consecuencias igualmente +graves en el plano de la educación: en el momento mismo en que los +horarios de trabajo disminuyen, se vuelve imposible el aprendizaje en +los lugares de empleo donde se ha hecho de él el privilegio de un +pequeño número. En todo el mundo el precio del coste de la educación de +los hombres para la sociedad crece más rápidamente que la productividad +de la economía en su conjunto, mientras menos y menos hombres +experimentan el sentimiento de hacerse razonablemente útiles a la +comunidad. + +\hypertarget{la-escuela-instrumento-del-progreso-technocruxe1tico}{% +\subsection{La escuela instrumento del progreso +technocrático}\label{la-escuela-instrumento-del-progreso-technocruxe1tico}} + +Educar para una sociedad de consumo resulta en formar consumidores. La +reforma de la clase, su desaparición o su crecimiento no son ni más ni +menos que métodos que, a pesar de sus diferencias aparentes, se dirigen +a la formación de consumidores de bienes inmediatamente pasados de moda. +La sobrevivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden +definir constantemente la dicha del hombre asimilado al consumo de los +productos más recientes depende de las instituciones educativas (desde +las escuelas hasta las agencias publicitarias) que transforman la +educación en un medio de control social. + +En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, las considerables +inversiones en materia de enseñanza hacen más evidentes las +contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En esos +países, el aumento ideológico del progreso ilimitado reposa en la idea +de que el efecto igualitario de una formación permanente contrabalancea +la influencia inversa de la regla del envejecimiento perpetuo. La +legitimidad de la sociedad industrial depende de la credibilidad de la +escuela, cualquiera que sea el partido en el poder. En tales +condiciones, el público manifiesta un interés súbito por libros como el +reporte de Charles Silberman a la comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el +título \emph{Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)} ; +esta investigación inspira confianza en la medida en que la acusación +que el autor lanza contra la escuela está apoyada sólidamente. Pero +tales estudios se dirigen a salvar el sistema tratando de corregir sus +fallas más evidentes. Por lo mismo, pueden suscitar un nuevo ascenso de +esperanzas engañosas. + +Por todas partes crecientes inversiones consagradas a las escuelas +vuelven la absurdidad de la empresa escolar más evidente. Puede parecer +paradójico que los pobres sean sus primeras víctimas. En el fondo, eso +es lo que muestra el reporte de la comisión de encuestas Wright en +Ontario: a propósito de la enseñanza superior, los miembros de la +comisión señalan que las capas pobres de la población las subvencionaban +desde el punto de vista de la imposición de manera desproporcionada, ya +que los ricos eran casi los únicos beneficiarios. + +Esta observación podría inmediatamente hacerse en otra parte. En la +URSS, un sistema de cuota aplicado durante muchos decenios parece +favorecer la admisión a la universidad de los hijos de los trabajadores +a expensas de las hijas e hijos de universitarios. Actualmente estos +últimos son sobrerrepresentados en las clases superiores y terminales de +la enseñanza rusa y en una proporción todavía más grande que en Estados +Unidos. + +El 8 de marzo de 1971, el juez Warren E. Burger hacía público el +veredicto unánime de la corte en el caso Griggs contra la sociedad Duke +Power. Fundándose en la voluntad expresada por el Congreso en el +artículo que concierne a la igualdad de oportunidades en la ley de 1964, +la corte resolvió por unanimidad que cualquier ``diploma'' exigido a un +candidato por un empleo (o cualquier prueba seguida) debía ``medir al +hombre en relación con un trabajo dado'' y no ``al hombre mismo en un +plano abstracto''. Además, correspondía al empresario probar que sus +exigencias en materia de diplomas constituía una ``medida razonable de +la calificación requerida''. Mediante estas consideraciones, los jueces +querían evitar que las pruebas y diplomas exigidos no se utilizaran en +provecho de una discriminación racial, pero la lógica del razonamiento +podría también aplicarse a cualquier exigencia de un `` \emph{pedigree} +educativo'' en materia de empleo. Es tiempo de formar causa contra la +``gran estafa de la formación profesional'' denunciada tan justamente +por Ivar Berg. + +En los países pobres, las escuelas sirven para justificar el atraso +económico de una nación: a la mayoría de los ciudadanos se le mantiene +apartada de los magros medios modernos de producción y de consumo, pero +todos sueñan con beneficiarse de los favores de la economía franqueando +el umbral de una escuela. La repartición jerárquica de los privilegios y +del poder ya no depende, en nuestros días y en el plano de la +legitimidad, de una descendencia de ancestros, de la herencia, del favor +del príncipe, incluso de una lucha sin cuartel en el mercado económico o +en el campo de batalla. Su verdadera legitimidad la encuentra en una +forma más sutil del capitalismo donde la institución encargada de +conferirla se encuentra en la escolaridad obligatoria. Quien aprovechó +los servicios de la escuela vuelve entonces al subprivilegiado +responsable de su desgracia: es un mal consumidor del saber. Esta +justificación de la desigualdad social no resiste siempre el examen de +los hechos y los regímenes populares tienen cada vez más dificultades +para disimular las contradicciones entre la propaganda y la realidad. + +Desde hace 10 años, Cuba se esfuerza por promover el crecimiento rápido +de la educación popular dando confianza a la mano de obra disponible sin +tomar en cuenta la calificación profesional. Al principio, el éxito de +esta campaña (en particular la disminución espectacular del número de +analfabetos) se ha citado como prueba de que las tasas de crecimiento +limitadas de los otros sistemas escolares latinoamericanos eran +imputables a la corrupción, al militarismo y a la economía de mercado +capitalista. + +Sin embargo, la lógica de la escolarización se hace sentir +manifiestamente a consecuencia de los esfuerzos de Castro por +``reproducir'' al hombre nuevo mediante la escuela. Incluso si los +estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en la zafra y sostienen activamente +los ideales igualitarios del \emph{compañero} Fidel, la universidad +cultiva cada año una nueva cosecha de consumidores conscientes de su +saber, prontos a acceder a nuevos niveles de consumo. Al mismo tiempo, +el doctor Castro debe enfrentarse a la evidencia de que el sistema +escolar nunca producirá suficiente mano de obra técnica diplomada. Esos +diplomados que obtienen los nuevos empleos destruyen por su +conservadurismo los resultados conseguidos por los cuadros no diplomados +que llegaron a su posición mediante una formación en el taller. No basta +con acusar a los docentes para explicar los fracasos de un gobierno +revolucionario que quiere con todas sus fuerzas una institucionalización +de la mano de obra siguiendo un programa secreto que garantice la +producción de una burguesía universal. + +\hypertarget{enseuxf1ar-instruirse-responsabilidades-personales}{% +\subsection{Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades +personales}\label{enseuxf1ar-instruirse-responsabilidades-personales}} + +Contra esta voluntad de adquirir privilegios y poder que poseen quienes +detentan la competencia profesional en nombre de sus pretendidos +derechos, no sabríamos imaginar una revolución sin acusar a la +concepción misma de la adquisición del saber. Lo que nos conduce, en +primer lugar, a considerar la cuestión de la responsabilidad en ese +ámbito, ya se trate de enseñar o de instruir. Dar a conocer una +mercancía sólo se consigue si imaginamos que resulta de la acción +institucional o que satisface objetivos institucionales + +Para disipar este mal encantamiento, el hombre debe volver a encontrar +el sentido de su responsabilidad personal cuando aprende o enseña. De +esa forma se pondrá un término a esta nueva alienación donde vivir e +instruirse no se toparán. + +Recobrar el poder de aprender o de enseñar tiene como consecuencia que +el profesor, al tomar el riesgo de inmiscuirse en la vida privada de +otros, debe asumir la responsabilidad de sus resultados; de la misma +manera, el estudiante que se pone bajo la influencia de un profesor debe +sentirse responsable de su propia educación. En esa perspectiva, las +instituciones educativas ---si realmente son necesarias--- irán teniendo +el aspecto de centros abiertos a todos, donde cada uno pueda encontrar +lo que busca, donde uno, por ejemplo, tenga acceso a un piano, el otro, +a un horno de cerámica o a registros, libros, diapositivas, etc. Hoy en +día, las escuelas, los estudios de televisión y otros sitios similares +están concebidos para que los profesionales los utilicen. Desescolarizar +la sociedad quiere decir, ante todo, rechazar el estatus profesional del +oficio que, por orden de antigüedad, viene, justo después, del más viejo +del mundo, por el que entiendo la enseñanza. La calificación de los +profesores constituye ahora una traba al derecho a la palabra, de igual +forma que la estructura corporativa y la credencial profesional de los +periodistas representan una traba al derecho de la libertad de +información. La regla de la presencia obligatoria es contraria a la +libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad sólo sabría +concebirse como una mutación cultural por la que un pueblo vuelve a +encontrar el poder de gozar de sus libertades constitucionales. + +Instruirse, enseñar, concierne a hombres que saben que nacieron libres y +que no tienen, para adquirir esa libertad, que recurrir a un tratamiento +apropiado. ¿Cuándo, por lo general, aprendemos? Cuando hacemos lo que +nos interesa. ¿No somos, la mayor parte de nosotros, curiosos? Queremos +comprender, darle un sentido a lo que se encuentra frente a nosotros, a +lo que nos concierne. ¿No somos capaces de una relación personal con +otros a menos de que seamos embrutecidos por un trabajo inhumano o +fascinados por el ideal escolar? + +El hecho de que los habitantes de países ricos apenas se instruyan por +sí mismos no constituye una prueba de lo contrario. Es más bien la +consecuencia de una vida en un entorno donde paradójicamente no +encuentran nada que aprender en la medida en que su medio está en gran +parte ``programado''. Están sin cesar frustrados por la estructura de +una sociedad contemporánea en la que lo real, sobre lo que las +decisiones podrían apoyarse, se ha vuelto de una naturaleza inasible. +Viven, efectivamente, en un medio donde las herramientas que sería +posible utilizar con fines creadores se vuelven productos de lujo, donde +los canales de comunicación pertenecen a algunos que únicamente pueden +hablar a la multitud. + +\hypertarget{una-tecnologuxeda-nueva-muxe1s-que-una-nueva-educaciuxf3n}{% +\subsection{Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva +educación}\label{una-tecnologuxeda-nueva-muxe1s-que-una-nueva-educaciuxf3n}} + +Un mito moderno quisiera hacemos creer que el sentimiento de impotencia +que hoy en día experimenta la mayoría de los hombres sería consecuencia +de la tecnología capaz de crear solamente vastos sistemas. Pero no es +sólo la tecnología la que inventa esos sistemas, la que crea +herramientas inmensamente poderosas, la que teje canales de comunicación +en sentido único; por el contrario, mejor utilizada, la tecnología +podría proporcionar a cada hombre la posibilidad de entender mejor su +medio, de trabajarlo con sus propias manos, de comunicar mejor que en el +pasado. Esta utilización de la tecnología, contrariamente a las +tendencias actuales, constituye la verdadera alternativa al problema de +la educación. + +Para que un hombre pueda crecer, lo que necesita es el libre acceso a +las cosas, a los sitios, a los métodos, a los acontecimientos, a los +documentos. Tiene necesidad de ver, de tocar, de manipular, gustoso de +asir todo lo que le rodea en un medio que no esté desprovisto de +sentido. Ese acceso se le rehúsa hoy en día. Cuando el saber se ha +vuelto un producto, adquiere la protección que se dispensa a la +propiedad privada, De esa forma, un principio que se concibió para +preservar la vida personal de cada uno se utiliza para justificar las +prohibiciones que se lanzan contra aquellos que no portan los documentos +necesarios. En las escuelas los profesores conservan sus propios +conocimientos, a menos que esos conocimientos se inserten en el programa +del momento. Los media informan, pero omiten todo lo que se considera +impropio para la difusión. Los especialistas se encierran en su jerga y +se necesitan vulgarizadores para asegurar su traducción. Los cuerpos +profesionales protegen los diplomas y la burocracia los secretos. Todas +las profesiones detentan el poder de echar de su ámbito a las personas +no autorizadas; sucede lo mismo con las instituciones y las naciones. + +Ni la estructura política ni la estructura profesional de nuestras +sociedades, tanto en el Oeste como en el Este, podrían resistir la +desaparición de estas prohibiciones, el trastrocamiento de esta +posibilidad de tener a capas enteras de la población apartadas de lo que +podría servirles. El acceso a los hechos que preconizamos no se +satisface con una simple operación ``etiquetas-verdad''. Es necesario +construir este acceso a la realidad (y todo lo que pedimos de la +publicidad es una garantía que no sea mentirosa). El acceso a la +realidad constituye la alternativa fundamental en materia de educación +frente a un sistema de enseñanza que sólo se propone hablar de él. + +Abolir el derecho al secreto profesional (incluso cuando la opinión del +hombre profesional es que ese secreto sirve al bien común) representa, +como hemos querido demostrarlo, un objetivo político mucho más radical +que la reivindicación tradicional de nacionalizar o de controlar +democráticamente las herramientas de producción. La socialización de las +herramientas, sin la socialización efectiva de los conocimientos +técnicos, tiende a poner el ``capital del saber'' en la posición que +anteriormente ocupaba el financiero. Si el tecnócrata pretende +apoderarse del poder es que él detenta una parte capital en la sociedad +del saber secreto y reservado al pequeño número. Para proteger el valor +de sus acciones y para aumentarlo, imagina una vasta organización que +hace difícil, incluso imposible, el acceso al saber técnico. + +El hombre motivado necesita un tiempo relativamente corto para adquirir +una capacidad que quiere utilizar ---lo que tendemos a olvidar en una +sociedad donde los profesores monopolizan la posibilidad de acceder a +cualquier actividad y detentan el poder de acusar de charlatanería a +todos aquellos que no se someten---. ¿En las industrias y en la +investigación se requieren muchas capacidades que sean tan terribles, +complejas y peligrosas como manejar un coche? Ese saber se adquiere muy +pronto con la ayuda de un igual. No todos los seres están dotados para +el ejercicio de la lógica matemática, pero quienes lo están hacen +progresos rápidos desafiándose mutuamente en partidos de juegos +educativos. En Cuernavaca uno de 20 niños es capaz de vencerme en esos +juegos después de 15 días de entrenamiento. En cuatro meses, la gran +mayoría de los adultos que vinieron a nuestro centro a aprender español +llegaron a un nivel de conocimiento suficiente para atacar problemas +abstractos. + +Una primera etapa de acceso a conocimientos consistiría en encontrar +ventajas diversas para aquellos que, poseedores de una capacidad, +quisieran compartirla. Eso, inevitablemente, chocaría con intereses de +grupos profesionales y sindicatos. Esta multiplicidad de posibles +aprendizajes tiene, sin embargo, con qué seducirnos. ¿Está prohibido +imaginar a alguien que sabe a la vez conducir, reparar el teléfono, +instalar plomería, actuar como partera y dibujar planos arquitectónicos? +A esos, como decimos, se opondrían los grupos de interés y los +consumidores disciplinados, diciendo muy alto que el público no podría +prescindir de una garantía profesional (argumento cuya validez es cada +vez menos evidente a los ojos de las asociaciones de defensa del +consumidor). Debemos tomar mucho más en serio la objeción que los +economistas harían de esta socialización de las capacidades: el +``progreso'', dirían, se frenaría si el saber (títulos, capacidades y +todo lo demás\ldots) se democratiza. La mejor respuesta ¿no sería +mostrar las tasas de crecimiento de los absurdos en materia económica +que engendra el sistema escolar? + +Poder aproximar a quienes están deseosos de compartir sus conocimientos +no es garantía de que haya adquisición de un saber. Dicho acceso está +limitado no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos y el de +los sindicatos, sino también por una tecnología de penuria. Las +capacidades que hoy en día valen son las que se aplican al +funcionamiento de ``herramientas'' concebidas de tal manera que no +puedan generalizarse. Efectivamente, esas ``herramientas'' sirven para +producir bienes o servicios de los que todos quieren gozar, pero esto +último sólo se concede a un pequeño número y sólo pocos saben +utilizarlas. Únicamente algunos privilegiados, por ejemplo, sobre el +conjunto de los que sufren una determinada enfermedad, pueden +beneficiarse de los descubrimientos de una investigación médica +compleja, y todavía son menos los médicos que obtienen los conocimientos +necesarios para utilizar dichas tecnologías. + +Sin embargo, la investigación médica ha permitido crear un maletín de +auxilios que permite a los enfermeros de la armada, después de sólo +algunos meses de formación, obtener en el campo de batalla resultados +muy superiores a los de los verdaderos médicos de la segunda Guerra +Mundial. A un nivel todavía más inmediato, ¿no podría cualquier +campesina aprender a reconocer y a curar las enfermedades infecciosas +más comunes si investigadores médicos prepararan los remedios y las +instrucciones necesarias para un determinado sector geográfico? + +Todos estos ejemplos buscan ilustrar el hecho de que simples +consideraciones educativas bastan para exigir una importante reducción +de la importancia dada a las profesiones que se oponen a las relaciones +entre los hombres de ciencia y la mayoría de quienes quieren tener +acceso a esta ciencia. Si se prestara atención a esta demanda, todos los +hombres podrían aprender a utilizar las herramientas de ayer, vueltas +más eficaces y más durables gracias a la ciencia de hoy, para crear el +mundo de mañana. + +Por desgracia, es la tendencia contraria la que impera. Conozco una zona +costera de América del Sur donde la mayoría de los habitantes viven de +la pesca. Disponen de pequeñas embarcaciones y la introducción del motor +auxiliar ha representado para ellos una verdadera revolución, de +consecuencias a veces dramáticas. En el sector que estudié, la mitad de +los motores comprados entre 1945 y 1950 funcionan todavía gracias a +constante mantenimiento; por el contrario, los que se compraron en 1965 +ya no funcionan porque no se concibieron para repararse. El progreso +técnico proporciona a la mayoría de los seres humanos instrumentos +inútiles, demasiado costosos, privándolos de las herramientas más +simples que necesitan. + +Desde 1940, considerables progresos se han realizado en el ámbito de los +materiales metálicos, plásticos y de fibrocemento que se utilizan en la +construcción, lo que debería darle a muchos seres humanos la posibilidad +de construir sus propias casas. Pero en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, +mientras que en 1948 más de 30\% de las habitaciones individuales las +habían construido sus propietarios, a fines de 1960 ese porcentaje había +caído a menos de 20 puntos. + +El descenso del nivel de las capacidades por efecto de lo que se llama +el ``desarrollo económico'' es aún más visible en América Latina. Ahí, +la mayoría de los habitantes construyen todavía ellos mismos sus casas. +Utilizan frecuentemente adobe y cal, materiales cuya utilidad es muy +alta en clima cálido y húmedo. En otros sitios edifican casas con placas +de chapa, cartón y otros desperdicios de la civilización +industrial\ldots{} En lugar de proporcionar a los habitantes +herramientas simples y elementos estandarizados, sólidos, fácilmente +reemplazables o reparables, los gobernantes de esos países se lanzaron a +una política de producción masiva de habitaciones de interés social. Es, +sin embargo, evidente que ninguno de ellos puede darse el lujo de +proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas a la mayoría de los +habitantes. Por todas partes esta política prohibí a las masas adquirir +los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para la construcción de +casas más decentes. + +\hypertarget{una-pobreza-libremente-consentida}{% +\subsection{Una pobreza libremente +consentida}\label{una-pobreza-libremente-consentida}} + +Darse cuenta de las posibilidades de educación nos permite ver que +cualquier sociedad posindustrial debe disponer de un herramental de base +cuya misma naturaleza no permita el desarrollo del control tecnocrático. +Debemos, en efecto, esforzarnos por hacer surgir una sociedad donde el +saber científico pueda estar, de alguna forma, abierto a las +herramientas útiles, a las piezas de ensamble en unidades de dimensiones +limitadas, para que sean comprensibles a los hombres. Dicho herramental +permite asociarse para cumplir una tarea o, como todo mil usos lo sabe +instintivamente, descubrirlas sirviéndose de ellas para nuevas +posibilidades de uso. Por la combinación de posibilidades de acceso +siempre abiertas a lo que sucede a nuestro alrededor y por los límites +impuestos al poder de las herramientas será posible visualizar una +``economía de subsistencia'' capaz de utilizar las ventajas de la +ciencia moderna. + +Desarrollar dicha economía servirá a los intereses de la aplastante +mayoría de los habitantes de países pobres, pero también es la única +alternativa posible en los países ricos frente a la creciente +contaminación, la explotación, la construcción de un mundo cada vez más +ensombrecido. Como lo hemos señalado, derribar el mito del ``producto +nacional bruto'' no se concibe sin atacar al mismo tiempo el de la +``educación nacional bruta'' (que conduce a la capitalización de la mano +de obra). Una economía igualitaria no podría existir en una sociedad en +la que el derecho de producir lo confieren las escuelas. + +Construir una economía de subsistencia moderna no depende de invenciones +científicas nuevas. Su edificación pasa por una elección deliberada del +conjunto de la sociedad que debe definir límites fundamentales al +desarrollo de las burocracias y de las tecnocracias. + +Estos límites pueden definirse de diferente manera, pero su utilidad +dependerá de que se tomen en cuenta las verdaderas dimensiones de la +existencia. (La posición del Congreso contra el desarrollo del +transporte supersónico va en buena dirección.) Estas restricciones que +se impondría voluntariamente la sociedad deben dirigirse a problemas +simples, accesibles a todos; podríamos aquí retomar el ejemplo de los +aviones supersónicos. Lo que guiaría la elección sería la conciencia de +la necesidad de un disfrute igual de los frutos del saber científico. +Los franceses dicen que se necesitarían mil años para enseñarle a un +país a ocuparse de una vaca; no se necesitarían dos generaciones para +ayudar a todos los habitantes de América Latina o de África a utilizar +(o a reparar) motores auxiliares de vehículos simplificados, de bombas, +de maletines médicos, de construcciones de hormigón, si la concepción de +esos equipamientos no cambiara casi cada año. Obtener igual provecho de +las adquisiciones de la técnica conduciría, sin duda, a una vida donde +el gozo estaría presente, gozo, con sentido, de las relaciones +establecidas entre los hombres, y como al mismo tiempo los hombres +vivirían en un medio en donde el absurdo ya no tendría sitio, el derecho +igual a los bienes de la sociedad se confundiría finalmente con la +igualdad en materia de educación. + +Hoy en día es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre la austeridad. La razón +que por costumbre se da para explicar la impotencia actual de la mayoría +se sitúa en una perspectiva (económica o política) de clases, y por lo +general no nos damos cuenta de que las nuevas estructuras de clase +impuestas por una sociedad escolarizada son más fácilmente controladas +por los intereses establecidos. Sin duda alguna, una organización +imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad definió un conjunto social en +el interior del cual una minoría posee una influencia desproporcionada +sobre la opinión de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática, el +poder de un pequeño número de ``capitalistas del saber'' es capaz de +impedir la formación de una verdadera opinión pública por el control de +las técnicas científicas y de los medios de comunicación entre los +hombres. + +Las garantías constitucionales dadas a la libertad de expresión, de +prensa, de reunión, se dirigían a asegurar el acceso del gobierno por el +pueblo. La electrónica moderna, las prensas offset, las computadoras, +los teléfonos podrían representar un equipamiento capaz de dar un +sentido completamente nuevo a esas libertades. Por desgracia, todas esas +conquistas técnicas se utilizan para acrecentar el poder de los +banqueros del conocimiento, en lugar de servir para tejer las verdaderas +redes que proporcionarían oportunidades iguales de encuentro a la +mayoría de los seres humanos. + +Desescolarizar la estructura social y cultural exige utilizar la +tecnología para hacer posible una política de participación. Sobre la +base de una coalición de la mayoría se podrían determinar los límites +del secreto y del poder creciente sin que exista dictadura. + +Necesitamos un entorno nuevo en el cual crecer para conocer una sociedad +sin clases o entraremos en el ``mundo feliz'' donde el \emph{big +brother}\footnote{Alusiones al libro de Aldous Huxley, \emph{Un mundo + feliz} , y al de George Orwell, \emph{1984.}} estará ahí para +educarnos a todos. + +\end{document} diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.txt b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d2c00d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1077 @@ +# La sociedad desescolarizada + + +## Introducción + +Debo a Everett Reimer el interés que tengo por la educación pública hasta el día de 1958 en que nos conocimos en Puerto Rico jamás había yo puesto en duda el valor de hacer obligatoria la escuela para todos. Conjuntamente, hemos llegado a percatarnos de que para la mayoría de los seres humanos, el derecho a aprender se ve restringido por la obligación de asistir a la escuela. + +Desde 1966 en adelante, Valentina Borremans, cofundadora y directora del CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) de Cuernavaca, organizó anualmente dos seminarios alrededor de mi diálogo con Reimer. Centenares de personas de todo el mundo participaron en estos encuentros. Quiero recordar en este lugar a dos de ellos que contribuyeron particularmente a nuestro análisis y que en el entretiempo murieron: Augusto Salazar Bondy y Paul Goodman. Los ensayos escritos para el boletín _Cidoc Informa_ y reunidos en este libro se desarrollaron a partir de mis notas de seminario. El último capítulo contiene ideas que me surgieron después de mis conversaciones con Erich Fromm en torno al Mutterrecht de Bachofen. + +Durante estos años Valentina Borremans constantemente me urgía a poner a prueba nuestro pensar enfrentándolo a las realidades de América Latina y de África. Este libro refleja su convencimiento de que no sólo las instituciones sino el _ethos_ de la sociedad deben ser “desescolarizados”. + +La educación universal por medio de la escolarización no es factible. No sería más factible si se intentara mediante instituciones alternativas construidas según el estilo de las escuelas actuales. Ni nuevas actitudes de los maestros hacia sus alumnos, ni la proliferación de nuevas herramientas y métodos físicos o mentales (en el aula o en el dormitorio), ni, finalmente, el intento de ampliar la responsabilidad del pedagogo hasta que englobe las vidas completas de sus alumnos, dará por resultado la educación universal. La búsqueda actual de nuevos _embudos_ educacionales debe revertirse hacia la búsqueda de su antípoda institucional: _tramas_ educacionales que aumenten la oportunidad para que cada cual transforme cada momento de su vida en un momento de aprendizaje, de compartir, de interesarse. Confiamos en estar aportando conceptos necesarios para aquellos que realizan investigaciones sobre la educación —y asimismo para aquellos que buscan alternativas para otras industrias de servicio establecidas—. + +Me propongo examinar algunas cuestiones inquietantes que surgen una vez que adoptamos como hipótesis que la sociedad puede desescolarizarse, buscar pautas que puedan ayudarnos a discernir instituciones dignas de desarrollo por cuanto apoyan el aprendizaje en un medio desescolarizado, y esclarecer las metas personales que ampararían el advenimiento de una Edad de Ocio _(schole)_ opuesta como tal a una economía dominada por las industrias de servicio. + +IVÁN ILLICH + +_Ocotepec, Morelos, enero de 1978_ + +## Por qué debemos privar de apoyo oficial a la escuela + +Muchos estudiantes en especial los que son pobres saben intuitivamente qué hacen por ellos las escuelas los adiestran a confundir proceso y sustancia. Una vez que estos dos términos se hacen indistintos, se adopta una nueva lógica: cuanto más tratamiento haya, tanto mejor serán los resultados. Al alumno se le “escolariza” de ese modo para confundir enseñanza con saber, promoción al curso siguiente con educación, diploma con competencia, y fluidez con capacidad para decir algo nuevo. A su imaginación se la “escolariza” para que acepte servicio en vez de valor. Se confunde el tratamiento médico tomándolo por cuidado de la salud, el trabajo social por mejoramiento de la vida comunitaria, la protección policiaca por tranquilidad, el equilibrio militar por seguridad nacional, la mezquina lucha cotidiana por trabajo productivo. La salud, el saber, la dignidad, la independencia y el quehacer creativo quedan definidos como poco más que el desempeño de las instituciones que afirman servir a estos fines, y su mejoramiento se hace dependiente de la asignación de mayores recursos a la administración de hospitales, escuelas y demás organismos correspondientes. + +En estos ensayos mostraré que la institucionalización de los valores conduce inevitablemente a la contaminación física, a la polarización social y a la impotencia psicológica: tres dimensiones en un proceso de degradación global y de miseria modernizada. Explicaré cómo este proceso de degradación se acelera cuando unas necesidades no materiales se transforman en demanda de bienes; cuando a la salud, a la educación, a la movilidad personal, al bienestar o a la cura psicológica se las define como el resultado de servicios o de “tratamientos”. Hago esto porque creo que la mayoría de las investigaciones actualmente en curso acerca del futuro tienden a abogar por incrementos aún mayores en la institucionalización de valores y que debemos definir algunas condiciones que permitieran que ocurriese lo contrario. Precisamos investigaciones sobre el posible uso de la tecnología para crear instituciones que atiendan a la acción recíproca, creativa y autónoma entre personas y a la emergencia de valores que los tecnócratas no puedan controlar sustancialmente. Necesitamos investigación en líneas generales para la futurología actual. + +Quiero suscitar la cuestión general acerca de la mutua definición, de la naturaleza del hombre y de la naturaleza de las instituciones modernas, que caracteriza nuestra visión del mundo y nuestro lenguaje. Para hacerlo, he elegido a la escuela como mi paradigma, y por consiguiente trato sólo indirectamente de otros organismos burocráticos del Estado corporativo: la familia consumidora, el partido, el ejército, la Iglesia, los medios informativos. Mi análisis del currículum oculto de la escuela debería poner en evidencia que la educación pública se beneficiaría con la desescolarización de la sociedad, tal como la vida familiar, la política, la seguridad, la fe y la comunicación se beneficiarían con un proceso análogo. + +Quiero comenzar este estudio esforzándome en hacer comprender qué es lo que la desescolarización de una sociedad escolarizada podría significar. En este contexto debiera ser más fácil entender mi elección de los cinco aspectos específicos pertinentes respecto de este proceso, los cuales abordaré en los capítulos siguientes. + +No sólo la educación sino la propia realidad social se han escolarizado. Cuesta más o menos lo mismo escolarizar tanto al rico como al pobre en igual dependencia. El gasto anual por alumno en los arrabales y los suburbios ricos de cualquiera de 20 ciudades de Estados Unidos está comprendido dentro de unos mismos márgenes —y hasta es favorable al pobre en ciertos casos—.[^n01] + +Tanto el pobre como el rico dependen de escuelas y hospitales que guían sus vidas, forman su visión del mundo y definen para ellos qué es legítimo y qué no. Ambos consideran irresponsable medicarse uno mismo, y ven a la organización comunitaria, cuando no la pagan quienes detentan la autoridad, como una forma de agresión y subversión. Para ambos grupos, apoyarse en el tratamiento institucional hace sospechoso el logro independiente. El subdesarrollo progresivo de la confianza en sí mismo y en la comunidad es incluso más típico en Westchester que en el norte de Brasil. Por doquiera, no tan sólo la educación sino la sociedad en conjunto, necesitan “desescolarización”. + +Las burocracias del bienestar social pretenden un monopolio profesional, político y financiero sobre la imaginación social, fijando normas sobre qué es valedero y qué es factible. Este monopolio está en las raíces de la modernización de la pobreza. Cada necesidad simple para la que se halla una respuesta institucional permite la invención de una nueva clase de pobres y una nueva definición de la pobreza. Hace 10 años, lo normal en México era nacer y morir en su propia casa, y ser enterrado por sus amigos. Sólo las necesidades del alma las atendía la Iglesia institucionalizada. Ahora, comenzar y acabar la vida en casa se convierten en _signos_ , ya sea de pobreza, ya sea de privilegio especial. El morir y la muerte han quedado bajo la administración institucional del médico y de los empresarios de pompas fúnebres. + +Una vez que una sociedad ha convertido ciertas necesidades básicas en demandas de bienes producidos científicamente, la pobreza queda definida por normas que los tecnócratas pueden cambiar a voluntad. “Pobre” es quien no llega a satisfacer ciertas normas del consumo obligatorio. En México son pobres aquellos que carecen de tres años de escolaridad, y en Nueva York aquellos que carecen de doce. + +Los pobres siempre han sido socialmente impotentes. Apoyarse cada vez más en la atención y el cuidado institucionales agrega una nueva dimensión a su indefensión: la impotencia psicológica, la incapacidad de valerse por sí mismos. Los campesinos del altiplano andino son explotados por el terrateniente y el comerciante —una vez que se asientan en Lima llegan a depender, además, de los jefazos políticos y están desarmados por su falta de escolaridad—. La pobreza moderna conjuga la pérdida del poder sobre las circunstancias con una pérdida de la potencia personal. Esta modernización de la pobreza es un fenómeno mundial y está en el origen del subdesarrollo contemporáneo. Adopta aspectos diferentes, por supuesto, en países ricos y países pobres. + +Probablemente se siente más intensamente en las ciudades estadunidenses. En ninguna otra parte se da un tratamiento más costoso a la pobreza. En ninguna otra parte el tratamiento de la pobreza produce tanta dependencia, ira, frustración y nuevos requerimientos. Y en ninguna otra parte es tan evidente que la pobreza —una vez modernizada— ha llegado a hacerse resistente al tratamiento con dólares y requiere de una revolución institucional. + +Hoy en día, en Estados Unidos, el negro y hasta el vagabundo pueden aspirar a un nivel de tratamiento profesional que habría sido inconcebible hace dos generaciones y que a la mayoría de la gente del Tercer Mundo le parece grotesca. Por ejemplo, los pobres de Estados Unidos pueden contar con un vigilante escolar que lleve a sus hijos de regreso a la escuela hasta que lleguen a los 17 años o con un médico que les remita a una cama de hospital que cuesta 60 dólares diarios —el equivalente al ingreso de tres meses para la mayor parte de la gente en el mundo—. Pero ese cuidado los hace sólo más dependientes de un tratamiento ulterior, y los hace cada vez más incapaces de organizar sus propias vidas en torno a sus propias experiencias y recursos dentro de sus propias comunidades. + +Los estadunidenses pobres están en una posición singular para hablar sobre el predicamento que amenaza a todos los pobres de un mundo en vías de modernización. Están descubriendo que no hay cantidad alguna de dólares que pueda eliminar la destructividad inherente de las instituciones de bienestar social, una vez que las jerarquías profesionales de estas instituciones han convencido a la sociedad de que sus servicios son moralmente necesarios. Los pobres de los núcleos urbanos centrales de Estados Unidos pueden demostrar con su propia experiencia la falacia sobre la que está construida la legislación social en una sociedad “escolarizada”. + +William O. Douglas, miembro de la Suprema Corte de Justicia, hizo la observación de que “la única manera de establecer una observación es financiarla”. El corolario es asimismo verdadero. Sólo al desviar los dólares que ahora afluyen a las instituciones que actualmente tratan la salud, la educación y el bienestar social, podrá detenerse el progresivo empobrecimiento que ahora proviene del aspecto paralizante de las mismas instituciones. + +Debemos tener esto presente al evaluar los programas de ayuda federales. A modo de ejemplo: entre 1965 y 1968, en las escuelas de Estados Unidos se gastaron más de 3 000 millones de dólares para compensar las desventajas de unos seis millones de niños. Al programa se le conoce con el nombre de _Title One_ (Artículo Primero). Es el programa compensatorio más costoso que jamás se haya intentado en parte alguna en materia de educación y, sin embargo, no es posible discernir ningún mejoramiento significativo en el aprendizaje de estos niños “desfavorecidos”. En comparación con sus condiscípulos del mismo curso que provienen de hogares de ingresos medios, han quedado aún más retrasados. Por lo demás, a lo largo de este programa, los profesionales descubrieron otros 10 millones de niños que se esforzaban sometidos a desventajas económicas y educativas. Se dispone ahora de nuevas razones para reclamar nuevos fondos federales. + +Este fracaso total en el intento de mejorar la educación de los pobres a pesar de un tratamiento más costoso puede explicarse de tres maneras: + +_1)_ Tres mil millones de dólares son insuficientes para mejorar el aprovechamiento de seis millones de niños de modo apreciable; o bien, + +_2)_ el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente: se requieren diferentes planes de estudio, una mejor administración, una concentración aún mayor de fondos sobre el niño pobre, y más investigaciones. Con ello se lograría el objetivo: o bien, + +_3)_ la desventaja educativa no puede curarse apoyándose en una educación dentro de la escuela. + +Lo primero es sin duda cierto en cuanto que el dinero se ha gastado a través del presupuesto escolar. El dinero se destinó efectivamente a las escuelas donde estaban la mayoría de los niños desfavorecidos, pero no se gastó en los niños mismos. Estos niños, a los que estaba destinado el dinero, constituían sólo alrededor de la mitad de los que asistían a las escuelas que añadieron el subsidio federal a sus presupuestos. De modo que el dinero se gastó en inspección y custodia, en indoctrinación y selección de papeles sociales, como también en educación, todo ello inextricablemente mezclado con los edificios e instalaciones, planes de estudio, profesores, administradores y otros componentes básicos de estas escuelas y, por consiguiente, con sus presupuestos. + +Los fondos adicionales permitieron a las escuelas atender desproporcionadamente a los niños relativamente más ricos que estaban “desfavorecidos” por tener que asistir a la escuela en compañía de los pobres. En el mejor de los casos, una pequeña proporción de cada dólar destinado a remediar las desventajas del niño pobre en su aprendizaje podía llegar hasta ese niño a través del presupuesto de la escuela. + +Podría ser igualmente cierto que el dinero se gastó de manera incompetente. Pero ni siquiera la incompetencia poco común puede superar la del sistema escolar. Las escuelas resisten, por su estructura misma, la concentración del privilegio en quienes son, por otra parte, desfavorecidos. Los planes especiales de estudio, las clases separadas o más horas de estudio constituyen tan sólo más discriminación a un coste más elevado. + +Los contribuyentes no se han acostumbrado aún a ver que 3 000 millones de dólares se desvanezcan en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar como si se tratara del Pentágono. El gobierno actual tal vez estime que puede afrontar la ira de los educadores. Los estadunidenses de clase media no tienen nada que perder si se interrumpe el programa. Los padres pobres creen que sí pierden, pero, más todavía, están exigiendo el control de los fondos destinados a sus hijos. Un sistema lógico de recortar el presupuesto y, sería de esperar, de aumentar sus beneficios, consistiría en un sistema de becas escolares como el propuesto por Milton Friedman y otros. Los fondos se canalizarían al beneficiario, permitiéndole comprar su parte de escolaridad que elija. Si dicho crédito se limitara a unas compras que se ajustasen a un plan escolar de estudios, tendería a proporcionar una mayor igualdad de tratamiento, pero no aumentaría por ello la igualdad de las exigencias sociales. + +Debería ser obvio que incluso con escuelas de igual calidad un niño pobre rara vez se pondrá a la par de uno rico. Incluso si asisten a las mismas escuelas y comienzan a la misma edad, los niños pobres carecen de la mayoría de las oportunidades educativas que, al parecer, dispone el niño de clase media. Estas ventajas van desde la conversación y los libros en el hogar hasta el viaje de vacaciones y un sentido diferente de sí mismo, y actúan, para el niño que goza de ellas, tanto dentro de la escuela como fuera de ella. De modo que el estudiante más pobre se quedará atrás en tanto dependa de la escuela para progresar o aprender. Los pobres necesitan fondos que les permitan aprender y no obtener certificados del tratamiento de sus deficiencias presuntamente desproporcionadas. + +Todo esto es válido para naciones tanto ricas como pobres, pero aparece con aspecto diferente. En las naciones pobres, la pobreza modernizada afecta a más gente y más visiblemente, pero también —por ahora— más superficialmente. Dos de cada tres del total de niños latinoamericanos dejan la escuela antes de terminar el quinto grado, pero estos _desertores_[^n02] no están tan mal, como lo estarían en Estados Unidos. + +Hoy en día son pocos los países víctimas de la pobreza clásica, que era estable y menos paralizante. La mayoría de los países de América Latina han llegado al punto de “despegue” hacia el desarrollo económico y el consumo competitivo y, por lo tanto, hacia la pobreza modernizada: sus ciudadanos aprenden a pensar como ricos y a vivir como pobres. Sus leyes establecen un periodo escolar obligatorio de seis a 10 años. No sólo en Argentina, sino también en México o en Brasil, el ciudadano medio define una educación adecuada según las pautas estadunidenses, aun cuando la posibilidad de lograr esa prolongada escolarización esté restringida a una diminuta minoría. En estos países la mayoría ya está enviciada con la escuela, es decir, ha sido “escolarizada” para sentirse inferior respecto de quienes tienen una mejor escolaridad. Su fanatismo en favor de la escuela hace posible explotarlos por partida doble: permite aumentar la asignación de fondos públicos para la educación de unos pocos y aumentar la aceptación del control social por parte de la mayoría. + +Es paradójico que la creencia en la escolarización universal se mantenga más firme en los países en que el menor número de personas ha sido —y será— servido por las escuelas. Sin embargo, en América Latina la mayoría de los padres y de los hijos podrían seguir aún senderos diferentes hacia la educación. La proporción del ahorro nacional invertido en escuelas y maestros tal vez sea mayor que en los países ricos, pero estas inversiones son totalmente insuficientes para atender a la mayoría haciendo posible siquiera cuatro años de asistencia a la escuela. Fidel Castro habla como si quisiese avanzar directo a la desescolarización, cuando promete que para 1980 Cuba estará en condiciones de disolver su universidad, puesto que toda la vida cubana será una _experiencia educativa_. Sin embargo, en los niveles de primaria y secundaria, Cuba, al igual que otros países latinoamericanos, actúa como si el paso a través de un periodo definido como “la edad escolar” fuese una meta incuestionable para todos, sólo postergada por una escasez momentánea de recursos. + +Los dos engaños gemelos de un tratamiento más a fondo, tal como de hecho se proporciona en Estados Unidos —y como tan sólo se promete en América Latina— se complementan entre sí. Los pobres del Norte están siendo tullidos por el mismo tratamiento de 12 años cuya carencia marca a los pobres del Sur como irremediablemente retrasados. Ni en Norteamérica ni en América Latina logran los pobres igualdad a partir de escuelas obligatorias. Pero en ambas partes la sola existencia de la escuela desanima al pobre y lo invalida para asir el control de su propio aprendizaje. En todo el mundo la escuela tiene un efecto antieducacional sobre la sociedad: se le reconoce como la institución que se especializa en educación. La mayoría de las personas considera los fracasos de la escuela como una prueba de que la educación es una tarea muy costosa, muy compleja, siempre arcana y frecuentemente casi imposible. + +La escuela se apropia del dinero, de los hombres y de la buena voluntad disponibles para educación, y fuera de eso desalienta a otras instituciones respecto a asumir tareas educativas. El trabajo, el tiempo libre, la política, la vida ciudadana e incluso la vida familiar dependen de las escuelas, en lo concerniente a los hábitos y conocimientos que presuponen, en vez de convertirse ellos mismos en medios de educación. Tanto las escuelas como las otras instituciones que dependen de aquéllas llegan simultáneamente a tener un precio imposible. + +En Estados Unidos, los costes per cápita de la escolaridad han aumentado casi con igual rapidez que el coste del tratamiento médico. Pero este tratamiento más completo impartido por doctores y maestros ha mostrado resultados en continua declinación. Los gastos médicos concentrados sobre los mayores de 45 años se han duplicado varias veces durante un periodo de 40 años, dando como fruto un aumento de 3% en las probabilidades de vida de los varones. El incremento de los gastos educativos ha producido resultados aún más extraños; de otra manera el presidente Nixon no se habría sentido inclinado a prometer esta primavera que todo niño tendrá pronto el “derecho a leer” antes de dejar la escuela. + +En Estados Unidos se precisarían 80 000 millones de dólares por año para proporcionar lo que los educadores consideran como tratamiento igualitario para todos en escuelas primaria y secundaria. Esto es bastante más del doble de los 36 000 millones que se están gastando ahora. Las predicciones de costes preparadas de modo independiente en el Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar y en la Universidad de Florida indican que para 1974 las cifras comparables serán de 107 000 millones contra los 45 000 millones proyectados ahora, y estas cifras omiten totalmente los enormes costes de lo que se denomina “educación superior”, cuya demanda está creciendo de manera más veloz. Estados Unidos, que en 1969 gastó casi 80 000 millones de dólares en “defensa”, incluyendo su despliegue en Vietnam, es obviamente demasiado pobre como para proporcionar igual escolaridad. El comité nombrado por el presidente para el estudio del financiamiento de las escuelas debiera preguntar no cómo mantener o cómo recortar tales costes, crecientes, sino cómo evitarlos. + +La escuela igual y obligatoria para todos debiera reconocerse por lo menos como algo económicamente impracticable. En América Latina, la cantidad de erario que se gasta en cada estudiante graduado oscila entre 350 y 1 500 veces el monto gastado en el ciudadano medio (es decir, el ciudadano que está en un término medio entre el más pobre y el más rico). En Estados Unidos la discrepancia es menor, pero la discriminación más aguda. Los padres más ricos, cerca de 10%, pueden permitirse proporcionar a sus hijos educación privada y ayudarles a beneficiarse de las donaciones de fundaciones. Pero además consiguen 10 veces el monto per cápita de fondos públicos si éste se compara con el gasto per cápita que se efectúa en los hijos de 10% de los más pobres. Las razones principales de que esto ocurra son que los muchachos ricos permanecen más tiempo en la escuela, que un año de universidad es desproporcionadamente más costoso que un año de escuela secundaria, y que la mayoría de las universidades privadas dependen —al menos indirectamente— de un financiamiento derivado de desgravámenes. + +La escuela obligatoria polariza inevitablemente a una sociedad y califica asimismo a las naciones del mundo según un sistema internacional de castas. A los países se los califica como castas cuya dignidad la determina el promedio de años de escolaridad de sus ciudadanos, tabla de calificación que se relaciona íntimamente con el producto nacional bruto per cápita y es mucho más dolorosa. + +La paradoja de las escuelas es evidente: el gasto creciente hace aumentar su destructividad en su propio país y en el extranjero. Esta paradoja debe convertirse en tema de debate público. Hoy por hoy se reconoce de manera general que el medio ambiente físico quedará destruido dentro de poco por la contaminación bioquímica a menos que invirtamos las tendencias actuales de producción de bienes físicos. Debería reconocerse asimismo que la vida social y personal está igualmente amenazada por la contaminación del Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar, subproducto inevitable del consumo obligatorio y competitivo del bienestar. + +La escalada de las escuelas es tan destructiva como la de las armas, si bien de manera menos visible. En todo el mundo, los costes de la escuela han aumentado con mayor velocidad que las matrículas y más velozmente por el producto nacional bruto (PNB); en todas partes los gastos en la escuela se quedan cada vez más cortos frente a las expectativas de padres, maestros y alumnos. Por doquiera, esta situación desalienta tanto la motivación como el financiamiento para una planificación en gran escala del aprendizaje no escolar. Estados Unidos está demostrando al mundo que ningún país puede ser lo bastante rico como para permitirse un sistema escolar que satisfaga las demandas que este mismo sistema crea con sólo existir, porque un sistema escolar que logre su meta escolariza a padres y alumnos en el valor supremo de un sistema escolar aún mayor, cuyo coste crece desproporcionadamente conforme se crea una demanda de grados superiores y éstos se hacen escasos. + +En vez de decir que una escolaridad pareja es impracticable por el momento, debemos reconocer que, en principio, es económicamente absurda, y que intentarla es intelectualmente castrante, socialmente polarizante y destruye la verosimilitud del sistema político que la promueve. + +La ideología de la escolaridad obligatoria no admite límites lógicos. La Casa Blanca proporcionó hace poco un buen ejemplo. El doctor Hutschnecker, el “psiquiatra” que atendió al señor Nixon antes de que fuese admitido como candidato, recomendó al presidente que todos los niños de seis a ocho años fueran examinados profesionalmente para cazar a aquellos que tuviesen tendencias destructivas, y que se les proporcionase a éstos tratamiento obligatorio. En caso necesario se exigiría su reeducación en instituciones especiales. Este memorándum enviado al presidente por su doctor pasó al Ministerio de Salud, Educación y Bienestar para que examinaran su valía. En efecto, unos campos de concentración preventivos para predelincuentes serían un adelanto lógico respecto del sistema escolar. + +El que todos tengan iguales oportunidades de educarse es una meta deseable y factible, pero identificar con ello la escolaridad obligatoria es confundir la salvación con la Iglesia. La escuela ha llegado a ser la religión del proletariado modernizado, y hace promesas huecas a los pobres de la era tecnológica. La nación-Estado la ha adoptado, reclutando a todos los ciudadanos dentro de un currículum graduado que conduce a diplomas consecutivos no distintos a los rituales de iniciación y promociones hieráticas de antaño. El Estado moderno se ha arrogado el deber de hacer cumplir el juicio de sus educadores mediante vigilantes bien intencionados y cualificaciones exigidas para conseguir trabajos, de modo muy semejante al que siguieron los reyes españoles que hicieron cumplir los juicios de sus teólogos mediante los conquistadores y la Inquisición. + +Hace dos siglos Estados Unidos dio al mundo la pauta en un movimiento para privar de apoyo oficial al monopolio de una sola Iglesia. Ahora necesitamos la separación constitucional respecto del monopolio de la escuela quitando de esa manera el apoyo oficial a un sistema que conjuga legalmente el prejuicio con la discriminación. El primer artículo de una Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre apropiada para una sociedad moderna, humanista, concordaría con la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución de Estados Unidos: “El Estado no dictará ley alguna respecto del establecimiento de la educación”. No habrá ningún ritual obligatorio para todos. + +Para poner en vigencia esta separación entre Estado y escuela, necesitamos una ley que prohíba la discriminación en la contratación de personal, en las votaciones o en la admisión a los centros de enseñanza fundados en la previa asistencia a algún plan de estudios. Esta garantía no excluiría pruebas de competencia para una función o cargo, pero eliminaría la absurda discriminación actual en favor de una persona que aprende una destreza determinada con el mayor de los gastos del erario público o —lo que es igualmente probable— que ha podido obtener un diploma que no tiene relación con ninguna habilidad o trabajo útiles. Una separación constitucional del Estado y la escuela puede llegar a ser psicológicamente eficaz sólo si protege al ciudadano de la posibilidad de ser descalificado por cualquier aspecto de su carrera escolar. + +Con la escolaridad no se fomenta ni el deber ni la justicia porque los educadores insisten en aunar la instrucción y la certificación. El aprendizaje y la asignación de funciones sociales se funden en la escolarización. No obstante que aprender significa adquirir una nueva habilidad o entendimiento, la promoción depende de la opinión que otros se hayan formado de uno. Aprender es con frecuencia el resultado de una instrucción, pero ser elegido para una función o categoría en el mercado del trabajo depende cada vez más del tiempo que se ha asistido a un centro de instrucción. + +Instrucción es la selección de circunstancias que facilitan el aprendizaje. Las funciones se asignan fijando un currículum de condiciones que el candidato debe satisfacer para pasar la valla. La escuela vincula la instrucción —pero no el aprendizaje— con estas funciones. Esto no es ni razonable ni liberador. No es razonable porque no liga unas cualidades o competencias sobresalientes con las funciones por desempeñar, sino con el proceso mediante el cual se supone que habrán de adquirirse dichas cualidades. No libera ni educa porque la escuela reserva la instrucción para aquellos cuyos pasos en el aprendizaje se ajustan a unas medidas aprobadas de control social. + +El currículum se ha empleado siempre para asignar el rango social. En ocasiones podía ser prenatal: el karma le adjudica a uno a determinada casta y el linaje a la aristocracia. El currículum podía adoptar la forma de un ritual de ordenaciones sacras y secuenciales, o bien podía consistir en una sucesión de hazañas guerreras o cinegéticas, o bien las promociones ulteriores podían depender de una serie de previos favores regios. La escolaridad universal tenía por objeto separar la adjudicación de las funciones de la historia personal de cada uno: se ideó para dar a todos una oportunidad igual de obtener cualquier cargo. Aún ahora muchos creen erróneamente que la escuela asegura que la confianza pública dependa de unos logros sobresalientes en el saber. Pero en vez de haber igualado las posibilidades, el sistema escolar ha monopolizado su distribución. + +Para separar la competencia del currículum, debe convertirse en tabú toda indagación acera del historial de aprendizaje de cada persona, tal como las indagaciones acerca de su filiación política, su asistencia a la iglesia, linaje, hábitos sexuales o antecedentes raciales. Deben dictarse leyes que prohíban la discriminación basada en una previa escolaridad. Evidentemente, las leyes no pueden impedir el prejuicio contra el no escolarizado —ni se pretende con ellas obligar a nadie a casarse con un autodidacta—, pero pueden desaprobar la discriminación justificada. + +Otra gran ilusión en la que se apoya el sistema escolar es la creencia de que la mayor parte del saber es el resultado de la enseñanza. La enseñanza puede, en verdad, contribuir a ciertos tipos de aprendizaje en ciertas circunstancias. Pero la mayoría de las personas adquieren la mayor parte de su conocimiento fuera de la escuela, y cuando este conocimiento se da en ella, sólo es en la medida en que, en unos cuantos países ricos, la escuela se ha convertido en el lugar de confinamiento de las personas durante una parte cada vez mayor de sus vidas. + +Lo principal del aprendizaje sobreviene casualmente, e incluso el aprendizaje más intelectual no es el resultado de una instrucción programada. Los niños normales aprenden su lenguaje de manera informal, aunque con mayor rapidez si sus padres les prestan atención. La mayoría de las personas que aprenden bien un segundo idioma lo hacen a consecuencia de circunstancias aleatorias y no de una enseñanza ordenada. Llegan a vivir con sus abuelos, o viajan o se enamoran de algún extranjero. La lectura fácil proviene con igual frecuencia de la escuela o de actividades extracurriculares de este tipo. La mayoría de quienes leen profusamente y con placer tan sólo creen que aprendieron a hacerlo en la escuela; cuando se les discute esto, descartan fácilmente este espejismo. + +Pero el hecho de que aún ahora gran parte del aprendizaje parece suceder al azar y como subproducto de alguna otra actividad definida como trabajo u ocio no significa que el aprendizaje planificado no beneficie la instrucción planificada. Al estudiante poderosamente motivado que se enfrenta con la tarea de adquirir una habilidad nueva y compleja puede aprovecharle mucho la disciplina que hoy en día se asocia mentalmente con el maestro de viejo cuño que antaño enseñaba lectura, hebreo, catecismo o multiplicación de memoria. La escuela ha hecho que este tipo de enseñanza rutinaria sea escasa y mal reputada; no obstante hay muchas destrezas que un estudiante motivado puede dominar en pocos meses si se le enseña de este modo tradicional. Esto vale tanto para los códigos como para su desciframiento; tanto para los segundos o terceros idiomas como para la lectura y la escritura, e igualmente para lenguajes especiales como el álgebra, la programación de computadoras, el análisis químico, o para destrezas manuales como la mecanografía, la relojería, la fontanería, las instalaciones domésticas de electricidad, la reparación de televisores, o para bailar, conducir vehículos y bucear. + +En algunos casos, ser aceptado en un programa de aprendizaje dirigido a una determinada habilidad podría presuponer competencia en alguna otra habilidad, pero ciertamente no se haría depender del proceso mediante el cual se hubieran adquirido tales habilidades previamente requeridas. La reparación de televisores presupone saber leer y algo de matemáticas; el bucear, ser buen nadador, y el conducir, muy poco de ambas cosas. + +El progreso en el aprendizaje es mensurable. Es fácil calcular los recursos óptimos de tiempo y materiales que un adulto corriente motivado necesita. El coste de enseñar un segundo idioma europeo occidental hasta un elevado nivel de fluidez oscila entre 400 y 600 dólares en Estados Unidos, y para una lengua oriental el tiempo requerido de instrucción podría duplicarse. Esto sería todavía poquísimo en comparación con el coste de 12 años de escolaridad en la ciudad de Nueva York (condición para ingresar en el Departamento de Higiene) —casi 15 000 dólares—. Sin duda no sólo el maestro, sino también el impresor y el farmacéutico protegen sus oficios mediante el espejismo público de que el adiestramiento para aprenderlos es muy costoso. + +En la actualidad, las escuelas se apropian de antemano de la mayor parte de los fondos para educación. La instrucción rutinaria, que cuesta menos que una escolarización comparable, es ahora un privilegio de quienes son lo bastante ricos como para pasarse por alto las escuelas, y de aquellos a quienes el ejército o las grandes firmas les proporcionan un adiestramiento en el trabajo mismo. En un programa de desescolarización progresiva para Estados Unidos, en un comienzo habría escasez de recursos para el adiestramiento rutinario. Pero finalmente no habría impedimento alguno para cualquiera que en cualquier momento de su vida quisiese elegir una instrucción entre centenares de habilidades definibles y a cargo del Estado. + +Ahora mismo podrían proporcionarse calificaciones educativas aceptables en cualquier centro de enseñanza de oficios en cantidades limitadas para personas de cualquier edad, y no sólo para pobres. Yo concibo dicha calificación (o crédito) en forma de un pasaporte educativo o de una “tarjeta de educrédito” entregada a cada ciudadano al nacer. A fin de favorecer a los pobres, que probablemente no usarían sus cuotas anuales a temprana edad, podría estipularse que los usuarios tardíos de tales “títulos” acumulados ganasen interés. Dichos créditos permitirían a la mayoría adquirir las habilidades de mayor demanda, cuando les conviene, de manera mejor, más rápida, más barata y con menos efectos subsidiarios desfavorables que en la escuela. + +Se me objetará la falta de profesores, pero esto es plantear mal el problema, pues, por una parte, la demanda de una habilidad crece sólo al ponerse en práctica en una comunidad y, por otra, un hombre que ejerza una habilidad puede también enseñarla. Pero, actualmente, aquellos que usan una habilidad que está en demanda y que precisan un profesor humano tienen estímulos negativos para compartir con otros estas habilidades. Esto lo hacen o maestros que monopolizan las licencias, o sindicatos que protegen sus intereses gremiales. Unos centros de enseñanza de oficios o habilidades a los que los clientes juzgaran por sus resultados, y no por el personal que empleasen o por el proceso que se utilizasen, abrirían oportunidades insospechables de trabajo, frecuentemente incluso para aquellos que hoy se consideran inempleables. Verdaderamente no hay motivo para que tales centros no estuviesen en el lugar mismo de trabajo; el patrono y su personal proporcionarían tanto la instrucción como trabajos a quienes eligiesen utilizar sus créditos educativos de esta manera. + +En 1956 se suscitó la necesidad de enseñar rápidamente español a varios centenares de maestros, trabajadores sociales y curas de la arquidiócesis de Nueva York, de modo que pudiesen comunicarse con los puertorriqueños. Mi amigo Gerry Morris anunció en español por una radioemisora que necesitaba hispanohablantes nativos que viviesen en Harlem. Al día siguiente unos 200 adolescentes se alineaban frente a su oficina; de entre ellos eligió cuatro docenas —muchos de ellos desertores escolares—. Los instruyó en el uso del Manual de Instrucción del Instituto del Servicio Exterior de Estados Unidos, para español, concebido para el uso de lingüistas con licenciatura, y al cabo de una semana sus profesores se manejaban solos —cada uno de ellos a cargo de cuatro neoyorkinos que querían hablar el idioma—. En el plazo de seis meses se había cumplido la misión. El cardenal Spellman podía afirmar que tenía 127 parroquias en cada una de las cuales había por lo menos tres miembros de su personal que podían conversar en español. Ningún programa escolar podría haber logrado iguales resultados. + +Los profesores de habilidades escasean por la creencia en el valor de los títulos. La certificación es una manera de manipular el mercado y es concebible sólo para una mente escolarizada. La mayoría de los profesores de artes y oficios son menos diestros, tienen menor inventiva y son menos comunicativos que los mejores artesanos y maestros. La mayoría de los profesores de español o de francés de bachillerato no hablan esos idiomas con la corrección con que lo harían alumnos después de un semestre de rutinas competentes. Unos experimentos llevados a cabo por Ángel Quintero en Puerto Rico sugieren que muchos adolescentes, si se les dan los adecuados incentivos, programas y acceso a las herramientas, son mejores que la mayoría de los maestros de escuela para iniciar a los de su edad en la exploración científica de las plantas, las estrellas y la materia, y en el descubrimiento de cómo y por qué funciona un motor o un radio. + +Las oportunidades para el aprendizaje de habilidades pueden multiplicarse enormemente si abrimos el “mercado”. Esto depende de reunir al maestro correcto con el alumno correcto cuando éste está altamente motivado dentro de un programa inteligente, sin la restricción del currículum. + +La instrucción libre y rutinaria es una blasfemia subversiva para el educador ortodoxo. Ella desliga la adquisición de destrezas de la educación “humana”, que la escuela empaca conjuntamente, y fomenta así el aprendizaje sin título no menos que la enseñanza sin título para fines imprevisibles. + +Hay actualmente una propuesta registrada que a primera vista parece sumamente sensata. La preparó Christopher Jencks, del Center for the Study of Public Policy, y está patrocinada por la Office of Economic Opportunity. Propone poner unos “bonos” o “títulos” educativos o donaciones, para pagar el coste de los estudios, en manos de padres y estudiantes para que los gasten en las escuelas que elijan. Tales bonos individuales podrían ser un importante avance en la dirección correcta. Necesitamos que se garantice a cada ciudadano el derecho a una parte igual de los recursos educativos derivados de los impuestos, el derecho a verificar esa parte, y el derecho a entablar juicio si le es denegada. Es una forma de garantía contra la tributación regresiva. + +Pero la propuesta de Jencks comienza con la ominosa declaración de que “los conservadores, los liberales y los radicales se han quejado en una u otra ocasión de que el sistema educativo estadunidense da a los educadores profesionales un incentivo demasiado pequeño para que proporcionen una educación de gran calidad a la mayoría de los niños”. La propuesta se condena sola al proponer donaciones para pagar unos estudios que tendrían que gastar en escolarizarse. + +Esto es como dar a un inválido un par de muletas, advirtiéndole que las use sólo si les amarra los extremos. En su forma actual, la propuesta de estos bonos educativos hace el juego no sólo a los educadores profesionales sino también a los racistas, a los promotores de escuelas religiosas y a otros cuyos intereses son socialmente disociantes. Sobre todo, los bonos educativos, cuyo uso se restrinja a las escuelas, hace el juego de quienes quieren continuar viviendo en una sociedad en la que el progreso social está ligado no al conocimiento comprobado, sino al historial de aprendizaje mediante el cual presuntamente se adquiere. Esta discriminación en favor de las escuelas que domina la exposición de Jencks sobre el refinamiento de la educación podría desacreditar uno de los principios que más perentoriamente se precisan para la reforma educativa: el retorno de la iniciativa y la responsabilidad del aprendizaje al aprendiz o a su tutor más inmediato. + +La desescolarización de la sociedad implica el reconocimiento de la naturaleza ambivalente del aprendizaje. La insistencia en la sola rutina podría ser un desastre; igual énfasis debe hacerse en otros tipos de aprendizaje. Pero si las escuelas son el lugar inapropiado para aprender una destreza, son lugares aún peores para adquirir una educación. La escuela realiza mal ambas tareas, en parte porque no distingue entre ellas. La escuela es ineficiente para instruir en destrezas por ser curricular. En la mayoría de las escuelas, un programa cuyo objetivo es mejorar una habilidad está siempre concatenado con otra tarea no pertinente. La historia está amarrada al derecho de usar el patio de juegos. + +Las escuelas son todavía menos eficientes en la creación de circunstancias que alienten el uso irrestricto, exploratorio, de habilidades adquiridas, para lo cual reservaré el término de “educación liberal”. El principal motivo es que la escuela es obligatoria y llega a convertirse en la escolaridad por la escolaridad: una estadía forzosa en compañía de profesores, que paga con el dudoso privilegio de continuar en dicha compañía. Así como la instrucción de destrezas debe ser liberada de restricciones curriculares, a la educación liberal debe desligársela de la asistencia obligatoria. Mediante dispositivos institucionales puede ayudarse tanto al aprendizaje de habilidades como a la educación encaminada a un comportamiento creativo e inventivo, pero ambas cosas son de naturaleza diferente y frecuentemente contraria. + +La mayoría de las destrezas pueden adquirirse y perfeccionarse mediante rutinas; porque la destreza o habilidad implica el dominio de una conducta definible y predecible. La instrucción de una destreza puede apoyarse, por consiguiente, en la simulación de las circunstancias en que se utilizará dicha destreza. En cambio, la educación en el empleo exploratorio y creativo de destrezas no puede descansar en sistemas rutinarios. La educación puede ser el resultado de la instrucción, aunque de una instrucción fundamentalmente opuesta a la rutina. Se apoya en la relación entre asociaciones que ya poseen algunas de la llaves que dan acceso a memorias almacenadas en la comunidad y por la comunidad. Se apoya en la sorpresa de la pregunta inesperada que abre nuevas puertas al cuestionario y a su asociado. + +El instructor de destrezas utiliza un conjunto de condiciones dadas que permiten al aprendiz desarrollar ciertas reacciones o respuestas precisas y definidas. El guía o maestro en educación se ocupa de ayudar a unos asociados a que se reúnan de modo que se dé el aprendizaje. Reúne a personas que parten de sus propias y no resueltas interrogantes. A lo más, ayuda al alumno a formular su perplejidad puesto que sólo un planteamiento claro le dará el poder de encontrar a su pareja, moverse como ella, explorar en ese momento la misma cuestión en el mismo contexto. + +En un comienzo parecería más difícil imaginar unos asociados o compañeros para fines educativos que hallar instructores de destrezas y compañeros para un juego. Una de las razones de que esto ocurra es el profundo temor que la escuela nos ha inculcado, un miedo que nos pone criticones. El intercambio intitulado de destrezas —a menudo destrezas inconvenientes— es más predecible y por tanto parece menos peligroso que las oportunidades ilimitadas de reunión para personas que comparten una cuestión en debate que es, en ese momento, social, intelectual y emocionalmente importante para ellas. + +El profesor brasileño Paulo Freire sabe esto por experiencia. Descubrió que cualquier adulto puede comenzar a leer en cosa de 40 horas si las primeras palabras que descifra están cargadas de significado político. Freire adiestra a sus maestros para trasladarse a una aldea y descubrir las palabras que designan asuntos actuales importantes, tales como el acceso a un pozo, o el interés compuesto de las deudas que han contraído con el _patrón_. Por la tarde, los aldeanos se reúnen para conversar sobre esas palabras clave. Comienzan a percatarse de que cada palabra permanece en el pizarrón incluso después de haberse desvanecido su sonido. Las letras continúan abriendo, como llaves, la realidad y haciéndola manejable como problema. Frecuentemente he presenciado cómo en unos participantes crece la conciencia social y cómo se ven impelidos a actuar políticamente con la misma velocidad con que aprenden a leer. Parecen tomar la realidad en sus manos conforme la escriben. + +Recuerdo a un hombre que se quejó del peso de los lápices: eran difíciles de manipular porque no pesaban como una pala, y recuerdo a otro que camino al trabajo se detuvo con sus compañeros y escribió con su azadón en el suelo la palabra de la que venía conversando: _agua_.[^n03] Desde 1962, mi amigo Freire ha pasado de exilio en exilio, principalmente porque rehúsa llevar a cabo sus sesiones en torno a palabras que hayan sido preseleccionadas por educadores aprobados y prefiere utilizar aquellas que los participantes llevan consigo a las clases. + +La reunión de personas con fines educativos sólo es posible cuando se han beneficiado de una verdadera escolaridad. Los que no necesitan de esa ayuda son una minoría, incluso entre aquellos que leen revistas serias. La mayoría no puede ni debe ser congregada en torno a una consigna, a una palabra, a una imagen, sino en torno a un problema elegido y definido por iniciativa de los participantes. El aprendizaje creativo, exploratorio, requiere sujetos de igual perplejidad ante los mismos términos o problemas. Las grandes universidades realizan el vano intento de aparejarlos multiplicando sus cursos y por lo general fracasan en la medida en que están ligados al currículum, a la estructura de cursos y a una administración burocrática. En las escuelas, tal como en las universidades, la mayoría de los recursos se gasta en comprar el tiempo y la motivación de un número reducido de personas para encarar problemas predeterminados en un escenario definido de forma ritual. La alternativa más radical para la escuela sería una red o servicio que diera a cada hombre la misma oportunidad de compartir sus intereses actuales con otros motivados por iguales cuestiones. + +Permítaseme dar, como ejemplo de mi planteamiento, una descripción de cómo podría funcionar esta “unión” intelectual en la ciudad de Nueva York. Cada hombre, en cualquier momento y a un precio mínimo, podría identificarse ante una computadora con su dirección y su número de teléfono, indicando libro, artículos, película o grabación acerca de los cuales busca un compañero con el cual conversar. En un plazo de días podría recibir por correo la lista de otros que hubieran tomado recientemente la misma iniciativa. Esta lista le permitiría concertar por teléfono una reunión con personas que inicialmente se conocerían exclusivamente por el hecho de haber solicitado un diálogo sobre el mismo tema. + +Juntar personas de acuerdo con el interés que tengan sobre un título dado es radicalmente simple. Permite la identificación sobre la base de un deseo mutuo de conversar sobre una afirmación registrada por un tercero, y deja al individuo la iniciativa de concertar la reunión. Normalmente se hacen tres objeciones contra esta pureza esquelética. Las recojo no sólo para esclarecer la teoría que quiero ilustrar mediante mi propuesta —pues destacan la acendrada resistencia a desescolarizar la educación, a separar el aprendizaje del control social—, sino también porque pueden ayudar a sugerir unos recursos que no se emplean ahora para fines de aprendizaje. + +La primera objeción es: ¿por qué no podría la identificación de cada uno basarse en una idea o en un tema de debate? Ciertamente dichos términos subjetivos podrían usarse también en un sistema informático. Los partidos políticos, Iglesias, sindicatos, clubes, centros vecinales y sociedades profesionales organizan ya sus actividades educativas de este modo y, en efecto, actúan como escuelas. Todos ellos reúnen personas con el fin de explorar ciertos “temas”, que se abordan en cursos, seminarios y planes de estudio en los que unos presuntos “intereses comunes” están preen-vasados. Dicha “reunión por tema” está, por definición, centrado en el profesor: precisa una presencia autoritaria para definir ante los participantes el punto de partida de su debate. + +Por el contrario, reunirse para hablar de un libro, de una película, etc., sin otra explicación que un título o una referencia, deja al autor definir el lenguaje especial, los términos y el marco de referencia dentro del cual se plantea un determinado problema o hecho, y permite a quienes acepten este punto de partida identificarse uno con otro. Por ejemplo, reunir gente en torno a la idea de “revolución cultural” conduce generalmente o a la confusión o a la demagogia. Por otra parte, reunir a quienes se interesen en ayudarse mutuamente a entender un determinado artículo de Mao, Marcuse, Freud o Goodman se inscribe en la gran tradición del aprendizaje liberal, desde los _Diálogos_ de Platón, que están construidos en torno a presuntas declaraciones de Sócrates, hasta los comentarios de Tomás de Aquino sobre Pedro Lombardo. La idea de reunir a las personas alrededor de un título es pues radicalmente diferente de la teoría sobre la que se fundaban, por ejemplo, los clubes de los “Grandes Libros”: en vez de apoyarse en la selección realizada por algunos catedráticos de Chicago, cualquier par de personas puede, como compañero de juego, elegir cualquier libro para analizarlo. + +La segunda objeción pregunta: ¿por qué la identificación de quienes buscan compañero no podría incluir información sobre edad, antecedentes, visión del mundo, competencia, experiencia y otras características definitorias? No hay en este caso razón alguna para que tales restricciones discriminatorias no pudiesen (y no debiesen) incorporarse en algunas de las numerosas universidades —con o sin muros— que podrían usar la reunión alrededor de títulos como el dispositivo básico para organizarse. Puedo imaginar un sistema ideal para fomentar las reuniones de personas interesadas en las que el autor del libro elegido podría estar presente o representado, o un sistema que garantice la presencia de un asesor competente, o uno al que tuviesen acceso sólo estudiantes matriculados en una facultad o escuela, o personas capaces de presentar una investigación específica sobre la obra que se discute. Cada una de estas restricciones, se me dirá, serviría a metas específicas de aprendizaje. Pero me temo que, en la mayoría de los casos, el motivo real para proponer tales restricciones es el desdén que proviene de presuponer que la gente es ignorante: los educadores quieren evitar que el ignorante se junte con el ignorante en torno a un texto que podrían no entender y que leen _sólo_ porque están interesados en él. + +La tercera objeción: ¿por qué no proporcionar a quienes buscan compañero una ayuda incidental que facilite sus reuniones —espacio, horarios, selección de participantes, protección—? Esto lo hacen actualmente las escuelas con toda la ineficiencia que caracteriza a las grandes burocracias. Si dejáramos la iniciativa de las reuniones a los interesados en reunirse, unas organizaciones que nadie clasifica hoy como educativas harían mucho mejor este trabajo. Pienso en dueños de restaurantes, editores, servicios de recados telefónicos, directivos de trenes suburbanos que podrían promover sus servicios al hacerlos atractivos para reuniones educativas. + +En una primera reunión en, digamos, un café, los interesados podrían establecer sus identidades colocando el libro en debate junto a sus tazas. Las personas que tomaran la iniciativa de concertar tales reuniones aprenderían pronto qué elementos citar para encontrarse con la gente que buscan. El riesgo de que una conversación que uno mismo ha elegido le lleve a una pérdida de tiempo, a una decepción, e incluso a un desagrado es ciertamente menor que el riesgo que corre quien solicita ingresar en una universidad. Una reunión concertada por computadora para debatir un artículo de una revista de circulación nacional, celebrada en un café de la Cuarta Avenida, no obligaría a ninguno de los participantes a permanecer en compañía de sus nuevos conocidos por más tiempo del necesario para beber una taza de café, ni tendría que encontrarse con ellos de nuevo. La probabilidad de que ello le ayudara a disipar la opacidad de la vida en una ciudad moderna, a fomentar nuevas amistades, a abrir nuevos horizontes y profundizar en un trabajo elegido, es elevada. (El hecho de que de este modo el FBI podría conseguir un registro de las reuniones y lecturas que se hacen es innegable; el que esto pueda aún preocupar a alguien en 1970 es sólo divertido para un hombre libre, quien, quiéralo o no, aporta su cuota para ahogar a los espías en las nimiedades que recolectan.) + +Tanto el intercambio de destrezas como el encuentro con copartícipes se fundan en el supuesto de que educación _para todos_ significa educación _por parte de todos_. No es el reclutamiento en una institución especializada, sino sólo la movilización de toda la población lo que puede conducir a una cultura popular. Los maestros titulados se han apropiado del derecho que todo hombre tiene de ejercer su competencia para aprender e instruir igualmente. La competencia del maestro está a su vez restringida a lo que pueda hacerse en la escuela. Además, el trabajo y el tiempo libre están, a consecuencia de ello, alienados el uno del otro: tanto del trabajador como del espectador se espera que lleguen al lugar de trabajo prestos a encajar en una rutina preparada para ellos. La adaptación en forma de diseño, instrucción y publicidad de un producto los moldea para desempeñar su papel de modo muy semejante a como lo hace la educación mediante la escolaridad. Una alternativa radical para una sociedad escolarizada exige no sólo mecanismos para la adquisición formal de destrezas y el uso educativo de éstas, implica un nuevo modo de encarar la educación informal o incidental. + +La educación incidental ya no puede regresar a las formas que el aprendizaje adoptó en la aldea o en la ciudad medieval. Mientras la sociedad tradicional se asemejaba más a un grupo de círculos concéntricos de estructuras significativas, el hombre moderno debe aprender cómo hallar significación en muchas estructuras con las que está relacionado de manera sólo marginal. En la aldea, el lenguaje, la arquitectura, el trabajo, la religión y las costumbres familiares eran compatibles entre sí, se explicaban y reforzaban mutuamente. Desarrollarse en una implicaba un desarrollo en las otras. Incluso el aprendizaje especializado era el subproducto de actividades especializadas, tales como la fabricación de zapatos o el canto de los salmos. Si un aprendiz no llegaba jamás a ser maestro o erudito, contribuía sin embargo a la fabricación de zapatos o a hacer solemnes los servicios litúrgicos. La educación no competía en tiempo ni con el trabajo ni con el ocio. Casi toda la educación era compleja, vitalicia y no planificada. + +La sociedad contemporánea es el resultado de diseños e intenciones conscientes, y las oportunidades educativas han de ser incorporadas a esos diseños. Ahora disminuirá la confianza que depositamos en la instrucción especializada y de tiempo completo a través de la escuela, y hemos de hallar nuevas maneras de aprender y enseñar: la calidad educativa de todas las instituciones debe aumentar una vez más. Pero ésta es una previsión muy ambigua. Podría significar que los hombres de la ciudad moderna serán cada día más las víctimas de un proceso eficaz de instrucción total y manipulación una vez que estén privados incluso del tenue asomo de independencia crítica que proporcionan hoy en día las escuelas liberales, cuando menos a algunos de sus alumnos. + +Podría significar también que los hombres se escudarán menos tras certificados adquiridos en la escuela y adquirirán así valor para ser “respondones” y controlar e instruir de ese modo a las instituciones en que participen. Para lograr esto último debemos darnos cuenta del valor social del trabajo y del ocio por el intercambio educativo que permiten. La participación efectiva en la política de una calle, de un puesto de trabajo o de un hospital es por lo tanto el mejor patrón para evaluar el valor de las diferentes instituciones en el plan de la educación. + +Hace poco dirigí la palabra a un grupo de estudiantes de los primeros años de bachillerato, empeñados en organizar un movimiento de resistencia a su enrolamiento obligatorio en la clase siguiente. Tenían por consigna “participación-no simulación”. Les decepcionaba que esto se entendiera como una petición de menos educación en vez de lo contrario, y me hicieron recordar la resistencia que opuso Karl Marx a un párrafo en el programa de Gotha que —hace 100 años— quería hacer ilegal el trabajo infantil. Se opuso a la proposición diciendo que la ecuación de los jóvenes solo podía producirse en el trabajo. Si el mayor fruto del trabajo del hombre debiera ser la educación que se deriva de éste y la oportunidad que el trabajo le da para iniciar la educación de otros, entonces la alimentación de la sociedad moderna en un sentido pedagógico es aún peor que su alienación económica. + +El mayor obstáculo en el camino de una sociedad que educa verdaderamente lo definió muy bien un amigo mío, negro de Chicago, quien me dijo que nuestra imaginación estaba “totalmente escuelada”. Permitimos al Estado verificar las deficiencias educativas universales de sus ciudadanos y establecer un organismo especializado para tratarlos. Compartimos así la ilusión de que podemos distinguir entre qué es educación necesaria para otros y qué no lo es, tal como generaciones anteriores establecieron leyes que definían qué era sagrado y qué profano. + +Durkheim reconoció que esta capacidad para dividir la realidad social en dos ámbitos era la esencia misma de la religión formal. Existen —razonó— religiones sin lo sobrenatural y religiones sin Dios, pero no hay ninguna que no subdivida el mundo en cosas, tiempo y personas que son sagradas y en otras que por consecuencia son profanas. Este penetrante alcance de Durkheim puede aplicarse a la sociología de la educación, pues la escuela es radicalmente divisoria de manera parecida. + +La existencia misma de las escuelas obligatorias divide cualquier sociedad en dos ámbitos: ciertos lapsos, procesos, tratamientos y profesiones son “académicos” y “pedagógicos”, y otros no lo son. Así, el poder de la escuela para dividir la realidad social no conoce límites: la educación se hace no terrenal, en tanto que el mundo se hace no educacional. + +A partir de Bonhoeffer, los teólogos contemporáneos han señalado la confusión que reina hoy en día entre el mensaje bíblico y la religión institucionalizada. Señalan la experiencia que la libertad y la fe cristianas suelen ganar con la secularización. Sus afirmaciones suenan inevitablemente blasfemas para muchos clérigos. En incuestionable que el proceso educativo ganará con la desescolarización de la sociedad aun cuando esta exigencia les suene a muchos escolares como una traición a la cultura. Pero es la cultura misma la que está siendo apagada hoy en las escuelas. + +La secularización de la fe cristiana depende de la dedicación que pongan en ello los cristianos arraigados en la Iglesia. De manera muy parecida, la desescolarización de la educación depende del liderazgo de quienes se criaron en las escuelas. El currículum que cumplieron no puede servirles como excusa para la tarea: cada uno de nosotros sigue siendo responsable de lo que se ha hecho por él, aun cuando puede que no sea capaz sino de aceptar esta responsabilidad y servir de advertencia para otros. + +## Fenomenología de la escuela + +Algunas palabras llegan a ser tan flexibles que pierden cualquier significación precisa y se usan para cualquier cosa entre éstas se cuentan “escuela” y “enseñanza”. Se filtran, como una amiba, por cualquier intersticio del lenguaje. Así, decimos que el ABM[^n04] enseñará a los rusos, la IBM enseñará a los niños negros, y el ejército puede llegar a ser la escuela de la nación. + +Por consiguiente, la búsqueda de alternativas en educación debe comenzar por un acuerdo acerca de lo que entendemos por “escuela”. Esto puede hacerse de varias maneras. Podemos comenzar por anotar las funciones latentes desempeñadas por los sistemas escolares modernos, tales como los de custodia, selección, adoctrinamiento y aprendizaje. Podríamos hacer un análisis de clientela y verificar cuál de estas funciones latentes favorece o desfavorece a maestros, patronos, niños, padres o a las profesiones. Podríamos repasar la historia de la cultura occidental y la información reunida por la antropología a fin de encontrar instituciones que desempeñaron un papel semejante al que hoy cumple la escolarización. Podríamos finalmente recordar los numerosos dictámenes normativos que se han hecho desde el tiempo de Comenius, o incluso desde Quintiliano, y descubrir a cuál de éstos se aproxima más el moderno sistema escolar. Pero cualquiera de estos enfoques nos obligaría a comenzar con ciertos supuestos acerca de una relación entre escuela y educación. + +Para crear un lenguaje en el que podamos hablar sobre la escuela sin ese incesante recurrir a la educación, he querido comenzar por algo que podría llamarse fenomenología de la escuela pública. Con este objeto definiré “escuela” como el proceso que especifica edad, se relaciona con maestros y exige asistencia de tiempo completo y un currículum obligatorio. + +1\. _Edad_. La escuela agrupa a las personas según sus edades. Este agrupamiento se funda en tres premisas indiscutidas. A los niños les corresponde estar en la escuela. Los niños aprenden en la escuela. A los niños puede enseñárseles solamente en la escuela. Creo que estas tres premisas no sometidas a examen merecen ser seriamente puestas en duda. + +Nos hemos ido acostumbrando a los niños. Hemos decidido que deberían ir a la escuela, hacer lo que se les dice y no tener ingresos propios. Esperamos que sepan el lugar que ocupan y se comporten como niños. Recordamos, ya sea con nostalgia o con amargura, el tiempo en que también fuimos niños. Se espera de nosotros que toleremos la conducta infantil de los niños. La humanidad es, para nosotros, una especie simultáneamente atribulada y bendecida con la tarea de cuidar niños. No obstante, olvidamos que nuestro actual concepto de “niñez” sólo se desarrolló recientemente en Europa occidental, y hace aún menos en América.[^n05] + +La niñez como algo diferente de la infancia, la adolescencia o la juventud fue algo desconocido para la mayoría de los periodos históricos. Algunos siglos del cristianismo no tuvieron ni siquiera una idea de sus proporciones corporales. Los artistas pintaban al niño como un adulto en miniatura sentado en el brazo de su madre. Los niños aparecieron en Europa junto con el reloj de bolsillo y los prestamistas cristianos del Renacimiento. Antes de nuestro siglo ni los ricos ni los pobres supieron nada acerca de vestidos para niños, juegos para niños o de la inmunidad del niño ante la ley. Esas ideas comenzaron a desarrollarse en la burguesía. El hijo del obrero, el del campesino y el del noble vestían todos como lo hacían sus padres, jugaban como éstos y eran ahorcados igual que ellos. Después de que la burguesía descubriera la “niñez”, todo esto cambió. Sólo algunas Iglesias continuaron respetando por algún tiempo la dignidad y la madurez de los menores. Hasta el Concilio Vaticano II, se le decía a cada niño que un cristiano llega a tener discernimiento moral y libertad a la edad de siete años y a partir de entonces es capaz de caer en pecados por los cuales podrá ser castigado por toda una eternidad en el infierno. A mediados de este siglo, los padres de clase media comenzaron a tratar de evitar a sus niños el impacto de esta doctrina, y su modo de pensar sobre los niños es el que hoy prevalece en la Iglesia. + +Hasta el siglo pasado, los “niños” de padres de clase media se fabricaban en casa con la ayuda de preceptores y escuelas privadas. Sólo con el advenimiento de la sociedad industrial la producción en masa de la “niñez” comenzó a ser factible y a ponerse al alcance de la multitud. El sistema escolar es un fenómeno moderno, como lo es la niñez que lo produce. + +Puesto que hoy en día la mayoría de las personas viven fuera de las ciudades industriales, la mayoría de la gente no experimenta la niñez. En los Andes, uno labra la tierra cuando ha llegado a ser “útil”. Antes de esa edad, uno cuida las ovejas. Si se está bien nutrido, debe llegar a ser útil hacia los 11 años de edad, y de otro modo a los 12. Estaba yo conversando hace poco con Marcos, mi celador nocturno, sobre su hijo de 11 años que trabaja en una barbería. Hice en español la observación de que su hijo era todavía un _niño_. Marcos, sorprendido, contestó con inocente sonrisa: “Don Iván, creo que usted tiene razón”. Percatándome de que hasta el momento de mi observación Marcos había pensado en el muchacho en primer lugar como su “hijo”, me sentí culpable de haber hecho surgir el fantasma de la niñez entre dos personas sensatas. Naturalmente que si yo fuese a decir a un habitante de los barrios bajos de Nueva York que su hijo que trabaja es todavía un “niño”, no mostraría ninguna sorpresa. Sabe muy bien que a su hijo de 11 años debería permitírsele su niñez, y se resiente de que no sea así. El hijo de Marcos no ha sido afectado aún por el anhelo de tener niñez, el hijo del neoyorkino se siente desposeído. + +Así pues, la mayoría de la gente en el mundo o no quiere o no puede conceder una niñez moderna a sus críos. Pero también parece que la niñez es una carga para esos pocos a quienes se les concede. A muchos simplemente se les obliga a pasar por ella y no están en absoluto felices de desempeñar el papel de niños. Crecer pasando por la niñez significa estar condenado a un proceso de conflicto inhumano entre la conciencia de sí y el papel que impone una sociedad que está pasando por su propia edad escolar. Ni Stephen Dédalus ni Alexander Portnoy gozaron de la niñez y, según sospecho, tampoco nos gustó a muchos de nosotros ser tratados como niños. + +Si no existiese una institución de aprendizaje obligatorio y para una edad determinada, la “niñez” dejaría de fabricarse. Los menores de los países ricos se librarían de su destructividad, y los países pobres dejarían de rivalizar con la niñería de los ricos. Para que la sociedad pudiese sobreponerse a su edad de la niñez, tendría que hacerse vivible para los menores. La disyunción actual entre una sociedad adulta que pretende ser humanitaria y un ambiente escolar que remeda la realidad no puede seguir manteniéndose. + +El hecho de privar de apoyo oficial a las escuelas podría terminar también con la discriminación contra los nenes, los adultos y los ancianos en favor de los niños durante su adolescencia y juventud. Es probable que la decisión social de asignar recursos educativos preferentemente a aquellos ciudadanos que han dejado atrás la extraordinaria capacidad de aprendizaje de sus primeros años y no han llegado a la cúspide de su aprendizaje automotivado parezca grotesca cuando se vea retrospectivamente. + +La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños necesitan la escuela. La sabiduría institucional nos dice que los niños aprenden en la escuela. Pero esta sabiduría institucional es en sí el producto de escuelas, porque el sólido sentido común nos dice que sólo a niños se les puede enseñar en la escuela. Sólo segregando a los seres humanos en la categoría de la niñez podremos someterlos alguna vez a la autoridad de un maestro de escuela. + +2\. _Profesores y alumnos_. Por definición, los niños son alumnos. La demanda por el medio ambiente escolar crea un mercado ilimitado para los profesores titulados. La escuela es una institución construida sobre el axioma de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza. Y la sabiduría institucional continúa aceptando este axioma, pese a las pruebas abrumadoras en sentido contrario. + +Todos hemos aprendido la mayor parte de lo que sabemos fuera de la escuela. Los alumnos hacen la mayor parte de su aprendizaje sin sus maestros y, a menudo, a pesar de éstos. Lo que es más trágico es que a la mayoría de los hombres las escuelas les enseñan su lección, aun cuando nunca vayan _a_ la escuela. + +Toda persona aprende a vivir fuera de la escuela. Aprendemos a hablar, a pensar, a amar, a sentir, a jugar, a blasfemar, a politiquear y a trabajar sin la interferencia de un profesor. Ni siquiera los niños que están día y noche bajo la tutela de un maestro constituyen excepciones a la regla. Los huérfanos, los cretinos y los hijos de maestros de escuela aprenden la mayor parte de lo que aprenden fuera del proceso “educativo” programado para ellos. Los profesores han quedado mal parados en sus intentos de aumentar el aprendizaje entre los pobres. A los padres pobres que quieren que sus hijos vayan a la escuela no les preocupa tanto lo que aprendan como el certificado y el dinero que obtendrán. Y los padres de clase media confían sus hijos a un profesor para evitar que aprendan aquello que los pobres aprenden en la calle. Las investigaciones sobre educación están demostrando cada día más que los niños aprenden aquello que sus maestros pretenden enseñarles, no de éstos, sino de sus iguales, de las tiras cómicas, de la simple observación al pasar y, sobre todo, del solo hecho de participar en el ritual de la escuela. Las más de las veces los maestros obstruyen el aprendizaje de materias de estudio conforme se dan en la escuela. + +La mitad de la gente en nuestro mundo jamás ha estado en una escuela. No se han topado con profesores y están privados del privilegio de llegar a ser desertores escolares. No obstante, aprenden eficazmente el mensaje que la escuela enseña: que deben tener escuela y más y más escuela. La escuela les instruye acerca de su propia inferioridad mediante el cobrador de impuestos que les hace pagar por ella, mediante el demagogo que les suscita las esperanzas de tenerla, o bien mediante sus niños cuando éstos se ven enviciados por ella. De modo que a los pobres se les quita su respeto por sí mismos al suscribirse a un credo que concede la salvación sólo a través de la escuela. La Iglesia les da al menos la posibilidad de arrepentirse en la hora de su muerte. La escuela les deja con la esperanza (una esperanza falsificada) de que sus nietos la conseguirán. Esa esperanza es, por cierto, otro aprendizaje más que proviene de la escuela, pero no de los profesores. + +Los alumnos jamás han atribuido a sus maestros lo que han aprendido. Tanto los brillantes como los lerdos han confiado siempre en la memorización, la lectura y el ingenio para pasar sus exámenes, movidos por el garrote o por la obtención de una carrera ambicionada. + +Los adultos tienden a crear fantasías románticas sobre su periodo de escuela. Atribuyen retrospectivamente su aprendizaje al maestro cuya paciencia aprendieron a admirar. Pero esos mismos adultos se preocuparán por la salud mental de un niño que corriera a casa a contarles qué ha aprendido de cada uno de sus profesores. Las escuelas crean trabajos para maestros de escuela, independientemente de lo que aprendan de ellos sus alumnos. + +3\. _Asistencia a jornada completa_. Cada mes veo una nueva lista de propuestas que hace al AID[^n06] alguna industria estadunidense, sugiriéndole reemplazar a los “practicantes del aula” latinoamericanos por unos disciplinados administradores de sistemas o simplemente por la televisión. Pero, aunque el profesor sea una maestra de primaria o un equipo de tipos con delantales blancos, y que logren enseñar la materia indicada en el catálogo o fracasen en el intento, el maestro profesional crea un entorno sagrado. + +La incertidumbre acerca del futuro de la enseñanza profesional pone al aula en peligro. Si los educadores profesionales se especializan en fomentar el aprendizaje tendrían que abandonar un sistema que exige entre 750 y 1 500 reuniones por año. Pero naturalmente los profesores hacen mucho más que eso. La sabiduría institucional de la escuela dice a los padres, a los alumnos y a los educadores que el profesor, para que pueda enseñar, debe ejercer su autoridad en un recinto sagrado. Esto es válido incluso para profesores cuyos alumnos pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo escolar en un aula sin muros. + +La escuela, por su naturaleza misma, tiende a reclamar la totalidad del tiempo y las energías de sus participantes. Esto a su vez hace del profesor un custodio, un predicador y un terapeuta. + +El maestro funda su autoridad sobre una pretensión diferente en cada uno de estos tres papeles. _El profesor-como-custodio_ actúa como maestro de ceremonias que guía a sus alumnos a lo largo de un ritual dilatado y laberíntico. Es árbitro del cumplimiento de las normas y administra las intrincadas rúbricas de iniciación a la vida. En el mejor de los casos, monta la escena para la adquisición de una habilidad como siempre han hecho los maestros de escuela. Sin hacerse ilusiones acerca de producir ningún saber profundo, somete a sus alumnos a ciertas rutinas básicas. + +El _profesor-como-moralista_ reemplaza a los padres, a Dios, al Estado. Adoctrina al alumno acerca de lo bueno y lo malo, no sólo en la escuela, sino en la sociedad en general. Se presenta _in loco parentis_ para cada cual y asegura así que todos se sientan hijos del mismo Estado. + +El _profesor-como-terapeuta_ se siente autorizado a inmiscuirse en la vida privada de su alumno a fin de ayudarle a desarrollarse como persona. Cuando esta función la desempeña un custodio y predicador, significa por lo común que persuade al alumno a someterse a una domesticación de su visión de la verdad y de su sentido de lo justo. + +La afirmación de que una sociedad liberal puede basarse en la escuela moderna, es paradójica. Todas las defensas de la libertad individual quedan anuladas en los tratos de un maestro de escuela con su alumno. Cuando el maestro funde en su persona las funciones de juez, ideólogo y médico, el estilo fundamental de la sociedad es pervertido por el proceso mismo que debiera preparar para la vida. Un maestro que combine estos tres poderes contribuye mucho más a la deformación del niño que las leyes que dictan su menor edad legal o económica, o que restringen su libertad de reunión o de vivienda. + +Los maestros no son en absoluto los únicos en ofrecer servicios terapéuticos. Los psiquiatras, los consejeros vocacionales y laborales, y hasta los abogados ayudan a sus clientes a decidir, a desarrollar sus personalidades y a aprender. Pero el sentido común le dice al cliente que dichos profesionales deben abstenerse de imponer sus opiniones sobre lo bueno y lo malo, o de obligar a nadie a seguir su consejo. Los maestros de escuelas y los curas son los únicos profesionales que se sienten con derecho para inmiscuirse en los asuntos privados de sus clientes al mismo tiempo que predican a un público obligado. + +Los niños no están protegidos ni por la Primera ni por la Quinta Enmienda[^n07] cuando están frente a ese sacerdote secular, el profesor. El niño tiene que enfrentarse con un hombre que usa una triple corona invisible y que, como la tiara papal, es el símbolo de la triple autoridad conjugada en una persona. Para el niño, el maestro pontifica como pastor, profeta y sacerdote —es a un mismo tiempo guía, maestro y administrador de un ritual sagrado—. Conjuga las pretensiones de los papas medievales en una sociedad constituida bajo la garantía de que tales pretensiones no serán jamás ejercidas conjuntamente por una institución establecida y obligatoria —la Iglesia o el Estado—. + +Definir a los niños como alumnos a jornada completa permite al profesor ejercer sobre sus personas una especie de poder que está mucho menos limitado por restricciones constitucionales o consuetudinarias que el poder detentado por el guardián de otros enclaves sociales. La edad cronológica de los niños los descalifica respecto de las salvaguardas que son de rutina para adultos situados en un asilo moderno —un manicomio, un monasterio o una cárcel—. + +Bajo la mirada autoritaria del maestro, los valores se confunden y las diferencias se borran. Las distinciones entre moralidad, legalidad y valor personal se difuminan y eventualmente se eliminan. Se hace sentir cada transgresión como un delito múltiple. Se cuenta con que el delincuente sienta que ha quebrantado una norma, que se ha comportado de modo inmoral y se ha abandonado. A un alumno que ha conseguido hábilmente ayuda en un examen se le dice que es un delincuente, un corrompido y un mequetrefe. + +La asistencia a clases saca a los niños del mundo cotidiano de la cultura occidental y los sumerge en un ambiente mucho más primitivo, mágico y mortalmente serio. La escuela no podría crear un enclave como éste, dentro del cual se suspende físicamente a los menores durante muchos años sucesivos de las normas de la realidad ordinaria, si no tuviera el poder de encarcelar físicamente a los menores durante esos años en su territorio sagrado. La norma de asistencia posibilita que el aula sirva de útero mágico, del cual el niño es dado periódicamente a luz al terminar el día escolar y el año escolar, hasta que es finalmente lanzado a la vida adulta. Ni la niñez universalmente prolongada ni la atmósfera sofocante del aula podrían existir sin las escuelas. Sin embargo, las escuelas, como canales obligatorios de aprendizaje, podrían existir sin ninguna de ambas y ser más represivas y destructivas que todo lo que hayamos podido conocer hasta la fecha. Para entender lo que significa desescolarizar la sociedad y no tan sólo reformar el sistema educativo establecido, debemos concentrarnos ahora en el currículum oculto de la escolarización. No nos ocupamos en este caso, y directamente, del currículum oculto de las calles del gueto, que deja marcado al pobre, o del currículum camuflado de salón, que beneficia al rico. Nos interesa más bien llamar la atención sobre el hecho de que el ceremonial o ritual de la escolarización misma constituye un currículum escondido de este tipo. Incluso el mejor de los maestros no puede proteger del todo a sus alumnos contra él. Este currículum oculto de la escolarización añade inevitablemente prejuicio y culpa a la discriminación que una sociedad practica contra algunos de sus miembros y realza el privilegio de otros con un nuevo título con el cual tener en menos a la mayoría. De modo igualmente inevitable, este currículum oculto sirve como ritual de iniciación a una sociedad de consumo orientada hacia el crecimiento, tanto para ricos como para pobres. + +## Ritualización del progreso + +El graduado en una universidad ha sido escolarizado para cumplir un servicio selectivo entre los ricos del mundo sean cuales fueren sus afirmaciones de solidaridad con el Tercer Mundo, cada estadunidense que ha conseguido su título universitario ha tenido una educación que cuesta una cantidad cinco veces mayor que los ingresos medios de toda una vida en el seno de la mitad desheredada de la humanidad. A un estudiante latinoamericano se le introduce en esta exclusiva fraternidad acordándole para su educación un gasto por lo menos 350 veces mayor que el de sus conciudadanos de clase media. Salvo muy raras excepciones, el graduado universitario de un país pobre se siente más a gusto con sus colegas norteamericanos o europeos que con sus compatriotas no escolarizados, y a todos los estudiantes se les somete a un proceso académico que les hace sentirse felices sólo en compañía de otros consumidores de los productos de la máquina educativa. + +La universidad moderna sólo confiere el privilegio de disentir a aquellos que han sido comprobados y clasificados como fabricantes de dinero o detentadores de poder en potencia. A nadie se le conceden fondos provenientes de impuestos para que tengan así tiempo libre para autoeducarse o el derecho de educar a otros, a menos que al mismo tiempo puedan certificarse sus logros. Las escuelas eligen para cada nivel superior sucesivo a aquellos que en las primeras etapas del juego hayan demostrado ser buenos riesgos[^n08] para el orden establecido. Al tener un monopolio sobre los recursos para el aprendizaje y sobre la investidura de los papeles por desempeñar en la sociedad, la universidad invita a sus filas al descubridor y al disidente en potencia. Un grado siempre deja su tinta indeleble con el precio en el currículum de su consumidor. Los graduados universitarios diplomados encajan sólo en un mundo que pone un marbete con el precio en sus cuellos dándoles así el poder de pertenecer a un mundo donde todo recibe un valor mercantil. En cada país, el monto que consume el graduado universitario fija la pauta para todos los demás; si fueran gente civilizada con trabajo o cesantes habrán de aspirar al estilo de vida de los graduados universitarios. + +De este modo, la universidad tiene por efecto imponer normas de consumo en el trabajo o en el hogar, y lo hace en todo el mundo y bajo todos los sistemas políticos. Cuanto menos graduados universitarios hay en un país, tanto más sirven de modelo para el resto de la población sus ilustradas exigencias. La brecha entre el consumo de un graduado universitario y el de un ciudadano corriente es incluso más ancha en Rusia, China y Argelia que en Estados Unidos. Los coches, los viajes en avión y los magnetófonos confieren una distinción más notoria en un país socialista en donde únicamente un título, y no tan sólo el dinero, puede procurarlos. + +La capacidad de la universidad para fijar metas de consumo es algo nuevo. En muchos países la universidad adquirió este poder sólo en la década de los años sesenta, conforme la ilusión de acceso parejo a la educación pública comenzó a difundirse. Antes de entonces la universidad protegía la libertad de expresión de un individuo, pero no convertía automáticamente su conocimiento en riqueza. Durante la Edad Media, ser un estudioso significaba ser pobre y hasta mendicante. En virtud de su vocación, el estudioso medieval aprendía latín, se convertía en un _outsider_ digno tanto de la mofa como de la estimación del campesino y del príncipe, del burgués y del clérigo. + +Para triunfar en el mundo, el escolástico tenía que ingresar primero en él, entrando en la carrera funcionaria, preferiblemente la eclesiástica. La universidad antigua era una zona liberada para el descubrimiento y el debate de ideas nuevas y viejas. Los maestros y los estudiantes se reunían para leer los textos de otros maestros, muertos mucho antes, y las palabras vivas de los maestros difuntos daban nuevas perspectivas a las falacias del mundo presente. La universidad era entonces una comunidad de búsqueda académica y de inquietud endémica. + +En la universidad multidisciplinaria moderna esta comunidad ha huido hacia las márgenes, en donde se junta en un apartamento, en la oficina de un profesor o en los aposentos del capellán. El propósito estructural de la universidad moderna guarda poca relación con la búsqueda tradicional. Desde los días de Gutenberg, el intercambio de la indagación disciplinada y crítica se ha trasladado en su mayor parte de la “cátedra” a la imprenta. La universidad moderna ha perdido por incumplimiento su posibilidad de ofrecer un escenario simple para encuentros que sean autónomos y anárquicos, enfocados hacia un interés y sin embargo espontáneos y vivaces, y ha elegido en cambio administrar el proceso mediante el cual se produce lo que ha dado en llamarse investigación y enseñanza. + +Desde el _Sputnik_ , la universidad estadunidense ha estado tratando de ponerse a la par con el número de graduados que sacan los soviéticos. Ahora los alemanes están abandonando su tradición académica y están construyendo unos _campus_ para ponerse a la par con los estadunidenses. Durante esta década quieren aumentar sus erogaciones en escuelas primarias y secundarias de 14 000 a 59 000 millones de marcos alemanes y triplicar los desembolsos para la instrucción superior. Los franceses se proponen elevar para 1980 a 10% de su PNB el monto gastado en escuelas, y la Fundación Ford ha estado empujando a países pobres de América Latina a elevar sus desembolsos per cápita para los graduados “respetables” a los niveles estadunidenses. Los estudiantes consideran sus estudios como la inversión que produce el mayor rédito monetario, y las naciones los ven como un factor clave para el desarrollo. + +Para la mayoría que va en pos de un grado universitario, la universidad no ha perdido prestigio, pero desde 1968 ha perdido notoriamente categoría entre sus creyentes. Los estudiantes se niegan a prepararse para la guerra, la contaminación y la perpetuación del prejuicio. Los profesores les ayudan en su recusación de la legitimidad del gobierno, de su política exterior, de la educación y del sistema de vida norteamericano. No pocos rechazan títulos y se preparan para una vida en una contracultura, fuera de la sociedad diplomada. Parecen elegir la vía de los Fraticelli medievales o de los Alumbrados de la Reforma, que fueron los _hippies_ y desertores escolares de su época. Otros reconocen el monopolio de las escuelas sobre los recursos que ellos necesitan para construir una contrasociedad. Buscan apoyo el uno en el otro para vivir con integridad mientras se someten al ritual académico. Forman, por así decirlo, focos de herejía en medio de la jerarquía. + +No obstante, grandes sectores de la población general miran al místico moderno y al heresiarca moderno con alarma. Éstos amenazan la economía consumista, el privilegio democrático y la imagen que de sí mismo tiene Estados Unidos. Pero no es posible eliminarlos con sólo desearlo. Son cada vez menos aquellos a los que es posible reconvertir y reincorporar en las filas mediante sutilezas —como, por ejemplo, darles el cargo de enseñar como profesores su herejía—. De aquí la búsqueda de medios que hagan posible ya sea librarse de disidentes, ya sea disminuir la importancia de la universidad que les sirve de base para protestar. + +A los estudiantes y a la facultad que ponen en tela de juicio la legitimidad de la universidad, y lo hacen pagando un alto costo personal, no les parece por cierto estar fijando normas de consumo ni favoreciendo un sistema determinado de producción. Aquellos que han fundado grupos tales como el Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars y el North American Congress of Latin America (NACLA) han sido de los más eficaces para cambiar radicalmente la visión que millones de personas jóvenes tenían de países extranjeros. Otros más han tratado de formular interpretaciones marxistas de la sociedad norteamericana o han figurado entre los responsables de la creación de comunas. Sus logros dan nuevo vigor al argumento de que la existencia de la universidad es necesaria para una crítica social sostenida. + +No cabe duda de que en este momento la universidad ofrece una combinación singular de circunstancias que permite a algunos de sus miembros criticar el conjunto de la sociedad. Proporciona tiempo, movilidad, acceso a los iguales y a la información, así como cierta impunidad —privilegios de que no disponen igualmente otros sectores de la población—. Pero la universidad permite esta libertad sólo a quienes ya han sido profundamente iniciados en la sociedad de consumo y en la necesidad de alguna especie de escolaridad pública obligatoria. + +El sistema escolar de hoy en día desempeña la triple función que ha sido común a las Iglesias poderosas a lo largo de la historia. Es simultáneamente el depósito del mito de la sociedad, la institucionalización de las contradicciones de ese mito y el lugar donde ocurre el ritual que reproduce y encubre las disciplinas entre el mito y la realidad. El sistema escolar, y en particular la universidad, proporciona hoy grandes oportunidades para criticar el mito y para rebelarse contra las perversiones institucionales. Pero el ritual que exige tolerancia para con las contradicciones fundamentales entre mito e institución pasa todavía por lo general sin ponerse en tela de juicio, pues ni la crítica ideológica ni la acción social pueden dar a luz una nueva sociedad. Sólo el desencanto del ritual social central, el desligarse del mismo y reformarlo pueden llevar a cabo un cambio radical. + +La universidad estadunidense ha llegado a ser la etapa final del rito de iniciación más global que el mundo haya conocido. Ninguna sociedad histórica ha logrado sobrevivir sin ritual o mito, pero la nuestra es la primera que ha necesitado una iniciación tan aburrida, morosa, destructiva y costosa a su mito. La civilización mundial contemporánea es también la primera que estimó necesario racionalizar su ritual fundamental de iniciación en nombre de la educación. No podemos iniciar una reforma de la educación a menos que entendamos primero que ni el aprendizaje individual ni la igualdad social pueden acrecentarse mediante el ritual de la escolarización. No podremos ir más allá de la sociedad de consumo a menos que entendamos primero que las escuelas públicas obligatorias reproducen inevitablemente dicha sociedad, independientemente de lo que se enseñe en ellas. + +El proyecto de desmitologización que propongo no puede limitarse tan sólo a la universidad. Cualquier intento de reformar la universidad sin ocuparse del sistema del que forma parte integral es como tratar de hacer la reforma urbana en Nueva York, desde el piso decimosegundo hacia arriba. La mayor parte de las reformas introducidas en la enseñanza superior, equivalen a rascacielos construidos sobre chozas. Sólo una generación que se críe sin escuelas obligatorias será capaz de recrear la universidad. + + +### El mito de los valores institucionalizados + +La escuela inicia asimismo el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin. Este mito moderno se funda en la creencia según la cual el sistema de producción produce inevitablemente algo de valor y que, por consiguiente, la producción produce necesariamente demanda. La escuela nos enseña que la instrucción produce aprendizaje. La existencia de las escuelas produce la demanda de escolaridad. Una vez que hemos aprendido a necesitar la escuela, todas nuestras actividades tienden a tomar la forma de relaciones de clientes respecto de otras instituciones especializadas. Una vez que se ha desacreditado al hombre o a la mujer autodidactos, toda actividad no profesional se hace sospechosa. En la escuela se nos enseña que el resultado de la asistencia es un aprendizaje valioso; que el valor del aprendizaje aumenta con el monto de la información de entrada y, finalmente, que este valor puede medirse y documentarse mediante grados y diplomas. + +De hecho, el aprendizaje es la actividad humana que menos manipulación de terceros necesita. La mayor parte del aprendizaje no es la consecuencia de una instrucción. Es más bien el resultado de una participación a la que no se estorba en un entorno significativo. La mayoría de la gente aprende mejor “metiendo la cuchara” y, sin embargo, la escuela les hace identificar su desarrollo cognoscitivo personal con una programación y una manipulación complicadas. + +Una vez que un hombre o una mujer ha aceptado la necesidad de la escuela, es presa fácil de otras instituciones. Una vez que los jóvenes han permitido que a su imaginación la forme la instrucción curricular, están condicionados para las planificaciones institucionales de toda especie. La “institución” les ahoga el horizonte imaginativo. No se les puede traicionar, sólo engañar en el precio, porque se les ha enseñado a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. Para bien o para mal, ya no serán sorprendidos por terceros, pues se les ha enseñado qué pueden esperar de cualquier otra persona que ha sido enseñada como ellos. Esto es válido para el caso de otra persona o de una máquina. + +Esta transferencia de responsabilidad desde sí mismo a una institución garantiza la regresión social, especialmente desde el momento en que se ha aceptado como una obligación. Así, los rebeldes contra el _Alma Mater_ a menudo “la consiguen” e ingresan en su facultad en vez de desarrollar la valentía de infectar a otros con su enseñanza personal y de asumir la responsabilidad de las consecuencias de tal enseñanza. Esto sugiere la posibilidad de una nueva historia de Edipo —Edipo Profesor, que “consigue” a su madre a fin de engendrar hijos de ella—. El hombre adicto a ser enseñado busca su seguridad en la enseñanza compulsiva. La mujer que experimenta su conocimiento como el resultado de un proceso quiere reproducirlo en otros. + + +### El mito de la medición de los valores + +Los valores institucionalizados que infunde la escuela son valores cuantificados. La escuela inicia a los jóvenes en un mundo en el que todo puede medirse, incluso su imaginación y hasta el hombre mismo. + +Pero el desarrollo personal no es una entidad mensurable. Es crecimiento en disensión disciplinada, que no puede medirse respecto a ningún cartabón, a ningún currículum, ni compararse con lo logrado por algún otro. En ese aprendizaje podemos emular a otros sólo en el empeño imaginativo, y seguir sus huellas más bien que remedar sus maneras de andar. El aprendizaje que yo aprecio es una recreación inmensurable. + +Las escuelas pretenden desglosar el aprendizaje en “materias”, para incorporar en el alumno un currículum hecho con estos ladrillos prefabricados y para medir el resultado con una escala internacional. Las personas que se someten a la norma de otros para la medida de su propio desarrollo personal pronto se aplican el mismo cartabón a sí mismos. Ya no es necesario ponerlos en su lugar, pues se colocan solos en sus casilleros correspondientes, se comprimen en el nicho que se les ha enseñado a buscar y, en el curso de este mismo proceso, colocan asimismo a sus prójimos en sus lugares, hasta que todo y todos encajan. + +Las personas que han sido escolarizadas hasta su talla dejan que la experiencia no mensurada se les escape entre los dedos. Para ellas, lo que no puede medirse se hace secundario, amenazante. No es necesario robarles su creatividad. Con la instrucción, han desaprendido a “hacer” lo suyo o a “ser” ellas mismas, y valoran sólo aquello que ha sido fabricado o podría fabricarse. + +Una vez que se ha escolarizado a las personas con la idea de que los valores pueden producirse y medirse, tienden a aceptar toda clase de clasificaciones jerárquicas. Existe una escala para el desarrollo de las naciones, otra para la inteligencia de los nenes, e incluso el avance hacia la paz puede medirse según un recuento de personas. En un mundo escolarizado, el camino hacia la felicidad está pavimentado con un índice de precios para el consumidor. + + +### El mito de los valores envasados + +La escuela vende currículum: un atado de mercancías hecho con el mismo proceso y con la misma estructura que cualquier otra mercancía. La producción del currículum para la mayoría de las escuelas comienza con la investigación presuntamente científica; fundados en ella los ingenieros de la educación predicen la demanda futura y las herramientas para la línea de montaje, dentro de los límites establecidos por presupuestos y tabúes. El distribuidor-profesor entrega el producto terminado al consumidor-alumno, cuyas reacciones son cuidadosamente estudiadas y tabuladas a fin de proporcionar datos para la investigación que servirán para preparar el modelo siguiente que podrá ser “desgraduado”, “concebido para alumnado”, “concebido para un trabajo en equipo”, “con ayudas visuales” o “centrado en temas”. + +El resultado del proceso de producción de un currículum se asemeja a cualquier otro artículo moderno de primera necesidad. Es un paquete de significados planificados, una mercancía cuyo “atractivo equilibrado” la hace comercializable para una clientela lo bastante grande como para justificar su elevado coste de producción. A los consumidores-alumnos se les enseña a ajustar sus deseos a valores comercializables. De modo que se les hace sentir culpables si no se comportan en conformidad con los resultados de los análisis de mercado y si no obtienen los grados y diplomas que los colocarán en la categoría laboral que se les ha inducido a esperar. + +Los educadores pueden justificar unos currícula más costosos fundándose en lo que han observado, a saber, que las dificultades de aprendizaje se elevan en proporción al costo del currículum. Ésta es una aplicación de aquella ley de Parkinson que dice que una labor se expande junto con los recursos disponibles para ejecutarla. Esta ley puede verificarse en todos los niveles de la escuela: por ejemplo, las dificultades de lectura han sido un tema principal de debate en que los grados per cápita en ellas se han aproximado a los niveles estadunidenses de 1950 —año en el cual las dificultades para aprender a leer llegaron a ser tema de importancia en las escuelas de Estados Unidos. + +De hecho, los estudiantes saludables redoblan su resistencia a la enseñanza conforme se ven más cabalmente manipulados. Su resistencia no se debe al estilo autoritario de una escuela pública o al estilo seductor de algunas escuelas libres, sino al planteamiento fundamental común a todas las escuelas —la idea de que el juicio de una persona debiera determinar qué y cuándo debe aprender otra persona—. + + +### El mito del progreso que se perpetúa a sí mismo + +Los crecientes costes per cápita de la instrucción, aun cuando vayan acompañados por réditos de aprendizaje decrecientes, aumentan paradójicamente el valor del alumno o alumna ante sus propios ojos y su valor en el mercado. La escuela, casi al coste que sea, iza a empellones al alumno hasta el nivel del consumo curricular competitivo, hasta meterlo en el progreso hacia unos niveles cada vez más elevados. Los gastos que motivan al alumno a permanecer en la escuela se desbocan conforme asciende la pirámide. En niveles más altos adoptan el disfraz de nuevos estadios de futbol o programas llamados de Educación Internacional. Aunque no enseña ninguna otra cosa, la escuela enseña al menos el valor de la escalada: el valor de la manera estadunidense de hacer las cosas. + +La guerra de Vietnam se ajusta a la lógica prevaleciente. Su éxito se ha medido por el número de personas efectivamente tratadas con balas baratas descargadas a un coste inmenso, y a este cálculo salvaje se le llama desvergonzadamente “recuento de cuerpos”. Así como los negocios son los negocios, la acumulación inacabable de dinero, así también la guerra es el matar, la acumulación inacabable de cuerpos muertos. De manera semejante, la educación es escolarización, y este proceso sin término se cuenta en alumnos-hora. Los diferentes procesos son irreversibles y se justifican por sí mismos. Según las normas económicas, el país se hace cada vez más rico. Según las normas de la contabilidad mortal, la nación continúa ganando perennemente sus guerras. Y conforme a las normas escolares, la población se va haciendo cada vez más educada. + +El programa escolar está hambriento de un bocado cada vez mayor de instrucción, pero aun cuando esta hambre conduzca a una absorción sostenida, nunca da el gozo de saber algo a satisfacción. Cada tema llega envasado con la instrucción de continuar consumiendo una “oferta” tras otra, y el envase del año anterior es siempre anticuado para el consumidor del año en curso. El fraudulento negocio de los libros de texto está construido sobre esta demanda. Los reformadores de la educación prometen a cada generación lo último y lo mejor, y al público se le escolariza para pedir lo que ellos ofrecen. Tanto el desertor, a quien se le hace recordar a perpetuidad lo que se perdió, como el graduado, a quien se le hace sentir inferior a la nueva casta de estudiantes, saben exactamente dónde están situados en el ritual de engaños crecientes, y continúan apoyando una sociedad que, para denominar la brecha cada vez más ancha de frustración, usa el eufemismo de “revolución de expectativas crecientes”. + +Pero el crecimiento concebido como un consumo sin términos —el progreso eterno— no puede conducir jamás a la madurez. El compromiso con un ilimitado aumento cuantitativo vicia la posibilidad de un desarrollo orgánico. + + +### El juego ritual y la nueva religión mundial + +En las naciones desarrolladas, la edad para salir de la escuela excede el aumento de los años de vida probable. Dentro de una década se cortarán ambas curvas y crearán un problema para Jessica Mitford y para los profesionales que se interesan por la “educación terminal”. Me hace recordar la Edad Media tardía, cuando la demanda por los servicios de la Iglesia sobrepasó la duración de la vida, y se creó el “purgatorio” para purificar a las almas bajo el control papal antes de que pudiesen ingresar en la paz eterna. Lógicamente, esto condujo primero a un tráfico de indulgencias y luego a un intento de Reforma. El Mito del Consumo Sin Fin ocupa ahora el lugar de la creencia en la vida eterna. + +Arnold Toynbee señaló que la decadencia de una gran cultura suele ir acompañada por el surgimiento de una nueva Iglesia Universal que lleva la esperanza al proletariado interior mientras atiende al mismo tiempo las necesidades de una nueva casta guerrera. La escuela parece eminentemente apta para ser la Iglesia Universal de nuestra decadente cultura. Ninguna institución podría ocultar mejor a sus participantes la profunda discrepancia entre los principios sociales y la realidad social en el mundo de hoy. Secular, científica y negadora de la muerte, se ciñe estrechamente al ánimo moderno. Su apariencia clásica, crítica, la hace aparecer, si no antirreligiosa, al menos pluralista. Su currículum define la ciencia y la define a ella misma mediante la llamada investigación científica. Nadie completa la escuela —todavía—. No cierra sus puertas a nadie sin antes ofrecerle una oportunidad más: educación de recuperación, para adultos y de continuación. + +La escuela sirve como una eficaz creadora y preservadora del mito social debido a su estructura como juego ritual de promociones graduadas. La introducción a este ritual es mucho más importante que el asunto enseñado o el cómo se enseña. Es el juego mismo el que escolariza, el que se mete en la sangre y se convierte en hábito. Se inicia a una sociedad entera en el Mito del Consumo Sin Fin de servicios. Esto ocurre hasta tal punto que la formalidad de participar en el ritual sin término se hace obligatoria y compulsiva por doquier. La escuela ordena una rivalidad ritual en forma de juego internacional que obliga a los competidores a achacar los males del mundo a aquellos que no pueden o no quieren jugar. La escuela es un ritual de iniciación que introduce al neófito en la sagrada carrera del consumo progresivo, un ritual propiciatorio cuyos sacerdotes académicos son mediadores entre los creyentes y los dioses del privilegio y del poder, un ritual de expiación que sacrifica a sus desertores, marcándolos a fuego como chivos expiatorios del subdesarrollo. + +Incluso aquellos que en el mejor de los casos pasan unos pocos años en la escuela —y éste es el caso de la abrumadora mayoría en América Latina, Asia y África— aprenden a sentirse culpables debido a su subconsumo de escolarización. En México es obligatorio aprobar seis grados de escuela. Los niños nacidos en el tercio económico inferior tienen sólo dos posibilidades sobre tres de aprobar el primer grado. Si lo aprueban, tienen cuatro probabilidades sobre 100 de terminar la escolaridad obligatoria en el sexto grado. Si nacen en el tercio medio, sus probabilidades aumentan a 12 sobre 100. Con estas pautas, México ha tenido más éxito que la mayoría de las otras 26 repúblicas latinoamericanas en cuanto a proporcionar educación pública. + +Todos los niños saben, en todas partes, que se les ha dado una posibilidad, aunque desigual, en una lotería obligatoria, y la supuesta igualdad de la norma internacional realza ahora la pobreza original de esos niños con la discriminación autoinfligida que el desertor acepta. Se les ha escolarizado en la creencia de las expectativas crecientes y pueden racionalizar ahora su creciente frustración fuera de la escuela aceptando el rechazo de la gracia escolástica que les ha caído en suerte. Se les expulsa del paraíso porque, habiendo sido bautizados, no fueron a la Iglesia. Nacidos en pecado original, se les bautiza en el primer grado, pero van al Gehenna (que en hebreo significa “conventillo”) debido a sus faltas personales. Así como Max Weber examinó los efectos sociales de la creencia en que la salvación pertenecía a quienes acumulaban riqueza, podemos observar ahora que la gracia está reservada para aquellos que acumulan años de escuela. + + +### El reino venidero la universalización de las expectativas + +La escuela conjuga las expectativas del consumidor expresadas en sus pretensiones, con las creencias del productor expresadas en su ritual. Es una expresión litúrgica del _cargocult_[^n09] que recorrió la Melanesia en la década de 1940-1950, que inyectaba en sus cultores la creencia de que si se colocaban una corbata negra sobre el torso desnudo, Jesús llegaría en un vapor trayendo una nevera, un par de pantalones y una máquina de coser para cada creyente. + +La escuela funde el crecimiento en humillante dependencia de un maestro con el crecimiento en el vano sentido de omnipotencia que es tan típico del alumno que quiere ir a enseñar a todas las naciones a salvarse. El ritual está moldeado según los severos hábitos de trabajo de los obreros de la construcción, y su finalidad es celebrar el mito de un paraíso terrestre de consumo sin fin, que es la única esperanza del desgraciado y el desposeído. + +A lo largo de la historia ha habido epidemias de insaciables expectativas en este mundo, especialmente entre grupos colonizados y marginales en todas las culturas. Los judíos tuvieron durante el Imperio romano sus Esenios y Mesías judíos, los siervos en la Reforma tuvieron su Thomas Münzer, los desposeídos indios desde el Paraguay hasta Dakota sus contagiosos bailarines. Estas sectas estaban siempre dirigidas por un profeta, y limitaban sus promesas a unos pocos elegidos. En cambio la espera del reino a que induce la escuela es impersonal más que profética, y universal más que local. El hombre ha llegado a ser el ingeniero de su propio Mesías y promete las limitadas recompensas de la ciencia a aquellos que somete a una progresiva tecnificación para su reino. + + +### La nueva alienación + +La escuela no sólo es la Nueva Religión Mundial. Es también el mercado de trabajo de crecimiento más veloz del mundo. La tecnificación de los consumidores ha llegado a ser el principal sector de crecimiento de la economía. Conforme el coste de la producción disminuye en las naciones ricas, se produce una concentración creciente de capital y trabajo en la vasta empresa de equipar al hombre para un consumo disciplinario. Durante la década pasada las inversiones de capital relacionadas directamente con el sistema escolar aumentaron con velocidad incluso mayor que los gastos para defensa. El desarme tan sólo aceleraría el proceso por el cual la industria del aprendizaje se encamina al centro de la economía nacional. La escuela proporciona oportunidades ilimitadas para el derroche legitimizado, mientras su destructividad pasa inadvertida y crece el coste de los paliativos. + +Si a quienes asisten a jornada completa agregamos los que enseñan a jornada completa, nos percatamos de que esta llamada superestructura ha llegado a ser el principal patrono de la sociedad. En Estados Unidos hay 62 millones en la escuela y 80 millones trabajando en otras cosas. Esto a menudo lo han olvidado los analistas neomarxistas cuando dicen que el proceso de desescolarización debe posponerse o dejarse pendiente hasta que otros desórdenes, considerados tradicionalmente como más importantes, los haya corregido una revolución económica y política. Pero hay que comprender que la escuela es una industria antes de querer edificar una estrategia revolucionaria realista. Para Marx, el coste de producir las demandas de bienes apenas si era significativo. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la mano de obra está empleada en la producción de demandas que puede satisfacer la industria que hace un uso intenso del capital. La mayor parte de este trabajo se realiza en la escuela. + +En el esquema tradicional, la alienación era una consecuencia directa de que el trabajo se convirtiera en labor asalariada que privaba al hombre de su oportunidad para crear y recrearse. Ahora a los menores los prealienan las escuelas que los aíslan del mundo mientras juegan a ser productores y consumidores de su propio conocimiento, al que se concibe como una mercancía en el mercado en la escuela. La escuela hace de la alienación una preparación para la vida, privando así a la educación de realidad y al trabajo de creatividad. La escuela prepara para la alienante institucionalización de la vida al enseñar la necesidad de ser enseñado. Una vez que se aprende esta lección, la gente pierde su incentivo para desarrollarse con independencia; ya no encuentra atractivos en relacionarse y se cierra a las sorpresas que la vida ofrece cuando no está predeterminada por la definición institucional. La escuela emplea directa o indirectamente a una mayor parte de la población. La escuela o bien guarda a la gente de por vida o asegura el que encaje en alguna otra institución. + +La Nueva Iglesia Mundial es la industria del conocimiento, proveedora de opio y banco de trabajo durante un número creciente de años de la vida de un individuo. La desescolarización es por consiguiente fundamental para cualquier movimiento de liberación del hombre. + + +### La potencialidad revolucionaria de la desescolarización + +La escuela no es de ningún modo, por cierto, la única institución moderna cuya finalidad primaria es moldear la visión de la realidad en el hombre. El currículum escondido de la vida familiar, de la conscripción militar, del llamado profesionalismo o de los medios informativos desempeña un importante papel en la manipulación institucional de la visión del mundo que tiene el hombre, de su lenguaje y de sus demandas. Pero la escuela esclaviza más profunda y sistemáticamente, puesto que sólo a ella se le acredita la función principal de formar el juicio crítico y, paradójicamente, trata de hacerlo haciendo que el aprender sobre sí mismo, sobre los demás y sobre la naturaleza dependa de un proceso preempacado. La escuela nos alcanza de manera tan íntima que ninguno puede esperar liberarse de ella mediante algo externo. + +Muchos de los que se autodenominan revolucionarios son víctimas de la escuela. Incluso ven la “liberación” como el producto de algo institucional. Sólo al librarse uno mismo de la escuela se disipa esa ilusión. El descubrimiento de que la mayor parte del aprendizaje no requiere enseñanza no puede ser ni manipulado ni planificado. Cada uno de nosotros es responsable de su propia desescolarización, y sólo nosotros tenemos el poder de hacerlo. No puede excusarse a nadie si no logra liberarse de la escolarización. El pueblo no pudo liberarse de la Corona sino hasta que al menos algunos de ellos se liberaron de la Iglesia establecida. No pueden liberarse del consumo progresivo hasta que no se liberen de la escuela obligatoria. + +Todos estamos metidos en la escolarización, tanto desde el aspecto de la producción como desde el del consumo. Estamos supersticiosamente convencidos de que el buen aprendizaje puede y debería producirse en nosotros —y de que podemos producirlo en otros—. Nuestro intento de desligarnos del concepto de escuela hará surgir las resistencias que hallamos en nosotros mismos cuando tratamos de renunciar al consumo ilimitado y a la ubicua suposición de que a los otros se les puede manipular por su propio bien. Nadie está totalmente exento de explotar a otros en el proceso de escolarización. + +La escuela es el más grande y más anónimo de todos los patrones. De hecho es el mejor empleo de un nuevo tipo de empresa, sucesora del gremio, de la fábrica y de la sociedad anónima. Las empresas multinacionales que han dominado la economía están siendo complementadas ahora, y puede que algún día sean suplantadas por organismos de servicio con planificación supranacional. Estas empresas presentan sus servicios de manera que hacen que todos los hombres se sientan obligados a consumirlos. Se rigen por una normativa internacional, redefiniendo el valor de sus servicios periódicamente y por doquiera a un ritmo aproximadamente parejo. + +El “transporte” que se apoya en nuevos coches y supercarreteras atiende a la misma necesidad institucionalmente envasada de comodidad, prestigio, velocidad y equipamiento, independientemente de que sus componentes los produzca o no el Estado. El aparato de la “atención médica” define una especie peculiar de salud, poco importa que sea el individuo o el Estado quien pague el servicio. La promoción graduada a fin de obtener diplomas ajusta al estudiante para ocupar un lugar en la misma pirámide internacional de mano de obra cualificada, independientemente de quien dirija la escuela. + +En todos estos casos el empleo es un beneficio oculto: el chofer de un automóvil privado, el paciente que se somete a hospitalización o el alumno en el aula deben considerase como parte de una nueva clase de “empleados”. Un movimiento de liberación que se inicie en la escuela y, sin embargo, esté fundado en maestros y alumnos como explotados y explotadores simultáneamente, podría anticiparse a las estrategias revolucionarias del futuro; pues un programa radical de desescolarización podría adiestrar a la juventud en el nuevo estilo de revolución necesaria para desafiar a un sistema social que exhibe una “salud”, una “riqueza” y una “seguridad” obligatorias. + +Los riesgos de una rebelión contra la escuela son imprevisibles, pero no son tan horribles como los de una revolución que se inicie en cualquier otra institución principal. La escuela no está todavía organizada para defenderse con tanta eficacia como una nación-Estado, o incluso como una gran sociedad anónima. La liberación de la opresión de las escuelas podría ser incruenta. Las armas del vigilante escolar[^n10] y de sus aliados en los tribunales y en las agencias de empleo podrían tomar medidas muy crueles contra el o la delincuente individual, especialmente si fuese pobre, pero podrían ser a su vez impotentes si surgiera un movimiento de masas. + +La escuela se ha convertido en un problema social; se le ataca por todas partes, y los ciudadanos y los gobiernos patrocinan experimentos no convencionales en todo el mundo. Recurren a insólitos expedientes estadísticos a fin de preservar la fe y salvar las apariencias. El ánimo que existe entre algunos educadores es muy parecido al ánimo de los obispos católicos después del Concilio Vaticano. Los planes de estudio de las llamadas “escuelas libres” se parecen a las liturgias de las misas con música folclórica y rock. Las exigencias de los estudiantes de bachillerato para tener voz y voto en la elección de sus profesores son tan estridentes como las de los feligreses que exigen seleccionar a sus párrocos. Pero para la sociedad está en juego algo mucho mayor si una minoría significativa pierde su fe en la escolaridad. Esto pondría en peligro la supervivencia no sólo del orden económico construido sobre la coproducción de bienes y demandas, sino igualmente del orden político construido sobre la nación-Estado dentro del cual los estudiantes son dados a la luz por la escuela. + +Nuestras alternativas posibles son harto claras. O continuamos creyendo que el aprendizaje institucionalizado es un producto que justifica una inversión ilimitada, o redescubrimos que la legislación, la planificación y la inversión, si de alguna manera encajan en la educación formal, debieran usarse principalmente para derribar las barreras que ahora obstaculizan las posibilidades de aprendizaje, el cual sólo puede ser una actividad personal. + +Si no ponemos en tela de juicio el supuesto de que el conocimiento valedero es una mercancía que en ciertas circunstancias puede metérsele a la fuerza al consumidor, la sociedad se verá cada día más dominada por siniestras seudoescuelas y totalitarios administradores de la información. Los terapeutas pedagógicos drogarán más a sus alumnos a fin de enseñarles mejor, y los estudiantes se drogarán más a fin de conseguir aliviarse de las presiones de los profesores y de la carrera por diplomas. Ejércitos cada día mayores de burócratas presumirán de maestros. El lenguaje del escolar ya se lo ha apropiado el publicista. Ahora el general y el policía tratarán de dignificar sus profesiones disfrazándose de educadores. En una sociedad escolarizada, las guerras y la represión civil encuentran una justificación racional educativa. La guerra pedagógica al estilo Vietnam se justificará cada vez más como la única manera de enseñar a la gente el valor superior del progreso inacabable. + +La represión se considerará como un empeño de misioneros por apresurar la venida del Mesías mecánico. Más y más países recurrirán a la tortura pedagógica puesta ya en práctica en Brasil y Grecia. Esta tortura pedagógica no se usa para extraer información o para satisfacer las necesidades psíquicas de unos sádicos. Se apoya en el terror aleatorio para romper la integridad de toda una población y convertirla en un material plástico para las enseñanzas inventadas por tecnócratas. La naturaleza totalmente destructiva y en constante progreso de la instrucción obligatoria cumplirá cabalmente su lógica final a menos que comencemos a librarnos desde ahora de nuestra _hybris_ pedagógica, nuestra creencia de que el hombre puede hacer lo que no puede Dios, a saber, manipular a otros para salvarlos. + +Muchos comienzan recientemente a darse cuenta de la inexorable destrucción que las tendencias actuales de producción implican para el medio ambiente, pero las personas aisladas tienen un poder muy restringido para cambiar estas tendencias. La manipulación de hombres y mujeres iniciada en la escuela ha llegado también a un punto sin retorno, y la mayoría de las personas aún no se han percatado de ello. Fomentan todavía la reforma escolar, tal como Henry Ford II propone unos nuevos automóviles ponzoñosos. + +Daniel Bell dice que nuestra época se caracteriza por una extrema disyunción entre las estructuras cultural y social; una dedicada a actitudes apocalípticas y la otra a la toma tecnocrática de decisiones. Esto es sin duda verdadero respecto de muchos reformadores de la educación que se sienten impulsados a condenar casi todo aquello que caracteriza a las escuelas modernas —y proponen simultáneamente nuevas escuelas—. + +En su _Estructura de las revoluciones científicas_ , Thomas Kuhn aduce que dicha disonancia precede inevitablemente a la aparición de un nuevo paradigma cognoscitivo. Los hechos que informaban aquellos que observaban la caída libre, aquellos que volvían del otro lado de la Tierra y aquellos que usaban el nuevo telescopio, no se ajustaban a la visión cósmica tolemaica. Súbitamente, se aceptó el paradigma newtoniano. La disonancia que caracteriza a muchos jóvenes de hoy no es tanto cognoscitiva como un asunto de actitudes —un sentimiento acerca de cómo _no_ puede ser una sociedad tolerable—. Lo sorprendente respecto de esta disonancia es la capacidad de un número muy grande de personas para tolerarla. + +La capacidad para ir tras metas incongruentes exige una explicación. Según Max Gluckman, todas las sociedades poseen procedimientos para ocultar tales disonancias de sus miembros. Los rituales pueden ocultar a sus participantes incluso discrepancias y conflictos entre principio social y organización social. Mientras un individuo no sea explícitamente consciente del carácter ritual del proceso a través del cual se le inició en las fuerzas que moldean su cosmos, no puede romper el conjuro y moldear un nuevo cosmos. Mientras no nos percatemos del ritual a través del cual la escuela moldea al consumidor progresivo —el recurso principal de la economía—, no podremos romper el conjuro de esta economía y dar forma a una nueva. + +## Espectro institucional + +La mayoría de los esquemas utópicos y escenarios futurísticos requieren nuevas y costosas tecnologías que habrían de venderse a las naciones ricas y pobres por igual. Herman Kahn ha encontrado alumnos en Venezuela, Argentina y Colombia. Las fantasías de Sergio Bernardes para su Brasil del año 2000 centellean con más maquinaria nueva de la que hoy posee Estados Unidos, que para entonces estará recargado con los obsoletos emplazamientos para misiles, aeropuertos para reactores y ciudades de las décadas de los años sesenta-setenta. Los futuristas inspirados en Buckminster Fuller se apoyarían más bien en dispositivos más baratos y exóticos. Cuentan con que se acepte una tecnología nueva pero posible, que al parecer nos permitiría hacer más con menos —monorrieles ligeros en vez de transporte supersónico, viviendas verticales en vez de dispersión horizontal—. Todos los planificadores futuristas de hoy tratan de hacer económicamente factible lo técnicamente posible, negándose a la vez a enfrentar las inevitables consecuencias sociales: el creciente anhelo de todos los hombres por bienes y servicios que seguirán siendo privilegio de unos pocos. + +Creo que un futuro deseable depende, en primer lugar, de nuestra voluntad de elegir una vida de acción en vez de una vida de consumo, de que engendremos un estilo de vida que nos permita ser espontáneos, independientes y, sin embargo, relacionarnos uno con otro, en vez de mantener un estilo de vida que sólo nos permite hacer y deshacer, producir y consumir —un estilo de vida que es sólo una estación en el camino hacia el agotamiento y la contaminación del entorno—. El futuro depende más de nuestra elección de instituciones que mantengan una vida de acción y menos de que desarrollemos nuevas ideologías y tecnologías. Necesitamos un conjunto de pautas que nos permitan reconocer aquellas instituciones que apoyan el desarrollo personal en vez del enviciamiento, como también la voluntad de dedicar nuestros recursos tecnológicos preferentemente a dichas instituciones de desarrollo. + +La elección se sitúa entre dos tipos institucionales radicalmente opuestos, ejemplificados ambos en ciertas instituciones existentes, aunque uno de esos tipos caracteriza de tal manera la época contemporánea que casi la define. A este tipo dominante yo propondría llamarlo la institución manipulativa. El otro tipo existe, pero sólo precariamente. Las instituciones que se ajustan a él son más humildes y menos notorias. No obstante, las tomo como modelos de un futuro más deseable. Las llamo “convivenciales” y sugiero colocarlas a la izquierda institucional, para mostrar que hay instituciones situadas entre ambos extremos y para ilustrar cómo las instituciones históricas pueden cambiar de color conforme se desplazan desde un facilitar la actividad a un organizar la producción. + +Dicho espectro, que se desplaza de izquierda a derecha, se ha usado por lo general para caracterizar a los hombres y sus ideologías, y no a nuestras instituciones sociales y a sus estilos. Esta categorización de los hombres, sea como individuos o como grupos, suele producir más calor que luz. Pueden suscitarse poderosas objeciones contra el uso de una convención corriente, pero al hacerlo espero desplazar los términos del debate de un plano estéril a uno fértil. Se evidenciará que los hombres de izquierda no siempre se caracterizan por su oposición a las instituciones manipulativas, a las que coloco en el extremo derecho del espectro. + +Las instituciones modernas más influyentes se agolpan al lado derecho del espectro. Hacia él se ha desplazado la coerción legal, conforme ha pasado de las manos del _sheriff_ a las del FBI y del Pentágono. La guerra moderna se ha convertido en una empresa sumamente profesional cuyo negocio es matar. Ha llegado al punto en que su eficiencia se mide por el recuento de cuerpos. Sus capacidades pacificadoras dependen de su poder para convencer a amigos y enemigos de la ilimitada potencia letal de la nación. Las balas y los productos químicos modernos son tan eficaces que a un ínfimo precio son capaces de matar o mutilar infaliblemente al “cliente”. Pero los costos de entrega aumentan vertiginosamente; el coste de un vietnamita muerto subió de 360 000 dólares en 1967 a 450 000 dólares en 1969. Sólo economías a una escala cercana al suicidio de la raza harían económicamente eficiente el arte militar moderno. Se está haciendo más obvio el efecto _boomerang_ en la guerra: cuanto mayor es el recuento de cuerpos de vietnamitas muertos, tantos más enemigos consigue Estados Unidos por todo el mundo; asimismo, tanto más debe gastar Estados Unidos en crear otra institución manipulativa —motejada cínicamente como de “pacificación”— en un vano intento por absorber los efectos secundarios de la guerra. + +En este mismo lado del espectro hallamos también organismos sociales que se especializan en la manipulación de sus clientes. Semejante a la organización militar, tienden a crear efectos contrarios a sus objetivos conforme crece el ámbito de sus operaciones. Estas instituciones sociales son igualmente contraproductivas, pero lo son de manera menos evidente. Muchas adoptan una imagen simpática y terapéutica para encubrir este efecto paradójico. Por ejemplo, hasta hace un par de siglos, las cárceles servían como medio para detener a las personas hasta que se les sentenciaba, se les mutilaba, se les mataba o se les exiliaba; en ocasiones se usaban deliberadamente como forma de tortura. Sólo recientemente comenzamos a pretender que encerrar a la gente en jaulas tendrá un efecto benéfico sobre su carácter y comportamiento. Ahora, más que unos pocos están empezando a entender que la cárcel incrementa tanto la calidad de los criminales como su cantidad, que es perfectamente capaz de hacer de un simple inconforme un criminal endurecido. No obstante, es mucho menor el número de los que al parecer entienden que las clínicas psiquiátricas, hogares de reposo y orfanatos hacen algo muy parecido. Estas instituciones proporcionan a sus clientes la destructiva autoimagen del psicótico, del excedido en años o del niño abandonado, y proveen la justificación lógica para la existencia de ciertas profesiones, tal como las cárceles poseen sus guardias. La afiliación a instituciones que se encuentran en este extremo del espectro se consigue de dos maneras, ambas coercitivas: mediante compromiso obligado o mediante servicio selectivo. + +En el extremo opuesto del espectro se sitúan unas instituciones que se distinguen por el uso espontáneo —las instituciones “convivenciales”—. Las conexiones telefónicas, las líneas de metro, los recorridos de los carteros, los mercados y lonjas no tienen necesidad de convencernos de su necesidad. Los sistemas de alcantarillado, de agua potable, los parques y veredas son instituciones que los hombres usan sin tener que estar institucionalmente convencidos de que les conviene hacerlo. Todas las instituciones exigen, por cierto, cierta reglamentación. Pero el funcionamiento de instituciones que existen para usarse más que para producir algo, requiere de normas cuya índole es totalmente diferente de la que exigen las instituciones-tratamiento, que son manipulativas. Las normas que rigen a las instituciones para uso tienen por fin principal evitar abusos que frustrarían su accesibilidad general. Las veredas deben mantenerse libres de obstrucciones, el uso industrial de agua potable debe someterse a ciertos límites y el juego de pelota debe restringirse a zonas especiales dentro de un parque. Actualmente necesitamos una legislación especial para evitar el abuso de nuestras líneas telefónicas por parte de computadoras, el abuso del servicio de correo por parte de los anunciantes y la contaminación de nuestros sistemas de alcantarillado por los desechos industriales. La reglamentación de las instituciones convivenciales fija límites para su empleo; conforme uno pasa del extremo convivencial del espectro al manipulativo, las normas van exigiendo cada vez más un consumo o participación no queridos. El diferente coste de la adquisición de clientes es precisamente una de las características que distingue a las instituciones conviviales de las manipulativas. + +En ambos extremos del espectro encontramos instituciones de servicio, pero a la derecha, el servicio es una manipulación impuesta y al cliente se le convierte en víctima de la publicidad, la agresión, el adoctrinamiento, la prisión o el electrochoque. A la izquierda, el servicio es una mayor oportunidad de límites definidos formalmente, mientras el cliente sigue siendo un agente libre. Las instituciones del ala derecha tienden a procesos de producción altamente complejos y costosos en los que gran parte de la complicación y el gasto se ocupan en convencer a los consumidores de que no pueden vivir sin el producto o tratamiento ofrecido por la institución. Las instituciones del ala izquierda tienden a redes que facilitan la composición o cooperación iniciada por el cliente. + +Las instituciones manipulativas de la derecha son formadoras de hábito, “adictivas”, social y psicológicamente. La adicción social, o escalada, consiste en la tendencia a prescribir un tratamiento intensificado si dosis menores no han rendido los resultados deseados. La adicción psicológica, o habituamiento, se produce cuando los consumidores se envician con la necesidad de una cantidad cada vez mayor del proceso o del producto. Las instituciones de la izquierda que uno mismo pone en actividad tienden a autolimitarse. Al revés de los procesos de producción que identifican la satisfacción con el mero acto del consumo, estas redes sirven a un objetivo que va más allá de su uso repetido. Una persona levanta el teléfono cuando quiere decir algo a otra, y cuelga una vez terminada la comunicación deseada. A excepción hecha de los adolescentes, no usa el teléfono por el puro placer de hablar ante el receptor. Si el teléfono no es el mejor modo de ponerse en comunicación, las personas escribirán una carta o harán un viaje. Las instituciones de la derecha, como podemos ver claramente en el caso de las escuelas, invitan compulsivamente al uso repetitivo y frustran las maneras alternativas de lograr resultados similares. + +Hacia la izquierda del espectro institucional, pero no en el extremo mismo, podemos colocar a las empresas que compiten entre sí en la actividad que les es propia, pero que no han empezado a ocupar la publicidad de manera notable. Encontramos aquí las lavanderías manuales, las pequeñas panaderías, los peluqueros y, para hablar de profesionales, algunos abogados y profesores de música. Son por consiguiente característicamente del ala izquierda las personas que han institucionalizado sus servicios, pero no su publicidad. Consiguen clientes mediante su contacto personal y la calidad relativa de sus servicios. + +Los hoteles y las cafeterías se acercan algo más al centro. Las grandes cadenas hoteleras como la Hilton que gastan inmensas cantidades en vender su imagen, a menudo se comportan como si estuvieran dirigiendo instituciones de la derecha. No obstante, las empresas Hilton y Sheraton no ofrecen nada más —de hecho dan frecuentemente menos— que alojamientos de precio similar y dirigidos independientemente. En lo esencial, un letrero de hotel atrae al viajero como lo hace un signo caminero. Dice más bien: “Detente, aquí hay una cama para ti”, y no: “¡Deberías preferir una cama de hotel a una banca en el parque!” + +Los productores de artículos de primera necesidad y de la mayoría de los bienes efímeros pertenecen a la parte central de nuestro espectro. Satisfacen demandas genéricas y agregan al costo de producción y distribución todo lo que el mercado soporte en costos publicitarios, en anuncios y envases. Cuanto más básico sea el producto —trátese de bienes o de servicios— tanto más tiende la competencia a limitar el costo de venta del artículo. + +La mayoría de los fabricantes de bienes de consumo se han ido mucho más a la derecha. Tanto directa como indirectamente, producen demandas de accesorios que hinchan el precio real de compra muy por encima del coste de producción. La General Motors y la Ford producen medios de transporte, pero también, y esto es más importante, manipulan el gusto del público de manera tal que la necesidad de transporte se expresa como una demanda de coches privados y no de autobuses públicos. Venden el deseo de controlar una máquina, correr a grandes velocidades con lujosa comodidad, al tiempo que ofrecen el espejismo de la evasión. Pero lo que venden no es tan sólo un asunto de motores inútilmente poderosos, de artilugios superfluos o de suplementos nuevos que los fabricantes han tenido que agregar obligados por Ralph Nader y los grupos que presionan en pro de un aire limpio. La lista de precios incluye dispositivos anticontaminantes, cinturones de seguridad, climatización; pero también comprende otros costes que no se le declaran abiertamente al conductor: los gastos de publicidad y de ventas de la empresa, el combustible, el mantenimiento y las refacciones, el seguro, el interés sobre el crédito, como también costes menos tangibles, como la pérdida de tiempo, el buen humor y el aire respirable en nuestras congestionadas ciudades. + +Un corolario particularmente interesante de nuestro examen de instituciones socialmente útiles es el sistema de carreteras “públicas”. Este importante elemento del coste total de los automóviles merece un análisis más dilatado, pues conduce directamente a la institución derechista en la que estoy más interesado, a saber, la escuela. + + +### Falsos servicios de utilidad pública + +El sistema de carreteras es una red para la locomoción a través de distancias relativamente grandes. En su condición de red, parecería corresponderle estar a la izquierda en el espectro institucional. Pero en este caso debemos hacer una distinción que esclarecerá tanto la naturaleza de las carreteras como la naturaleza de los verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Los caminos que son genuinamente para todos, son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública. Las supercarreteras son cotos privados, cuyo coste se le encaja parcialmente al público. + +Los sistemas de teléfonos, correos y caminos son redes, y ninguno es gratis. El acceso a la red de teléfonos está limitado por cobros sobre tiempo ocupado en cada llamada. Estas tarifas son relativamente bajas y podrían reducirse sin cambiar la naturaleza del sistema. El uso del sistema telefónico no está en absoluto limitado por lo que se transmita, aunque lo emplean mejor quienes pueden hablar frases coherentes en el lenguaje del interlocutor, una capacidad que poseen todos los que desean usar la red. El franqueo suele ser barato. El uso del sistema postal se ve ligeramente limitado por el precio de la pluma y el papel, y algo más por la capacidad de escribir. Aún así, cuando alguien que no sabe escribir tiene un pariente o un amigo a quien pueda dictarle una carta, el sistema postal está a su disposición, tal como lo está si quiere despachar una cinta grabada. + +El sistema de carreteras no llega a estar disponible de manera similar para alguien que tan sólo aprenda a conducir. Las redes telefónica y postal existen para servir a quienes deseen usarlas, mientras el sistema de carreteras sirve principalmente como accesorio del automóvil privado. Las primeras son verdaderos servicios de utilidad pública, mientras el último es un servicio público para los dueños de coches, camiones y autobuses. Los servicios de utilidad pública existen en pro de la comunicación entre los hombres: las carreteras, como otras instituciones de la derecha, existen en pro de un producto. Tal como hicimos notar, los fabricantes de automóviles _producen_ simultáneamente tanto los coches como la demanda de coches. Asimismo _producen_ la demanda de carreteras de varias vías, puentes y campos petrolíferos. El coche privado es el foco de una constelación de instituciones del ala derecha. El elevado coste de cada elemento lo dicta la complicación del producto básico, y vender el producto básico es enviciar a la sociedad en el paquete conjunto. + +Planificar un sistema vial como un verdadero servicio de utilidad pública discriminaría a aquellos para quienes la velocidad y el confort individualizado son los valores primarios de transporte, y favorecería a aquellos que valoran la fluidez y el lugar de destino. Es la diferencia entre una red extendidísima con acceso máximo para los viajeros y otra que ofrezca sólo un acceso privilegiado a una zona restringida. + +La transferencia de una institución moderna a las naciones en desarrollo permite probar esto con mejor claridad. En los países muy pobres, los caminos suelen ser apenas lo bastante buenos como para permitir el tránsito mediante camiones especiales de eje elevado, cargados de víveres, reses o personas. Este tipo de país debería usar sus limitados recursos para construir una telaraña de pistas que llegaran a todas sus regiones y debería restringir la importancia de vehículos a dos o tres modelos diferentes muy duraderos que puedan transitar por malos caminos a baja velocidad. Esto simplificaría el mantenimiento continuo de estos vehículos y proporcionaría una máxima fluidez y elección de puntos de destino a todos los ciudadanos. Esto exigiría proyectar vehículos para todo servicio con la simplicidad del Ford T, utilizando las aleaciones más modernas para garantizar su durabilidad, con un límite de velocidad incorporado de unos 25 kilómetros por hora a lo más, y lo bastante firme como para rodar por el terreno más áspero. No se ofrecen estos vehículos en el mercado porque no hay demanda de ellos. De hecho sería preciso cultivar esa demanda, muy posiblemente al amparo de una legislación estricta. Actualmente, cada vez que una demanda de esta especie se hace sentir un poco, se le descarta rápida y desdeñosamente mediante una publicidad contraria, encaminada a la venta universal de las máquinas que extraen hoy de los contribuyentes estadunidenses el dinero necesario para construir supercarreteras. + +Para “mejorar” el transporte, todos los países, hasta los más pobres, proyectan ahora sistemas viales concebidos para coches de pasajeros y remolques de alta velocidad que se ajustan a la minoría, pendiente del velocímetro, compuesta por productores y consumidores en las clases selectas. Este planteamiento a menudo se justifica racionalmente pintándolo como un ahorro del recurso más precioso de un país pobre: el tiempo del médico, del inspector escolar o del funcionario público. Estos hombres, naturalmente, sirven casi exclusivamente a la misma gente que posee un coche o espera tenerlo algún día. Los impuestos locales y las escasas divisas se derrochan en _falsos servicios de utilidad pública_. + +La tecnología “moderna” transferida a los países pobres puede dividirse en tres categorías: bienes, fábricas que los hacen e instituciones de servicios —principalmente escuelas— que convierten a los hombres en productores y consumidores modernos. La mayor parte de los países gastan la mayor proporción de su presupuesto, y con mucho, en escuelas. Los graduados fabricados con escuelas crean entonces una demanda de otros servicios conspicuos de utilidad pública, tales como potencia industrial, carreteras pavimentadas, hospitales modernos y aeropuertos, y éstos crean a su vez un mercado para los bienes hechos para países ricos y, al cabo de un tiempo, la tendencia a importar fábricas anticuadas para producirlos. + +De todos los “falsos servicios de utilidad pública”, la escuela es el más insidioso. Los sistemas de carreteras producen sólo demanda de coches. Las escuelas crean una demanda para el conjunto completo de instituciones modernas que llenan el extremo derecho del espectro. A un hombre que pusiera en duda la necesidad de carreteras se le tacharía de romántico; al que ponga en tela de juicio la necesidad de escuelas se le ataca de inmediato: un ser sin entrañas o un imperialista. + + +### Las escuelas como falsos servicios de utilidad pública + +Al igual que las carreteras, las escuelas dan a primera vista la impresión de estar igualmente abiertas para todos los interesados. De hecho están abiertas sólo para quienes renueven sin cejar sus credenciales. Así como las carreteras crean la impresión de que su nivel actual de costes anuales es necesario para que la gente pueda moverse, así se supone que las escuelas son indispensables para alcanzar la competencia que exige una sociedad que use la tecnología moderna. Hemos expuesto las autopistas como servicios de utilidad pública espurios observando cómo dependen de los automóviles privados. Las escuelas se fundan en la hipótesis igualmente espuria de que el aprendizaje es el resultado de la enseñanza curricular. + +Las carreteras son las consecuencias del deseo y la necesidad de movilizarse que se pervierten para convertirlos en demanda de coches privados. Las escuelas pervierten la natural inclinación a desarrollarse y aprender convirtiéndola en demanda de instrucción. La demanda de una madurez manufacturada es mucho más la abnegación de la actividad iniciada por uno mismo que la demanda de bienes manufacturados. Las escuelas no sólo están a la derecha de las carreteras y los coches, tienen su lugar cerca del extremo del espectro institucional ocupado por los asilos totales. Incluso los productores de recuentos de cuerpos matan solamente cuerpos. Al hacer que los hombres abdiquen de la responsabilidad de su propio desarrollo, la escuela conduce a muchos a una especie de suicidio espiritual. + +Las carreteras las pagan en parte quienes las utilizan, puesto que los peajes e impuestos al combustible se obtienen sólo de los conductores. La escuela, en cambio, es un sistema perfecto de tributación regresiva, en el que los privilegios cabalgan sobre el lomo de todo público pagador. La escuela fija un gravamen por cabeza sobre la promoción. El subconsumo de distancias recorridas por carretera no es nunca tan costoso como el subconsumo de escolarización. El hombre que no posea un coche en Los Ángeles posiblemente esté casi inmovilizado, pero si se ingenia de algún modo para llegar a su lugar de trabajo, podrá conseguir y conservar un empleo. El desertor escolar carece de vía alternativa. El habitante suburbano en su Lincoln nuevo y su primo campesino que conduce una vieja carcacha se aprovechan más o menos igual de la carretera, aunque el vehículo del uno cueste 30 veces más que el del otro. El valor de la escolarización de un hombre es función del número de años que ha permanecido en escuelas y de la carestía de éstas. La ley no obliga a conducir, en cambio obliga a ir a la escuela. + +El análisis de las instituciones según su actual emplazamiento en un espectro continuo izquierda-derecha me permite esclarecer mi convicción de que el cambio social fundamental debe comenzar con un cambio en la conciencia que se tiene de las instituciones y explicar por qué la dimensión de un futuro viable recae en el rejuvenecimiento del estilo institucional. + +Durante la década 1960-1970, unas instituciones, nacidas en diversas épocas después de la Revolución francesa, llegaron a su vejez; los sistemas de escuelas públicas fundados en la época de Jefferson o de Atatürk, junto con otros que se iniciaron después de la segunda Guerra Mundial, se hicieron todos burocráticos, autojustificantes y manipulativos. Lo mismo les ocurrió a los sistemas de seguridad social, a los sindicatos, a las principales Iglesias y cuerpos diplomáticos, a la atención de los ancianos y a los servicios funerarios. + +Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay un mayor parecido ente los sistemas escolares de Colombia, Inglaterra, la Unión Soviética y Estados Unidos, que entre las escuelas de este último de fines del siglo pasado y las de hoy o las de Rusia en ese tiempo. Las escuelas son hoy obligatorias, sin término definido y competitivo. Esa misma convergencia en el estilo institucional afecta la atención médica, la comercialización, la administración de personal y la vida política. Todos estos procesos institucionales tienden a apilarse en el extremo manipulativo del espectro. + +La consecuencia de esta convergencia de instituciones es la fusión de burocracias mundiales. El estilo, el sistema de ordenamiento jerárquico y la parafernalia (desde el libro de texto a la computadora) se normalizan en los consejos de planificación de Costa Rica o de Afganistán, según los modelos de Europa occidental. + +Las burocracias parecen centrarse en todas partes en la misma tarea: promover el crecimiento de las instituciones de la derecha. Se ocupan de la fabricación de cosas, la fabricación de normas rituales y la fabricación —y remodelación— de la “verdad ejecutiva”, la ideología o el _fiat_ que establece el valor presente que debiera atribuirse a lo que ellas producen. La tecnología proporciona a estas burocracias un poder creciente a la mano derecha de la sociedad. La mano izquierda parece marchitarse y no porque la tecnología sea menos capaz de aumentar el ámbito de la actividad humana y de proporcionar tiempo para el despliegue de la imaginación individual y para la creatividad personal, sino porque ese uso de la tecnología no aumenta el poder de la élite que la administra. El director de correos no tiene control sobre el uso esencial de ese servicio; la telefonista o el directivo de la compañía telefónica carecen de poder para impedir que se preparen adulterios, asesinatos o subversiones usando sus líneas. + +En la elección entre la derecha y la izquierda institucional está en juego la naturaleza misma de la vida humana. El hombre debe elegir entre ser rico en cosas o tener libertad para usarlas. Debe elegir entre estilos alternativos de vida y programas conexos de producción. + +Aristóteles ya había descubierto que “hacer y actuar” son diferentes, y de hecho tan diferentes que lo uno jamás incluye lo otro. “Porque ni es el actuar una manera de hacer, ni el hacer una manera del verdadero actuar. La arquitectura _techne_ es una manera de hacer… dar nacimiento a algo cuyo origen está en su hacedor y no en la cosa. El hacer siempre tiene una finalidad que no es él mismo, y no así la acción, puesto que la buena acción es en sí misma un fin. La perfección en el hacer es un arte; la perfección en el actuar, una virtud.”[^n11] La palabra que Aristóteles usó para hacer fue _poesis_ , y la que usó para actuar, _praxis_. El movimiento hacia la derecha de una institución indica que se la está reestructurando para aumentar su capacidad de “hacer”, mientras que si se desplaza hacia la izquierda indica que se la está reestructurando para permitir un mayor “actuar” o “praxis”. La tecnología moderna ha aumentado la capacidad del hombre para dejar a las máquinas el “hacer” cosas y ha aumentado el tiempo que puede dedicar a “actuar”. El “hacer” las cosas cotidianas imprescindibles ha dejado de ocupar su tiempo. El desempleo es la consecuencia de esta modernización: es la ociosidad del hombre para quien no hay nada que “hacer” y que no sabe cómo “actuar”. El desempleo es la triste ociosidad del hombre que, al revés de Aristóteles, cree que hacer cosas o trabajar es virtuoso y que la ociosidad es mala. El desempleo es la experiencia del hombre que ha sucumbido a la ética protestante. Según Weber, el hombre necesita el ocio para poder trabajar. Según Aristóteles, el trabajo es necesario para poder tener ocio. + +La tecnología proporciona al hombre tiempo discrecional que puede llenar ya sea haciendo, ya sea actuando. Toda nuestra cultura tiene abierta ahora la opción entre un triste desempleo o un ocio feliz. Depende del estilo institucional que la cultura elija. Esta elección habría sido inconcebible en una cultura antigua fundada en la agricultura campesina o en la esclavitud. Ha llegado a ser inevitable para el hombre posindustrial. + +Una manera de llenar el tiempo disponible es estimular mayores demandas de consumo de bienes y, simultáneamente, de producción de servicios. Lo primero implica una economía que proporciona una falange cada vez mayor de cosas siempre novedosas que pueden hacerse, consumirse y someterse a reciclaje. Lo segundo implica el vano intento de “hacer” acciones virtuosas, haciendo aparecer como tales los productos de las instituciones de “servicios”. Esto conduce a la identificación de la escolaridad con la educación, del servicio médico con la salud, de los programas con la recreación, de la velocidad con la locomoción eficaz. La primera opción lleva ahora el apodo de _desarrollo._ + +La manera radicalmente alternativa de llenar el tiempo disponible consiste en una gama limitada de bienes más durables y en proporcionar acceso a instituciones que puedan aumentar la oportunidad y apetencia de las acciones humanas recíprocas. + +Una economía de bienes duraderos es exactamente lo contrario de una economía fundada en la obsolescencia programada. Una economía de bienes duraderos significa una restricción en la lista de mercancías. Los bienes habrían de ser de tal especie que diesen un máximo de oportunidad para “actuar” en algo con ellos: artículos hechos para montarlos uno mismo, para autoayudarse, para su reempleo y reparación. + +El complemento de una lista de bienes durables, reparables y reutilizables no es un aumento de servicios producidos institucionalmente, sino más bien una estructura institucional que eduque constantemente en la acción, en la participación, en la autoayuda. El movimiento de nuestra sociedad desde el presente —en el que todas las instituciones gravitan hacia una burocracia posindustrial— a un futuro de convivencialidad posindustrial —en el que la intensidad de la acción sería preponderante sobre la producción— debe comenzar con una renovación del estilo de las instituciones de servicio y, antes que nada, por una renovación de la educación. Un futuro deseable y factible depende de nuestra disposición a invertir nuestro saber tecnológico en el desarrollo de instituciones convivenciales. En el terreno de las investigaciones sobre educación, esto equivale a exigir que se trastroquen las tendencias actuales. + +## Compatibilidades irracionales + +[^n12] Creo que la crisis contemporánea de la educación nos obliga más bien a modificar la idea de un aprendizaje públicamente prescrito y no los métodos usados para hacerlo cumplir. La proporción de desertores —especialmente de alumnos de los primeros años de bachillerato y de maestros de primaria— señala que las bases están pidiendo un enfoque totalmente nuevo. Al “practicante del aula” que se estima un profesor liberal se le ataca cada vez más por todos lados. El movimiento pro escuela libre, que confunde disciplina con adoctrinamiento, le ha adjudicado el papel de elemento destructivo y autoritario. El tecnólogo educativo demuestra sostenidamente la inferioridad del profesor para medir y modificar la conducta. Y la administración escolar para la que trabaja lo obliga a inclinarse tanto ante Summerhill como ante Skinner, poniendo en evidencia que el aprendizaje obligatorio no puede ser una empresa liberal. No debe asombrar que el índice de maestros desertores esté superando el de los alumnos. + +El compromiso que Estados Unidos ha contraído de educar obligatoriamente a sus menores se demuestra tan vano como el pretendido compromiso norteamericano de democratizar obligatoriamente a los vietnamitas. Las escuelas convencionales obviamente no pueden hacerlo. El movimiento pro escuela libre seduce a los educadores no convencionales, pero en definitiva lo hace en apoyo de la ideología convencional de la escolarización. Y lo que prometen los tecnólogos de la educación, a saber, que sus investigaciones y desarrollo —si se les dota de fondos suficientes— pueden ofrecer alguna especie de solución final a la resistencia de la juventud contra el aprendizaje obligatorio, suena tan confiado y demuestra ser tan fatuo como las promesas hechas por los tecnólogos militares. + +Las críticas dirigidas contra el sistema escolar estadunidense por parte de los conductistas, y las que provienen de la nueva raza de educadores raciales, parecen diametralmente opuestas. Los conductistas aplican las investigaciones sobre educación a la “inducción de instrucción autotélica mediante paquetes de aprendizaje individualizados”. El estilo conductista choca con la idea de hacer que los jóvenes ingresen por voluntad propia en unas comunas liberadas que les invitan a ingresar, las cuales estarían supervisadas por adultos. No obstante, bajo una perspectiva histórica, ambas no son sino manifestaciones contemporáneas de las metas, aparentemente contradictorias, pero en verdad complementarias, del sistema escolar público. Desde los comienzos de este siglo, las escuelas han sido protagonistas del control social por una parte y de la cooperación libre por la otra, poniéndose ambos aspectos al servicio de la “buena sociedad” a la que se concibe como una estructura corporativa altamente organizada y de suave funcionamiento. Sometidos al impacto de una urbanización intensa, los niños se convierten en un recurso natural que las escuelas han de moldear para luego alimentar la máquina industrial. Las políticas progresistas y el culto a la eficiencia coincidieron con el crecimiento de la escuela pública estadunidense.[^n13] La orientación vocacional y la _junior highschool_[^n14] fueron dos importantes resultados de este tipo de conceptos. + +Parece, por consiguiente, que el intento de producir cambios específicos en el comportamiento, que puedan medirse y de los que pueda responsabilizarse al encargado del proceso, es sólo el anverso de la medalla, cuyo reverso es la pacificación de la nueva generación dentro de enclaves especialmente proyectados que los inducirán a entrar en el sueño de sus mayores. Estos seres pacificados en sociedad están bien descritos por Dewey, quien quiere que “hagamos de cada una de nuestras escuelas una vida comunitaria en embrión, activa, con tipos de ocupaciones que reflejen la vida de la sociedad en pleno, y la _impregnen_ con el espíritu del arte, de la historia, de la ciencia”. Bajo esta perspectiva histórica, sería un grave error interpretar la actual controversia a tres bandas entre el establecimiento escolar, los tecnólogos de la educación y las escuelas libres como el preludio de una revolución en la educación. Esta controversia refleja más bien una etapa de un intento para convertir a grandes trancos un viejo sueño en hecho y convertir finalmente todo aprendizaje valedero en el resultado de una enseñanza profesional. La mayoría de las alternativas educativas propuestas convergen hacia metas que son inmanentes a la producción del hombre cooperativo cuyas necesidades individuales se satisfacen mediante su especialización en el sistema estadunidense: están orientadas hacia el mejoramiento de lo que yo llamo —a falta de una mejor expresión— la sociedad escolarizada. Incluso los críticos aparentemente radicales del sistema escolar no están dispuestos a abandonar la idea de que tienen una obligación para con los jóvenes, especialmente para con los pobres, la obligación de hacerlos pasar por el proceso, sea mediante amor o mediante odio, para meterlos en una sociedad que necesita especialización disciplinada tanto de sus productores como de sus consumidores y, asimismo, el pleno compromiso de todos ellos con la ideología que antepone a todo el crecimiento económico. + +La disensión enmascara la contradicción inherente a la idea misma de escuela. Los sindicatos establecidos de profesores, los brujos de la tecnología y los movimientos de liberación escolar refuerzan el compromiso de la sociedad entera con los axiomas fundamentales de un mundo escolarizado, más o menos del modo en que muchos movimientos pacifistas y de protesta refuerzan el compromiso de sus miembros —sean negros, mujeres, jóvenes o pobres— con la búsqueda de justicia mediante el crecimiento del ingreso nacional bruto. + +Es fácil anotar algunos de los postulados que ahora pasan inadvertidos a la crítica. En primer lugar está la creencia compartida de que la conducta que se ha adquirido ante los ojos de un pedagogo es de especial valor para el alumno y de especial provecho para la sociedad. Esto está relacionado con el supuesto de que el hombre social nace sólo en la adolescencia, y que nace adecuadamente sólo si madura en la escuela-matriz, que algunos desean hacer dulce mediante el _laissez-faire,_[^n15] otros quieren llenar de artilugios mecánicos y unos terceros buscan barnizar con una tradición liberal. Está finalmente una visión común de la juventud, psicológicamente romántica y políticamente conservadora. Según esta visión, los cambios de la sociedad deben llevarse a cabo agobiando a los jóvenes con la responsabilidad de transformarla —pero sólo después de que en su momento se han liberado de la escuela—. Para una sociedad fundada en tales postulados es fácil ir creando un sentido de su responsabilidad respecto de la educación de la nueva generación, y esto inevitablemente significa que algunos hombres pueden fijar, especificar y evaluar las metas personales de otros. En un “párrafo tomado de una enciclopedia china imaginaria” Jorge Luis Borges trata de evocar el mareo que debe producir ese intento. Nos dice que los animales están divididos en las clases siguientes: “ _a)_ pertenecientes al Emperador, _b)_ embalsamados, _c)_ amaestrados, _d)_ lechones, _e)_ sirenas, _f)_ fabulosos, _g)_ perros sueltos, _h)_ incluidos en esta clasificación, _i)_ que se agitan como locos, _j)_ innumerables, _k)_ dibujados con un pincel finísimo de pelo de camello, _l)_ etcétera, _m)_ que acaban de romper el jarrón, _n)_ que de lejos parecen moscas”. Ahora bien, semejante taxonomía no aparece a menos que alguien estime que puede servir para sus fines: en este caso, supongo, ese alguien era un cobrador de impuestos. Para él, al menos, esta taxonomía bestiaria _tiene_ que haber tenido sentido, tal como la taxonomía de objetivos educativos tiene sentido para los autores científicos. + +La visión de hombres dotados de una lógica tan inescrutable, y autorizados para evaluar su ganado, debe haber producido en el campesino un helado sentimiento de impotencia. Los estudiantes, por motivos parecidos, tienden a sentirse paranoicos cuando se someten seriamente a un currículum. Inevitablemente se asustan aún más que mi imaginario campesino chino, porque no es su ganado, sino sus objetivos vitales los que están siendo marcados con un signo inescrutable. + +Este pasaje de Borges es fascinante, porque evoca la lógica de la _compatibilidad irracional_ que hace a las burocracias de Kafka y de Koestler tan siniestras y no obstante tan evocadoras de la vida cotidiana. El encadenamiento implacable de las reglas parece embrujar a quienes se vuelven cómplices de ellas y los empuja a hacer prueba de una disciplina todavía más ciega. Es la lógica creada por la conducta burocrática. Y se convierte en la lógica de una sociedad que exige que a los administradores de sus instituciones educativas se les considere públicamente responsables de la modificación del comportamiento que producen en sus clientes. Los estudiantes a los que se puede motivar para valorar los paquetes educativos que sus profesores les obligan a consumir son comparables a los campesinos chinos que pueden ajustar sus rebaños al formulario de impuestos que ofrece Borges. + +Durante el transcurso de las dos últimas generaciones triunfó en algún momento en la cultura norteamericana un compromiso con la terapia, y vino a considerarse a los profesores como los terapeutas cuyas recetas todos los hombres necesitan, si es que desean gozar de la libertad y la igualdad con las cuales, según la Constitución, han nacido. + +Ahora los profesores-terapeutas siguen adelante al proponer como paso siguiente el tratamiento educativo vitalicio. El _estudio_ de este tratamiento está sujeto a discusión: ¿debiera adoptar la forma de una asistencia constante de los adultos al aula? ¿O la de éxtasis electrónico? ¿O de sesiones periódicas de sensibilización? Todos los educadores están prontos a conspirar para extender los muros del aula y agrandarla, con la meta de transformar la cultura completa en una escuela. + +Detrás de la retórica y del alboroto, la controversia sobre el futuro de la educación que tiene lugar en Estados Unidos es más conservadora que el debate en otros ámbitos de la política común. Respecto de las relaciones exteriores, por lo menos, una minoría organizada nos recuerda constantemente que el país debe renunciar a su papel de policía del mundo. Los economistas radicales, y ahora incluso sus profesores, menos radicales, ponen en duda la convivencia del crecimiento conjunto como meta. Hay grupos de presión para favorecer la medicina preventiva y no la curativa y otros propugnan por la fluidez en vez de la velocidad en el transporte. Sólo en el ámbito de la educación permanecen dispersas las voces articuladas que piden una desescolarización radical de la sociedad. Existe una carencia de argumentación persuasiva y de un liderazgo maduro encaminados a quitar el apoyo oficial a todas y cada una de las instituciones que tienen por fin el _aprendizaje_ obligatorio. Por el momento, la desescolarización radical de la sociedad es todavía una causa sin partido. Esto sorprende especialmente en un periodo de resistencia creciente, aunque caótica, a todas las formas de instrucción planificada institucionalmente, por parte de los jóvenes de 12 a 17 años. + +Los innovadores educativos siguen suponiendo que las instituciones educativas funcionan como embudos para los programas que ellos envasan. Para los fines de mi argumento da lo mismo que estos embudos tengan la forma de un aula, de un transmisor de televisión o de una “zona liberada”. Es igualmente ajeno al asunto si los envases suministrados son ricos o pobres, calientes o fríos, duros y mensurables (como Matemáticas III) o imposibles de evaluar (como la sensibilización). Lo que interesa es que se suponga que la educación es el resultado de un proceso institucional dirigido por el educador. Mientras las relaciones continúen siendo aquellas que existen entre un proveedor y un consumidor, el trabajo de investigación sobre educación continuará siendo un proceso circular. Acumulará pruebas científicas en apoyo de la necesidad de más paquetes educativos y del perfeccionamiento de los métodos de entrega, tal como cierta rama de las ciencias sociales puede probar la necesidad de acrecentar la distribución de los productos de la institución militar. + +Una revolución educativa se apoya en una doble inversión: una nueva orientación del trabajo de investigación y una nueva comprensión del estilo educativo de una contracultura emergente. + +La investigación operativa trata ahora de optimizar la eficiencia de una estructura heredada —un marco de referencia que jamás se pone en tela de juicio—. Este marco de referencia tiene la estructura sintáctica de un embudo para paquetes de enseñanza. La alternativa sintáctica respecto del mismo es una red o trama educativa para el montaje autónomo de recursos bajo el control personal de cada aprendiz. Esta estructura alternativa de una institución educativa yace ahora en el punto ciego conceptual de nuestra investigación operativa. Si la investigación se enfocara en él, ello constituiría una auténtica revolución científica. + +El punto ciego de los trabajos de investigación en educación refleja la parcialidad cultural de una sociedad en la que el crecimiento tecnológico se ha confundido con el control tecnocrático. Para el tecnócrata, el valor de un entorno aumenta conforme pueda programarse un mayor número de contactos entre un hombre y su medio ambiente. Es este mundo, las elecciones abiertas para el observador o el planificador deben estar acordes con los deseos de quienes están sometidos a una observación y a quienes se denomina los “beneficiarios”. La libertad se reduce a la elección entre unas mercancías envasadas. + +La contracultura emergente afirma los valores del contenido semántico por encima de la eficiencia de una sintaxis mayor y más rígida. Valora la riqueza de la connotación por encima del poder de la sintaxis para producir riquezas. Valora la consecuencia imprevisible de la instrucción profesional. Esta reorientación hacia la sorpresa personal, y no hacia los valores producidos por la institución, es capaz de perturbar el orden establecido hasta que podamos separar la creciente disponibilidad de las herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan el encuentro del creciente control del tecnócrata sobre lo que ocurre cuando la gente se reúne. + +Nuestras actuales instituciones educativas están al servicio de las metas del profesor. Las estructuras de relación que necesitamos son las que permitan a cada hombre definirse él mismo aprendiendo y contribuyendo al aprendizaje de otros. + +## Tramas del aprendizaje + +En un capítulo anterior examiné aquello que se está convirtiendo en una queja común acerca de las escuelas una queja que se hace sentir por ejemplo, en un informe reciente de la Carnegie Commission: en las escuelas los alumnos matriculados se someten ante maestros diplomados a fin de obtener sus propios diplomas; ambos quedan frustrados y ambos culpan a los recursos insuficientes —dinero, tiempo o edificios— de su mutua frustración. + +Una crítica semejante conduce a muchos a pensar si no será posible concebir un estilo diferente de aprendizaje. Paradójicamente, si a esas mismas personas se les insta a especificar cómo adquirieron lo que saben y estiman, admitirán prontamente que con mayor frecuencia lo aprendieron fuera y no dentro de la escuela. Su conocimiento de hechos, lo que entienden de la vida y de su trabajo les vino de la amistad o del amor, de leer, del ejemplo de sus iguales o de la incitación de un encuentro callejero. O tal vez aprendieron lo que saben por medio del ritual de iniciación de una pandilla callejera, de un hospital, de la redacción de un periódico, de un taller de fontanería o de una oficina de seguros. La alternativa a la dependencia respecto de las escuelas no es el uso de recursos públicos para algún nuevo dispositivo que “haga” aprender a la gente; es más bien la creación de un nuevo estilo de relación educativa entre el hombre y su medio. Para propiciar este estilo será necesaria una modificación de la idea que nos hacemos del crecimiento, de los útiles necesarios para aprender y de la calidad y estructura de la vida cotidiana. + +Las actitudes ya están cambiando. Ha desaparecido la orgullosa dependencia respecto de la escuela. En la industria del conocimiento se acrecienta la resistencia del consumidor. Muchos profesores y alumnos, contribuyentes y patronos, economistas y policías, preferirían no seguir dependiendo de las escuelas. Lo que impide que su frustración dé forma a otras instituciones es una carencia no sólo de imaginación, sino también, con frecuencia, de un lenguaje apropiado y de un interés personal ilustrado. No pueden visualizar ya sea una sociedad desescolarizada, ya sean unas instituciones educativas en una sociedad que haya privado de apoyo oficial a la escuela. + +En este capítulo me propongo mostrar que lo contrario de la escuela es posible: que podemos apoyarnos en el aprendizaje automotivado en vez de contratar profesores para sobornar u obligar al estudiante a hallar el tiempo y la voluntad de aprender, que podemos proporcionar al aprendiz nuevos vínculos con el mundo en vez de continuar canalizando todos los programas educativos por medio del profesor. Examinaré algunas de las características que distinguen la escolarización del aprendizaje y esbozaré cuatro categorías principales de instituciones que serían atractivas no sólo para muchas personas, sino también para muchos grupos de intereses comunes. + + +### Una objeción a quién pueden servirle unos puentes hacia la nada + +Estamos acostumbrados a considerar las escuelas como una variable que depende de la estructura política y económica. Si podemos cambiar el estilo de la dirección política o promover los intereses de una clase u otra, suponemos que el sistema escolar cambiará también. En cambio, las instituciones educativas que propondré están ideadas para servir a una sociedad que no existe ahora, aunque la actual frustración respecto de las escuelas tiene en sí el potencial de una fuerza importante para poner en movimiento un cambio hacia nuevas configuraciones sociales. Contra este planteamiento se ha suscitado una objeción de peso: ¿por qué canalizar energías para construir puentes hacia ninguna parte, en vez de organizarlas primero para cambiar no las escuelas, sino el sistema político y económico? + +No obstante, esta objeción subestima la naturaleza política y económica del sistema escolar en sí, así como el potencial político inherente a cualquier oposición eficaz a ella. + +En un sentido fundamental, las escuelas han dejado de ser dependientes de la ideología profesada por cualquier gobierno u organización de mercados. Otras instituciones pueden diferir de un país a otro: la familia, el partido, la Iglesia, la prensa. Pero el sistema escolar tiene por doquier la misma estructura, y en todas partes el currículum oculto tiene el mismo efecto. De modo invariable, modela al consumidor que valora los bienes institucionales sobre los servicios no profesionales de un prójimo. + +El currículum oculto de la escolarización inicia en todas partes al ciudadano en el mito de que algunas burocracias guiadas por el conocimiento científico son eficientes y benevolentes. Por doquiera, este mismo currículum inculca en el alumno el mito de que la mayor producción proporcionará una vida mejor. Y por doquiera crea el hábito —que se contradice a sí mismo— de consumo de servicios y de producción enajenante, la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional y el reconocimiento de los escalafones institucionales. El currículum oculto sustenta la tolerancia ante la dependencia institucional, el reconocimiento por los profesores y cualquiera que sea la ideología preponderante. + +En otras palabras, las escuelas son fundamentalmente semejantes en todos los países, sean éstos fascistas, democráticos o socialistas, grandes o pequeños, ricos o pobres. La identidad del sistema escolar nos obliga a reconocer la profunda identidad en todo el mundo, del mito, del modo de producción y del método de control social, pese a la gran variedad de mitologías en las cuales encuentra expresión el mito. + +En vista de esta identidad, es ilusorio pretender que las escuelas son, en algún sentido profundo, unas variables dependientes. Esto significa que esperar un cambio social o económico concebido convencionalmente, es también una ilusión. Más aún, esta ilusión concede a la escuela —el órgano de reproducción de la sociedad de consumo— una inmunidad casi indiscutida. + +Al llegar a este punto es cuando adquiere importancia el ejemplo de China. Durante tres milenios, China protegió el aprendizaje superior por medio de un divorcio total entre el proceso del aprendizaje y el privilegio conferido por los exámenes para optar a altos cargos públicos. Para llegar a ser una potencia mundial y una nación-Estado moderno, China tuvo que adoptar el estilo internacional de escolarización. Sólo una mirada retrospectiva nos permitirá descubrir si la Gran Revolución Cultural resultará haber sido el primer intento logrado de desescolarizar las instituciones de la sociedad. + +Incluso la creación a retazos de nuevos organismos educativos que fuesen lo inverso de la escuela sería un ataque sobre el eslabón más sensible de un fenómeno ubicuo, el cual es organizado por el Estado en todos los países. Un programa político que no reconozca explícitamente la necesidad de la desescolarización no es revolucionario; es demagogia que pide más de lo mismo. Todo programa político importante de esta década debiera medirse con este rasero: ¿hasta dónde es claro afirmar la necesidad de la desescolarización —y qué directrices ofrece para asignar la calidad educativa de la sociedad hacia la cual se encamina—? + +La lucha contra el dominio que ejercen el mercado mundial y la política de las grandes potencias puede estar fuera del alcance de ciertas comunidades o países pobres, pero esta debilidad es una razón más para hacer hincapié en la importancia que tiene liberar a cada sociedad mediante una inversión de su estructura educativa, cambio este que no está más allá de los medios de ninguna sociedad. + + +### Características generales de unas nuevas instituciones educativas formales + +Un buen sistema educativo debería tener tres objetivos: proporcionar a todos aquellos que lo quieren el acceso a recursos disponibles en cualquier momento de sus vidas; dotar a todos los que quieran compartir lo que saben del poder de encontrar a quienes quieran aprender de ellos, y, finalmente, dar a todo aquel que quiera presentar al público un tema de debate la oportunidad de dar a conocer su argumento. Un sistema como éste exigiría que se aplicaran a la educación unas garantías constitucionales. Los aprendices no podrían ser sometidos a un currículum obligatorio o a una discriminación fundada en la posesión o carencia de un certificado o diploma. Ni se obligaría tampoco al público a mantener, mediante una retribución regresiva, un gigantesco aparato profesional de educadores y edificios que de hecho disminuye las posibilidades que el público tiene de acceder a los servicios que la profesión está dispuesta a ofrecer en el mercado. Debería usar la tecnología moderna para lograr que la libre expresión, la libre reunión y la prensa libre fuesen universales y, por consiguiente, plenamente educativas. + +Las escuelas están proyectadas a partir del supuesto de que cada cosa en la vida tiene un secreto; de que la calidad de la vida depende de conocer ese secreto; de que los secretos pueden conocerse en ordenadas sucesiones, y de que sólo los profesores pueden revelar adecuadamente esos secretos. Una persona de mente escolarizada concibe el mundo como una pirámide de paquetes clasificados accesible sólo a aquellos que llevan los rótulos apropiados. Las nuevas instituciones educativas destrozarían esta pirámide. Su propósito debe ser facilitar el acceso al aprendiz, permitirle mirar al interior de la sala de control o del parlamento, si no puede entrar por la puerta. Además, esas nuevas instituciones deberían ser canales a los que el aprendiz tuviese acceso sin credenciales ni títulos de linaje —espacios públicos en los que iguales y mayores situados fuera de su horizonte inmediato se harían accesibles—. + +Pienso que no más de cuatro —y posiblemente hasta tres— “canales” distintos o centros de intercambio podrían contener todos los recursos necesarios para el aprendizaje real. El niño crece en un mundo de cosas, rodeado de personas que sirven de modelos para habilidades y valores. Encuentra seres como él, sus iguales, que le incitan a discutir, a competir, a cooperar, a entender, y si el niño es afortunado, se ve expuesto a la confrontación o a la crítica de un mayor experimentado que realmente se preocupe. Cosas, modelos, iguales y mayores son cuatro recursos, cada uno de los cuales requiere un tipo diferente de ordenamiento para asegurar que todos tengan acceso a él. + +Usaré las palabras “trama de oportunidad” en vez de “red” para designar las maneras específicas de proporcionar acceso a cada uno de los cuatro conjuntos de recursos. Desafortunadamente, “red” se emplea con frecuencia para designar los canales reservados a los materiales seleccionados por terceros para el adoctrinamiento, la instrucción y la recreación. Pero también puede usarse para los servicios postal o telefónico, que son primariamente accesibles para personas que quieren enviarse mensajes entre sí. Ojalá tuviésemos otra palabra para designar tales estructuras reticulares a fin de tener un acceso recíproco, una palabra que no evocase tanto una trampa, menos degradada por el uso corriente, y que sugiriese más el hecho de que cualquier ordenamiento de esta especie abarca aspectos legales, organizativos y técnicos. No habiendo hallado dicho término, trataré de redimir el único disponible, usándolo como sinónimo de “trama educativa”. + +Lo que se precisa son nuevas redes, de la cuales el público pueda disponer fácilmente y que estén concebidas para difundir una igualdad de oportunidades para aprender y enseñar. + +Para dar un ejemplo: en la televisión y en los magnetófonos se usa el mismo nivel de tecnología. Todos los países latinoamericanos han introducido la televisión: en Bolivia, el gobierno financió una estación transmisora de televisión, que se construyó hace siete años, y no hay más de 7 000 televisores para cuatro millones de ciudadanos. El dinero empozado hoy en instalaciones de televisión por toda América Latina podría haber dotado de magnetófonos a un ciudadano de cada cinco. Además, el dinero habría bastado para proporcionar un número casi ilimitado de cintas grabadas, con puestos de entrega incluso en aldeas perdidas, como también para un amplio suministro de cintas no grabadas. + +Esta red de magnetófonos sería, por supuesto, radicalmente diferente de la red actual de televisión. Proporcionaría oportunidades a la libre expresión: letrados y analfabetos podrían, por igual, registrar, preservar, difundir y repetir sus opiniones. La inversión actual en televisión, en cambio, proporciona a los burócratas, sean políticos o educadores, el poder de rociar el continente con programas producidos institucionalmente, que ellos —o sus patrocinadores— deciden que son buenos para el pueblo o que éste los pide. + + +### Cuatro redes + +El planteamiento de nuevas instituciones educativas no debiera comenzar por las metas administrativas de un rector director, ni por las metas pedagógicas de un educador profesional, ni por las metas de aprendizaje de una clase hipotética de personas. No debe iniciarse con la pregunta: “¿Qué debiera aprender alguien?”, sino con la pregunta: “¿Con qué tipos de cosas y personas podrían querer ponerse en contacto los que buscan aprender a fin de aprender?” + +Alguien que quiera aprender sabe que necesita tanto información como reacción crítica respecto del uso de esta información por parte de otra persona. La información puede almacenarse en personas y en cosas. En un buen sistema educativo el acceso a las cosas debiera estar disponible con sólo pedirlo el aprendiz, mientras el acceso a los informantes requeriría además el conocimiento de terceros. La crítica puede asimismo provenir de dos direcciones: de los iguales o de los mayores, esto es, de compañeros de aprendizaje cuyos intereses inmediatos concuerden con los míos, o de aquellos que me concederán una parte de su experiencia superior. Los iguales pueden ser colegas con quienes suscitar un debate, compañeros para una caminata o lectura juguetona y deleitable (o ardua), retadores en cualquier clase de juegos. Los mayores pueden ser asesores acerca de qué destreza aprender, qué método usar, qué compañía buscar en un momento dado. Pueden ser guías respecto a la pregunta correcta que hay que plantear entre iguales y a la deficiencia de las respuestas a que lleguen. La mayoría de estos recursos son abundantes. Pero convencionalmente ni se les percibe como recursos educativos, ni es fácil el acceso a ellos para fines de aprendizaje, especialmente para los pobres. Debemos idear nuevas estructuras de relación que se monten con el deliberado propósito de facilitar el acceso a estos recursos para el uso de cualquiera que esté motivado a buscarlos para su educación. Para montar estas estructuras tramadas se requieren disposiciones administrativas, tecnológicas y especialmente legales. + +Los recursos educativos suelen rotularse según las metas curriculares de los educadores. Propongo hacer lo contrario, y rotular cuatro enfoques diferentes que permitan al estudiante conseguir el acceso a cualquier recurso educativo que pueda ayudarle a definir y lograr sus propias metas: + +_1_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Objetos Educativos. Que faciliten el acceso a cosas o procesos usados para el aprendizaje formal. Algunas de estas cosas pueden reservarse para ese fin, almacenadas en bibliotecas, agencias de alquiler, laboratorios y salas de exposición, tales como museos y teatros; otras pueden estar en uso cotidiano en fábricas, aeropuertos o puestas en granjas, pero a disposición de estudiantes como aprendices o en horas de descanso. + +_2_. Servicios de habilidades. Que permitan a unas personas hacer una lista de sus habilidades, las condiciones según las cuales están dispuestas a servir de modelos a otros que quieran aprender esas habilidades y las direcciones en que se les puede hallar. + +_3_. Servicio de búsqueda de Compañero. Una red de comunicaciones que permita a las personas describir la actividad de aprendizaje a la que desean dedicarse, con la esperanza de hallar un compañero para la búsqueda. + +_4_. Servicios de referencia respecto de Educadores Independientes, los cuales pueden figurar en un catálogo que indique las direcciones y las descripciones —hechas por ellos mismos— de profesionales, paraprofesionales e independientes, conjuntamente con las condiciones de acceso a sus servicios. Tales educadores, como veremos, podrían elegirse mediante encuestas o consultando a sus clientes anteriores. + + +### Servicios de referencia respecto de objetos educativos + +Las cosas son recursos básicos para aprender. La calidad del entorno y la relación de una persona con él determinarán cuánto aprenderá incidentalmente. El aprendizaje formal exige el acceso especial a cosas corrientes, por una parte o, por la otra, el acceso fácil y seguro a cosas especiales hechas con fines educativos. Un ejemplo del primer caso es el derecho especial a hacer funcionar o a desarmar una máquina en un garaje. Un ejemplo del segundo caso es el derecho general a usar un ábaco, una computadora, un libro, un jardín botánico o una máquina retirada de la producción y puesta a plena disposición de unos estudiantes. + +En la actualidad, la atención se centra en la disparidad entre niños ricos y pobres en cuanto a su acceso a cosas y en la manera en que pueden aprender de ellas. La OEO[^n16] y otros organismos, siguiendo este planteamiento, se concentran en igualar las posibilidades de cada cual, tratando de proveer de un mayor instrumental educativo a los pobres. Un punto de partida más radical sería reconocer que, en la ciudad, a ricos y pobres se les mantiene igualmente alejados de manera artificial de las cosas que los rodean. Los niños nacidos en la era de los plásticos y de los expertos en eficiencia deben traspasar dos barreras que obstaculizan sus entendimientos: una incorporada a las cosas y la otra construida en torno a las instituciones. El diseño industrial crea un mundo de cosas que ofrecen resistencia a la comprensión de su naturaleza interna, y las escuelas tapian al aprendiz respecto del mundo de las cosas en su escenario significativo. + +Después de una breve visita a Nueva York, una mujer de una aldea mexicana me dijo que le había impresionado que las tiendas vendiesen “solamente productos muy maquillados con cosméticos”. Entendí que ella quería decir que los productos industriales “hablan” a sus clientes acerca de sus encantos y no acerca de su naturaleza. La industria ha rodeado a la gente de artefactos hechos de manera que sólo a los especialistas les está permitido entender su mecanismo interno. Al no especialista que intenta hacer marchar el reloj o hacer sonar el teléfono o hacer funcionar la máquina de escribir, se le desalienta con la advertencia de que se romperá si lo intenta. Puede que se le diga qué hace funcionar un radio de transistores, pero no puede descubrirlo por sí mismo. Este tipo de diseño tiende a reforzar una sociedad no inventiva, en la que los expertos encuentran cada vez más fácil esconderse detrás de su pericia y más allá de una evaluación. + +El entorno creado por el hombre ha llegado a ser tan inescrutable como la naturaleza lo es para el primitivo. Al mismo tiempo, los materiales educativos los ha monopolizado la escuela. Los objetos educativos simples han sido costosamente empacados por la industria del conocimiento. Se han convertido en herramientas especializadas para los educadores profesionales, y se ha inflado su coste al obligarles a estimular ya sea entornos, ya sea profesores. + +El profesor es celoso del libro de texto al que define como su instrumento profesional. El estudiante puede llegar a odiar el laboratorio porque lo asocia con tareas escolares. El administrador racionaliza su actitud protectora hacia la biblioteca como una defensa de un instrumental público costoso contra quienes quisieran jugar con ella más bien que aprender. En esta atmósfera, el estudiante usa con excesiva frecuencia el mapa, el laboratorio, la enciclopedia o el microscopio sólo en los escasos momentos en que el currículum le dice que debe hacerlo. Incluso los grandes clásicos se convierten en arte de la “novatada” universitaria, en vez de señalar una nueva dirección en la vida de una persona. La escuela aparta las cosas del uso cotidiano al rotularlas como instrumentos educativos. + +Para que podamos desescolarizar será preciso invertir ambas tendencias. El entorno físico general debe hacerse accesible, y aquellos recursos físicos de aprendizaje que han sido reducidos a instrumentos de enseñanza deben llegar a estar disponibles para el aprendizaje autodirigido. Usar cosas sólo como partes de un currículum puede tener un efecto incluso peor que apartarlas del entorno general. Puede corromper las actitudes de los alumnos. + +Los juegos son un caso de este tipo. No me refiero a los “juegos” del departamento de educación física (tales como el futbol o el baloncesto), que las escuelas usan para generar ingresos y prestigio y en los que han hecho sustanciosas inversiones de capital. Como lo saben muy bien los mismos atletas, estas empresas, que adoptan la forma de torneos guerreros, han minado el aspecto juguetón de los deportes y se usan para reforzar la naturaleza competitiva de las escuelas. Hablo más bien de los juegos educativos que pueden proporcionar una manera singular de entender los sistemas formales. Un amigo mío fue a un mercado mexicano con un juego llamado _Wff’n Proff_ , que consta de varios dados en los que están impresos 12 símbolos lógicos. Mostró a unos niños qué combinaciones formaban una frase bien hecha —unas dos o tres de las muchas posibles— e, inductivamente, al cabo de la primera hora, algunos mirones también captaron el principio. A las pocas horas, jugando pruebas lógicas formales, algunos niños eran capaces de iniciar a otros en las pruebas formales de la lógica de proposiciones. Los otros simplemente se fueron. + +Para algunos niños dichos juegos son en efecto una forma especial de liberar la educación, puesto que les permite descubrir que los sistemas formales se fundan en axiomas mutables y que las operaciones conceptuales tienen un carácter lúdico. Son asimismo simples, baratos y en buena parte pueden organizarlos los jugadores mismos. Cuando se usan fuera del currículum, tales juegos dan una oportunidad para identificar y desarrollar el talento poco común, mientras que el psicólogo escolar identificará a menudo a quienes posean dicho talento como a personas en peligro de llegar a ser antisociales, enfermas o desequilibradas. Dentro de la escuela, cuando se usan en forma de torneos, a los juegos no sólo se les saca de la esfera de la recreación, a menudo se convierten en instrumentos para transformar al alumno juguetón en un espíritu competitivo y la falta de razonamiento abstracto en signo de inferioridad. Un ejercicio que para ciertos tipos de carácter es liberador, se convierte en camisa de fuerza para otros. + +El control de la escuela sobre el instrumental educativo tiene además otro efecto. Aumenta enormemente el coste de esos materiales baratos. Una vez que su uso se restringe a unas horas programadas, se paga a profesionales que supervisen su adquisición, almacenamiento y uso. Entonces los estudiantes descargan su rabia contra la escuela sobre el instrumental, que es preciso adquirir nuevamente. + +Algo paralelo a la intocabilidad de los útiles educativos es la impenetrabilidad de la moderna chatarra. En la década de 1930 cualquier muchacho que se respetara sabía reparar un automóvil, pero ahora los fabricantes de coches multiplican los alambres y apartan los manuales de todo el que no sea un mecánico especializado. En un periodo anterior un radio viejo contenía suficientes bobinas y condensadores como para construir un transmisor que hiciera chillar por realimentación a todos los radios del vecindario. Los radios de transistores son más portátiles, pero nadie se atreve a desarmarlos. En los países altamente industrializados sería inmensamente difícil cambiar esto, pero al menos en los países del Tercer Mundo debemos insistir en ciertas cualidades educativas incorporadas al objeto. + +Para ilustrar mi argumento, permítaseme presentar un modelo: gastando 10 millones de dólares sería posible conectar 40 000 aldeas de un país como Perú mediante una telaraña de pistas de un metro ochenta de ancho y mantenerlas funcionando; además, dotar al país de 200 000 burros mecánicos de tres ruedas —cinco por aldea como promedio—. Pocos países pobres de ese tamaño gastan menos de esa cantidad cada año en coches y caminos, cuyo uso, el de ambos, se limita principalmente a los ricos y a sus empleados, mientras la gente pobre queda atrapada en sus aldeas. Cada uno de estos pequeños vehículos, simples pero duraderos, equipados con un motor de seis caballos de fuerza, costaría 125 dólares. Un “burro” podría andar a 24 kilómetros por hora, y trasladaría cargas de unos 400 kilogramos (es decir, la mayoría de las cosas que suelen moverse, aparte de troncos y vigas de acero). + +El atractivo político que dicho sistema de transporte tendría para el campesinado es obvio. Igualmente obvio es el motivo por el cual quienes detentan el poder —y por tanto poseen, automáticamente, un coche— no están interesados en gastar dinero en pistas semejantes y en obstruir los caminos con burros motorizados. El burro universal podría funcionar sólo si los dirigentes de un país impusieran un límite de, digamos, 40 kilómetros por hora y adaptaran sus instituciones públicas a ese límite. El modelo no podría funcionar si estuviese concebido sólo como un parche. + +No es éste el lugar apropiado para examinar en detalle la factibilidad política, social, económica, financiera y técnica de este modelo. Deseo solamente indicar que los considerandos educativos pueden ser de primordial importancia cuando se elige una alternativa semejante frente a un transporte que usa relativamente más capital que mano de obra. Aumentando el coste unitario de cada burro 20% se haría posible planificar la producción de todas sus piezas de modo que, hasta donde fuera posible, cada futuro dueño pasase de uno a dos meses haciendo y entendiendo su máquina y fuese capaz de repararla. Con este coste adicional sería asimismo posible descentralizar la producción en fábricas dispersas. Las ventajas adicionales provendrían no sólo de incluir los costes educativos en el proceso de construcción. Más significativo todavía, un motor duradero que prácticamente cualquiera podría aprender a reparar y que podría usar como arado y como bomba aquel que lo entendiera, produciría unos beneficios educativos mucho más elevados que los inescrutables motores de los países avanzados. + +No sólo la chatarra, sino los lugares presuntamente públicos de la ciudad moderna se han vuelto impenetrables. En la sociedad estadunidense se excluye a los niños de la mayoría de las cosas y lugares con el argumento de que son privados. Pero incluso en las sociedades que han declarado el fin de la propiedad privada se aparta a los niños de las mismas cosas y lugares porque estos últimos se consideran un ámbito especial y peligroso para el no iniciado. A partir de la pasada generación el patio de los ferrocarriles se hizo tan inaccesible como el cuartel de bomberos. Sin embargo, con un poco de ingenio no sería difícil eliminar los peligros en esos lugares. El desescolarizar los artefactos de la educación haría necesario poner a disposición los artefactos y procesos —y reconocer su valor educativo—. Algunos trabajadores, sin duda, encontrarían molesto hacerlos accesibles a los aprendices, pero esta molestia debe valorarse comparándola con las ventajas educativas. + +Los automóviles privados podrían desterrarse de Manhattan. Hace cinco años esto era impensable. Ahora, ciertas calles de Nueva York se cierran a ciertas horas, y esta tendencia probablemente continuará. De hecho, la mayoría de las calles transversales deberían cerrarse al tránsito automotriz y el estacionamiento debería prohibirse en todas partes. En una ciudad abierta al pueblo, los materiales de enseñanza, que ahora se encierran en almacenes y laboratorios, podrían diseminarse en depósitos abiertos a la calle y gestionarse de manera independiente para que los adultos y los niños pudiesen visitarlos sin peligro de que los atropellen. + +Si las metas de la educación ya no estuviesen dominadas por las escuelas y los maestros de escuela, el mercado para los aprendices sería mucho más variado y la definición de “artefactos educativos” sería menos restrictiva. Podría haber talleres de herramientas, bibliotecas, laboratorios y salas de juegos. Los laboratorios fotográficos y prensas offset permitirían el florecimiento de diarios vecinales. Algunos centros de aprendizaje abiertos a la calle podrían contener cabinas para mirar programas de televisión en circuito cerrado, otros podrían poseer útiles de oficina para usar y para reparar. Los tocadiscos del tipo tragamonedas y de tipo corriente serían de uso diario, especializándose algunos en música clásica, otros en melodías folclóricas internacionales, otros en jazz. Las filmotecas competirían entre sí y con la televisión comercial. Los locales de museos abiertos al público podrían ser redes para poner en circulación muestras de arte antiguo y moderno, originales y reproducciones, tal vez administradas por los diversos museos metropolitanos. + +El personal profesional necesario para esta red se parecería mucho más a unos custodios, guardias de museo o bibliotecarios de servicio público que a unos profesores. Desde la tienda de biología de la esquina podrían dirigir a sus clientes a la colección de caracoles del museo o señalarles cuándo habría una exhibición de videocintas de biología en determinadas cabinas de televisión. Podrían dar indicaciones para el control de plagas, dietas y otras clases de medicina preventiva. Podrían remitir a quienes necesitaran consejos a “mayores” que pudiesen proporcionarlo. + +El financiamiento de una red de “objetos de aprendizaje” puede encararse de dos maneras. Una comunidad podría fijar un presupuesto máximo para este fin y disponer que todas las partes de la red estuviesen abiertas a todos los visitantes a ciertas horas razonables. O bien la comunidad podría decidir proporcionar a los ciudadanos unos bonos o derechos limitados, según sus edades, que les darían acceso especial a ciertos materiales costosos y escasos, dejando en cambio otros materiales más simples a disposición de todos. + +Encontrar recursos para materiales hechos específicamente para educar es sólo un aspecto —y tal vez el menos costoso— de la construcción de un mundo educativo. El dinero que hoy se gasta en la parafernalia sagrada del ritual escolar podría liberarse para proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos un mejor acceso a la vida real de la ciudad. Podrían otorgarse incentivos tributarios especiales a quienes emplearan niños de ocho a 14 años durante un par de horas diarias si las condiciones de empleo fuesen humanas. Deberíamos volver a la tradición de la _bar mitzvah_ o de la confirmación. Quiero decir con esto que debiéramos primero restringir y luego eliminar la privación de derechos y deberes civiles de los menores, y permitir que un muchacho de 12 años llegue a ser plenamente responsable de su participación en la vida de la comunidad. Muchas personas de “edad escolar” saben más acerca de su vecindario que los trabajadores sociales o los concejales. Naturalmente que hacen también preguntas más incómodas y proponen soluciones que amenazan a la burocracia. Debería permitírseles llegar a la mayoría de edad de modo que pusieran sus conocimientos y capacidad de indagación al servicio de un gobierno popular. + +Hasta hace poco era fácil subestimar los peligros de la escuela en comparación con los peligros de un periodo de aprendizaje en la policía, en el cuerpo de bomberos o en la industria del espectáculo. Este argumento deja de ser válido con gran frecuencia. Visité recientemente una iglesia metodista de Harlem ocupada por un grupo de los llamados _Young Lords_ como protesta por la muerte de Julio Rodan, un muchacho puertorriqueño al que se encontró ahorcado en su celda carcelaria. Yo conocía a los líderes del grupo, que habían pasado un semestre en Cuernavaca. Cuando me sorprendí al no hallar a uno de ellos, Juan, en el grupo, me dijeron: “Volvió a la heroína y a la Universidad del Estado”. + +Para desencadenar el potencial educativo encerrado en la gigantesca inversión de nuestra sociedad en instalaciones y útiles pueden usarse el planteamiento, los incentivos y la legislación. No existirá el acceso pleno a los objetos educativos mientras se permita a empresas comerciales conjugar las defensas legales que la Carta Fundamental reserva a la vida privada de las personas con el poder económico que les confieren sus millones de clientes y miles de empleados, accionistas y proveedores. Una parte considerable de los conocimientos prácticos y teóricos del mundo y la mayoría de sus procesos y equipos de producción están encerrados entre los muros de firmas comerciales, apartados de sus clientes, empleados y accionistas, como también del público en general, cuyas leyes e instalaciones les permiten funcionar. El dinero que se gasta en publicidad en los países capitalistas podrían canalizarse hacia la educación en y por parte de la General Electric, NBC-TV o cervezas Budweiser. Es decir, las fábricas y oficinas deberían reorganizarse de forma tal que su funcionamiento cotidiano fuese más accesible al público y de maneras que hiciesen posible el aprendizaje, y, en verdad, podrían hallarse modos de pagar a las compañías lo que la gente aprendiese en ellas. + +Es posible que un conjunto de objetos e informaciones científicas aún más valioso esté apartado del acceso general —e incluso de los científicos competentes— bajo el pretexto de la seguridad nacional. Hasta hace poco la ciencia era el único foro que funcionaba como el sueño de un anarquista. Cada hombre capaz de realizar investigaciones tenía más o menos las mismas oportunidades que otros en cuanto a acceso a su instrumental y a ser escuchado por la comunidad de iguales. Ahora la burocratización y la organización han puesto a gran parte de la ciencia fuera del alcance del público. En efecto, lo que solía ser una red internacional de información científica ha sido escindida en una lid de grupos competidores. Tanto a los miembros como a los artefactos de la comunidad científica se les ha encerrado en programas nacionales y corporativos para logros prácticos y para el radical empobrecimiento de los hombres que mantienen estas naciones y corporaciones. + +En un mundo que controlan y poseen naciones y compañías, nunca será posible sino un acceso limitado a los objetos educativos. Pero un mejor acceso a aquellos objetos que pueden compartirse para fines educativos puede ilustrarnos lo suficiente como para traspasar estas barreras políticas finales. Las escuelas públicas transfieren el control sobre los usos educativos de los objetos de manos privadas a manos profesionales. La inversión institucional de las escuelas podría dar al individuo el poder de volver a exigir el derecho a usarlos para su educación. Si el control privado o corporativo sobre el aspecto educativo de las “cosas” se lograse extinguir gradualmente, podría comenzar a aparecer un tipo de propiedad realmente pública. + + +### Servicios de habilidades + +Al revés de lo que ocurre con una guitarra, a un profesor de ese instrumento no se le puede clasificar en un museo, ni lo puede poseer el público, ni se le puede tomar en alquiler en un almacén de elementos educativos. Los profesores de habilidades pertenecen a una clase de recursos que es diferente de la de los objetos necesarios para aprender una habilidad. Esto no quiere decir que sean indispensables en todos los casos. Puedo alquilar no sólo una guitarra, sino también lecciones de guitarra grabadas en cintas y gráficos que ilustren los acordes, y con estos elementos puedo enseñarme yo mismo a tocar la guitarra. De hecho, este sistema puede presentar ventajas si las cintas disponibles son mejores que los profesores disponibles, o si las únicas horas en que puedo aprender guitarra son nocturnas o si las melodías que quiero interpretar son desconocidas en mi país o si soy tímido y prefiero meter la pata sin testigos. + +El canal que se usa para registrar a los profesores de habilidades y comunicarse con ellos debe ser diferente al descrito para objetos. Una cosa está disponible a petición del usuario —o podría estarlo— mientras una persona llega formalmente a ser una fuente de enseñanza de habilidades sólo cuando considere serlo y pueda asimismo restringir la ocasión, el lugar y el método a su tamaño. + +Es también necesario distinguir a los profesores de los iguales de los que uno desearía aprender. Los iguales que desean seguir una búsqueda común deben partir de capacidades o intereses comunes; se juntan para ejercitar o mejorar una habilidad que comparten: baloncesto, baile, construcción de un campamento, debate sobre las próximas elecciones. Por otra parte, la primera transmisión de una habilidad supone el reunir a alguien que posea una destreza con alguien que no la posea y quiera adquirirla. + +Un “modelo de habilidad” es una persona que posee una habilidad y está dispuesta a demostrar su práctica. Frecuentemente el aprendiz en potencia precisa el recurso de una demostración de esta clase. Los inventos modernos nos permiten registrar demostraciones en cinta, en película o en gráficos; no obstante, sería de esperar que la demostración personal continuase gozando de gran demanda, especialmente en las habilidades de comunicación. En nuestro Centro, en Cuernavaca, han aprendido español unos 10 000 adultos —en su mayoría personas muy motivadas que deseaban obtener una cuasi-fluidez en un segundo idioma—. Cuando se les plantea la elección entre una instrucción cuidadosamente programada en un laboratorio de idiomas o sesiones rutinarias con otros dos estudiantes y una persona cuyo idioma nativo es el español y que se ciñe a una rutina rígida, la mayoría prefiere la segunda alternativa. + +Respecto de la mayor parte de las habilidades ampliamente compartidas, que una persona demuestre su habilidad es el único recurso humano que llegamos a necesitar u obtener. Ya sea para hablar o para conducir, para cocinar o para usar equipos de comunicaciones, a menudo apenas nos damos cuenta de la instrucción y el aprendizaje formales, especialmente después de nuestra primera experiencia con los materiales en cuestión. No veo razón por la cual no pudiesen aprenderse de igual manera otras habilidades complejas, tales como los aspectos mecánicos de la cirugía, tocar el violín, leer o usar listas y catálogos. + +Un estudiante bien motivado que no lucha contra una desventaja determinada a menudo no necesita más ayuda humana que la que puede proporcionar alguien que puede demostrar a quien lo solicite cómo hacer lo que el aprendiz quiere hacer. Aquello de insistir a personas diestras en que antes de demostrar su habilidad certifiquen que son pedagogos es el resultado de la insistencia de una de dos alternativas: o que la gente aprenda lo que no quiere saber, o bien que todos —incluso quienes sufren de alguna desventaja especial— aprendan ciertas cosas, en un momento dado de sus vidas, y preferentemente en circunstancias específicas. + +Lo que crea una escasez de habilidades en el mercado educativo de hoy es el requisito institucional de que quienes pueden demostrarlas no pueden hacerlo a menos de otorgárseles pública confianza por medio de un certificado. Insistimos en que aquellos que ayudan a terceros a adquirir una habilidad habrían de saber también diagnosticar las dificultades de aprendizaje y ser capaces de motivar a la gente a aprender habilidades. En resumen, les exigimos ser pedagogos. Habría abundancia de personas que pueden demostrar habilidades tan pronto aprendiéramos a reconocerlas fuera de la profesión de la enseñanza. + +Cuando se está enseñando a unos principitos, es comprensible, aunque ha dejado de ser justificable, la insistencia de sus padres en que el profesor y la persona dotada de habilidades se conjuguen en una misma persona. Pero el que todos los padres aspiren a tener un Aristóteles para su Alejandro es obviamente insostenible. Las personas que pueden inspirar a los estudiantes y demostrar una técnica son tan escasas, y tan difíciles de reconocer, que hasta los principitos consiguen con mayor frecuencia un sofista y no un verdadero filósofo. + +Una demanda de habilidades escasas puede satisfacerse rápidamente aun cuando hay un número pequeño de personas que las demuestren, pero debe facilitarse el acceso a dichas personas. Durante la década de 1940-1950, los reparadores de radios, la mayoría de los cuales no estudiaron su trabajo en escuelas, penetraron en el interior de América con no más de dos años de retraso respecto a la llegada de los radios a la región. Permanecieron allí hasta que los radios de transistores, baratos e imposibles de reparar, los dejaron cesantes. Las escuelas técnicas no logran realizar lo que algunos reparadores de radios podrían hacer sin problemas: restauraciones útiles y duraderas. + +Ciertos intereses privados y convergentes conspiran hoy para impedir que una persona comparta su habilidad. A quien posee la habilidad le beneficia su escasez y no su reproducción. Al maestro que se especializa en transmitir la habilidad le beneficia la renuencia del artesano a ofrecer su propio taller para aprendices. Al público se le adoctrina con la creencia de que las habilidades son valiosas y de fiarse sólo si son el resultado de una escolarización formal. El mercado de trabajo depende de hacer escasas las habilidades y de mantenerlas escasas, ya sea proscribiendo su uso a transmisión no autorizada, o bien haciendo cosas que puedan operar y reparar sólo quienes tengan acceso a herramientas o informaciones que se mantienen en déficit. + +De este modo, las escuelas producen escasez de personas especializadas. Un buen ejemplo de esto es el número decreciente de enfermeras en Estados Unidos, debido al rápido aumento de programas universitarios de cuatro años en ese ramo. Las mujeres de familias más pobres que anteriormente se habrían alistado en un programa de dos o tres años, se han alejado por completo de dicha profesión. + +Otra manera de mantener la escasez de habilidades es insistir en maestros diplomados. Si se alentara a las enfermeras a adiestrar a otras enfermeras, y si a las enfermeras se les empleara de acuerdo con su habilidad demostrada para poner inyecciones, trazar gráficos y dar medicinas, pronto se terminaría la escasez de enfermeras capacitadas. Los certificados tienden hoy a coartar la libertad de la educación al convertir el derecho civil de compartir conocimientos en el privilegio de la libertad académica que ahora se confiere sólo a los empleados de alguna escuela. Para garantizar el acceso a un intercambio eficaz de habilidades necesitamos leyes que generalicen la libertad académica. El derecho a enseñar cualquier habilidad debería estar amparado por la libertad de expresión. Una vez que se eliminen las restricciones sobre la enseñanza, pronto desaparecerán también las relativas al aprendizaje. + +El profesor de habilidades necesita algún incentivo para otorgar sus servicios a un alumno. Hay por lo menos dos maneras sencillas de comenzar a canalizar fondos públicos hacia profesores no diplomados. Una sería institucionalizar los servicios de habilidades mediante la creación de centros de habilidades, libres y abiertos al público. Dichos centros podrían y deberían establecerse en zonas industriales, al menos para habilidades que son un requisito indispensable para ingresar en ciertos noviciados o aprendizajes —habilidades tales como la lectura, la mecanografía, la contabilidad, los idiomas extranjeros, la programación de computadoras y la manipulación de números, la lectura de lenguajes especiales (como el de los circuitos eléctricos), la manipulación de ciertas máquinas, etc.—. Otro planteamiento sería proporcionar a ciertos grupos de la población una moneda educativa válida para asistir a centros de habilidades en los que otros clientes habrían de pagar tarifas comerciales. + +Un planteamiento mucho más radical consistiría en crear un “banco” para el intercambio de habilidades. A cada ciudadano se le abriría un crédito básico con el que pudiese adquirir habilidades fundamentales. Luego, se beneficiaría con créditos adicionales enseñando, ya fuera en centros de habilidades organizados, en casa o sobre la marcha. Sólo aquellos que hubiesen enseñado a otros durante un lapso equivalente podrían solicitar el tiempo de profesores más avanzados. Se promovería una élite enteramente nueva, una élite formada por quienes hubiesen ganado su educación compartiéndola. + +¿Deberían los padres tener el derecho a ganar crédito educativo para sus hijos? Como una disposición de este tipo daría nuevas ventajas a las clases privilegiadas, podría compensarse otorgando un crédito mayor a los desfavorecidos. El funcionamiento de un servicio de habilidades dependería de la existencia de organismos que facilitarían el desarrollo de información —listas de personas— y asegurarían su uso libre y barato. Dicho organismo podría proporcionar servicios auxiliares de prueba y certificación y ayudaría a poner en vigor la legislación necesaria para quebrar e impedir las prácticas monopólicas. + +La libertad de un servicio universal de habilidades podría estar garantizada fundamentalmente por leyes que permitiesen la discriminación sólo de acuerdo con habilidades verificadas y no según el historial educativo. Una garantía semejante requiere inevitablemente un control público sobre las pruebas que puedan usarse para determinar quiénes están capacitados para el mercado laboral. De otra manera sería posible reintroducir subrepticiamente complejas baterías de _test_ en el lugar mismo de trabajo que servirían para selección social. Mucho podría hacerse a fin de lograr objetividad en las pruebas de competencia en habilidades, como por ejemplo permitir que se comprobara sólo el manejo de máquinas o sistemas específicos. Las pruebas de mecanografía (en las que se mediría la velocidad, el número de errores y se valoraría el saber tomar dictados), el dominio de un sistema contable o de una grúa hidráulica, la codificación en Cobol,[^n17] etc., pueden fácilmente hacerse objetivas. + +De hecho, muchas de las verdaderas habilidades de importancia práctica pueden verificarse de ese modo. Y para los fines de administración de personal es mucho más útil una prueba sobre el nivel presente de competencia en determinada habilidad que la información sobre el hecho de que 20 años atrás una persona dejó satisfecho a su profesor respecto de un currículum en el que se enseñaba mecanografía, taquigrafía y contabilidad. Naturalmente puede ponerse en duda la necesidad misma de una comprobación oficial de habilidades: yo tengo la convicción de que el hecho de imponer ciertas restricciones constituye una mejor garantía para el derecho que un hombre tiene a que su reputación no sufra daños indebidos provenientes de una rotulación, que la garantía lograda al prohibir pruebas de competencia. + + +### Servicio de búsqueda de compañero + +En el peor de los casos, las escuelas reúnen condiscípulos en la misma habitación y los someten a la misma secuencia de tratamiento en matemáticas, educación cívica y lenguaje. En el mejor, permiten a cada estudiante elegir un curso de entre un número limitado de ellos. En cualquier caso, se forman grupos de iguales en torno a las metas de los profesores. Un sistema conveniente de educación permitiría a cada persona especificar la actividad para la cual busca un compañero. + +La escuela ofrece efectivamente a los niños una oportunidad para escapar de sus casas y encontrar nuevos amigos. Pero al mismo tiempo, este proceso inculca en ellos la idea de que deberían elegir sus amigos entre aquellos con quienes han sido congregados. El invitar a los menores desde su más tierna infancia a conocer, evaluar y buscar a otros los prepararía para mantener durante toda su vida el interés por buscar nuevos asociados para nuevos empeños. + +A un buen jugador de ajedrez siempre le gusta hallar un buen adversario, y a un novato le alegra hallar otro. Los clubes les sirven para este fin. Las personas que quieren conversar sobre determinados libros o artículos probablemente pagarían por hallar compañeros de debate. Los que quieren practicar juegos, ir de excursión, construir estanques para peces o motorizar bicicletas se tomarán molestias considerables para hallar compañeros para ello. El premio de sus esfuerzos es encontrar esos compañeros. Las buenas escuelas tratan de poner al descubierto los intereses comunes de los estudiantes matriculados en los mismos programas. Lo inverso de la escuela sería una institución que aumentase las posibilidades de que las personas que en un determinado momento compartiesen el mismo interés específico, pudiesen encontrarse independientemente de que tuviesen otra cosa en común. + +La enseñanza de habilidades no proporciona beneficios iguales a ambas partes, como lo hace la reunión de iguales. Tal como he señalado, al profesor de habilidades debe ofrecérsele algún otro incentivo aparte de las satisfacciones de enseñar. La enseñanza de habilidades es un asunto de repetir una y otra vez ciertas rutinas y de hecho es más tediosa para los alumnos que más la necesitan. Un servicio de habilidades necesita dinero o créditos u otros incentivos tangibles para funcionar, aun cuando el servicio mismo produjese su propia moneda. Un sistema de búsqueda de compañero no precisaría tales incentivos, sino sólo una red de comunicaciones. + +Las cintas, los sistemas de informática, la instrucción programada y la reproducción de formas y de sonidos tienden a disminuir la necesidad de recurrir a profesores humanos para muchas habilidades; aumentan la eficiencia de los profesores y el número de habilidades que uno puede conseguir a lo largo de su vida. Paralelamente a este aspecto se ha creado la necesidad creciente de encontrarse con gente interesada en disfrutar de la habilidad recientemente adquirida. Una estudiante que haya aprendido griego antes de sus vacaciones querrá conversar en griego sobre política cretense cuando regrese. Un mexicano de Nueva York quiere hallar a otros lectores de la revista _Siempre!_ o de _Los Agachados_ , la más popular de las historietas. Algún otro quiere encontrar compañeros que, como él, desearían aumentar su interés en la obra de James Baldwin o de Bolívar. + +El funcionamiento de una red para búsqueda de compañeros sería simple. El usuario se identificaría por su nombre y dirección y describiría la actividad para la cual estuviese buscando compañero. Una computadora le remitiría los nombres y direcciones de todos aquellos que hubiesen introducido la misma descripción. Es asombroso que un servicio público tan sencillo no se haya usado nunca en gran escala para actividades de valor público. + +En su forma más rudimentaria, la comunicación entre cliente y computadora podría establecerse por correo. En las grandes ciudades, unas máquinas de escribir conectadas a una computadora podrían proporcionar respuestas instantáneas. La única manera de conseguir que la computadora entregase un nombre y dirección sería anotar una actividad para la cual se buscase un compañero. Las personas que utilizasen el sistema llegarían a ser conocidas únicamente por sus posibles compañeros de actividad. + +Un complemento de la computadora podría ser una red de pizarras o cuadros de anuncios y de avisos clasificados de periódico, consistentes en listas de actividades para las cuales no se hubiese hallado compañero mediante la computadora. No sería necesario dar nombres. Los lectores interesados introducirían entonces sus nombres en el sistema. Es posible que un sistema de búsqueda de compañero, con patrocinio público, sea la única manera de garantizar la libertad de reunión y de adiestrar a la gente en el ejercicio de esta actividad cívica tan fundamental. + +El derecho a la libre reunión ha sido reconocido políticamente y aceptado socialmente. Deberíamos entender ahora que este derecho está restringido por leyes que hacen obligatorias ciertas formas de reunión. Éste es en particular el caso de las instituciones que reclutan según edad, clase o sexo, y que consumen muchísimo tiempo. El ejército es un ejemplo. La escuela es otro aún más ofensivo. + +Desescolarizar significa abolir el poder de una persona para obligar a otra a asistir a una reunión. Significa también reconocer el derecho de cualquier persona, de cualquier edad o sexo, a convocar una reunión. Este derecho se ha visto drásticamente disminuido por la institucionalización de las reuniones. “Reunión” se refería originalmente al resultado del acto individual de juntarse. Ahora se refiere al producto institucional de algún organismo. + +La capacidad de las instituciones de servicio para adquirir clientes ha sobrepasado con mucho la capacidad de las personas para ser oídas con independencia de los medios de información institucional, que reaccionan ante personas individuales sólo si son noticias vendibles. Deberían existir servicios de búsqueda de compañero para personas que quisiesen reunir a otras, de modo que fuese tan fácil como la campana de la aldea que convocaba a los aldeanos a un cabildo. Los edificios escolares —dudosamente adaptables para otros fines— podrían cumplir en muchos casos este objetivo. + +De hecho, el sistema escolar puede encontrarse pronto con un problema que las Iglesias han enfrentado anteriormente: qué hacer con el espacio sobrante que ha quedado con la defección de los fieles. Las escuelas son difíciles de vender como templos. Una manera de continuar manteniéndolas en uso sería entregar esos edificios al vecindario. Cada cual podría manifestar lo que haría en el aula y cuándo, y algunos anuncios pondrían los programas disponibles en conocimiento de quien indagara. El acceso a “clase” sería gratis —o se compraría con bonos educativos—. El “profesor” podría incluso pagarse según el número de alumnos que atrajese por cualquier periodo completo de dos horas. Me imagino que los líderes muy jóvenes y los grandes educadores serían los dos tipos de persona más destacados en semejante sistema. Podría seguirse igual planteamiento respecto de la educación superior. Podría dotarse a los estudiantes de bonos educativos que los hicieran acreedores a 10 horas anuales de consulta con el profesor de su elección y, para el resto de su aprendizaje, se apoyaría en la biblioteca, la red para búsqueda de compañeros y los periodos de aprendiz. + +Naturalmente, debemos reconocer la probabilidad de que se abuse de esos dispositivos públicos de búsqueda para fines inmorales y de explotación, tal como se ha abusado de los teléfonos y del correo. Se requeriría cierta protección semejante a la que se usa para esas redes. En otras páginas he propuesto un sistema de búsqueda de compañero que permitiría usar sólo una información impresa pertinente, más el nombre y la dirección del averiguador. Un sistema de esta especie sería prácticamente a prueba de abusos. Otra medida sería permitir que se agregase cualquier libro, película, programa de televisión u otro artículo que figurase en un catálogo especial. La preocupación acerca de los peligros del sistema no debe hacernos perder de vista sus beneficios, tanto mayores. + +Algunos que comparten mi preocupación por la libertad de expresión y la reunión alegarán que el sistema de búsqueda de compañero es un medio artificial de juntar personas y que no lo utilizarían los pobres —que son quienes más lo necesitan—. Hay personas que auténticamente se alborotan cuando uno sugiere montar encuentros _ad hoc_ que no tengan su raíz en la vida de una comunidad local. Otros reaccionan cuando uno sugiere usar una computadora para entresacar y conjuntar intereses que algunos clientes del sistema hayan definido. No es posible reunir a las personas de una manera tan impersonal, dicen. La búsqueda en común debe estar arraigada en una historia de experiencias compartidas a muchos niveles, y debe nacer de esta experiencia —el desarrollo de instituciones vecinales, por ejemplo—. + +Simpatizo con estas objeciones, pero creo que no comprenden el verdadero sentido de lo que persigo y no dan tampoco con lo que ellos mismos persiguen. En primer lugar, el retorno a la vida vecinal como centro primario de expresión creativa podría de hecho ser contraproducente para volver a establecer los vecindarios como unidades políticas. Centrar las demandas sobre el barrio o vecindario podría, en efecto, descuidar un importante aspecto liberador de la vida urbana —el que una persona pueda participar simultáneamente en varios grupos de sus iguales—. Además, existe un sentido importante: personas que jamás han vivido juntas en una comunidad física pueden tener ocasionalmente muchas más experiencias por compartir que quienes se han conocido desde la infancia. Las grandes religiones han reconocido siempre la importancia de estos encuentros lejanos, y los fieles han hallado siempre libertad mediante ellos: los peregrinajes, el monacato y el mutuo apoyo de templos y santuarios son reflejos de este reconocimiento. La conjunción de iguales podría ayudar significativamente a hacer explícitas las numerosas comunidades en potencia, aunque reprimidas, que existen en la ciudad. + +Las comunidades locales son valiosas. Son también una realidad que se desvanece conforme los hombres dejan que las instituciones definan cada vez más sus círculos de relación social. En un libro reciente, Milton Kotler mostró que el imperialismo del “centro” de la ciudad priva al barrio de su significación política. El intento proteccionista de resucitar la barriada como unidad cultural sólo sirve de apoyo a este imperialismo burocrático. Lejos de apartar artificialmente a la gente de su contexto local para unirla con grupos abstractos, el servicio de búsqueda de compañero alentaría un renacer de la vida local en las ciudades de las cuales está desapareciendo hoy en día. Un hombre que recupere su iniciativa para llamar a sus prójimos a sostener una conversación significativa, puede dejar de conformarse con estar separado de ellos por el protocolo oficinesco o por la etiqueta suburbana. Habiendo visto por una vez que el hacer cosas en conjunto depende del decidir hacerlo, la gente posiblemente insista incluso en que su comunidad local se haga más abierta al intercambio político creativo. + +Debemos reconocer que la vida urbana tiende a hacerse inmensamente costosa conforme a los habitantes de la ciudad se les enseña a confiar en complejos servicios institucionales para satisfacer cada una de sus necesidades. Es extraordinariamente costoso incluso mantenerla en un nivel mínimo de habitabilidad. El servicio de búsqueda de compañero de aprendizaje en la ciudad podría ser un primer paso para romper la dependencia de los ciudadanos respecto de servicios burocráticos. + +Sería también una medida esencial para proporcionar nuevos medios de establecer la confianza pública. En una sociedad escolarizada hemos llegado a confiar cada día más en el juicio profesional de educadores sobre el efecto de su propia labor para decidir en quién podemos o no confiar: vamos al médico, al abogado o al psicólogo porque confiamos en que cualquiera que ha tenido la cantidad requerida de tratamiento educativo especializado a manos de otros colegas merece nuestra confianza. + +En una sociedad desescolarizada, los profesionales ya no pueden reclamar la confianza de sus clientes a partir de su historial curricular o asegurar su prestigio con sólo remitir a sus clientes a otros profesionales que dieron aprobación a su escolarización. En vez de depositar su confianza en profesionales, debería ser posible, en cualquier momento, que cualquier presunto cliente consultase con otros clientes experimentados sobre la calidad del servicio prestado por un profesional mediante otra red de comunicación de intereses comunes fácilmente montada en una computadora o mediante muchos otros medios. Podría considerarse a tales redes como servicios de utilidad pública que permitiesen a los estudiantes elegir a sus profesores o a los pacientes, sus médicos. + + +### Educadores profesionales + +Conforme los ciudadanos tengan nuevas posibilidades de elección, nuevas posibilidades de aprendizaje, su disposición a buscar directivos debiera aumentar. Podemos contar con que experimentarán más hondamente tanto su propia independencia como su necesidad de guía. Conforme estén liberados de la manipulación por parte de terceros, debieran aprender a beneficiarse de la disciplina que otros han adquirido durante toda su vida. El desescolarizar la educación debiera más bien aumentar, y no ahogar, la búsqueda de hombres de sabiduría práctica que estuviesen dispuestos a apoyar al recién llegado en su aventura educativa. Conforme los maestros en su arte abandonan la pretensión de ser informantes superiores o modelos de habilidades, comenzará a parecer verdadera la sabiduría superior que parecen poseer. + +Al aumentar la demanda de maestros debiera aumentar también la oferta. Conforme se desvanezca el maestro de escuela, se suscitarán condiciones que harán aparecer la vocación del educador independiente. Esto puede parecer casi contradictorio; a tal punto han llegado a ser complementarios escuelas y profesores. Sin embargo éste es exactamente el resultado a que tendería el desarrollo de los primeros servicios educativos —y lo que se precisaría para hacer posible el aprovecharlos plenamente—, pues los padres y otros “educadores naturales” necesitan un guía, las personas que aprenden necesitan ayuda, y las redes necesitan personas que las hagan funcionar. + +Los padres necesitan orientación para dirigir a sus hijos por el camino que conduce a la independencia educativa responsable. Los aprendices necesitan líderes experimentados cuando se topan con un terreno arduo. Estas dos necesidades son muy distintas: la primera es una necesidad de pedagogía, la segunda una necesidad de dirección intelectual en todas las demás ramas del conocimiento. La primera exige conocimiento del aprendizaje humano y de los recursos educativos, la segunda exige sabiduría fundada en la experiencia en cualquier clase de exploración. Ambos tipos de experiencia son indispensables para una empresa educativa eficaz. Las escuelas envasan estas funciones en un solo papel —y hacen que el ejercicio independiente de cualquiera de ellas se vuelva, si no algo lleno de desdoro, al menos sospechoso—. + +De hecho deberían distinguirse tres tipos de competencia educativa especial: una, crear y manejar los tipos de servicios o redes educativas esbozadas aquí; otra, guiar a estudiantes y padres en el uso de estas redes, y una tercera, actuar como _primus inter pares_ al emprender difíciles viajes de exploración intelectual. Sólo las dos primeras pueden concebirse como ramas de una profesión independiente: administradores educativos y consejeros pedagógicos. No se precisaría mucha gente para proyectar y gestionar las redes que he estado describiendo, pero sí gente con un profundo entendimiento de la educación y la administración, con una perspectiva muy diferente y hasta opuesta a la de las escuelas. + +Si bien una profesión educativa independiente de esta especie daría la bienvenida a muchas personas que las escuelas excluyen, excluiría asimismo a muchas que las escuelas declaran aptas. El establecimiento y gestión de redes educativas precisaría de algunos proyectistas y administradores, pero no en la cantidad ni del tipo que exige la administración de escuelas. La disciplina estudiantil, las relaciones públicas, la contratación, supervisión y despido de profesores no tendrían lugar ni equivalente en las redes que he estado describiendo. Tampoco la creación de currícula, la compra de libros de texto, el entretenimiento de lugares e instalaciones, ni la supervisión de competencias atléticas interescolares. La custodia de niños, el planteamiento de lecciones y la anotación de datos archivables, que ocupan ahora tanto tiempo de los profesores, tampoco figurarían en la gestión de las redes educativas. En cambio, para el funcionamiento de las tramas de aprendizaje se necesitarían algunas de las habilidades y actitudes que se esperan actualmente del personal de un museo, de una biblioteca, de una agencia para contratación de directivos o de un _maître d’hôtel_.[^n18] + +Los administradores educativos de hoy en día se preocupan de controlar a profesores y estudiantes de modo que queden satisfechos unos terceros —fideicomisarios, legislaturas y jefes de empresas—. Los constructores y administradores de las redes antedichas tendrían que demostrar tener genio para ponerse a sí mismos y a terceras personas donde no estorbasen a la gente, para facilitar encuentros entre estudiantes, modelos de habilidades, líderes educativos y objetos educativos. Muchas de las personas a las que hoy atrae la enseñanza son profundamente autoritarias y no serían capaces de hacerse cargo de esta tarea: construir servicios o bolsas de intercambio educativo significaría facilitar a la gente —en especial a los jóvenes— el ir en pos de metas que pudieren contradecir los ideales del gerente que hiciese posible tal empeño. + +Si pudiesen hacer su aparición las redes que he descrito, el recorrido educativo que siguiese cada estudiante sería cosa suya o propia, y sólo mirado retrospectivamente podría adquirir las características de un programa reconocible. El estudiante sensato buscaría periódicamente el consejo profesional: ayuda para fijarse una nueva meta, comprensión penetrante de las dificultades habidas, elección entre algunos métodos posibles. Incluso ahora, la mayoría de las personas admitirán que los servicios importantes que les prestaron sus profesores fueron consejos o asesoramiento de esta especie, dados en una reunión casual o durante una conversación personal. En un mundo desescolarizado, los pedagogos también harían valer sus métodos y serían capaces de realizar aquello que los profesores frustrados pretenden emprender hoy en día. + +Mientras los administradores de redes se concentrarían principalmente en la construcción y el mantenimiento de cambios que dieran acceso a recursos, el pedagogo ayudaría al estudiante a hallar el sendero que le pudiese conducir a mayor velocidad hacia su meta. Si un estudiante quisiese aprender cantonés hablado de un vecino chino, el pedagogo estaría a mano para juzgar el aprovechamiento y pericia de ambos y para ayudarles a elegir el libro de texto y los métodos más adecuados para sus talentos, caracteres y tiempo disponible para estudiar. Podría aconsejar al mecánico de aviación en ciernes sobre los mejores lugares para practicar como aprendiz. Podría recomendar libros o alguno que quisiese hallar compañeros con garra para debatir sobre historia de África. Al igual que el administrador de redes, el consejero pedagógico se vería a sí mismo como un educador profesional. El acceso a cualquiera de ambos podrían lograrlo las personas usando sus bonos educativos. + +El papel del iniciador o líder educativo, del maestro o “verdadero” líder es algo más elusivo que el de administrador profesional o de pedagogo. Esto se debe a que el liderazgo es en sí algo difícil de definir. En la práctica, una persona es un líder si la gente sigue su iniciativa y se convierten en aprendices de sus descubrimientos progresivos. Esto frecuentemente presupone una visión profética de normas enteramente nuevas —muy comprensibles en el presente— en las cuales el “error” actual se convertirá en “acierto”. En una sociedad que respetaría el derecho a convocar asambleas a través del sistema de búsqueda de compañero, la capacidad de tomar la iniciativa educativa sobre un tema específico sería tan amplia como el acceso mismo al aprendizaje. Pero, naturalmente, hay una enorme diferencia entre la iniciativa que toma alguien para convocar una provechosa reunión para debatir este ensayo y la capacidad de alguien para servir de líder en la exploración sistemática de sus implicaciones. + +El liderazgo tampoco depende del hecho de estar en lo cierto. Tal como señala Thomas Kuhn, en un periodo de paradigmas en constante variación, la mayoría de los más distinguidos líderes tiene la probabilidad de haber incurrido en error cuando se someten a una prueba retrospectiva. La condición de líder intelectual se funda en una disciplina intelectual y una imaginación superiores, y en la disposición a asociarse con otros en el ejercicio de aquéllas. Por ejemplo, el aprendiz puede pensar que existe una analogía entre el Movimiento Antiesclavista de Estados Unidos o la Revolución cubana y lo que está ocurriendo en Harlem. El educador que sea al mismo tiempo historiador podría mostrarle cómo advertir las fallas de dicha analogía. Puede recorrer de nuevo su camino como historiador. Puede invitar al aprendiz a participar en las investigaciones que realice. En ambos casos iniciará a su alumno en el aprendizaje de un arte crítico —que es escaso en la escuela— y que no puede comprarse ni con dinero ni con favores. + +La relación entre maestro y discípulo no se limita a la disciplina intelectual. Tiene su equivalente en las artes, en física, en religión, en psicoanálisis y en pedagogía. Encaja en el montañismo, en la platería y en política, en ebanistería y en administración de personal. Lo que es común en todas las verdaderas relaciones maestro-discípulo es el hecho de que ambos tienen conciencia de que su mutua relación es literalmente inapreciable y de maneras muy diferentes constituye un privilegio para ambos. + +Los charlatanes, los demagogos, los proselitistas, los maestros corrompidos, los sacerdotes simoniacos, los pillos, los taumaturgos y los mesías han demostrado ser capaces de asumir el papel de líderes y han demostrado así los peligros que para un discípulo tiene la dependencia respecto del maestro. Las diversas sociedades han adoptado diversas medidas para protegerse de estos maestros falsificados. Los hindúes se apoyaron en el sistema de castas. Los judíos orientales, en la condición de discípulo espiritual de los rabinos, los grandes periodos de la cristiandad en una vida ejemplar de virtud monástica, y otros periodos en el orden jerárquico. Nuestra sociedad confía en los certificados dados por escuelas. Es dudoso que ese procedimiento constituya una criba más eficaz, pero si se pretendiese que lo es, podría alegarse en contra que lo hace al costo de casi hacer desaparecer la condición de discípulo personal. + +En la práctica el límite entre el profesor de habilidades y los líderes educadores antes señalados será siempre confuso, y no hay razones prácticas para que no pueda lograrse el acceso a ciertos líderes descubriendo al “maestro” en el profesor rutinario que inicia a unos estudiantes en su disciplina. + +Por otra parte, lo que caracteriza la verdadera relación maestro-discípulo es su carácter de inapreciable. Aristóteles dice de ella: “Es un tipo de amistad moral, no fundada en términos fijos: hace un regalo, o hace lo que hace, como a un amigo”. Tomás de Aquino dice de este tipo de enseñanza que inevitablemente es un acto de amor y de compasión. Este tipo de enseñanza es siempre un lujo para el profesor y una forma de recreación (en griego, _schole_) para él y para su discípulo: una actividad significativa para ambos, sin propósito ulterior. + +Contar con que haya personas dotadas dispuestas a proveer una auténtica dirección intelectual es obviamente necesario incluso en nuestra sociedad, pero podría dictarse como norma ahora. Debemos construir primero una sociedad en la cual los actos profesionales mismos recuperen un valor más elevado que el de hacer cosas y manipular gente. En una sociedad así, la enseñanza exploratoria, inventiva, creativa, se contaría lógicamente entre las formas más elevadas del “ocio”. Pero no es necesario esperar hasta el advenimiento de la utopía. Incluso ahora, una de las consecuencias más importantes de la desescolarización y del establecimiento de sistemas para búsqueda de compañero sería la iniciativa que algunos “maestros” pudiesen tomar para congregar discípulos que congeniasen. Daría también, como hemos visto, oportunidades amplias para que los discípulos en potencia compartiesen informaciones o seleccionasen un maestro. + +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones que pervierten una profesión al meter en un solo paquete varios papeles por desempeñar. Los hospitales hacen cada vez más imposible la atención en el hogar —y luego justifican la hospitalización como un beneficio para el enfermo—. Simultáneamente, la legitimidad y las posibilidades de ejercer de un médico vienen a depender de modo creciente de su asociación con un hospital, si bien su dependencia es mucho menor que la de los profesores respecto de las escuelas. Igual cosa podría decirse de los tribunales, que atiborran sus calendarios conforme nuevas transacciones adquieren solemnidad legal, demorando así la justicia. En cada uno de estos casos el resultado es un servicio escaso a un coste mayor, y un mayor ingreso para los miembros menos competentes de la profesión. + +Mientras las profesiones más antiguas monopolicen los mayores ingresos y prestigio, será difícil reformarlas. La profesión de maestro de escuela debiera ser fácil de reformar, no sólo debido a su origen más reciente. La profesión educativa pretende ahora un monopolio global; reclama ser la única competente para impartir el aprendizaje no sólo a sus propios novicios sino también a los de otras profesiones. Esta expansión excesiva la hace vulnerable ante cualquier otra profesión que reclame el derecho a enseñar a sus propios aprendices. Los maestros de escuela están abrumadoramente mal pagados y frustrados por la estrecha fiscalización del sistema escolar. Los más emprendedores y dotados de entre ellos hallarían probablemente un trabajo más simpático, una mayor independencia y hasta mejores ingresos al especializarse como modelos de habilidades, administradores de redes o especialistas en orientación. + +Finalmente, es más fácil romper la dependencia del alumno matriculado respecto del profesor diplomado que su dependencia de otros profesionales —por ejemplo, que la de un paciente hospitalizado respecto de su médico—. Si las escuelas dejaran de ser obligatorias, aquellos profesores cuya satisfacción reside en el ejercicio de la autoridad pedagógica en el aula se quedarían sólo con los alumnos para quienes fuese atractivo ese estilo. La desaparición de nuestra actual estructura profesional podría comenzar con la deserción del maestro de escuela. + +La desaparición de las escuelas ocurriría inevitablemente —y ocurriría a velocidad sorprendente—. No puede postergarse por más tiempo, y no hace ninguna falta promoverlo vigorosamente, porque ya está ocurriendo. Lo que vale la pena es tratar de orientarla en una dirección prometedora, pues puede dirigirse en dos direcciones diametralmente opuestas. + +La primera sería la ampliación del mandato del pedagogo y su control creciente sobre la sociedad, incluso fuera de la escuela. Con la mejor intención y tan sólo ampliando la retórica usada hoy como en las aulas, la crisis actual de las escuelas podría proporcionar a los educadores la excusa para usar todas las redes de la sociedad contemporánea para enviarnos sus mensajes —para nuestro bien—. La desescolarización que no podemos detener, podría significar el advenimiento de un “mundo feliz” dominado por algunos bien intencionados administradores de instrucción programada. + +Por otra parte, el hecho de que tanto los gobiernos como los empleados, los contribuyentes, los pedagogos despiertos y los administradores escolares advierten con creciente claridad que la enseñanza graduada de currícula en pro de unos certificados se ha hecho perjudicial, podría ofrecer a grandes masas humanas una oportunidad única: la de preservar el derecho de tener un acceso parejo a los instrumentos tanto para aprender, como para competir con otros lo que saben o creen. Pero esto exigiría que la revolución educativa estuviese guiada por ciertas metas: + +_1._ Liberar el acceso a las cosas, mediante la abolición del control que hoy ejercen unas personas e instituciones sobre sus valores educativos. + +_2._ Liberar la coparticipación de habilidades al garantizar la libertad de enseñarlas o de ejercitarlas a pedido. + +_3._ Liberar los recursos críticos y creativos de la gente por medio de un regreso a la capacidad de las personas para convocar y organizar reuniones —capacidad crecientemente monopolizada por instituciones que afirman estar al servicio del público—. + +_4._ Liberar al individuo de la obligación de moldear sus expectativas según los servicios ofrecidos por cualquier profesión establecida —proporcionándole la oportunidad de aprovechar la experiencia de sus iguales y de confiarse al profesor, guía, consejero o curandero de su elección—. La desescolarización de la sociedad difuminará inevitablemente las distinciones entre economía, educación y política, sobre las que se funda ahora la estabilidad del orden mundial y de las naciones. + +Nuestra reseña de las instituciones educativas nos lleva a modificar nuestra imagen del hombre. La criatura que las escuelas necesitan como cliente no tiene ni la autonomía ni la motivación para crecer por su cuenta. Podemos reconocer la escolarización como la culminación de una empresa prometeica, y hablar acerca de su alternativa refiriéndonos a un mundo adecuado para que en él viva un hombre epimeteico. Ya que nos es posible imaginar el reemplazo del embudo escolástico por una trama de intercambios y hacer que el mundo vuelva a ser visible mediante múltiples posibilidades de comunicación, sólo nos queda, al final de este esfuerzo, esperar que la naturaleza epimeteica del hombre aparezca, porque este renacimiento no depende de nuestros proyectos ni de nuestra voluntad. + +## Renacimiento del hombre epimeteico + +Nuestra sociedad se parece a la máquina implacable que una vez vi en una juguetería neoyorquina consistía en un cofrecillo metálico con un interruptor que, al tocarlo se abría de golpe descubriendo una mano mecánica. Unos dedos cromados se estiraban hacia la tapa y la cerraban desde el interior. Era una caja; uno esperaba poder sacar algo de ella, pero no contenía sino un mecanismo para cerrarla. Este artilugio es lo opuesto a la “caja” de Pandora. + +La Pandora original, “la dadora de todo”, era una diosa de la Tierra en la Grecia prehistórica y matriarcal que dejó escapar todos los males de su ánfora (_pythos_). Pero cerró la tapa antes de que pudiera escapar la esperanza. La historia del hombre moderno comienza con la degradación del mito de Pandora y llega a su término con el cofrecillo que se cierra solo. Es la historia del empeño prometeico por forjar instituciones a fin de encerrar los males desencadenados. Es la historia de una esperanza que declina y de unas expectativas crecientes. + +Para comprender lo que esto significa debemos redescubrir la diferencia entre expectativa y esperanza. Esperanza, en su sentido vigoroso, significa fe confiada en la bondad de la naturaleza; mientras expectativa, tal como la emplearé aquí, significa fiarse en resultados planificados y controlados por el hombre. La esperanza centra el deseo en una persona de la que aguardamos un regalo. La expectativa promete una satisfacción que proviene de un proceso predecible que producirá aquello que tenemos el derecho de exigir. El _ethos_ prometeico ha eclipsado actualmente la esperanza. La supervivencia de la raza humana depende de que se la descubra como fuerza social. + +La Pandora original fue enviada a la Tierra con un frasco que contenía todos los males; de las cosas buenas, contenía sólo la esperanza. El hombre primitivo vivía en este mundo de la esperanza. Para subsistir confiaba en la munificencia de la naturaleza, en los regalos de los dioses y en los instintos de su tribu. Los griegos del periodo clásico comenzaron a reemplazar la esperanza por las expectativas. En la versión que dieron de Pandora, ésta soltó tanto males como bienes. La recordaban principalmente por los males que había desencadenado. Y, lo que es más significativo, olvidaron que “la dadora de todo” era también la custodia de la esperanza. + +Los griegos contaban la historia de dos hermanos, Prometeo y Epimeteo. El primero advirtió al segundo que no se metiera con Pandora. Éste, en cambio, casó con ella. En la Grecia clásica, al nombre Epimeteo, que significa “percepción tardía” o “visión ulterior”, se le daba el significado de “lerdo” o “tonto”. Para la época en que Hesíodo relataba el cuento en su forma clásica, los griegos se habían convertido en patriarcas moralistas y misóginos que se espantaban ante el pensamiento de la primera mujer. Construyeron una sociedad racional y autoritaria. Los hombres proyectaron instituciones mediante las cuales programaron enfrentarse a todos los males desencadenados. Llegaron a percatarse de su poder para conformar el mundo y hacerlo producir servicios que aprendieron también a esperar. Querían que sus artefactos moldearan sus propias necesidades y las exigencias futuras de sus hijos. Se convirtieron en legisladores, arquitectos y autores, hacedores de constituciones, ciudades y obras de arte que sirviesen de ejemplo para su progenie. El hombre primitivo contaba con la participación mística en ritos sagrados para iniciar a los individuos en las tradiciones de la sociedad, pero los griegos clásicos reconocieron como verdaderos hombres sólo a aquellos ciudadanos que permitían que la _paideia_ (educación) los hiciera aptos para ingresar en las instituciones que sus mayores habían proyectado. + +El mito en desarrollo refleja la transición desde un mundo en que se _interpretaban_ los sueños a un mundo en que _se hacían_ oráculos. Desde tiempos inmemoriales, se había adorado a la diosa de la Tierra en las laderas del monte Parnaso, que era el centro y el ombligo de la tierra. Allí, en Delphos (de _delphys_ , la matriz), dormía Gaia, hermana de Caos y de Eros. Su hijo, Pitón, el dragón, cuidaba sus sueños lunares y húmedos de rocío, hasta que Apolo, el dios del Sol, el arquitecto de Troya, se alzó al Oriente, mató al dragón y se apoderó de la cueva de Gaia. Los sacerdotes de Apolo se hicieron cargo del templo de la diosa. Emplearon a una doncella de la localidad, la sentaron en un trípode, sobre el ombligo humeante de la tierra, y la adormecieron con emanaciones. Luego pusieron sus declaraciones extáticas en hexámetros rimados de profecías que se cumplían por la misma influencia que ejercían. De todo el Peloponeso venían hombres a traer sus problemas ante Apolo. Se consultaba el oráculo sobre posibles alternativas sociales, tales como las medidas que se debían adoptar frente a una peste o una hambruna, sobre cuál era la constitución conveniente para Esparta o cuáles los emplazamientos propicios para ciudades que más tarde se llamaron Bizancio y Caledonia. La flecha que nunca yerra se convirtió en un símbolo de Apolo. Todo lo referente a él adquirió un fin determinado y útil. + +En la _República_ , al describir el Estado ideal, Platón ya excluye la música popular. En las ciudades se permitiría sólo el arpa y la lira de Apolo, porque únicamente la armonía de éstas crea “la tensión de la necesidad y la tensión de la libertad, la tensión de lo infortunado y la tensión de lo afortunado, la tensión del valor y la tensión de la templanza, dignas del ciudadano”. Los habitantes de la ciudad se espantaron ante la flauta de Pan y su poder para despertar los instintos. Sólo “los pastores pueden tocar las flautas (de Pan) y esto sólo en el campo”. + +El hombre se hizo responsable de las leyes bajo las cuales quería vivir y de moldear el medio ambiente a su propia semejanza. La iniciación primitiva que daba la Madre Tierra a una vida mítica se transformó en la educación (_paideia_) del ciudadano que se sentiría a gusto en el foro. + +Para el primitivo, el mundo estaba regido por el destino, los hechos y la necesidad. Al robar el fuego de los dioses, Prometeo convirtió los hechos en problemas, puso en tela de juicio la necesidad y desafió al destino. El hombre clásico tramó un contexto civilizado para la perspectiva humana. Se percataba de que podía desafiar al trío destino-naturaleza-entorno, pero sólo bajo su propio riesgo. El hombre contemporáneo va aún más lejos; intenta crear el mundo a su semejanza, contribuir y planificar su entorno, y descubre entonces que sólo puede hacerlo a condición de rehacerse continuamente para ajustarse a él. Debemos enfrentarnos ahora al hecho de que es el hombre mismo el que está en juego. + +La vida en Nueva York produce una visión peculiar de lo que es y de lo que podría ser, y sin esta visión, la vida en Nueva York se hace imposible. En las calles de Nueva York, un niño jamás toca nada que no haya sido ideado, proyectado, planificado y vendido científicamente a alguien. Hasta los árboles están allí porque el Departamento de Parques así lo decidió. Los chistes que el niño escucha por televisión han sido programados a gran coste. La basura con que juega en las calles de Harlem está hecha de paquetes deshechos ideados para un tercero. Hasta los deseos y los temores están moldeados institucionalmente. El poder y la violencia están organizados y administrados: las pandillas, frente a la policía. El aprendizaje mismo se define como el consumo de una materia, que es el resultado de programas investigados, planificados y promocionados. Lo que allí haya de bueno, es el producto de alguna institución especializada. Sería tonto pedir algo que no pudiese producir alguna institución. El niño de la ciudad no puede esperar nada que esté más allá del posible desarrollo del proceso institucional. Hasta a su fantasía se le urge a producir ciencia ficción. Puede experimentar la sorpresa poética de lo no planificado sólo a través de sus encuentros con la “mugre”, el desatino o el fracaso: la cáscara de naranja en la cuneta, el charco en la calle, el quebrantamiento del orden, del programa o de la máquina son los únicos despegues para el vuelo de la fantasía creadora. El “viaje” se convierte en la única poesía al alcance de la mano. + +Como nada deseable hay que no haya sido planificado, el niño ciudadano pronto llega a la conclusión de que siempre podremos idear una institución para cada una de nuestras apetencias. Toma por descontado el poder del proceso para crear valor. Ya sea que la meta fuere juntarse con un compañero, integrar un barrio o adquirir habilidades de lectura, se la definirá de tal modo que su logro pueda proyectarse técnicamente. El hombre que sabe que nada que está en demanda deja de producirse llega pronto a esperar que nada de lo que se produce pueda carecer de demanda. Si puede proyectarse un vehículo lunar, también puede proyectarse la demanda de viajes a la Luna. No ir donde uno puede sería subversivo. Desenmascararía, mostrándola como una locura, la suposición de que cada demanda satisfecha trae consigo el descubrimiento de otra, mayor aún, e insatisfecha. Esa percepción detendría el progreso. No producir lo que es posible dejaría a la ley de las “expectativas crecientes” al descubierto, en calidad de eufemismo para expresar una brecha creciente de frustración, que es el motor de la sociedad, fundado en la coproducción de servicios y en la demanda creciente. + +El estado mental del habitante de la ciudad moderna aparece en la tradición mitológica sólo bajo la imagen del Infierno: Sísifo, que por un tiempo había encadenado a Tánatos (la muerte), debe empujar una pesada roca cerro arriba hasta el pináculo del Infierno, y la piedra siempre se escapa de sus manos cuando está a punto de llegar a la cima. Tántalo, a quien los dioses invitaron a compartir la comida olímpica, y que aprovechó la ocasión para robarles el secreto de la preparación de la ambrosía que todo lo cura, sufre hambre y sed eternas, de pie en un río cuyas aguas se le escapan y a la sombra de árboles cuyos frutos no alcanza. Un mundo de demandas siempre crecientes no sólo es malo; el único término adecuado para nombrarlo es “Infierno”. + +El hombre ha desarrollado la frustradora capacidad de pedir cualquier cosa porque no puede visualizar nada que una institución no pueda hacer por él. Rodeado por herramientas todopoderosas, el hombre queda reducido a ser instrumento de sus instrumentos. Cada una de las instituciones ideadas para exorcizar alguno de los males primordiales se ha convertido en un ataúd a prueba de errores y de cierre automático y hermético para el hombre. El hombre está atrapado en las cajas que fabrica para encerrar los males que Pandora dejó escapar. El oscurecimiento de la realidad por el _smog_ producido por nuestras propias herramientas nos rodea. Súbitamente nos hallamos en la oscuridad de nuestra propia trampa. + +Hasta la realidad ha llegado a depender de la decisión humana. El mismo presidente que ordenó la ineficaz invasión de Camboya podría ordenar de igual manera el uso eficaz del átomo. El “interruptor Hiroshima” puede cortar hoy el ombligo de la tierra. El hombre ha adquirido el poder de hacer que Caos anonade a Eros y a Gaia. Esta nueva capacidad del hombre, el poder cortar el ombligo de la tierra, es un recuerdo constante de que nuestras instituciones no sólo crean sus propios fines, sino que tienen también el poder de señalar su propio fin y el nuestro. El absurdo de las instituciones modernas se evidencia en el caso de la institución militar. Las armas modernas pueden defender la libertad, la civilización y la vida únicamente aniquilándolas. En lenguaje militar, seguridad significa la capacidad de eliminar la Tierra. + +El absurdo subyacente en las instituciones no militares no es menos manifiesto. No hay en ellas un interruptor que active sus poderes destructores, pero tampoco lo necesitan. Sus dedos ya atenazan la tapa del mundo. Crean a mayor velocidad necesidades que satisfacciones, y en el proceso de tratar de satisfacer las necesidades que engendran, consumen la tierra. Esto vale para la agricultura y la manufactura, y no menos para la medicina y la educación. La agricultura moderna envenena y agota el suelo. La “revolución verde” puede, mediante nuevas semillas, triplicar la producción de una hectárea —pero sólo con un aumento proporcionalmente mayor de fertilizantes, insecticidas, agua y energía—. Fabricar estas cosas, como los demás bienes, contamina los océanos y la atmósfera y degrada recursos irreemplazables. Si la combustión continúa aumentando según los índices actuales, pronto consumiremos el oxígeno de la atmósfera sin poder reemplazarlo con igual presteza. No tenemos razones para creer que la fisión o la fusión puedan reemplazar la combustión sin peligros iguales o mayores. Los expertos en medicina reemplazan a las parteras y prometen convertir al hombre en otra cosa: genéticamente planificado, farmacológicamente endulzado y capaz de enfermedades más prolongadas. El ideal contemporáneo es un mundo panhigiénico: un mundo en el que todos los contactos entre los hombres, y entre los hombres y su mundo, sean el resultado de la previsión y la manipulación. La escuela se ha convertido en el proceso planificado que labra al hombre para un mundo planificado, en la trampa principal para entrampar al hombre en la trampa humana. Se supone que moldea a cada hombre a un nivel adecuado para desempeñar un papel en este juego mundial. De manera inexorable, cultivamos, elaboramos, producimos y escolarizamos el mundo hasta acabar con él. + +La institución militar es evidentemente absurda. Más difícil se hace enfrentar el absurdo de las instituciones no militares. Es aún más aterrorizante, precisamente porque funciona inexorablemente. Sabemos qué interruptor debe quedar abierto para evitar un holocausto atómico. No hay interruptor para detener un apocalipsis ecológico. + +En la antigüedad clásica, el hombre descubrió que el mundo podía forjarse según los planes del hombre, y, junto con este descubrimiento, advirtió que ello era inherentemente precario, dramático y cómico. Fueron creándose las instituciones democráticas y dentro de su estructura se supuso que el hombre era digno de confianza. Lo que se esperaba del debido proceso legal y la confianza en la naturaleza humana se mantenía en equilibrio recíproco. Se desarrollaron las profesiones tradicionales y con ellas las instituciones necesarias para el ejercicio de aquéllas. + +Subrepticiamente, la confianza en el proceso institucional ha reemplazado la dependencia respecto de la buena voluntad humana personal. El mundo ha perdido su dimensión humana y ha readquirido la necesidad de los tiempos primitivos. Pero mientras el caos de los bárbaros estaba constantemente ordenado en nombre de dioses misteriosos y antropomórficos, hoy en día la única razón que puede ofrecerse para que el mundo esté como está es la planificación del hombre. El hombre se ha convertido en el juguete de científicos, ingenieros y planificadores. + +Vemos esta lógica en otros y en nosotros mismos. Conozco una aldea mexicana en la que no pasa más de media docena de autos cada día. Un mexicano estaba jugando al dominó sobre la nueva carretera asfaltada frente a su casa —en donde probablemente se había sentado y había jugado desde muchacho—. Un coche pasó velozmente y lo mató. El turista que me informó del hecho estaba profundamente conmovido y, sin embargo, dijo: “Tenía que sucederle”. + +A primera vista, la observación del turista no difiere de la de un bosquimano que relata la muerte de algún fulano que se hubiera topado con un tabú y por consiguiente hubiera muerto. Pero las dos afirmaciones poseen significados diferentes. El primitivo puede culpar a alguna entidad trascendente, tremenda y ciega, mientras el turista está pasmado ante la inexorable lógica de la máquina. El primitivo no siente responsabilidad; el turista la siente, pero la niega. Tanto en el primitivo como en el turista están ausentes la modalidad clásica del drama, el estilo de la tragedia, la lógica del empeño individual y de la rebelión. El hombre primitivo no ha llegado a tener conciencia de ello, y el turista la ha perdido. El mito del bosquimano y el mito del norteamericano están compuestos ambos de fuerzas inertes, inhumanas. Ninguno de los dos experimenta una rebeldía trágica. Para el bosquimano, el suceso se ciñe a las leyes de la magia, para el norteamericano se ciñe a las leyes de la ciencia. El suceso le pone bajo el hechizo de las leyes de la mecánica, que para él gobiernan los sucesos físicos, sociales y psicológicos. + +El estado de ánimo de 1971 es propicio para un cambio importante de dirección en busca de un futuro esperanzador. A las metas institucionales las contradicen continuamente los resultados institucionales. El programa para la pobreza produce más pobres, la guerra en Asia acrecienta los Vietcong, la ayuda técnica engendra más subdesarrollo. Las clínicas para control de nacimientos incrementan los índices de supervivencia y provocan aumentos de población; las escuelas producen más desertores, y el atajar un tipo de contaminación suele aumentar otro tipo. + +Los consumidores se enfrentan al claro hecho de que cuanto más pueden comprar, tanto más engaño han de tragar. Hasta hace poco parecía lógico que pudiera echarse la culpa de esta inflación pandémica de disfunciones ya fuese al retraso de los descubrimientos científicos respecto de las exigencias tecnológicas, ya fuese a la perversidad de los enemigos étnicos, ideológicos o de clase. Han declinado las expectativas tanto respecto de un milenario científico como de una guerra que acabe con las guerras. + +Para el consumidor avezado no hay manera de regresar a una ingenua confianza en las tecnologías mágicas. Demasiadas personas han tenido la experiencia de computadoras que se descomponen, infecciones hospitalarias y saturación dondequiera que haya tráfico en la carretera, en el aire o en el teléfono. Hace apenas 10 años, la sabiduría convencional preveía una mejor vida fundada en los descubrimientos científicos. Ahora, los científicos asustan a los niños. Los viajes a la Luna proporcionan una fascinante demostración de que el fallo humano puede casi eliminarse entre los operarios de sistemas complejos —sin embargo, esto no mitiga los temores ante la posibilidad de que un fallo humano que consista en no consumir conforme a las instrucciones pueda escapar a todo control—. + +Para el reformador social tampoco hay modo de regresar a las premisas de la década de los años cuarenta. Se ha desvanecido la esperanza de que el problema de distribuir con justicia los bienes pueda evadirse creándolos en abundancia. El coste de la cesta mínima que satisfaga los gustos contemporáneos se ha ido a las nubes, y lo que hace que un gusto sea moderno es el hecho de que aparezca como anticuado antes de haber sido satisfecho. + +Los límites de los recursos de la tierra ya se han evidenciado. Ninguna nueva avenida de la ciencia o la tecnología podría proveer a cada hombre del mundo de los bienes y servicios de que disponen ahora los pobres de los países ricos. Por ejemplo, se precisaría extraer 100 veces las cantidades actuales de hierro, estaño, cobre y plomo para lograr esa meta, incluso con la alternativa tecnológica más “liviana”. + +Por fin, los profesores, médicos y trabajadores sociales caen en la cuenta de que sus diversos tratamientos profesionales tienen un aspecto —por lo menos— en común: crean nuevas demandas para los tratamientos profesionales que proporcionan, a una mayor rapidez con la que pueden proporcionar instituciones de servicio. + +Se está haciendo sospechosa no sólo una parte, sino la lógica misma de la sabiduría convencional. Incluso las leyes de la economía parecen poco convincentes fuera de los estrechos parámetros aplicables a la región social y geográfica en la que se encuentra la mayor parte del dinero. En efecto, el dinero es el circulante más barato, pero sólo en una economía encaminada hacia una eficiencia medida en términos monetarios. Tanto los países capitalistas como los comunistas en sus diversas formas están dedicados a medir la eficiencia en relación con el coste/beneficio expresado en dólares. El capitalismo se jacta de un nivel más elevado de vida para afirmar su superioridad. El comunismo hace alarde de una mayor tasa de crecimiento como índice de su triunfo final. Pero bajo cualquiera de ambas ideologías el coste total de aumentar la eficiencia se incrementa geométricamente. Las instituciones de mayor tamaño compiten con fiereza por los recursos que no están anotados en ningún inventario: el aire, el océano, el silencio, la luz del sol y la salud. Ponen en evidencia la escasez de estos recursos ante la opinión pública sólo cuando están casi irremediablemente degradados. Por doquiera, la naturaleza se vuelve ponzoñosa, la sociedad inhumana, la vida interior se ve invadida y la vocación personal ahogada. + +Una sociedad dedicada a la institucionalización de los valores identifica la producción de bienes y servicios con la demanda de los mismos. La educación que le hace a uno necesitar el producto está incluida en el precio del producto. La escuela es la agencia de publicidad que le hace a uno creer que necesita la sociedad tal y como está. En dicha sociedad el valor marginal ha llegado a ser constantemente autotrascendente. Obliga a los consumidores más grandes —son pocos— a competir por tener el poder de agotar la tierra, por llenarse sus propias panzas hinchadas, por disciplinar a los consumidores de menor tamaño, y por poner fuera de acción a quienes aún encuentran satisfacción en arreglárselas con lo que tienen. El _ethos_ de la insaciabilidad es por tanto la fuente misma de la depredación física, de la polarización social y de la pasividad psicológica. + +Cuando los valores se han institucionalizado en procesos planificados y técnicamente construidos, los miembros de la sociedad moderna creen que la buena vida consiste en tener instituciones que definan los valores que tanto ellos como su sociedad creen que necesitan. El valor institucional puede definirse como el nivel de producción de una institución. El valor correspondiente del hombre se mide por su capacidad para consumir y degradar estas producciones institucionales y crear así una demanda nueva —y aún mayor—. El valor del hombre institucionalizado depende de su capacidad como incinerador. Para emplear una imagen, ha llegado a ser el ídolo de sus artesanías. El hombre se autodefiende ahora como el horno en que se queman los valores producidos por sus herramientas. Y no hay límites para su voracidad. Su acto es el acto de Prometeo llevado al extremo. + +El agotamiento y la contaminación de los recursos de la tierra es, por encima de todo, el resultado de una corrupción de la imagen que el hombre tiene de sí mismo, de una regresión en su conciencia. Algunos tienden a hablar acerca de una mutación de la conciencia colectiva que conduce a concebir al hombre como un organismo que no depende de la naturaleza y de las personas, sino más bien de instituciones. Esta institucionalización de valores esenciales, esta creencia en que un proceso planificado de tratamiento da finalmente unos resultados deseados por quien recibe el tratamiento, este _ethos_ de consumidor, se halla en el núcleo mismo de la falacia prometeica. + +Los empeños por encontrar un nuevo equilibrio en el medio ambiente global dependen de la desinstitucionalización de los valores. La sospecha de que algo estructural anda mal en la visión del _homo faber_ es común en una creciente minoría de países tanto capitalistas como comunistas y “subdesarrollados”. Esta sospecha es la característica compartida por una nueva élite. A ella pertenece gente de todas las clases, ingresos, creencias y civilizaciones. Se han vuelto suspicaces respecto de los mitos de la mayoría: de las utopías científicas, del diabolismo ideológico y de la expectativa de que la distribución de bienes y servicios se hará con igualdad. Comparten con la mayoría la sensación de estar atrapados, de percatarse de que la mayor parte de las nuevas pautas adoptadas por amplio consenso conducen a resultados que se oponen descaradamente a sus metas propuestas. No obstante, mientras la mayoría de los prometeicos astronautas en ciernes sigue evadiendo el problema fundamental, la minoría emergente se muestra crítica respecto del _deus ex machina_ científico, de la panacea ideológica y de la cacería de diablos y brujas. Esta minoría comienza a dar forma a su sospecha de que nuestros constantes engaños nos atan a las instituciones contemporáneas como las cadenas ataban a Prometeo a su roca. La esperanza, la confianza y la ironía (_eironeia_) clásica deben conspirar para dejar al descubierto la falacia prometeica. + +Solía pensarse que Prometeo significaba “previsión” y aun llegó a traducirse por “aquel que hace avanzar la Estrella Polar”. Privó astutamente a los dioses del monopolio del fuego, enseñó a los hombres a usarlo para forjar el hierro, se convirtió en el dios de los tecnólogos y terminó con cadenas de hierro. + +La Pitonisa de Delfos fue reemplazada por una computadora que se cierne sobre cuadros de instrumentos y tarjetas perforadas. Los exámenes del oráculo cedieron el paso a los códigos de programación. El timonel humano entregó el rumbo a la máquina cibernética. Emerge la máquina definitiva para dirigir nuestros destinos. Los niños se imaginan volando en sus máquinas espaciales, lejos de una Tierra crepuscular. + +Mirando desde las perspectivas del Hombre de la Luna, Prometeo pudo reconocer a Gaia como el planeta de la Esperanza y como el Arco de la Humanidad. Un sentido nuevo de la finitud de la Tierra y una nueva nostalgia pueden ahora abrir los ojos del hombre y hacerle ver por qué su hermano Epimeteo, al desposar a Pandora, eligió desposar a la Tierra. + +Al llegar aquí el mito griego se convierte en esperanzada profecía, pues nos dice que el hijo de Prometeo fue Deucalión, el Timonel del Arca, quien, como Noé, navegó sobre el Diluvio para convertirse en el padre de la humanidad nueva que, con ayuda de Pirra, hija de Epimeteo y de Pandora, sacó de la tierra. Por ello nos es necesario comprender el sentido de ese Pithos que Pandora obtuvo de los dioses y que es el inverso de la Caja: nuestro Vaso y nuestra Arca. + +Necesitamos ahora un nombre para quienes valoran más la esperanza que las expectativas. Necesitamos un nombre para quienes aman más a la gente que a los productos, para aquellos que creen que + +``` +No hay personas sin interés. +Sus destinos son como la crónica de los planetas. + +Nada en ellos deja de ser peculiar +y los planetas son distintos unos y otros. +``` + +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que aman la tierra en la que podemos encontrarnos unos con otros, + +``` +Y si un hombre viviese en la oscuridad +haciendo amistades en esa oscuridad, +la oscuridad no carecería de interés. +``` + +Necesitamos un nombre para aquellos que colaboran con su hermano Prometeo en alumbrar el fuego y en dar forma al hierro, pero que lo hacen para acrecentar así su capacidad de entender y cuidar y ser guardián del prójimo, sabiendo que + +``` +para cada cual su mundo es privado, +y en ese mundo la maravilla de un minuto, +y en ese mundo lo trágico de un minuto, +que son mis propios bienes. +``` + +[^n19] A esto hermanos y hermanas esperanzados sugiero llamarlos hombres epimeteicos. + +## Apéndice: una elección que hacer + +De generación en generación nos hemos esforzado por llegar a la educación de un mundo mejor y para hacerlo hemos desarrollado sin cesar la escolaridad. Hasta ahora, la empresa se ha pagado con un fracaso. ¿Y qué hemos aprendido si no es a constreñir a los niños para que suban la escalera sin fin de la educación que, lejos de conducir a la igualdad buscada, sólo favorece al que se adelantó a los otros o al que tiene mejor salud o al que se beneficia de una mejor preparación? Peor aún, la enseñanza obligatoria parece minar la voluntad personal de aprender. Por último, al saber considerado como una mercancía, que hay que almacenar y distribuir, pronto se le considera como un bien sometido a las garantías de la propiedad individual y, por lo mismo, tiende a volverse escaso. + +Comenzamos a percibir que este esfuerzo por desarrollar la educación pública mediante una escolaridad obligatoria está a punto de perder su legitimidad desde el punto de vista social, pedagógico y económico. Frente a esta crisis, los espíritus críticos no se contentan ya con remedios clásicos, ¡sino que proponen unos mucho más violentos! Imaginan, por ejemplo, sistemas de crédito educativo que permitirían a cada uno comprar la educación de su elección en un mercado no controlado, o bien, proponen retirarle a las escuelas la responsabilidad en materia de educación para dársela a los medios modernos de información y al aprendizaje en los sitios de trabajo. Algunos, aislados, entrevén la necesidad de destruir los fundamentos institucionales de la escuela, como le sucedió a la Iglesia en el transcurso de los dos últimos siglos. Ciertos reformadores proponen reemplazar la escuela universal por nuevos y diferentes sistemas que pretenden preparar mejor para la vida en una sociedad moderna… En síntesis, estamos frente a una elección: podemos contentarnos con desmantelar las escuelas o podemos ir más lejos y desescolarizar por completo la sociedad. + +Todas esas proposiciones en favor de instituciones educativas nuevas se reparten, de hecho, en tres categorías: las reformas que llevan al “salón de clases” sin tocar el sistema escolar; luego, la dispersión de clases “liberadas” en toda la sociedad; por último, la transformación de la misma sociedad en un inmenso salón de clases. Pero estos tres enfoques del problema —clase reformada, liberada o que englobe al mundo entero— los consideramos como tres etapas de la escalada del proceso educativo a través de las cuales se afirmará la empresa de un control todavía más sutil y más invasor del que habrá reemplazado. + +Si por mi parte estoy convencido de que conviene poner un término al reino de la escuela (desenlace que, por otra parte, creo ineluctable), es porque me parece que esta desaparición de una convicción ilusoria nos debería llenar de esperanza. Sin embargo, no estoy por ello menos consciente de que, llegados a este término de la “era escolar”, podríamos muy bien entrar en la de una escuela totalitaria que sólo el nombre distinguiría del asilo de alienados o de un campo de concentración donde educación, corrección y reajuste serían por fin sinónimos. Creo, en consecuencia, que el desmantelamiento de la escuela nos fuerza a ver más allá de su inminente desaparición y nos constriñe a enfrentar las posibilidades fundamentales de elección en materia de educación: ya sea que elijamos trabajar en la constitución de un arsenal educativo aterrador, con el objeto de acrecentar de golpe la fuerza de una enseñanza que trata de un mundo sin cesar más ensombrecido, más amenazador para el hombre; ya sea que intentemos poner en orden las condiciones necesarias para el surgimiento de una nueva era donde la tecnología se pondrá al servicio de una sociedad más simple, más transparente, de suerte que todos los hombres puedan descubrir lo que los rodea y servirse de las herramientas que hoy en día dan forma a sus propias vidas. + + +### La enseñanza oculta de las escuelas + +Debemos distinguir entre “educación” y “escolaridad” si queremos ver surgir más claramente esa elección que se nos ofrece. Comprendo que conviene distinguir entre los objetivos humanistas del profesor y los efectos inherentes a la estructura inalterable de la escuela. Con toda seguridad esta estructura no es evidente a primera vista, pero sólo su existencia explica cierta forma de instrucción transmitida a todos y que escapa al control del docente o del consejo de profesores. En efecto, un mensaje se inscribe indeleble: sólo la escolaridad es capaz de preparar la entrada en la sociedad. Por ello, lo que no se enseña en la escuela se le retira su valor y, por lo mismo ¡lo que se aprende fuera de ella no vale la pena conocerse! Eso es lo que llamo la enseñanza oculta de las escuelas que define los límites en los cuales se efectúan los pretendidos cambios de programas. + +Sin defendernos de ella, esta enseñanza no varía de una escuela a otra ni de un lugar a otro. En todas partes los niños deben congregarse en grupos, según la edad; luego, alrededor de 30 toman su lugar frente a un profesor diplomado en razón de 150, incluso 1 000 horas, al año o más, No importa si el programa oficial intenta enseñar los principios del fascismo o del liberalismo, del catolicismo o del socialismo, o si pretende ponerse al servicio de una “liberación”, ya que en todos los casos la institución se arroga el derecho de definir las actividades propias que conducen a una “educación” legitima. Poco importa, igualmente, si el objetivo confesado de la escuela es producir ciudadanos soviéticos o norteamericanos, mecánicos o médicos, en la medida en que sin el diploma no se es un ciudadano verdadero o un doctor reconocido… Aunque todas las reuniones no se hagan en el mismo recinto, aunque incluso se consideren, de una manera o de otra, necesarias (cortar caña es trabajo del cañero; reformarse, el del prisionero, y seguir una parte del programa, el de los estudiantes), no hay en lo anterior ninguna diferencia. + +Nos enfrentamos a una especie de directiva secreta que quiere que los estudiantes aprendan antes que nada que la educación sólo tiene valor una vez que se adquirió en el seno de la universidad mediante un método graduado de consumo, y se le promete que el éxito social dependerá de la cantidad de saber consumido, Están convencidos de que vale mucho más instruirse a distancia de lo que es el mundo. El hecho de que la escolaridad imponga esta regla secreta en un programa educativo la distingue inmediatamente de otras formas de educación planificada. Todos los sistemas escolares del planeta tienen características comunes en relación con su rendimiento institucional y la razón de ello es ese “programa oculto” común a todas las escuelas. + +Hay que entender bien que ese programa oculto modifica la concepción que tenemos de la adquisición del saber y hace de la actividad personal una mercancía de la que la escuela cree detentar el monopolio. A un bien de consumo le damos hoy en día el nombre de “educación”: un producto cuya fabricación la asegura una institución oficial llamada “escuela”. En consecuencia, henos ahí con el fin de medir la duración y el costo del tratamiento aplicado al estudiante (en Estados Unidos, el diplomado de una pequeña universidad regional y el de uno de los colegios de la “liga de la hieda”[^n20] tienen cubiertos los mismos 135 “créditos”,[^n21] ¡pero están plenamente conscientes de la diferente cotización de sus “títulos” en la bolsa de valores educativos!). + +En todos los países convertidos al ideal escolar, el saber se considera como un bien de primera necesidad, como un asunto de sobrevivencia y, de la misma forma, como una moneda de cambio más fácilmente convertible que los rublos y los dólares. Cuando hablamos de alienación estamos de tal manera habituados al vocabulario marxista que sólo pensamos frecuentemente en la del trabajador en relación con su trabajo desde la perspectiva de una sociedad de clases; hoy en día nos sería necesario reconocer otra forma de la alienación, la del hombre frente al saber cuando este último, transformado en producto de un servicio, hace de quien lo adquiere un consumidor. + +Entre más educación “consume” un ser humano, más hace fructificar su posesión y se eleva en la jerarquía de los capitalistas del conocimiento. La educación definió una nueva pirámide de clases, en la medida en que los grandes consumidores de saber —esos portadores de bonos del tesoro del conocimiento— pueden inmediatamente pretender dar servicios de un valor más eminente a su sociedad. Ellos representan las inversiones seguras en el portafolio del capital humano de una sociedad y sólo ellos tienen un pronto acceso a las herramientas más poderosas o menos extendidas de la producción. + +De esa manera, ese programa secreto definió implícitamente la naturaleza de la educación: permite medirla y establecer qué nivel de productividad da derecho a su consumo. Disponemos entonces de la posibilidad de justificar la creciente correlación entre los empleos y los privilegios que manan de ellos. En ciertas sociedades esos privilegios se conocerán bajo la forma de ingresos personales más considerables; en otras, será un acceso fácil a servicios todavía poco desarrollados o a una formación más favorecida, sin olvidar un creciente prestigio (por otra parte, en el momento mismo en que, en nombre de la educación, se reclaman crecientes privilegios, la fosa entre la formación y la competencia profesional se acrecienta, como lo muestran ciertos estudios, en particular el de Ivar Berg, _La educación y los empleos, la gran estafa de la formación_). + +Querer hacer pasar a todos los seres humanos por las etapas sucesivas de la adquisición del saber nos lleva a recordar la búsqueda de los alquimistas y a mirar bien ahí: en el “gran arte” del final de la Edad Media encontraremos con toda seguridad los orígenes profundos de la idea de escolaridad. Consideramos a justo título que Jan Amos Komensky fue uno de los grandes precursores de las teorías de la escuela moderna. Más conocido con el nombre de Comenius, Jan Amos era obispo de Moravia y se decía “pansofista” y pedagogo. En su _Didactica Magna_ describe las escuelas como medios para “enseñar todo a todo el mundo” y podemos ver en él como un anteproyecto de la producción en la cadena del saber, ya que quería hacer la educación a la vez mejor y menos costosa, con el fin de permitir a todos el acceso a la condición de hombre. Pero sería insuficiente ver en Comenius una suerte de predecesor de nuestros expertos en métodos pedagógicos. Experto en alquimia, utilizaba su jerga para describir el arte de educar a los niños. Como se sabe, los alquimistas buscaban trasmutar el plomo vil, los elementos vulgares, en oro, haciendo pasar sus espíritus destilados por las 12 etapas del enriquecimiento. Es evidente que si veían en eso una manera de enriquecerse a sí mismos, pretendían trabajar en nombre del interés general, y sus sucesivos fracasos no los desalentaban, ya que su “ciencia” les permitía encontrar en ella las razones y justificar la continuación de sus esfuerzos. + +En esta perspectiva, la pedagogía abría un nuevo capítulo en la historia de la _Ars Magna_ : la educación se volvía, en efecto, la búsqueda de una especie de método alquímico destinado a hacer surgir un nuevo tipo de hombre capaz de adaptarse a un medio creado por la magia científica. Y, al igual que en la alquimia, cualquiera que fuera la suma consagrada a cada generación para edificar escuelas, el resultado es que la mayoría de aquellos a los que se les enseña no responden a esa “afinación” y pronto hay que rechazarlos como no aptos para existir en un mundo concebido por el hombre. + +Los reformadores en materia de educación que admiten el fracaso de las escuelas se reparten en tres categorías. Los más respetables son seguramente los grandes maestros en alquimia que prometen mejores escuelas; los más seductores, esos magos populares que anuncian la transformación de cada cocina en un laboratorio alquímico; los más aterradores, esos nuevos “masones” del universo que buscan transformar el mundo en un vasto templo de la enseñanza. + +Veamos, en particular, entre esos maestros alquimistas del momento, a los directores de investigación que emplean o patrocinan las grandes fundaciones. Están persuadidos de que las escuelas, si pudieran de alguna manera mejorarse, se volverían empresas más económicamente viables que venderían un más vasto conjunto de servicios. En cuanto a aquellos cuyo interés se dirige hacia los programas, pretenden que éstos no están adaptados o están sobrepasados. De esa manera se conciben nuevos programas en los que se introducen mercancías al gusto del momento: cultura africana, imperialismo norteamericano, liberación femenina, contaminación o sociedad de consumo. Se denuncia la pasividad (con toda seguridad es un mal) y, para remediarla, se concede a los estudiantes que ellos mismos decidan lo que quieren que se les enseñe y de qué manera. Algunos dicen que las escuelas son prisiones y, en consecuencia, se aconseja a los jefes de establecimientos dar su asentimiento a salidas educativas: un horizonte de pupitres y de muros se sustituye, por ejemplo, por una calle de Harlem cuidadosamente delimitada. Por último, la psicología está de moda y se instaura la terapia de grupos en el salón de clases. La escuela, que se consideraba el todo aprender de todos, se vuelve hoy en día el universo de todos los niños. + +Otros críticos se levantan para subrayar que las escuelas no utilizan suficientemente los recursos de la ciencia moderna. Surge el deseo de que los hombres de ciencia inventen algún medicamento que consuman los niños para que el instructor pueda modificar más fácilmente sus comportamientos. Se habla de transformar las escuelas en casinos educativos. Hay quienes quisieran “electrificar” el salón de clases y, por poco que crean ser buenos discípulos de McLuhan, helos ahí reemplazando el pizarrón y los manuales por _happenings_ en los que se ofrece toda la batería de aparatos de comunicación. Si admiran a Skinner, afirman que la aplicación de sus teorías permitirá una acción más eficaz sobre el comportamiento de los estudiantes que la de los antiguos maestros, hoy pasados de moda. + +Que algunas de estas reformas tengan efectos felices, es innegable. La práctica de la escuela tradicional está en un fuerte proceso de disminución en las escuelas experimentales. A veces los padres tienen un sentimiento mayor de participación. Los alumnos designados por sus profesores para seguir cursillos de aprendizaje adquieren frecuentemente un mayor _savoir faire_[^n22] que el de sus camaradas que permanecen en clase (conocí niños que mejoraban sus conocimientos de español en el laboratorio de lengua, porque preferían jugar con los botones de las grabadoras que conversar con sus iguales puertorriqueños). Sin embargo, todas esas mejoras intervienen en límites estrechos y previsibles, ya que no llegan al programa oculto de las escuelas. + +A algunos reformadores les gustaría liberarse de esa regla secreta de las escuelas públicas, pero sólo lo logran raras veces. Las escuelas “activas”, que conducen al desarrollo de otras escuelas del mismo tipo, sólo crean una engañosa ilusión: la liberación permanece como un espejismo, incluso si la constricción a los cursos obligatorios se interrumpe con frecuencia por periodos de ociosidad. Que se busque agradar a alguien para convencerlo de asistir a los cursos es, bien mirado, ¡más insidioso todavía que la obligación legal y el apoyo de la brigada de los menores! Mejor que una presencia consentida a disgusto, la que embauca lleva más fácilmente a creer en la necesidad del tratamiento educativo. El docente tolerante hace al alumno correr un creciente riesgo de sentirse incapaz de vivir fuera del refugio acolchado. + +¿En qué difiere la enseñanza suministrada en las nuevas escuelas? Aunque se facilite por el consenso de un grupo, más que por los decretos del cuerpo docente, se trata siempre de adquirir competencias que la sociedad reconoce, lo que no cambia en nada el problema. La apariencia cambia; la realidad profunda permanece. + +Para ser verdaderas escuelas de libertad, les sería necesario llenar dos condiciones. En primer lugar, deben administrarse de tal suerte que no permitan a la regla secreta de la enseñanza aplicarse, es decir, que los escolares, definidos como tales, ubicados frente a profesores reconocidos, no asistan a una sucesión de cursos graduados. En segundo lugar, esas escuelas deberían proporcionar un marco en el que todos los participantes, docentes y alumnos, puedan liberarse de los postulados sobre los que reposa, sin que lo sepamos, una sociedad escolarizada. A veces escuchamos enunciar la primera condición en los objetivos que se propone una escuela “activa”. En cuanto a la segunda, por lo general no se le pone atención, y ciertamente no es el objetivo de esas escuelas. + + +### Los postulados secretos de la educación + +No es necesario, en esta fase, distinguir entre la regla secreta y aquélla sobre la que, sin darnos cuenta, se funda la idea de la escolaridad. El programa oculto constituye una especie de ritual iniciático que podemos concebir como un preparativo para el ingreso en la sociedad moderna. Por intermedio de la escuela el programa adquiere su dimensión institucional. Detrás del velo de la ceremonia ritual, las contradicciones se encuentran disimuladas para los participantes. ¿Cómo, en efecto, conciliar el mito de una sociedad igualitaria y la realidad social fundada en el reconocimiento de un orden jerárquico que finalmente el rito impone? Pero una vez reconocidos en lo que son, los ritos ya no llegan a mantener la ilusión; ese fenómeno es aparente en el caso de la escolaridad. No obstante, la ceremonia reposa sobre postulados aceptados inconscientemente a los que las escuelas “privadas” podrían dar nuevo vigor. + +A primera vista, se nos reprochará que hagamos un juicio de orden general sobre las escuelas “activas” y más precisamente, en 1971, sobre las de Estados Unidos, las de Canadá y las de Alemania del Oeste en donde ellas parecen querer ser el más hermoso adorno de un renacimiento. A decir verdad, nuestra generalización sólo se dirige a las empresas experimentales que pretenden ser instituciones educativas. Para evitar cualquier menosprecio debemos examinar con más atención la relación que hay entre “educación” y “escolaridad”. + +Con mucha frecuencia olvidamos que la educación no es una invención antigua. Ese sustantivo se desconocía antes de la Reforma. En Francia se habla por vez primera de la educación de los niños en un manuscrito de 1498. Era el año en que Erasmo llegó a residir en Oxford, en que a Savonarola lo quemaron en Florencia, en que Durero trazaba los primeros apuntes de su _Apocalipsis_ , que todavía hoy evoca con fuerza la atmósfera sombría, la impresión de un inminente desastre que pesaba sobre ese periodo. En inglés, la palabra _educación_ apareció por primera vez en 1530. Ese año, Enrique VIII repudiaba a Catalina de Aragón y la Iglesia luterana se separaba de Roma con la dieta de Augsburgo. Hay que esperar todavía un siglo para que la idea de “educación” se manifieste en el imperio español. En 1611, Lope de Vega habla de la educación como de una novedad. Ese año, la universidad de San Marcos en Lima celebraba su 60 aniversario. Centros de saber existían antes de que la palabra “educación” formara parte del lenguaje familiar. Se “leía” a los autores clásicos; se estudiaba el derecho; no se enseñaba a vivir… + +En el siglo XVI, en el corazón de todas las disputas teológicas se encontraba la necesidad de encontrar justificaciones, de las que la política supo servirse bien para explicar las grandes masacres de la época. En la Iglesia, cismas intervinieron y se hizo posible sostener convicciones diferentes sobre el punto de saber en qué medida el hombre nace pecador, corrompido o sometido a la predestinación. Desde el siglo XVII, el acuerdo se rehizo sobre un punto: el hombre nace no apto para la vida social, en consecuencia es necesario prepararlo proponiéndole una educación. Así, la educación se volvió lo opuesto de la competencia adquirida en la vida cotidiana y terminó por significar un método de tratamiento más que el simple saber de hechos de la existencia y la capacidad de servirse de herramientas que dan forma a la vida concreta del hombre. Progresivamente la educación se transformó en un servicio que había que producir, para el bien de todos, mercancía intangible que se recibía de la misma manera en que la Iglesia visible había conferido anteriormente la gracia invisible. El hombre, nacido en la estupidez original, debía ahora presentar cartas de creencia a la sociedad. + +La escuela y la educación mantuvieron relaciones comparables a las de la Iglesia y la religión o, en una perspectiva más general, a las que se establecen entre el rito y el mito; el rito crea y sostiene al mito; detenta una función mitopoiética. El mito inspira el “programa” por el que se perpetúa. La educación representa a la vez todo un conjunto de justificaciones sobre el plano social y un concepto para el que no podemos encontrar análogos específicos en otras culturas (fuera de la teología cristiana). La educación por el método de la escolaridad distingue fundamentalmente a las escuelas de otras instituciones de enseñanza que existieron en otras épocas. Ése es un aspecto que no hay que despreciar si queremos hacer aparecer las insuficiencias de las “escuelas” llamadas privadas, no estructuradas o independientes. + +Con el fin de sobrepasar una simple reforma de la clase, una escuela activa debe todavía rechazar el programa secreto de la escolaridad descrito anteriormente. Una escuela activa ideal intentaría proporcionar una educación esforzándose en evitar que esa educación se utilice para establecer o justificar una estructura de clase y se vuelva un patrón maestro para medir al alumno con cierto rasero. Debería, en consecuencia, no someter a este último a una represión, a un control o intentar definirlo de cualquier manera. Pero mientras las escuelas activas intenten proporcionar una “educación general”, no están en condiciones de sobrepasar una concepción fundada en los postulados secretos de la escuela. + +Entre sus principios, hay uno que Peter Schrag, en una perspectiva particular, definió como el “síndrome de inmigración”, que nos incita a tratar a todos los seres humanos como si fueran recién llegados que deben someterse a un proceso de naturalización. Sólo los consumidores garantizados del saber se admiten en la ciudadanía. Los hombres no nacen iguales, sólo por el periodo de gestación en el seno del _Alma mater_ podrán acceder a esta igualdad. + +Otro postulado conduce a creer que el hombre, nacido inmaduro, debe adquirir su “madurez” en el transcurso del primer periodo de su existencia para después formar parte de una sociedad civilizada. Esta idea de una “maduración” es, con toda seguridad, contraria a otra convicción que define al hombre como el mamífero que, por el mecanismo de la evolución y con el concurso de la selección natural entre sus maestros primates, adquirió el carácter específico de permanecer durante toda su vida “inmaduro” —lo que constituye su “gracia” particular—. Pero, en conformidad con la fijación ideológica sobre la madurez, nos persuadimos de que es necesario, después de su nacimiento, mantener al ser humano apartado de su medio natural y hacerlo pasar por una matriz social para que adquiera las cualidades necesarias para la vida cotidiana. Las escuelas activas son capaces de llenar esta función frecuentemente mucho mejor que escuelas de un modelo menos atractivo. + +Los establecimientos educativos liberados comparten con quienes lo son menos otra característica: despersonalizan la responsabilidad de la educación. Ponen una institución _in loco parentis_. Perpetúan la idea de que la enseñanza, si se realiza fuera del círculo familiar, debe estar asegurada por una “agencia” cuyo docente es sólo un representante. En una sociedad escolarizada, la misma familia se reduce a ser sólo una “agencia de aculturación”. En cuanto a los organismos educativos que emplean profesores para promover la política de su consejo administrativo, se vuelven instrumentos al servicio de una despersonalización de las relaciones entre personas privadas. + +Naturalmente, numerosas escuelas activas funcionan sin profesores acreditados. Al hacerlo representan una amenaza seria para los sindicatos de maestros, pero, no por ello, ponen en peligro la estructura social fundada en un reconocimiento de las profesiones. Una escuela en la que los miembros del consejo administrativo eligen y nombran a los profesores, sin preocuparse de saber si detentan certificados, una licencia o una credencial sindical, no atenta contra la legitimidad de la profesión de enseñante; no más que una encargada de un prostíbulo clandestino, en un país donde un trabajo así, para ser legal, debe hacerse bajo el control de la policía, ¡no cuestiona la legitimidad de la profesión más antigua del mundo! + +La mayoría de los que enseñan en escuelas activas no tienen la oportunidad de trabajar en su nombre. Aseguran la tarea de la enseñanza en nombre de un consejo; en nombre de sus alumnos asumen la función menos evidente de la enseñanza y sirven a la educación bajo su aspecto casi místico en nombre de toda “la sociedad”. La mejor prueba de ello es que pasan todavía más tiempo que sus colegas de la enseñanza pública reuniéndose en comisiones con el objeto de planificar el método por el cual la escuela debería educar. La duración de esas reuniones ha incitado a muchos docentes de alma generosa, una vez que sus ilusiones se han disipado, a pasar de la escuela pública a la enseñanza privada, para luego ir todavía más allá… + +Todos los establecimientos de enseñaza pretenden “formar hombres” en una tarea de mejoramiento del futuro, pero no les permiten cumplirla antes de que hayan adquirido una sólida tolerancia frente a las maneras de vivir de sus mayores. Es siempre una educación que prepara para la vida, más que adquirida en la vida cotidiana. Muy pocas escuelas activas pueden evitar esa trampa. Sin embargo, hay que reconocer que contribuyen a la aparición de un nuevo estilo de vida, no por el efecto que tendrán sus diplomas sobre la sociedad, sino más bien porque los padres que eligen educar a sus hijos sin beneficiarse de los servicios de enseñanza “ordenados según la regla” pertenecen frecuentemente a una minoría radical, y porque el interés que aportan a ese problema, el gusto que tienen de educar a sus hijos, los mantiene en su modo de vida. + + +### Las influencias ocultas en el mercado de la educación + +La especie más peligrosa entre los reformadores en materia de educación es la que pretende demostrar que el saber puede producirse y venderse de manera mucho más eficaz en un mercado libre que en el que controla la escuela. Pretenden que una capacidad puede fácilmente adquirirse por medio de un modelo, aunque el aprendiz considere poco esta adquisición como de interés evidente. Afirman también que un sistema de asignación individualizado proporciona un poder de compra más igualitario en materia de educación. Piden, por último, que se distinga entre el método de adquisición y el que mide los resultados (lo que me parece una necesidad muy evidente). Pero sería erróneo creer que la instauración de un mercado abierto del saber representaría una solución opuesta a la de hoy en día. + +Esta sustitución aboliría, ciertamente, lo que llamamos el programa secreto de la escolaridad (el hecho de que hay que seguir a determinadas edades programas graduados). Un mercado abierto daría, en primer lugar, la impresión de que vamos al encuentro de esos principios en los que reposa una sociedad escolarizada: el “síndrome de la inmigración”, el monopolio institucional de la enseñanza y el rito de la integración progresiva. Pero, por lo mismo, un mercado libre de educación proporcionaría al alquimista innumerables ocasiones para influir en secreto, con el fin de encerrar a cada hombre en los múltiples y pequeños compartimentos que una tecnocracia todavía más desarrollada podría crear. + +La confianza puesta desde hace decenios en la escolarización del ser humano ha hecho del saber una mercancía de una especie particular. Como lo hemos visto, todos consideran ahora el saber como un artículo de primera necesidad y, al mismo tiempo, como la moneda de cambio más preciosa de la sociedad. Esta transformación del saber en bien de consumo se refleja, igualmente, en nuestro comportamiento de todos los días, incluso en el lenguaje familiar. Así, verbos que describen una actividad personal, como “aprender”, “alojarse”, “sanarse”, nos hacen irresistiblemente pensar en servicios cuya distribución está más o menos asegurada. Pensamos que es necesario resolver los problemas de la habitación, de los cuidados médicos, etc., sin recordar un solo instante que los hombres podrían curarse o edificar sus casas por ellos mismos. Todo es cuestión de servicios y el adolescente, en lugar de aprender, por ejemplo, a ocuparse de su abuela, aprende a manifestarse frente al asilo de ancianos donde no hay camas disponibles. ¿El desmantelamiento de la escuela sería, pues, suficiente para conducir a la desaparición de esas actitudes? (Mucho después de la adopción de la Primera Enmienda de la Constitución norteamericana se continuaba exigiendo la filiación a una Iglesia como condición para cualquier candidatura a un puesto oficial). Con mayor razón, ¿el cierre de las escuelas permitiría evitar que tuviéramos acceso a baterías de pruebas para medir el nivel de educación? Si ése no es el caso, esta nueva situación conduciría a la obligación, para cada uno, de adquirir un mínimo de mercancías en el depósito del saber. La ambición de medir científicamente el valor de cada hombre se vincula sin dificultad con el sueño del alquimista de hacer a todo hombre “educable” con el fin de guiarlo hacia una humanidad “verdadera”. Bajo la apariencia de un mercado libre, llegaremos a un entorno sometido al control de los terapeutas-pedagogos, a una matriz universal donde cada hombre se alimentaría con fluidos elegidos. + +Las escuelas limitan por ahora la competencia del profesor al salón de clases. No le permiten reivindicar la existencia del hombre para una región. Desde esta perspectiva, renunciar a la escuela haría desaparecer esta frágil barrera y conferiría una legitimidad semejante a la invasión pedagógica de la vida privada de cada uno. Podría conducir a una lucha encarnizada por la adquisición del saber en un mercado libre del conocimiento y a la edificación, bajo apariencias igualitarias, de una meritocracia. + +Las escuelas no son las únicas instituciones (ni incluso las más eficaces) que pretenden hacer de la información, de la comprensión y de la sabiduría rasgos d comportamiento susceptibles de contrastarse (y medirlos conduce a detentar la llave que abre las puertas del éxito y del poder). El sistema chino, por ejemplo, ofrecía, en el plano de la educación, una estimulante eficacia definiendo una clase relativamente abierta, cuyos privilegios dependían de la adquisición de un saber mesurable. Alrededor de 2 000 años antes de Cristo, parece que el emperador de China interrogaba cada tres años a sus administradores. Después de tres veces, les daba responsabilidades mayores o los echaba para siempre. Algunos 1 000 años más tarde, el primer emperador Chang estableció un verdadero examen para sus funcionarios. Música, tiro con arco y aritmética constituían los temas impuestos. Cada tres años, los concursos se abrían a los candidatos. Uno sobre 100 lograba franquear las tres series de pruebas que le conferían sucesivamente los títulos de “genio en hierbas”, de “perfecto letrado” y de “dispuesto para el servicio del emperador”. La selección era, pues, muy severa, y se le dedicaba la mayor importancia a los examinadores; así, por ejemplo, en el segundo nivel, en el que era necesario redactar una composición, el texto del candidato lo volvía a copiar un secretario antes de dárselo al jurado, a fin de que sus miembros no pudieran reconocer la caligrafía del autor. + +Más tarde, la promoción a rango de mandarín no daba necesariamente derecho a uno de los puestos deseados. Permitía solamente participar en el sorteo de esos empleos. Ninguna escuela apareció en China antes de la época de las luchas con los poderes europeos. El caso del imperio chino es único entre las grandes naciones, ya que no poseía ni Iglesia oficial ni sistema escolar, pero pudo durante cerca de 3 000 años reclutar su élite gubernamental sin fundar una vasta aristocracia hereditaria. El acceso a esa élite estaba reservado a la familia del emperador y a los que pasaban los exámenes. + +Voltaire y sus contemporáneos elogiaron el sistema chino, donde la promoción se fundaba en las pruebas dadas de un saber. Los exámenes de ingreso en la administración aparecieron en Francia en 1791; después, Napoleón los abolió. ¿Qué habría sucedido si, para propagar las ideas de la Revolución, se hubiera elegido el mandarinato en lugar del sistema escolar que inevitablemente sostiene al nacionalismo y a la disciplina militar? De hecho, Napoleón se erigió en el defensor de la escuela politécnica y del colegio de pensionados… Más que inspirarse en el mandarinato, las instituciones educativas se calcaron del modelo jesuita de la promoción ritual en el interior de una estructura jerárquica cerrada; de esa forma, las sociedades occidentales eligieron legitimar a sus élites. + +Los jefes de establecimientos escolares se volvieron, de alguna forma, los abades de una cadena mundial de monasterios en donde todos se dedicaron a acumular conocimientos que les permitieran acceder a la tierra prometida, paraíso terrestre sometido a las leyes del envejecimiento planificado que se desborda sin cesar. Eso nos recuerda el esfuerzo de los calvinistas que arrasaron todos los monasterios para, finalmente, transformar Ginebra en un vasto claustro. Tenemos, por lo tanto, razones para temer que el desmantelamiento de la escuela permita la aparición de una fábrica del saber a escala mundial. A menos que transformemos la idea que nos hemos hecho de la enseñanza o del saber, la desaparición de la escuela corre el riesgo de conducir a una situación donde, de un lado, se utilizará el sistema del mandarinato para separar el aprendizaje del saber de la prueba de control y, del otro, la sociedad se comprometerá a proporcionar la terapéutica necesaria a cualquier hombre para que pueda entrar en la “edad de oro”. + +Ni los alquimistas, ni los magos, ni los masones pueden resolver el problema que nos plantea la crisis de la enseñanza, La desescolarización de nuestra concepción del mundo exige que reconozcamos la naturaleza, a la vez, ilegítima y religiosa de la empresa educativa porque busca hacer del hombre un ser social sometiéndolo a un tratamiento con métodos técnicos apropiados. + +Adherirse al _ethos_ tecnocrático nos conduce a querer poner en marcha todo lo que es técnicamente realizable, poco importa si sus beneficiarios son forzosamente poco numerosos o si no experimentan su deseo. Sobre todo la privatización o la frustración de la mayoría de los seres humanos nunca entran en la línea de cuenta. Si, por ejemplo, es posible concebir el tratamiento mediante la bomba de cobalto, es necesario que la ciudad de Tegucigalpa disponga de aparatos adaptados en cada uno de sus dos grandes hospitales. Con todos esos créditos puestos ahí se habría podido luchar en toda Honduras contra la proliferación de parásitos… Las velocidades supersónicas sugieren que conviene inmediatamente acelerar los viajes de algunos. ¿Los vuelos a Marte? ¡Se encontrará siempre una razón para que parezcan indispensables! En el _ethos_ tecnocrático la pobreza está modernizada: ¿existían soluciones antiguas? Nuevos monopolios vienen a prohibirlas. A la penuria de los bienes de primera necesidad se agrega la conciencia de la diferencia sin cesar cada vez más grande entre los servicios técnicamente realizables y los que en la práctica son accesibles a las mayorías. + +Un profesor se vuelve “educador” desde el momento en que se incorpora a ese _ethos_ tecnocrático. Actúa inmediatamente como si la educación fuera una empresa tecnológica concebida para insertar al hombre en el entorno que crea el “progreso” de la ciencia. Se niega a ver la evidencia: el envejecimiento de todos los bienes programados se paga muy caro (el costo de la formación del personal capaz de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas es sin cesar más alto). Parece olvidar que el precio creciente de las herramientas tiene consecuencias igualmente graves en el plano de la educación: en el momento mismo en que los horarios de trabajo disminuyen, se vuelve imposible el aprendizaje en los lugares de empleo donde se ha hecho de él el privilegio de un pequeño número. En todo el mundo el precio del coste de la educación de los hombres para la sociedad crece más rápidamente que la productividad de la economía en su conjunto, mientras menos y menos hombres experimentan el sentimiento de hacerse razonablemente útiles a la comunidad. + + +### La escuela instrumento del progreso technocrático + +Educar para una sociedad de consumo resulta en formar consumidores. La reforma de la clase, su desaparición o su crecimiento no son ni más ni menos que métodos que, a pesar de sus diferencias aparentes, se dirigen a la formación de consumidores de bienes inmediatamente pasados de moda. La sobrevivencia de una sociedad en la que las tecnocracias pueden definir constantemente la dicha del hombre asimilado al consumo de los productos más recientes depende de las instituciones educativas (desde las escuelas hasta las agencias publicitarias) que transforman la educación en un medio de control social. + +En países ricos como Estados Unidos, Canadá o la URSS, las considerables inversiones en materia de enseñanza hacen más evidentes las contradicciones institucionales del progreso tecnocrático. En esos países, el aumento ideológico del progreso ilimitado reposa en la idea de que el efecto igualitario de una formación permanente contrabalancea la influencia inversa de la regla del envejecimiento perpetuo. La legitimidad de la sociedad industrial depende de la credibilidad de la escuela, cualquiera que sea el partido en el poder. En tales condiciones, el público manifiesta un interés súbito por libros como el reporte de Charles Silberman a la comisión Carnegie, publicado bajo el título _Crisis en el salón de clases (Crisis in the Classroom)_ ; esta investigación inspira confianza en la medida en que la acusación que el autor lanza contra la escuela está apoyada sólidamente. Pero tales estudios se dirigen a salvar el sistema tratando de corregir sus fallas más evidentes. Por lo mismo, pueden suscitar un nuevo ascenso de esperanzas engañosas. + +Por todas partes crecientes inversiones consagradas a las escuelas vuelven la absurdidad de la empresa escolar más evidente. Puede parecer paradójico que los pobres sean sus primeras víctimas. En el fondo, eso es lo que muestra el reporte de la comisión de encuestas Wright en Ontario: a propósito de la enseñanza superior, los miembros de la comisión señalan que las capas pobres de la población las subvencionaban desde el punto de vista de la imposición de manera desproporcionada, ya que los ricos eran casi los únicos beneficiarios. + +Esta observación podría inmediatamente hacerse en otra parte. En la URSS, un sistema de cuota aplicado durante muchos decenios parece favorecer la admisión a la universidad de los hijos de los trabajadores a expensas de las hijas e hijos de universitarios. Actualmente estos últimos son sobrerrepresentados en las clases superiores y terminales de la enseñanza rusa y en una proporción todavía más grande que en Estados Unidos. + +El 8 de marzo de 1971, el juez Warren E. Burger hacía público el veredicto unánime de la corte en el caso Griggs contra la sociedad Duke Power. Fundándose en la voluntad expresada por el Congreso en el artículo que concierne a la igualdad de oportunidades en la ley de 1964, la corte resolvió por unanimidad que cualquier “diploma” exigido a un candidato por un empleo (o cualquier prueba seguida) debía “medir al hombre en relación con un trabajo dado” y no “al hombre mismo en un plano abstracto”. Además, correspondía al empresario probar que sus exigencias en materia de diplomas constituía una “medida razonable de la calificación requerida”. Mediante estas consideraciones, los jueces querían evitar que las pruebas y diplomas exigidos no se utilizaran en provecho de una discriminación racial, pero la lógica del razonamiento podría también aplicarse a cualquier exigencia de un “ _pedigree_ educativo” en materia de empleo. Es tiempo de formar causa contra la “gran estafa de la formación profesional” denunciada tan justamente por Ivar Berg. + +En los países pobres, las escuelas sirven para justificar el atraso económico de una nación: a la mayoría de los ciudadanos se le mantiene apartada de los magros medios modernos de producción y de consumo, pero todos sueñan con beneficiarse de los favores de la economía franqueando el umbral de una escuela. La repartición jerárquica de los privilegios y del poder ya no depende, en nuestros días y en el plano de la legitimidad, de una descendencia de ancestros, de la herencia, del favor del príncipe, incluso de una lucha sin cuartel en el mercado económico o en el campo de batalla. Su verdadera legitimidad la encuentra en una forma más sutil del capitalismo donde la institución encargada de conferirla se encuentra en la escolaridad obligatoria. Quien aprovechó los servicios de la escuela vuelve entonces al subprivilegiado responsable de su desgracia: es un mal consumidor del saber. Esta justificación de la desigualdad social no resiste siempre el examen de los hechos y los regímenes populares tienen cada vez más dificultades para disimular las contradicciones entre la propaganda y la realidad. + +Desde hace 10 años, Cuba se esfuerza por promover el crecimiento rápido de la educación popular dando confianza a la mano de obra disponible sin tomar en cuenta la calificación profesional. Al principio, el éxito de esta campaña (en particular la disminución espectacular del número de analfabetos) se ha citado como prueba de que las tasas de crecimiento limitadas de los otros sistemas escolares latinoamericanos eran imputables a la corrupción, al militarismo y a la economía de mercado capitalista. + +Sin embargo, la lógica de la escolarización se hace sentir manifiestamente a consecuencia de los esfuerzos de Castro por “reproducir” al hombre nuevo mediante la escuela. Incluso si los estudiantes pasan la mitad del año en la zafra y sostienen activamente los ideales igualitarios del _compañero_ Fidel, la universidad cultiva cada año una nueva cosecha de consumidores conscientes de su saber, prontos a acceder a nuevos niveles de consumo. Al mismo tiempo, el doctor Castro debe enfrentarse a la evidencia de que el sistema escolar nunca producirá suficiente mano de obra técnica diplomada. Esos diplomados que obtienen los nuevos empleos destruyen por su conservadurismo los resultados conseguidos por los cuadros no diplomados que llegaron a su posición mediante una formación en el taller. No basta con acusar a los docentes para explicar los fracasos de un gobierno revolucionario que quiere con todas sus fuerzas una institucionalización de la mano de obra siguiendo un programa secreto que garantice la producción de una burguesía universal. + + +### Enseñar instruirse responsabilidades personales + +Contra esta voluntad de adquirir privilegios y poder que poseen quienes detentan la competencia profesional en nombre de sus pretendidos derechos, no sabríamos imaginar una revolución sin acusar a la concepción misma de la adquisición del saber. Lo que nos conduce, en primer lugar, a considerar la cuestión de la responsabilidad en ese ámbito, ya se trate de enseñar o de instruir. Dar a conocer una mercancía sólo se consigue si imaginamos que resulta de la acción institucional o que satisface objetivos institucionales + +Para disipar este mal encantamiento, el hombre debe volver a encontrar el sentido de su responsabilidad personal cuando aprende o enseña. De esa forma se pondrá un término a esta nueva alienación donde vivir e instruirse no se toparán. + +Recobrar el poder de aprender o de enseñar tiene como consecuencia que el profesor, al tomar el riesgo de inmiscuirse en la vida privada de otros, debe asumir la responsabilidad de sus resultados; de la misma manera, el estudiante que se pone bajo la influencia de un profesor debe sentirse responsable de su propia educación. En esa perspectiva, las instituciones educativas —si realmente son necesarias— irán teniendo el aspecto de centros abiertos a todos, donde cada uno pueda encontrar lo que busca, donde uno, por ejemplo, tenga acceso a un piano, el otro, a un horno de cerámica o a registros, libros, diapositivas, etc. Hoy en día, las escuelas, los estudios de televisión y otros sitios similares están concebidos para que los profesionales los utilicen. Desescolarizar la sociedad quiere decir, ante todo, rechazar el estatus profesional del oficio que, por orden de antigüedad, viene, justo después, del más viejo del mundo, por el que entiendo la enseñanza. La calificación de los profesores constituye ahora una traba al derecho a la palabra, de igual forma que la estructura corporativa y la credencial profesional de los periodistas representan una traba al derecho de la libertad de información. La regla de la presencia obligatoria es contraria a la libertad de reunión. La desescolarización de la sociedad sólo sabría concebirse como una mutación cultural por la que un pueblo vuelve a encontrar el poder de gozar de sus libertades constitucionales. + +Instruirse, enseñar, concierne a hombres que saben que nacieron libres y que no tienen, para adquirir esa libertad, que recurrir a un tratamiento apropiado. ¿Cuándo, por lo general, aprendemos? Cuando hacemos lo que nos interesa. ¿No somos, la mayor parte de nosotros, curiosos? Queremos comprender, darle un sentido a lo que se encuentra frente a nosotros, a lo que nos concierne. ¿No somos capaces de una relación personal con otros a menos de que seamos embrutecidos por un trabajo inhumano o fascinados por el ideal escolar? + +El hecho de que los habitantes de países ricos apenas se instruyan por sí mismos no constituye una prueba de lo contrario. Es más bien la consecuencia de una vida en un entorno donde paradójicamente no encuentran nada que aprender en la medida en que su medio está en gran parte “programado”. Están sin cesar frustrados por la estructura de una sociedad contemporánea en la que lo real, sobre lo que las decisiones podrían apoyarse, se ha vuelto de una naturaleza inasible. Viven, efectivamente, en un medio donde las herramientas que sería posible utilizar con fines creadores se vuelven productos de lujo, donde los canales de comunicación pertenecen a algunos que únicamente pueden hablar a la multitud. + + +### Una tecnología nueva más que una nueva educación + +Un mito moderno quisiera hacemos creer que el sentimiento de impotencia que hoy en día experimenta la mayoría de los hombres sería consecuencia de la tecnología capaz de crear solamente vastos sistemas. Pero no es sólo la tecnología la que inventa esos sistemas, la que crea herramientas inmensamente poderosas, la que teje canales de comunicación en sentido único; por el contrario, mejor utilizada, la tecnología podría proporcionar a cada hombre la posibilidad de entender mejor su medio, de trabajarlo con sus propias manos, de comunicar mejor que en el pasado. Esta utilización de la tecnología, contrariamente a las tendencias actuales, constituye la verdadera alternativa al problema de la educación. + +Para que un hombre pueda crecer, lo que necesita es el libre acceso a las cosas, a los sitios, a los métodos, a los acontecimientos, a los documentos. Tiene necesidad de ver, de tocar, de manipular, gustoso de asir todo lo que le rodea en un medio que no esté desprovisto de sentido. Ese acceso se le rehúsa hoy en día. Cuando el saber se ha vuelto un producto, adquiere la protección que se dispensa a la propiedad privada, De esa forma, un principio que se concibió para preservar la vida personal de cada uno se utiliza para justificar las prohibiciones que se lanzan contra aquellos que no portan los documentos necesarios. En las escuelas los profesores conservan sus propios conocimientos, a menos que esos conocimientos se inserten en el programa del momento. Los media informan, pero omiten todo lo que se considera impropio para la difusión. Los especialistas se encierran en su jerga y se necesitan vulgarizadores para asegurar su traducción. Los cuerpos profesionales protegen los diplomas y la burocracia los secretos. Todas las profesiones detentan el poder de echar de su ámbito a las personas no autorizadas; sucede lo mismo con las instituciones y las naciones. + +Ni la estructura política ni la estructura profesional de nuestras sociedades, tanto en el Oeste como en el Este, podrían resistir la desaparición de estas prohibiciones, el trastrocamiento de esta posibilidad de tener a capas enteras de la población apartadas de lo que podría servirles. El acceso a los hechos que preconizamos no se satisface con una simple operación “etiquetas-verdad”. Es necesario construir este acceso a la realidad (y todo lo que pedimos de la publicidad es una garantía que no sea mentirosa). El acceso a la realidad constituye la alternativa fundamental en materia de educación frente a un sistema de enseñanza que sólo se propone hablar de él. + +Abolir el derecho al secreto profesional (incluso cuando la opinión del hombre profesional es que ese secreto sirve al bien común) representa, como hemos querido demostrarlo, un objetivo político mucho más radical que la reivindicación tradicional de nacionalizar o de controlar democráticamente las herramientas de producción. La socialización de las herramientas, sin la socialización efectiva de los conocimientos técnicos, tiende a poner el “capital del saber” en la posición que anteriormente ocupaba el financiero. Si el tecnócrata pretende apoderarse del poder es que él detenta una parte capital en la sociedad del saber secreto y reservado al pequeño número. Para proteger el valor de sus acciones y para aumentarlo, imagina una vasta organización que hace difícil, incluso imposible, el acceso al saber técnico. + +El hombre motivado necesita un tiempo relativamente corto para adquirir una capacidad que quiere utilizar —lo que tendemos a olvidar en una sociedad donde los profesores monopolizan la posibilidad de acceder a cualquier actividad y detentan el poder de acusar de charlatanería a todos aquellos que no se someten—. ¿En las industrias y en la investigación se requieren muchas capacidades que sean tan terribles, complejas y peligrosas como manejar un coche? Ese saber se adquiere muy pronto con la ayuda de un igual. No todos los seres están dotados para el ejercicio de la lógica matemática, pero quienes lo están hacen progresos rápidos desafiándose mutuamente en partidos de juegos educativos. En Cuernavaca uno de 20 niños es capaz de vencerme en esos juegos después de 15 días de entrenamiento. En cuatro meses, la gran mayoría de los adultos que vinieron a nuestro centro a aprender español llegaron a un nivel de conocimiento suficiente para atacar problemas abstractos. + +Una primera etapa de acceso a conocimientos consistiría en encontrar ventajas diversas para aquellos que, poseedores de una capacidad, quisieran compartirla. Eso, inevitablemente, chocaría con intereses de grupos profesionales y sindicatos. Esta multiplicidad de posibles aprendizajes tiene, sin embargo, con qué seducirnos. ¿Está prohibido imaginar a alguien que sabe a la vez conducir, reparar el teléfono, instalar plomería, actuar como partera y dibujar planos arquitectónicos? A esos, como decimos, se opondrían los grupos de interés y los consumidores disciplinados, diciendo muy alto que el público no podría prescindir de una garantía profesional (argumento cuya validez es cada vez menos evidente a los ojos de las asociaciones de defensa del consumidor). Debemos tomar mucho más en serio la objeción que los economistas harían de esta socialización de las capacidades: el “progreso”, dirían, se frenaría si el saber (títulos, capacidades y todo lo demás…) se democratiza. La mejor respuesta ¿no sería mostrar las tasas de crecimiento de los absurdos en materia económica que engendra el sistema escolar? + +Poder aproximar a quienes están deseosos de compartir sus conocimientos no es garantía de que haya adquisición de un saber. Dicho acceso está limitado no sólo por el monopolio de los programas educativos y el de los sindicatos, sino también por una tecnología de penuria. Las capacidades que hoy en día valen son las que se aplican al funcionamiento de “herramientas” concebidas de tal manera que no puedan generalizarse. Efectivamente, esas “herramientas” sirven para producir bienes o servicios de los que todos quieren gozar, pero esto último sólo se concede a un pequeño número y sólo pocos saben utilizarlas. Únicamente algunos privilegiados, por ejemplo, sobre el conjunto de los que sufren una determinada enfermedad, pueden beneficiarse de los descubrimientos de una investigación médica compleja, y todavía son menos los médicos que obtienen los conocimientos necesarios para utilizar dichas tecnologías. + +Sin embargo, la investigación médica ha permitido crear un maletín de auxilios que permite a los enfermeros de la armada, después de sólo algunos meses de formación, obtener en el campo de batalla resultados muy superiores a los de los verdaderos médicos de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A un nivel todavía más inmediato, ¿no podría cualquier campesina aprender a reconocer y a curar las enfermedades infecciosas más comunes si investigadores médicos prepararan los remedios y las instrucciones necesarias para un determinado sector geográfico? + +Todos estos ejemplos buscan ilustrar el hecho de que simples consideraciones educativas bastan para exigir una importante reducción de la importancia dada a las profesiones que se oponen a las relaciones entre los hombres de ciencia y la mayoría de quienes quieren tener acceso a esta ciencia. Si se prestara atención a esta demanda, todos los hombres podrían aprender a utilizar las herramientas de ayer, vueltas más eficaces y más durables gracias a la ciencia de hoy, para crear el mundo de mañana. + +Por desgracia, es la tendencia contraria la que impera. Conozco una zona costera de América del Sur donde la mayoría de los habitantes viven de la pesca. Disponen de pequeñas embarcaciones y la introducción del motor auxiliar ha representado para ellos una verdadera revolución, de consecuencias a veces dramáticas. En el sector que estudié, la mitad de los motores comprados entre 1945 y 1950 funcionan todavía gracias a constante mantenimiento; por el contrario, los que se compraron en 1965 ya no funcionan porque no se concibieron para repararse. El progreso técnico proporciona a la mayoría de los seres humanos instrumentos inútiles, demasiado costosos, privándolos de las herramientas más simples que necesitan. + +Desde 1940, considerables progresos se han realizado en el ámbito de los materiales metálicos, plásticos y de fibrocemento que se utilizan en la construcción, lo que debería darle a muchos seres humanos la posibilidad de construir sus propias casas. Pero en Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, mientras que en 1948 más de 30% de las habitaciones individuales las habían construido sus propietarios, a fines de 1960 ese porcentaje había caído a menos de 20 puntos. + +El descenso del nivel de las capacidades por efecto de lo que se llama el “desarrollo económico” es aún más visible en América Latina. Ahí, la mayoría de los habitantes construyen todavía ellos mismos sus casas. Utilizan frecuentemente adobe y cal, materiales cuya utilidad es muy alta en clima cálido y húmedo. En otros sitios edifican casas con placas de chapa, cartón y otros desperdicios de la civilización industrial… En lugar de proporcionar a los habitantes herramientas simples y elementos estandarizados, sólidos, fácilmente reemplazables o reparables, los gobernantes de esos países se lanzaron a una política de producción masiva de habitaciones de interés social. Es, sin embargo, evidente que ninguno de ellos puede darse el lujo de proporcionar unidades habitacionales modernas a la mayoría de los habitantes. Por todas partes esta política prohibí a las masas adquirir los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para la construcción de casas más decentes. + + +### Una pobreza libremente consentida + +Darse cuenta de las posibilidades de educación nos permite ver que cualquier sociedad posindustrial debe disponer de un herramental de base cuya misma naturaleza no permita el desarrollo del control tecnocrático. Debemos, en efecto, esforzarnos por hacer surgir una sociedad donde el saber científico pueda estar, de alguna forma, abierto a las herramientas útiles, a las piezas de ensamble en unidades de dimensiones limitadas, para que sean comprensibles a los hombres. Dicho herramental permite asociarse para cumplir una tarea o, como todo mil usos lo sabe instintivamente, descubrirlas sirviéndose de ellas para nuevas posibilidades de uso. Por la combinación de posibilidades de acceso siempre abiertas a lo que sucede a nuestro alrededor y por los límites impuestos al poder de las herramientas será posible visualizar una “economía de subsistencia” capaz de utilizar las ventajas de la ciencia moderna. + +Desarrollar dicha economía servirá a los intereses de la aplastante mayoría de los habitantes de países pobres, pero también es la única alternativa posible en los países ricos frente a la creciente contaminación, la explotación, la construcción de un mundo cada vez más ensombrecido. Como lo hemos señalado, derribar el mito del “producto nacional bruto” no se concibe sin atacar al mismo tiempo el de la “educación nacional bruta” (que conduce a la capitalización de la mano de obra). Una economía igualitaria no podría existir en una sociedad en la que el derecho de producir lo confieren las escuelas. + +Construir una economía de subsistencia moderna no depende de invenciones científicas nuevas. Su edificación pasa por una elección deliberada del conjunto de la sociedad que debe definir límites fundamentales al desarrollo de las burocracias y de las tecnocracias. + +Estos límites pueden definirse de diferente manera, pero su utilidad dependerá de que se tomen en cuenta las verdaderas dimensiones de la existencia. (La posición del Congreso contra el desarrollo del transporte supersónico va en buena dirección.) Estas restricciones que se impondría voluntariamente la sociedad deben dirigirse a problemas simples, accesibles a todos; podríamos aquí retomar el ejemplo de los aviones supersónicos. Lo que guiaría la elección sería la conciencia de la necesidad de un disfrute igual de los frutos del saber científico. Los franceses dicen que se necesitarían mil años para enseñarle a un país a ocuparse de una vaca; no se necesitarían dos generaciones para ayudar a todos los habitantes de América Latina o de África a utilizar (o a reparar) motores auxiliares de vehículos simplificados, de bombas, de maletines médicos, de construcciones de hormigón, si la concepción de esos equipamientos no cambiara casi cada año. Obtener igual provecho de las adquisiciones de la técnica conduciría, sin duda, a una vida donde el gozo estaría presente, gozo, con sentido, de las relaciones establecidas entre los hombres, y como al mismo tiempo los hombres vivirían en un medio en donde el absurdo ya no tendría sitio, el derecho igual a los bienes de la sociedad se confundiría finalmente con la igualdad en materia de educación. + +Hoy en día es difícil imaginar un consenso sobre la austeridad. La razón que por costumbre se da para explicar la impotencia actual de la mayoría se sitúa en una perspectiva (económica o política) de clases, y por lo general no nos damos cuenta de que las nuevas estructuras de clase impuestas por una sociedad escolarizada son más fácilmente controladas por los intereses establecidos. Sin duda alguna, una organización imperialista y capitalista de la sociedad definió un conjunto social en el interior del cual una minoría posee una influencia desproporcionada sobre la opinión de la mayoría. Pero en una sociedad tecnocrática, el poder de un pequeño número de “capitalistas del saber” es capaz de impedir la formación de una verdadera opinión pública por el control de las técnicas científicas y de los medios de comunicación entre los hombres. + +Las garantías constitucionales dadas a la libertad de expresión, de prensa, de reunión, se dirigían a asegurar el acceso del gobierno por el pueblo. La electrónica moderna, las prensas offset, las computadoras, los teléfonos podrían representar un equipamiento capaz de dar un sentido completamente nuevo a esas libertades. Por desgracia, todas esas conquistas técnicas se utilizan para acrecentar el poder de los banqueros del conocimiento, en lugar de servir para tejer las verdaderas redes que proporcionarían oportunidades iguales de encuentro a la mayoría de los seres humanos. + +Desescolarizar la estructura social y cultural exige utilizar la tecnología para hacer posible una política de participación. Sobre la base de una coalición de la mayoría se podrían determinar los límites del secreto y del poder creciente sin que exista dictadura. + +Necesitamos un entorno nuevo en el cual crecer para conocer una sociedad sin clases o entraremos en el “mundo feliz” donde el _big brother_[^n23] estará ahí para educarnos a todos. + +[^n01:] Penrose B. Jackson, _Trends in Elementary Education Expenditures. Central City and Suburban Comparisons 1965 to 1968_ , U. S. Office of Education, Office of Program and Planning Evaluation, junio de 1969.] + +[^n02:] En español en el original.] + +[^n03:] _Agua_ , _tierra_ , _casa_ son algunas de las palabras generadoras que Paulo Freire incluye en la relación educador-educando.] + +[^n04:] _Atomic Ballistic Missile_. (T.)] + +[^n05:] Respecto a las historias paralelas del capitalismo moderno y la niñez moderna véase Philippe Ariès, _L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime,_ Seuil, 1973.] + +[^n06:] Agency for International Development: organismo del Departamento de Estado de Estados Unidos. (T.)] + +[^n07:] El autor se refiere a las Enmiendas a la Constitución de Estados Unidos (1971), que establecen, respectivamente: _a)_ las libertades de religión, expresión, reunión y de ser oídos para pedir justicia, y _b)_ de no ser llamado a responder por delitos graves sin ser declarado reo, de no ser condenado dos veces a muerte por una misma causa, ni a testimoniar contra sí mismo, de no ser privado de la libertad o de las propiedades sin un debido proceso legal, ni a ser expropiado sin justa compensación. (T.)] + +[^n08:] Buen riesgo: en el lenguaje de los aseguradores, el que tiene muy pocas oportunidades de concretarse en una pérdida. (T.)] + +[^n09:] Culto creado por indígenas de Nueva Guinea, que atribuye un origen mágico a los artículos occidentales (aviones, radios, relojes, plásticos, etc.). (T.)] + +[^n10:] _Truant officer_. El que lleva a la escuela a quienes deben cumplir con la instrucción legal obligatoria. (T.)] + +[^n11:] _Ética a Nicómaco_ , 1140.] + +[^n12:] Este capítulo fue presentado originalmente en una sesión de la American Educational Research Association, en la ciudad de Nueva York, el 6 de febrero de 1971.] + +[^n13:] Véase Joel Spring, _Education and the Rise of the Corporate State_ , Cuaderno núm. 50, Centro Intercultural de Documentación, Cuernavaca, México, 1971.] + +[^n14:] Equivalente a los grados primero, segundo y tercero de secundaria, o los antiguos tres primeros años de bachillerato —cuando había seis—. (T.)] + +[^n15:] En francés, en el original.] + +[^n16:] Office of Economic Opportunity, organismo oficial en Estados Unidos. (T.)] + +[^n17:] Lenguaje usado en informática para fines comerciales. (T.)] + +[^n18:] En el francés, en el original.] + +[^n19:] Las tres citas provienen de “People” (“Gente”), del libro _Poemas escogidos_ de Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Traducidos por Robin Milner-Gulland y Peter Levi, y con una introducción de los traductores. Publicado por E. P. Dutton & Co., 1962, y reimpreso con su autorización.] + +[^n20:] Las 14 más célebres universidades de Estados Unidos constituyen esta “liga de la hiedra” _(ivy league)_. (Son miembros de ella, por ejemplo, Yale, Harvard, Princeton…) Es una asociación sin objetivo definido, pero que conserva la tradición de grandeza. Saca su nombre de la hiedra que recubre los edificios más antiguos. (T.)] + +[^n21:] El hecho de asistir a los cursos representa cierto número de créditos por semestre. Para tener acceso al diploma es necesario haber cubierto un número de 135 en cuatro años. (T.)] + +[^n22:] En francés, en el original. (T.)] + +[^n23:] Alusiones al libro de Aldous Huxley, _Un mundo feliz_ , y al de George Orwell, _1984._] diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/index.txt b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c1857d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/deschooling/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# La sociedad desescolarizada + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#**: [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#**: _Deschooling society_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#**: 1970 +* **#@LANG_comments@#**: fue publicado por vez primera en HarPer and Row Publishers Inc., Nueva York, en 1970, bajo el título de _"Deschooling society"_. La primera traducción al español la publicó Barral Editores, Barcelona, España, en 1970; una nueva edición apareció bajo el sello de la Editorial Posada en 1978 y otra más bajo el de Joaquín Mortiz/Planeta en julio de 1985. Para la edición del FCE de 2006 se utilizó esta última, traducida por Gerardo Espinoza y revisada contra los originales por Javier Sicilia. El apéndice que aparece en la edición del FCE no apareció en las anteriores ediciones en español. Se tomó de la edición de Fayard, _Oeuvres complètes_, vol. I, Francia, diciembre de 2003; la traducción es de Javier Sicilia. + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/energy/en.txt b/data/pages/es/book/energy/en.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..085fba0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/energy/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../en/book/energy/en.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/energy/es.txt b/data/pages/es/book/energy/es.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e448072 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/energy/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1,456 @@ +# Energía y equidad + +## La importación de una crisis + +Mientras mas rico el país, más de buen gusto es mostrarse preocupado por la llamada “crisis de energía”. El tema saltó a primer plano entre aquellos que _Le Monde_ y el _New York Times_ trataron inmediatamente después de que Kissinger anunció la suspensión de bombardeos en Vietnam. El nuevo problema --chispa para los grandes programas de televisión-- está en la agenda del _jet-set_ científico internacional, meollo en la reorganización de las relaciones comerciales entre rusos y norteamericanos. Ya en 1970, este mismo tema llegó a tener preeminencia en las revistas de las élites científicas; en parte porque cómodamente amalgama varias ramas “distinguidas” de la investigación reciente, ampliamente popularizadas durante la década de los sesenta: el estudio psicosociológico de los conflictos, de la ecología y de la contaminación ambiental, el de las mutaciones previsibles en la tecnología futurista. Ahora, en 1973, vemos los primeros signos de que la importación de la “crisis energética” empieza a tener éxito en América Latina. Se multiplica la reproducción de traducciones sobre el tema. En la prensa periódica, destinada a las clases escolarizadas, las vitrinas de las librerías exhiben títulos al respecto; los programas de televisión, promovidos por las fundaciones extranjeras, conectan el tema a la necesidad de limitar la población, de aumentar los niveles tecnológicos para usar la energía escasa en forma más económica y de llegar a acuerdos internacionales de naturaleza no política. Me parece de suma importancia fijar nuestra atención en la realidad que subyace en esta “crisis” y encontrar una manera que habilite a las masas populares para participar en el análisis, sin que por ello baje el nivel lógico y técnico de la discusión. El presente documento es una contribución para orientar esta discusión en uno de los sentidos posibles. + +Hay que desenmascarar la así llamada “crisis de energía”. Se trata de un eufemismo que encubre una contradicción, indica una frustración, consagra una ilusión. Encubre la contradicción inherente al hecho de querer alcanzar, al mismo tiempo, un estado social basado en la noción de EQUIDAD y un nivel cada vez más elevado de crecimiento industrial. Indica cuál es el grado de frustración actual, provocado por el desarrollo industrial. Finalmente, consagra la ilusión de que se puede sustituir indefinidamente la potencia de la máquina por la energía metabólica del hombre, ilusión que lleva, en este momento, a los países ricos a la parálisis y fatalmente desorienta la planificación del desarrollo en los países pobres. Al difundir el pánico de una inminente e inevitable “crisis de energía”, los ricos perjudican aún más a los pobres que al venderles los productos de su industria. Construir las propias centrales nucleares en los Andes incorpora a un país al Club de los Exploradores, mientras que la importación de coches o aviones solamente acentúa su dependencia. Al difundir en el mundo de los pobres el temor por la insuficiencia de energía para el “progreso” hacia tales metas, los pobres aceptan la explicación que presentan los ricos sobre la crisis en el progreso y se ponen al mismo tiempo un _handicap_ en la carrera del crecimiento a la cual se obligan. Optan por una pobreza modernizada, en vez de elegir, con el uso racional de las técnicas modernas, el acceso a un modo de producción que refleje madurez política y científica. En mi opinión es de la mayor importancia enfrentarse a la realidad que oculta ese llamado concepto de “crisis”. Hay que reconocer que la incorporación de algo más que un cierto quántum de energía por unidad de un producto industrial inevitablemente tiene efectos destructores, tanto en el ambiente sociopolítico como en el ambiente biofísico. + +## El abuso político de la contaminación + +A la presente “crisis” energética la precedió una análoga “crisis” ecológica: se abusa de ambas con fines de explotación política. Hay que entender que la segunda no encuentra su solución aun cuando se encontraran formas de producir energía abundante y limpia, es decir, sin efecto destructor sobre el medio ambiente. + +Los métodos que hoy se utilizan para producir energía, en su creciente mayoría agotan los recursos y contaminan el ambiente. Al ritmo actual de su utilización, el carbón, el petróleo, el gas natural y el uranio se consumirán dentro del horizonte temporal de tres generaciones, y en el entretiempo habrán cambiado tanto al ser humano como su atmósfera de forma definitiva. Para transportar a un solo hombre en un Volkswagen, sobre una distancia de 500 km, se queman los mismos 175 kg de oxígeno que un individuo respira en todo un año. Las plantas y las algas reproducen suficiente oxígeno para los 3 000 millones de hombres que existen. Pero no puede reproducirlo para un mundo automovilizado, cuyos vehículos queman cada uno por lo menos 14 veces más oxígeno del que quema un individuo. Los métodos usados para producir energía no sólo son caros --y por tanto son recursos escasos--, sino igualmente destructores, al punto de engendrar su propia escasez. Los esfuerzos de los últimos decenios se han orientado a producir más petróleo, a refinarlo mejor y a controlar su distribución. El énfasis ahora se va trasladando hacia la investigación para encontrar fuentes de energía abundante y _limpia_ y motores comparables en potencia a los presentes, que sean más rentables y menos venenosos. Se olvida que automóviles que no envenenen el ambiente, ni en su manufactura ni en su marcha, costarían un múltiplo de los que ahora tenemos. La promoción de la técnica limpia casi siempre constituye la promoción de un médico de lujo para producir bienes de primera necesidad. + +En su forma más trágica y amenazante, la quimera energética se manifiesta en la llamada “Revolución verde”. Los granos milagrosos introducidos en la India hace pocos años, hacen sobrevivir y multiplicarse a los hambrientos que se multiplicaron por el crecimiento industrial. Estas nuevas simientes se cargan de energía en forma de agua de bombeo, abonos químicos e insecticidas. Su precio se paga no tanto en dólares sino más bien en trastornos sociales y en destrucción ecológica. De esta forma, los cuatro quintos menos industrializados de la especie humana, quienes llegan a depender más de la agricultura “milagrosa”, empiezan a rivalizar con la minoría privilegiada en materia de destrucción ambiental. Hace sólo 10 años se podía decir que la capacidad de un recién nacido norteamericano de envenenar el mundo con sus excrementos tecnológicos era 100 veces mayor que la de su coetáneo en Bengala. Gracias a que el bengalí depende de la agricultura “científica”, su capacidad de destruir el ambiente en forma irreversible se ha multiplicado por un factor de cinco a 10, mientras que la capacidad del norteamericano para reducir la contaminación que causa ha disminuido un poco. Los ricos, como grupo, ya van en vías de perder el primer puesto en la contaminación del planeta. Los ricos tienden a acusar a los pobres por usar poca energía en forma ineficiente y dañina y los pobres acusan a los ricos de producir más excrementos porque devoran sin digerir mucho más que ellos. Los utópicos prometen soluciones milagrosas a los dos, tales como la posibilidad de realizar pronto un decrecimiento demográfico o la desalinización de las aguas del mar por energía de fusión. Los pobres se ven obligados a fundar sus esperanzas de sobrevivir en su derecho a un ambiente reglamentado que les “ofrece” la generosidad de los ricos. La doble crisis de abastecimiento y de contaminación ya manifiesta los límites implícitos en el crecimiento industrial. Pero la contradicción decisiva de esta expansión más allá de ciertos límites reside en un nivel más hondo, en lo político. + +## La ilusión fundamental + +Creer en la posibilidad de altos niveles de energía _limpia_ como solución a todos los males, representa un error de juicio político. Es imaginar que la equidad en la participación del poder y el consumo de energía pueden crecer juntos. Víctimas de esta ilusión, los hombres industrializados no ponen el menor límite al crecimiento en el consumo de energía, y este crecimiento continúa con el único fin de proveer cada vez a más gente de más productos de una industria controlada cada vez por menos gente. Prevalece la ilusión de que una revolución política, al suprimir los errores técnicos de las industrias presentes, crearía la posibilidad de distribuir equitativamente el disfrute del bien producido, a la par que el poder de control sobre lo que se produce. Es mi tarea analizar esta ilusión. Mi tesis sostiene que no es posible alcanzar un estado social basado en la noción de equidad y simultáneamente aumentar la energía mecánica disponible, a no ser bajo la condición de que el consumo de energía por cabeza se mantenga dentro de límites. En otras palabras: sin electrificación no puede haber socialismo, pero inevitablemente esta electrificación se transforma en justificación para la demagogia cuando los vatios per cápita exceden cierta cifra. El socialismo exige para la realización de sus ideales un cierto nivel en el uso de la energía: no puede venir a pie, ni puede venir en coche, sino solamente a velocidad de bicicleta. + +## Mi tesis + +En mi análisis del sistema escolar he señalado que en una sociedad industrial el costo del control social aumenta más rápidamente que el nivel del consumo de energía. Este control lo ejercen en primera línea los educadores y médicos, los cuerpos asistenciales y políticos, sin contar la policía, el ejército y los psiquiatras. El subsistema social destinado al control social crece a un ritmo canceroso convirtiéndose en la razón de la existencia para la sociedad misma. He demostrado que solamente imponiendo límites a la despersonalización e industrialización de los valores se puede mantener un proceso de participación política. + +En el presente ensayo mi argumento procederá analógicamente. Señalaré que en el desarrollo de una sociedad moderna existe un momento en el que el uso de energía ambiental excede por un determinado múltiplo el total de la energía metabólica humana disponible. Una vez rebasada esta cuota de alerta, inevitablemente los individuos y los grupos de base tienen que abdicar progresivamente del control sobre su futuro y someterse siempre más a una tecnocracia regida por la lógica de sus instrumentos. + +Los ecólogos tienen razón al afirmar que toda energía no metabólica es contaminante: es necesario ahora que los políticos reconozcan que la energía física, pasado cierto límite, se hace inevitablemente corrupta del ambiente social. Aun si se lograra producir una energía no contaminante y producirla en cantidad, el uso masivo de energía siempre tendrá sobre el cuerpo social el mismo efecto que la intoxicación por una droga físicamente inofensiva, pero psíquicamente esclavizante. Un pueblo puede elegir entre una droga sustitutiva tal como el metadone y una desintoxicación realizada a voluntad en el aislamiento; pero no puede aspirar simultáneamente a la evolución de su libertad y convivencialidad por un lado, y a una tecnología de alta energía por el otro. + +## El marco latinoamericano + +La llamada crisis de la energía es un concepto políticamente ambiguo. En la manera como se usa en el presente, sirve a los intereses imperialistas tanto en Rusia como en Estados Unidos. Sirve de explicación para limitar privilegios a quienes más directamente cooperan en el desarrollo de éstos. En América Latina la difusión del pánico serviría para integrar el continente más perfectamente como periferia de un mundo cuyo centro está donde más energía per cápita se utiliza. No hay movimiento de verdadera liberación que no reconozca la necesidad de adoptar una tecnología de bajo consumo energético. + +Discutir la crisis de energía equivale a colocarse en el cruce de dos caminos. A mano izquierda se abre la posibilidad de transición a una economía posindustrial, que pone el énfasis en el desarrollo de formas más eficientes de trabajo manual y en la realización concreta de la equidad. Nos conduciría a un mundo de satisfacción austera de todas las aspiraciones realistas. A mano derecha se ofrece la opción de acometer la escalada de un crecimiento que pondría el énfasis en la capitalización y el control social necesarios para evitar niveles intolerables de contaminación. Nos conduciría a transformar los países latinoamericanos en participantes de tercer orden en el apocalipsis industrial, hacia el cual marchan los países ricos. Estados Unidos, Japón o Alemania ya están a punto de perpetrar el autoaniquilamiento social en una parálisis causada por el superconsumo de energía. Insistiendo en el sueño de hacer trabajar las máquinas en lugar del hombre, se desintegran políticamente, aun antes de verse sofocados en sus propios desechos. Hay ciertos países, como la India, Birmania, y espero que aún por cierto tiempo también China, que son todavía bastante operantes en el uso de sus músculos, previniendo así el aumento del desarrollo energético. Pueden aún limitar el uso de energía al nivel actual, tratando de usar sus vatios para fines cualitativamente cada vez más altos y cada vez en forma de mejor distribución. + +Posiblemente den el ejemplo de una economía al mismo tiempo posindustrial y socialista, para lo cual deberán mantener una tecnología con un bajo consumo de energía y decidir, desde ahora, vivir más acá del nivel de consumo por cabeza de energía mecánica que deberán recuperar los países ricos para poder sobrevivir. + +América Latina se encuentra dentro de una tercera situación. Sus industrias están subcapitalizadas y sus subproductos, física y socialmente destructores, son menos visibles que en los países ricos, haciendo excepción particular del Distrito Federal en México y de São Paulo en Brasil. El menor número de gente es consciente de sufrir precisamente a causa del aumento de la potencia de la máquina industrial y, por tanto, menos es la gente dispuesta a tomar en serio la necesidad de limitar el desarrollo ulterior de tal potencia. Por otro lado, todos los países de América Latina ya tienen una infraestructura física que _a priori_ impide al no escolarizado, al no motorizado, al no electrificado, al no industrializado participar humanamente en el proceso de producción. Aquí, la idea de una alternativa al desarrollo de la industria pesada ya implica la renuncia a lo que se está haciendo o se cree poder hacer mañana: una renuncia al coche, a la nevera, al ascensor y, en muchos casos, hasta al cemento armado que ya están en el pueblo o en la casa del vecino. En Latinoamérica hay menos conciencia que en los países ricos de la necesidad de un modelo alternativo de tecnología y tampoco se vislumbra una renuncia al modelo de los ricos, cosas que pudieran permitirse los chinos, si así lo quisieran. + +## El poderío de alto voltaje + +Tanto los pobres como los ricos deberán superar la ilusión de que MÁS energía es MEJOR. Con este fin es necesario, ante todo, determinar el límite de energía más allá del cual se ejerce el efecto corruptor del poder mecánico. Este efecto corruptor puede ser controlado en dos niveles característicos. Una sociedad puede sacrificar su propia supervivencia, como comunidad política, al ídolo del poder material. Puede optar conscientemente, o por falta de iniciativa contraria, por identificar el bienestar con el más alto consumo de energía, estableciendo el sistema de planificación que lo hace posible. La maximización del sistema industrial bajo un techo energético más allá del cual cesa la viabilidad del sistema, requiere la transformación de nuevos poderes a un Leviatán tecnofascista. + +Una sociedad que dé preferencia al pleno desarrollo de sus industrias sobre la plena participación de sus miembros en el proceso, no puede evitar un nuevo nivel de tecnocracia. Es de poca importancia real el modo concreto como llegue esta tecnocracia al poder: por imposición extranjera, por revolución dentro o fuera de la legalidad o a través de un nuevo contrato social. Tecnocracia es la orientación que siguen los países ricos y la misma que quieren imponer a los países pobres. + +Hay un segundo nivel característico, y más bajo, al cual se puede limitar la energía utilizada dentro de un sistema social: es el nivel en el que un pueblo cree tener mejor participación en el dominio de la máquina al combinar mejor y simultáneamente el desarrollo de sus valores tradicionales con la realización de sus ideales sociales. Para ello hay que limitar el uso de la energía, recuperando el nivel tope, pasado el cual éste reduce la autonomía de los individuos y de los grupos de base. + +La hipótesis es evidentemente verdadera: más allá de cierto nivel de uso per cápita de energía física, el ambiente de una sociedad cesa de funcionar como nicho de su población. En esta afirmación no hay nada novedoso pero yo pretendo decir más que esto en mi hipótesis. + +## Mi hipótesis + +El hombre es el ser consciente de su espacio vital y de su limitación temporal. Integra a los dos por medio de su acción, de la aplicación de su energía a sus circunstancias concretas en las cuales se encuentra. Para tal fin utiliza instrumentos de varios tipos, algunos de ellos dan mayor efecto a las energías metabólicas de las que dispone, y otros le permiten hallar fuentes energéticas que son exteriores a su propio cuerpo. + +La energía, transformada en trabajo físico le permite integrar su espacio y su tiempo. Privado de energía suficiente se ve condenado a ser un simple espectador inmóvil en un espacio que lo oprime. Al usar sus manos y pies transforma el espacio, simple territorio para el animal, en casa y patria. Al aumentar la eficiencia en la aplicación de su propia energía, lo embellece. Al aprender a usar nuevas fuentes de energía, lo expande y lo pone en peligro. Más allá de cierto punto, el uso de energía motorizada inevitablemente empieza a oprimirlo. + +Mi hipótesis es que no puede existir una sociedad que merezca el calificativo de “socialista” si la energía mecánica que utiliza aplasta al hombre; inevitablemente, pasado cierto punto, la energía mecánica tiene tal efecto. Existe una constante K. Ésta indica la cantidad por la que hay que multiplicar la energía mecánica utilizada para todos los fines en la sociedad. No puede existir una sociedad “socialista”, en tanto K no quede entre los límites. La sociedad debe considerarse subequipada para una forma de producción participativa y eficaz, mientras K no alcanza el valor del límite inferior. Cuando K se vuelve mayor que el valor del límite superior, termina la posibilidad de mantener una distribución equitativa del control sobre el poder mecánico en la sociedad. Espero elaborar un modelo teórico que ilustre esta hipótesis. Si ésta es correcta, existe en cada sociedad concreta un “nivel de energía de rendimiento mecánico” dentro del cual puede funcionar de manera óptima un sistema político participativo. El orden de magnitud en que se da este nivel de energía es independiente del instrumental tecnológico o de la eficiencia en la transformación de la energía misma. + +Simultáneamente propongo se verifique esta misma hipótesis en algunos campos concretos que consumen un porcentaje importante de la energía mecánica en nuestras sociedades. Tales campos serían: la habitación, los aspectos mecanizados de la agricultura y del transporte. Yo me he decidido a formular mi argumento partiendo de un análisis de este último. + +## El paradigma de la circulación + +Para tales fines presento a consideración el campo de la circulación de personas. Me limitaré al análisis de la circulación de la gente y de su equipaje personal, porque la circulación de bienes en cantidades superiores exigiría otro planteamiento. En la circulación distinguiré dos medios de locomoción: _el tránsito_ de las personas que usan su propia fuerza para trasladarse de un punto a otro y _el transporte_ motorizado. Incluyo en la circulación total dos grandes clases estadísticas de locomoción bien distintas: _el viaje_ , que al empezar conlleva la intención de dormir en otro lugar, por lo menos durante una noche, y _el desplazamiento_ , o trayecto de ida y vuelta, que termina durante el mismo día en su lugar de origen. El viaje y el desplazamiento pueden tener como fin el trabajo, el paseo, el mercado o la participación en actividades sociales. + +En el ejemplo de la circulación creo poder aclarar por qué la “crisis de energía” es un eufemismo detrás del cual se esconde la ilusión de que el uso de la energía y la equidad puedan crecer al mismo paso indefinidamente. La circulación ofrece una oportunidad para exponer la urgencia del análisis que propongo, al mismo tiempo que permite llamar la atención sobre la ceguera ante la evidencia de esta urgencia. Finalmente, me permito presentar mi argumento en forma tal que pueda entenderse y verificarse en discusiones públicas con gente de cualquier grado de instrucción formal. + +## La industria del transporte + +En el momento en que una sociedad se hace tributaria del transporte, no sólo para los viajes ocasionales sino por sus desplazamientos cotidianos, se pone de manifiesto la contradicción entre justicia social y energía motorizada, libertad de la persona y mecanización de la ruta. La dependencia, en relación con el motor, niega a una colectividad precisamente aquellos valores que se considerarían implícitos en el mejoramiento de la circulación. + +Lo siguiente es evidente para campesinos sensatos y se hace dudoso para una persona que sube por la escalera de la escolaridad: la máquina es una contribución positiva cuando su empleo conduce a expander el radio de circulación para todos, multiplicando los destinos terminales sin que por esto aumente la parte del tiempo social que se dedica a la circulación. Hoy en día, ningún sistema motorizado de locomoción llega a aumentar el radio de circulación y simultáneamente a salvaguardar la equidad en la distribución de costos y en la accesibilidad a los puntos de destino escogidos. Frente a esta evidencia el campesino y el peón fácilmente llegan a entender la trampa de la aceleración que roba su tiempo a la mayoría, mientras que los universitarios justifican los privilegios con que esta velocidad les provee, mediante argumentos extraños al debate; insisten en que los países latinoamericanos tienen derecho a competir con la tecnología rica; muestran que el transporte genera un aumento importante en el PNB y que sin una política de movilización mecánica de las masas no es posible desarrollar aquella forma de control social que para ellos se esconde detrás del ideal nacionalista. + +En mi análisis del transporte no me interesa identificar los beneficios económicos que éste genera, sino la contribución que presta a la circulación. Lo quiero analizar como medio de circulación y no como medio de inflación. Es fácil constatar que dondequiera que las máquinas destinan una tasa elevada de energía mecánica a la propulsión de un pasajero, el desarrollo de los transportes como industria reduce la igualdad entre los hombres, limita la movilidad personal dentro de un sistema de rutas trazadas al servicio de las industrias, las burocracias y los militares y, además, aumenta la escasez de tiempo dentro de la sociedad. En otras palabras, cuando la velocidad de sus vehículos rebasa cierto margen, la gente se convierte en prisionera del vehículo que la lleva cada día de la casa al trabajo. La extensión del radio de desplazamiento diario de los trabajadores tiene como contrapartida la disminución en la elección de puntos de destino. Quien va a pie al trabajo llega a crearse un ambiente a lo largo de su ruta; quien recorre el camino en vehículo está privado de una multiplicidad de opciones: paradas, accesos, contactos. Pero, el mismo transporte que para la mayoría crea nuevas distancias físicas y sociales, crea islotes de privilegios al precio de una esclavitud general. Mientras que unos pocos viajan en alfombra mágica entre puntos distantes, y por medio de su presencia prestigiosa los hacen no sólo raros sino seductores, los otros, que son la mayoría, se tienen que desplazar con más y más rapidez por los mismos trayectos monótonos y deben consagrar cada vez más tiempo a estos desplazamientos. + +En Estados Unidos de América cuatro quintos del tiempo consumido en la circulación concierne a las personas que se mueven entre su casa, el sitio de su trabajo y el supermercado. Y cuatro quintos de kilometraje destinado a congresos, a viajes de vacaciones y de negocios son para el 1.5% de la población. La gente que se encuentra en los aeropuertos siempre es la misma. También ellos se dividen en dos clases: los que se ven obligados a viajar y quienes lo hacen por propia decisión, que forman la minoría. Un tercio de la población adulta debe hacer 40 kilómetros por día entre la casa, la escuela, el trabajo y el supermercado para que 0.5% pueda elegir viajar en avión más de una vez al año. Todos aumentan su kilometraje personal obligatorio para que algunos puedan franquear incalculables distancias en el transcurso de algunos años. + +Los medios de transporte acentúan la división de clases en las sociedades ricas, y siendo su lugar de destino las capitales del mundo pobre, extienden la estratificación en un plano global. + +El esclavo del desplazamiento cotidiano y el viajero impenitente se ven igualmente sometidos al transporte. Ocasionales puntos altos de velocidad dan al usuario corriente la ilusión de pertenecer al mundo protegido de los altos consumidores de energía. La oportunidad ocasional que tiene el trabajador negro en Miami de pasar dos semanas de vacaciones en Copacabana, le hace olvidar que para el viaje por avión de seis horas de ida y seis de vuelta tuvo que trabajar tres veces más días de lo que hubiera tomado el viaje por barco. El pobre del mundo moderno, capaz de acelerar de vez en cuando, refuerza él mismo la ilusión de la que es víctima premeditada y se hace cómplice de la destrucción del cuadro social del espacio. No sólo quien usa el avión, sino también quien defiende su uso coopera a destruir la relación multimilenaria que existe entre el hombre y su geografía. + +El hombre americano típico consagra más de 1 600 horas por año a su automóvil: sentado dentro de él, en marcha o parado, trabajando para pagarlo, para pagar la gasolina, las llantas, los peajes, el seguro, las infracciones y los impuestos para las carreteras federales y los estacionamientos comunales. Le consagra cuatro horas al día en las que se sirve de él, se ocupa de él o trabaja para él. Aquí no se han tomado en cuenta todas sus actividades orientadas por el transporte: el tiempo que consume en el hospital, en el tribunal y en el taller mecánico; el tiempo pasado ante la televisión viendo publicidad automovilística, el tiempo invertido en ganar dinero para viajar en avión o en tren. Sin duda, con estas actividades hace marchar la economía, procura trabajo a sus compañeros, ingresos a los jeques de Arabia y justificación a Nixon por su guerra en Asia. Pero si nos preguntamos de qué manera estas 1600 horas, que son una estimación mínima, contribuyen a su circulación, la situación se ve diferente. Estas 1 600 horas le sirven para hacer unos 10 000 kilómetros de camino, o sea seis kilómetros en una hora. Es exactamente lo mismo que alcanzan los hombres en los países que no tienen industria del transporte. Pero, mientras el norteamericano consagra a la circulación una cuarta parte del tiempo social disponible, en las sociedades no motorizadas se destina a este fin entre 3 y 8% del tiempo social. Lo que diferencia la circulación en un país rico y en un país pobre no es una mayor eficacia, sino la obligación de consumir en dosis altas las energías condicionadas por la industria del transporte. + +## El estupor inducido por la velocidad + +Al rebasar determinado límite en el consumo de energía, la industria del transporte dicta la configuración del espacio social. Las autopistas hacen retroceder los campos fuera del alcance del campesino que quisiera caminar, los viaductos y aeropuertos cortan el acceso de un lado del barrio a otro, las ambulancias empujan las clínicas más allá de la corta distancia que se puede cubrir llevando a un niño enfermo. El coche o la moto permiten al médico y a la partera vivir lejos del ambiente en el que ejercen, y mientras más costosos los transportes, más se vuelve privilegio de ricos o de jerarcas la visita a domicilio. Cuando los camiones pesados llegan a un poblado de los Andes, lo primero que desaparece es parte del mercado local. Luego, cuando llega la ruta asfaltada y un grupo de maestros de secundaria se establece en el poblado, cada vez más gente joven se va hacia la ciudad, hasta que no queda una sola familia que no espere reunirse con alguien allá, a cientos de kilómetros. + +Frecuentemente nos olvidamos de que la aceleración de los viajes es un hecho muy nuevo. Valéry tenía razón cuando afirmaba que Napoleón aún se movía a la lentitud de César. Desde los tiempos de Ciro el Grande, rey de los persas, los imperios contaban con la posibilidad de enviar las cartas a una velocidad hasta de 160 kilómetros por día, los mensajes de toda la historia circulaban a un promedio de 100 kilómetros diarios, ya fuesen transportados en galeras de Constantinopla a Venecia o llevados por los corredores de los Fugger, por jinetes del califa o por las rutas del inca. El primer camino para diligencia entre París y Marsella o Tolouse, que regularmente hacía más de 100 kilómetros por día precedió por sólo 70 años al primer tren que hacía 100 kilómetros por hora en 1853. Pero una vez creada la vía férrea el hombre se vio clavado a ella. En Francia, entre 1850 y 1900, el kilometraje por pasajero se multiplicó por un factor de 53. + +Por su impacto geográfico, en definitiva, la industria del transporte moldea una nueva especie de hombres: los usuarios. El usuario vive en un mundo ajeno al de las personas dotadas de la autonomía de sus miembros. El usuario es consciente de la exasperante penuria del tiempo que provoca recurrir cotidianamente al tren, al automóvil, al metro, al ascensor, que lo trasladan diariamente a través de los mismos canales y túneles sobre un radio de 10 a 25 kilómetros. Conoce los atajos que encuentran los privilegiados para escapar a la exasperación engendrada por la circulación y los conducen adonde ellos quieren llegar, mientras él, el usuario, tiene que conducir su propio vehículo de un lugar, donde preferiría no vivir, a un empleo que preferiría evitar. El usuario se sabe limitado por los horarios de tren y autobús, en las horas que su esposa lo priva del coche, pero ve a los ejecutivos desplazarse y viajar por el mundo cuando y como a ellos les place. Paga su automóvil de su propio bolsillo, en un mundo donde los privilegios van para el personal dirigente de las grandes firmas, universidades, sindicatos y partidos. Los pobres se atan a su coche, y los ricos usan el coche de servicio, o alquilan el coche de Hertz. El usuario se exaspera por la desigualdad creciente, la penuria de tiempo y su propia impotencia, pero insensatamente pone su única esperanza en _más_ de la misma cosa: más circulación por medio de más transporte. Espera el alivio por cambios de orden técnico que han de afectar la concepción de los vehículos, de las rutas o de la reglamentación de la circulación. O bien espera una revolución que transfiera la propiedad de los vehículos a la colectividad y que, por descuento a los salarios, mantenga una red de transportes gratuitos, cuyas secciones más veloces y costosas serán otra vez accesibles sólo a quienes la sociedad considere más importantes. Casi todos los proyectos de reforma de los transportes que se suponen radicales padecen de este prejuicio: se olvidan del costo en tiempo humano resultante de sustituir el sistema presente por otro, más “público”, si este último ha de ser tan rápido como el otro. + +Por las noches el usuario sueña con lo que los ingenieros le sugieren durante el día a través de la televisión y de las columnas seudocientíficas de los diarios. Sueña con redes estratificadas de vehículos de diferente velocidad que convergen en intersecciones donde la gente puede encontrarse en los espacios que le conceden las máquinas. Sueña con los servicios especiales de la “Red de Transporte” que se harán cargo de él definitivamente. + +El usuario no puede captar la demencia inherente al sistema de circulación que se basa principalmente en el transporte. Su percepción de la relación del espacio con el tiempo ha sido objeto de una distorsión industrial. Ha perdido el poder de concebirse como otra cosa que no sea un usuario. Intoxicado por el transporte, ha perdido conciencia de los poderes físicos, sociales y psíquicos de que dispone el hombre, gracias a sus pies. Olvida que el territorio lo crea el hombre con su cuerpo, y toma por territorio lo que no es más que un paisaje visto a través de una ventanilla por un hombre amarrado a su butaca. Ya no sabe marcar el ámbito de sus dominios con la huella de sus pasos, ni encontrarse con los vecinos, caminando en la plaza. Ya no encuentra al otro sin chocar, ni llega sin que un motor lo arrastre. Su órbita puntual y diaria lo enajena de todo territorio libre. + +Atravesándolo a pie el hombre transforma el espacio geográfico en morada dominada por él. Dentro de ciertos límites que aplica al movimiento determina su movilidad y su poder de dominio. La relación con el espacio del usuario de transportes se determina por una potencia física ajena a su ser biológico. El motor mediatiza su relación con el medio ambiente y pronto lo enajena de tal manera que depende del motor para definir su poder político. El usuario está condicionado a creer que el motor aumenta la capacidad de los miembros de una sociedad de participar en el proceso político. Perdió la fe en el poder político de caminar. + +En sus demandas políticas el usuario no busca más caminos abiertos sino más vehículos que lo transporten; quiere más de lo mismo que ahora lo frustra, en vez de pedir garantía de que, en todo sentido, la precedencia la tenga siempre el peatón. La liberación del usuario consiste en su comprensión de la realidad: mientras exija más energía para propulsar con más aceleración a algunos individuos de la sociedad, precipita la corrupción irreversible de la equidad, del tiempo libre y de la autonomía personal. El progreso con el que sueña no es más que la destrucción mejor lograda. + +## Los chupatiempo + +En toda sociedad que hace pagar, el tiempo, la equidad y la velocidad en la locomoción tienden a variar en proporción inversa una de la otra. Los ricos son aquellos que pueden moverse más, ir donde les plazca, detenerse donde deseen y obtener estos servicios a cambio de una fracción muy pequeña de su tiempo vital. Los pobres son los que usan mucho tiempo para que el sistema del transporte funcione para los ricos del país. + +La razón de ello es que la velocidad resulta demasiado cara para ser realmente compartida: todo aumento en la velocidad de un vehículo ocasiona un aumento correspondiente en el consumo de energía necesaria para propulsarlo. + +No sólo el funcionamiento mismo consume energía: mientras mayor la velocidad, más energía se invierte en la construcción del vehículo mismo, en el mantenimiento de su pista y en los servicios adicionales sin los cuales no puede funcionar. + +No sólo energía consume un vehículo veloz; más importante aún es que consume espacio. Cada aumento en la velocidad hace al vehículo más voraz de metros cuadrados o cúbicos. + +Alemania Federal consumió su tierra a razón de 0.2% por año durante la década de los cincuenta. En los sesenta ya había logrado cubrir permanentemente con asfalto 0.4% de su territorio. Los norteamericanos requieren, para sus propios movimientos y para los de sus mercancías, una suma de energía superior a la totalidad de lo disponible, en todos los efectos, para la mitad de la humanidad entera, reunida entre China, India y el sudeste asiático. Ineluctablemente la aceleración chupa tiempo, espacio y energía. + +Ahora bien, cuando la energía requerida por el usuario rebasa cierta barrera, el tiempo de unos cuantos adquiere un valor muy alto, en tanto se desprecia el de la mayoría de los demás. En Bombay bastan algunos pocos automóviles para perturbar la circulación de miles de bicicletas y carretillas de tracción humana. Desplazándolos reducen gravemente su flujo y crean tapones. Pero uno de estos escasos automovilistas puede trasladarse en una mañana a la capital de provincia, trayecto que, dos generaciones antes, hubiera llevado una semana entera. En Tailandia los transportes tradicionales eran tan excelentes y flexibles que los reyes nunca pudieron imponer contribuciones sobre los movimientos del arroz: tan múltiples eran las vías por las cuales se podía escapar de la vigilancia del recaudador en unos botecitos elegantes y rápidos, usando una vasta red de canales. Para poder introducir el automóvil todo este sistema perfectamente democrático fue paralizado, cubriendo algunos de los _klongs_ (canales) con asfalto. Algunos poquísimos individuos pueden moverse con rapidez y la mayoría se hizo dependiente y debe adquirir “transporte”. + +Lo que es válido en la India, donde el ingreso anual por cabeza alcanza 70 dólares, lo es también en Boston, donde la circulación se ha hecho más lenta que en la época de los carruajes de caballos. El tiempo usado en actividades relacionadas con el transporte lógicamente crece con los gastos hechos para acelerarlo. Una minoría de bostonianos puede permitirse el lujo de vivir en rascacielos, cerca de su trabajo, usar el puente aéreo para dar una vuelta y almorzar en Nueva York. Para la mayoría aumenta la porción de dos horas de vigilia pasadas para crear “transporte”. + +En cualquier lugar, la demanda de circulación crece con la aceleración de los vehículos y con mayor premura que la posibilidad de satisfacerla. Pasado cierto límite, la industria del transporte cuesta a la sociedad más tiempo del que ahorra. Con aumentos ulteriores en la velocidad de ciertos vehículos, decrece el kilometraje total viajado por los pasajeros, pero no el tiempo que les cuesta mantener el sistema de transportes. La utilidad marginal en el aumento de la velocidad, accesible sólo a un pequeño número de gente, al rebasar un límite conlleva para la mayoría un aumento en la desutilidad total del transporte. La mayoría no sólo paga más, sino que sufre más daños irreparables. + +Pasada la barrera crítica de la velocidad en un vehículo, nadie puede ganar tiempo sin que, obligadamente, lo haga perder a otro. Aquel que exige una plaza en un avión, proclama que su tiempo vale más que el del prójimo. En una sociedad en donde el tiempo para consumir o usar se ha convertido en un bien precioso, servirse de un vehículo, cuya velocidad exceda esta barrera crítica, equivale a poner una inyección suplementaria del tiempo vital de otros al usuario privilegiado de vehículos. + +La velocidad sirve para medir la dosis de la inyección que transforma en ganancia de tiempo para unos pocos la gran pérdida de tiempo de muchos. Inevitablemente esta carrera contra el tiempo y contra la muerte de los ricos deja heridos tras de sí. Presenta problemas éticos de orden más universal que la diálisis renal o los injertos de vísceras, que a tantos sublevan. + +Al rebasar cierto límite de velocidad, los vehículos motorizados crean distancias que sólo ellos pueden reducir. Crean distancias a costa de todos, luego las reducen únicamente en beneficio de algunos. Una carretera abierta en el desierto pone la ciudad al alcance de la vista del campesino hambriento, pero ciertamente no al alcance de su mano. La nueva ruta _express_ extiende a Chicago, absorbiendo a los motorizados hacia los nuevos suburbios y dejando que el centro de la ciudad degenere en arrabales de asfalto para los otros. + +El desplazamiento en masa no es cosa nueva; nuevo es el desplazamiento diario de masas de gente sobre distancias que no pueden cubrirse a pie; nueva es la dependencia de los vehículos para hacer el trayecto diario de ida y vuelta. El uso diario de la silla de posta, el _rickshaw_ y el _fiacre_ , sirvió en su tiempo para comodidad de una ínfima minoría, que no quería ensuciarse los pies ni fatigarse, pero no para aventajar el paso del caminante. El tránsito diario de masas aparece solamente con el ferrocarril. En Francia, entre 1900 y 1950, aumentó casi 100 veces el kilometraje por pasajero. La existencia del ferrocarril hizo posible la expansión de las fábricas, creando, desde un principio, una nueva forma de discriminación. Hizo posible que el director empleara en la fábrica gente que se resistía a una distancia mayor de la que se puede cubrir a pie, creando con esto un “mercado de compra” para la mano de obra. Los ferrocarriles con su capacidad enorme de transporte comenzaron luego a transformar el espacio, permitiendo el crecimiento de la urbe, del arrabal y de la fábrica, que se hizo más gigantesca. + +El impacto directo de los primeros ferrocarriles recayó sobre la estructura del espacio: en sus primeros años el tren pudo acentuar los privilegios establecidos, creando la primera clase, que los ricos usaban en vacaciones y para sus negocios, mientras que los pobres se vieron obligados a usar la tercera todos los días. Pero la velocidad aún no determinaba las distinciones. Fue a finales de siglo cuando las cosas cambiaron. La velocidad se convirtió en factor de discriminación. El tren expreso ya corría tres veces más rápido que el tren lechero y era más costoso. Pasados otros 20 años, con el uso común del automóvil, el hombre de la calle comenzó a ser su propio chofer. Los beneficios de la velocidad, logrados por todas partes, llegaron a constituir la base para los privilegios reservados a las nuevas élites. + +El porcentaje de gente que emplea hoy chofer es más o menos el mismo que lo empleaba hace dos generaciones; sólo que hoy el salario que éste gana lo pagan las empresas, los ministerios y los sindicatos. Pero además de usar chofer, esta gente es la misma que usa aviones y helicópteros, vive cerca de las arterias de transporte y trabaja en lugares próximos al restaurante, al barbero y a las tiendas. Mucho más de lo que pudo hacerlo el tren, los nuevos niveles de velocidad agrupan las zonas burocráticas favorecidas, los espacios residenciales más atractivos y las estaciones turísticas de lujo, dentro de una órbita cerrada, a la que el acceso que tienen las masas es, primordialmente, a través de la televisión. En los países de Europa oriental donde el número de lugares privilegiados para quienes disponen de coches es menor, su importancia relativa es, quizás, mayor. + +Hoy vemos la formación de una jerarquía de diferentes circuitos de transporte, los cuales determinan el acceso a sus servicios de acuerdo con la velocidad que desarrollan y, por tanto, cada uno define su propia clase de usuarios. Cada uno de estos circuitos, si es de velocidad superior, reduce el acceso a menor número de personas, conecta puntos más distantes entre sí y devalúa los circuitos de menor velocidad. + +Dime a qué velocidad te mueves y te diré quién eres. Si no puedes contar más que con tus propios pies para desplazarte, eres un marginado, porque, desde medio siglo atrás, el vehículo se ha convertido en signo de selección social y en condición para la participación en la vida nacional. Dondequiera que la industria del transporte ha hecho franquear a sus pasajeros una barrera crítica de velocidad, inevitablemente establece nuevos privilegios para la minoría y agobia a la mayoría. + +A todos los niveles, para que la acumulación de poder pueda ser factible, tiene que crear su propia justificación. Así es como un hombre queda justificado al consumir fondos públicos para aumentar la cantidad anual de sus viajes, sumándolos a los fondos públicos ya consumidos anteriormente y al extender la duración de sus estudios. Allí donde se cree que el saber puede capitalizarse y se puede medir el valor productivo por los años de escolaridad de un individuo, inevitablemente se llega a justificar que éste capitalice su vida utilizándola más intensivamente al usar transportes más veloces. + +En los países ricos, quienes ganan mucho tienen el mejor transporte y mayor probabilidad de tener éxito en los estudios que justifican los demás privilegios. Pero no es necesario usar el salario o el título académico como pasaporte que permita la entrada a un avión. Hay factores de orden ideológico que pueden igualmente abrir o cerrar la puerta de la cabina. Si bien es cierto que la LÍNEA JUSTA de Mao, para extenderse en China, necesita actualmente de aviones a reacción, esto no puede significar sino la emergencia de un espacio/tiempo propio de los cuadros del partido y diferente al espacio/tiempo en el que viven las masas. En la China Popular la supresión de los niveles intermedios ha hecho más eficaz y más racional la concentración del poder, pero simultáneamente ha recalcado también cómo el tiempo del hombre que guía su búfalo vale mucho menos que el tiempo del hombre que trae ideas y se hace transportar en jet. La velocidad vehicular concentra la potencia energética y el poder en las posaderas de unos cuantos: es estructuralmente demagógica y elitista, independientemente de las intenciones que tenga quien se hace propulsar velozmente. Es un hecho: los caballos de fuerza no pueden sino pisotear la equidad. Además, hacen perder tiempo. + +## La aceleración dimensión técnica que expropia el tiempo + +La velocidad reduce el tiempo en un doble sentido: disminuyendo el que necesita el pasajero para cubrir 1 000 kilómetros y reduciendo el que podría emplear en otra cosa que no fuera el desplazamiento. La velocidad superior de ciertos vehículos favorece a algunas personas, pero la dependencia general de los vehículos veloces consume el tiempo de todos. Cuando la velocidad rebasa cierta barrera empieza a aumentar el tiempo total devuelto por la sociedad a la circulación. + +El efecto que tienen los vehículos superpotentes sobre el presupuesto cotidiano del tiempo disponible de individuos y de sociedades se conoce mal. Lo que las estadísticas nos muestran es el precio en dólares por kilómetro o la duración en horas por desplazamiento. Muy poca es la información sobre los presupuestos de tiempo en el transporte. Hay pocos datos estadísticos de cómo la circulación carcome el tiempo, de cómo el automóvil devora espacio, de cómo se multiplican los recorridos necesarios, de cómo se alejan terminales codiciadas y de cómo al hombre motorizado le cuesta adaptarse al transporte y reponerse de él. + +Ningún estudio señala los costos indirectos del transporte, por ejemplo, el precio que se paga por residir en un sector con circulación de fácil acceso, los gastos implicados en protegerse del ruido, de la contaminación y de los peligros de la circulación. + +Sin embargo, la inexistencia de una contabilidad nacional del tiempo social no debe hacernos creer que es imposible establecerla, ni debe impedirnos utilizar lo poco que ya sabemos al respecto. + +Lo que sí sabemos con seguridad es que en todas partes del mundo, en cuanto la velocidad de los vehículos que cubren los desplazamientos diarios rebasa un punto de alrededor de los 20 kilómetros por hora, la escasez del tiempo relacionada con el desarrollo del transporte general comienza a aumentar. Una vez que la industria alcanza este punto crítico de concentración de vatios por cabeza, el transporte hace del hombre el fantasma que sabemos, un desatinado que constantemente se ve obligado a alcanzar dentro de las próximas 12 horas una meta que por sus propios medios físicos no puede alcanzar. En la actualidad, la gente se ve obligada a trabajar buena parte del día para pagar los desplazamientos necesarios para dirigirse al trabajo. Dentro de una sociedad, el tiempo devuelto al transporte crece en función del máximo de la velocidad de los transportes públicos. Por tener medios de transporte público más modernos, Japón ya precede a Norteamérica en velocidad y en el tiempo perdido en gozarla. + +El tiempo carcomido por la circulación; el hombre privado de su movilidad y sometido a depender de las ruedas; la arquitectura al servicio del vehículo; todo esto es consecuencia de la reorganización del mundo sujeta a la aceleración prepotente. No cambia mucho el asunto si la máquina es pública o privada. Inevitablemente con el aumento de la velocidad crece la escasez de tiempo: pasando del coche al tren, que le da el mismo servicio, el usuario trabaja dos o tres horas al día para pagar más impuestos en lugar de trabajar para pagar su Ford. Inevitablemente aumenta la programación: en vez de tener que añadir dos horas de trabajo como chofer de su propio coche al trabajo diario en la fábrica o en la oficina, ahora tiene que adaptar su día a los horarios de los diferentes medios de transporte público. Así como los vehículos ocupan el espacio y reducen los lugares donde la gente pueda parar o vivir, así igualmente ocupan más horas cada año, además imponen su ritmo al proyecto de cada día. + +## El monopolio radical del transporte + +Como indiqué anteriormente, para poder entender la disfunción que analizamos hay que distinguir entre la circulación, el tránsito y el transporte. Por _circulación_ designo todo desplazamiento de personas. Llamo _tránsito_ a los movimientos que se hacen con energía muscular del hombre y _transporte_ a aquellos que recurren a motores mecánicos para trasladar hombres y bultos. Sin duda, desde tiempos inmemoriales el animal ha compartido el hambre del ser humano y fue su dócil vehículo. Es cosa del pasado: el aumento de los hombres cada vez lo excluye más de un mundo superpoblado y ahora los motores mecánicos generan la forma inhumana de los movimientos. + +Dentro de esta perspectiva, se diferencian dos formas de producción de la circulación. El transporte, que es la forma basada en la utilización intensiva del capital; el tránsito, la forma basada en el trabajo intensivo del cuerpo humano. El transporte es prevalentemente un producto de la industria, el tránsito no lo es, ni puede serlo. Quien transita en el acto es eminentemente su propio dueño, quien usa transporte es pasajero o usuario, inevitablemente cliente de una industria. El transporte que usa es un bien con valor de cambio, sujeto a la escasez. Se somete al juego del mercado, organizado como un “juego con suma cero”, de tal manera que si unos ganan los otros pierden. El tránsito, por definición, tiene un valor de uso, que normalmente es del transeúnte. No se ve necesariamente afectado por algún valor de cambio. El niño puede visitar a su abuela sin pagar a nadie, pero puede, si quiere, llevar un bulto para el vecino de la señora, cobrando por la molestia de llevarlo. Hay penuria de tránsito únicamente al negar a los individuos la posibilidad de utilizar su capacidad innata de moverse; no se les puede privar del medio de locomoción que usan. Por esto el tránsito en sí no es fácil de organizar como un “juego con suma cero”. Por su naturaleza, al mejorar el tránsito de un miembro de la colectividad, mejora la suerte del conjunto. Todo esfuerzo por perfeccionar el tránsito toma la forma de una operación en la que finalmente todo el mundo sale ganando. En cambio, de toda lucha por acelerar el transporte (por encima de cierta barrera), inevitablemente resulta en un aumento de la injusticia. El transporte más rápido para algunos inevitablemente empeora la situación de los demás. + +Las paradojas, contradicciones y frustraciones de la circulación contemporánea se deben al monopolio ejercido por la industria de los transportes sobre la circulación de las personas. La circulación mecánica no solamente tiene un efecto destructor sobre el ambiente físico, ahonda las disfunciones económicas y carcome el tiempo y el espacio. Además de todo esto, inhibe a la gente de servirse de sus pies, incapacitando a todos por igual. En Los Ángeles no hay destino para el pie: el coche dictó su forma a la ciudad. + +El dominio del sistema industrial de circulación sobre el sistema personal se establece cuando, y sólo entonces, los medios de transporte circulan a velocidad prepotente. La velocidad, al volverse obligatoria, arruina el tránsito en favor del transporte motorizado. Dondequiera que el ejercicio de privilegios y la satisfacción de las necesidades más elementales va unida al uso del vehículo prepotente, se impone una aceleración de los ritmos personales. La industria tiene el monopolio de la circulación cuando la vida cotidiana llega a depender del desplazamiento motorizado. + +Este poderoso control que ejerce la industria del transporte sobre la capacidad innata que tiene todo hombre para moverse, crea una situación de monopolio más agobiante que el monopolio comercial de Ford sobre el mercado de automóviles o el monopolio político que ejerce la industria automovilística en detrimento de los medios de transporte colectivos. Por su carácter disimulado, su atrincheramiento, su poder para estructurar la sociedad, este monopolio es radical: obliga a satisfacer de manera industrial una necesidad elemental hasta ahora satisfecha de forma personal. El consumo obligatorio de un bien de cambio, el transporte motorizado, restringe las condiciones para poder gozar de un valor de uso superabundante, la capacidad innata de tránsito. La reorganización del espacio en favor del motor vacía de poder y de sentido la capacidad innata de moverse. + +La circulación nos sirve aquí de ejemplo para formular una ley económica y política general: cuando un producto excede cierto límite en el consumo de energía por cabeza, ejerce el _monopolio radical_ sobre la satisfacción de una necesidad. Este monopolio se instituye cuando la sociedad se adapta a los fines de aquellos que consumen el total mayor de quanta de energía, y se arraiga irreversiblemente cuando se empieza a imponer a todos la obligación de consumir el quántum mínimo sin el cual la máquina no puede funcionar. El monopolio radical que ejerce una industria sobre toda una sociedad no es efecto de la escasez de bienes reservados a una minoría de clientes; es más bien la capacidad que tiene esta industria de convertir a todos en usuarios. + +En toda América Latina los zapatos son escasos. Mucha gente no los usa jamás. Caminan descalzos o con sandalias, huaraches o caites que ellos mismos se fabrican; sin embargo, nunca la falta de zapatos ha limitado su tránsito. Pero, unas dos generaciones atrás, se convirtió en ideal de los nacionalistas calzar al pueblo. Se empezó a obligar a la gente a calzarse, prohibiéndoles comulgar, graduarse o hacer gestiones públicas ante burócratas, presentándose descalzos. El poder del burócrata para definir lo que es bueno para el pueblo inevitablemente le da el poder de establecer nuevas jerarquías. + +Como el calzado, las escuelas han sido siempre un bien escaso. Pero el solo hecho de admitir una minoría privilegiada no ha logrado que la escuela sea un obstáculo para la adquisición de saber por parte de la mayoría. Ha sido necesario establecer la escuela gratuita y obligatoria para que el educador, convertido en tamiz entre el saber y las masas, pudiera definir al subconsumidor de sus tratamientos como despreciable autodidacta. + +La industria de la construcción podría servirnos de tercer ejemplo de lo que es un monopolio radical. La mayoría de nuestra gente sabe aun crearse un ambiente físico y construir su casita. No es la casa del rico o el palacio de gobierno lo que impide que lo haga hoy, sino la ley que presenta la casa profesionalmente construida como modelo la que impide la autoconstrucción moderna a la mayoría. + +Los elementos que constituyen a una industria gran consumidora de energía en monopolio radical, se ponen de manifiesto si tratamos de realizar los ideales que hoy rigen la circulación. Imaginemos que se organiza un sistema de transportes para uso diario, que realmente sea _rápido, gratuito, igualmente accesible a todos_. En un mundo hipermoderno, dotado de un sistema semejante, todos los transportes serían pagados con fondos públicos, es decir, con fondos recaudados por medio de impuestos. La imposición, a su vez, no sería solamente mayor para quienes ganan más, sino paraquienes viven o tienen negocios más cercanos a las terminales. Además, en este sistema, quien llegara primero sería también primero en ocupar su plaza, sin prioridad reconocida ni al médico, ni a quien va de fiesta, ni al directivo. Un mundo utópico semejante bien pronto se manifestaría como una pesadilla, en la que todos serían igualmente prisioneros del transporte. Cada uno privado del uso de sus pies, incapaz de competir con los vehículos, se convertiría en agente de la proliferación ulterior de la red de transportes. La única alternativa que le quedaría se impone por sí sola: insistir en que la velocidad de los vehículos disponibles se reduzca a un nivel que permita al hombre competir con ella por sus propias fuerzas. + +## El límite inasequible + +Hay que preguntarse por qué la investigación insistentemente continúa orientada hacia el desarrollo de los transportes cada vez más dañinos, en vez de determinar las condiciones óptimas de la circulación. En mi opinión, hay una razón obvia. No se pueden identificar las condiciones para una circulación óptima sin decidir de antemano que la circulación en cuestión debe ser la locomoción de las personas y no de los vehículos. Ahora bien, para poder asentar las metas de un sistema de transportes en tal premisa, hay que tomar en consideración que las personas tienen una capacidad innata de moverse sin que para ello necesiten de la ayuda de políticos e ingenieros. Aunque pueda parecer extraño al hombre común, es precisamente a esta movilidad natural del ser humano a la que no dan significación formal los grandes equipos de profesionales, quienes prepararon la mayoría de los grandes estudios sobre la reorganización de la circulación necesaria durante los próximos 10 años. + +Asentada la premisa de que el hombre nace con alta movilidad, característica de su ser y tradicionalmente satisfactoria, se impone el problema de cómo salvaguardar esta movilidad natural, a pesar de las medidas que se tomen para “mejorarla”. Una de las formas que garanticen el disfrute de la movilidad natural consiste en imponer un límite a la industria del transporte, límite que, a cierto nivel, tome la forma de restricción de la velocidad. El obstáculo mayor para la discusión racional del tema es el orden de magnitud de la velocidad en el que se encuentra este límite. + +El usuario comprende que algunas velocidades deben excluirse, comprende que la generalización del avión supersónico le impediría el descanso y el sueño y, con mucha probabilidad, a sus nietos les quitaría el oxígeno necesario para vivir. Sin dificultad comprende que existen velocidades máximas, pero no ha meditado en la posibilidad de velocidades óptimas. Las discusiones sobre velocidades que lleven a una circulación óptima le parecen arbitrarias o autoritarias. Del otro lado, al ciclista o al mulatero la discusión le parece carente de sentido. Para ambos, lo que podrían llegar a identificar como velocidad óptima en la circulación, es distinto a lo que ellos conocen por experiencia. Una velocidad cuatro o seis veces mayor a la de un peatón representa un margen demasiado bajo para que el usuario del sistema de transportes lo considere y es demasiado elevado para tres cuartas partes de la humanidad que todavía se mueve por sus propias fuerzas. Es aquí donde está el obstáculo para la politización del asunto. + +La gente que planifica el alojamiento, el transporte o la educación de los demás pertenece toda a la clase de los usuarios. La competencia que reivindica se basa en el valor reconocido al producto de sus agencias: los “milagros médicos”, la velocidad o los certificados escolares. Sociólogos o ingenieros pueden dar cuenta del embotellamiento en Calcuta o en Caracas, en términos informativos. Hasta saben trazar planos para la sustitución de coches por autobuses, metros o aerotrén. Pero inevitablemente son gente que cree poder aportar algo que los demás no tienen: un vehículo, un plan o un sistema. Son personajes profesionalmente adictos a la solución industrial de problemas creados por una industria. Su fe en la potencia, en la fuerza de concentración de la energía, les impide tomar conciencia de la potencia, superior en mucho, inherente a la renuncia. El ingeniero es incapaz de concebir la renuncia a la velocidad, el retardo general de la circulación, como medio de abolir el espasmo energético que ahora entorpece los transportes. No quiere elaborar sus programas sobre el postulado de prohibir en la ciudad todo vehículo motorizado que aventaje la marcha de una bicicleta. + +Desde su Land Rover, el consejero para el desarrollo se compadece del peruano que lleva sus marranos al mercado. Se rehúsa a reconocer las ventajas que le da el hecho de ir a pie: se olvida de que si bien este hombre pasará en el camino tres días enteros del mes, la mayoría de sus familiares no tienen que salir del pueblo. En contraste, cada uno de los miembros de la familia del norteamericano, en Saint Louis Missouri, está obligado a pasar cuatro horas diarias en el servicio de los transportes. No sorprende, pues, que como benefactor de la humanidad subdesarrollada ponga empeño en proveer a los indios de la sierra de “privilegio” semejante. Para el ingeniero del desarrollo no existe nada que sea sencillamente _bueno_ , sueña con lo mejor, lo más rápido, lo más costoso y, por tanto, acrecentando el medio aleja el fin. + +La mayoría de los peruanos y mexicanos, para no hablar de los chinos, se encuentran en la actitud opuesta. El límite crítico de la velocidad se coloca para ellos muy por delante de lo que conocen por experiencia propia. Sí, hay unos cuantos que guardan de por vida el recuerdo de alguna escapada motorizada; recuerdan el día en que, en el camión del ejército, los transportaron a una manifestación en el zócalo o en Pekín; recuerdan la visita del cacique en su coche. Pero aun estas raras ocasiones, en las que se movieron sobre la pista a una velocidad de 50 kilómetros, en una hora no recorrieron más de 30 kilómetros. No asimilan la experiencia de haber recorrido tal distancia en tan poco tiempo. En Guerrero y en Chiapas, dos estados mexicanos característicos, en 1970 menos de 1% de la población jamás había recorrido 15 kilómetros en menos de una hora. Los caminos de tercera sin duda hacen más cómodo el desplazamiento, hacen posible los recorridos más largos, pero no los _aceleran_ , pasando el límite. Permiten a todos moverse juntos, llevan al campesino al mercado sin separarlo de su marrano y sin ocasionarle al puerco pérdida de peso, pero no los hacen llegar más que seis veces más pronto que si hubiesen ido a pie. + +El orden de magnitud donde se coloca el punto límite crítico de la velocidad es muy bajo para que el usuario lo tome en serio y muy alto para afectar al campesino. De esta manera se sitúa para ambos en el punto ciego de su campo visual. Al campesino le parecería volar como un pájaro si pudiera trasladarse de su casa a un campo a 25 kilómetros de distancia en una hora o menos, mientras que el usuario olvida que la enorme mayoría de los habitantes de Londres, París, Nueva York y Tokio emplean más de una hora por cada 10 kilómetros que se desplazan. El hecho de que la velocidad crítica para la circulación esté situada en un punto ciego común al campo visual del usuario y del campesino, es lo que hace tan difícil presentar el asunto a la discusión pública. El usuario está intoxicado por el consumo de altas dosis de energía industrial y se le toca un nervio vivo al mencionar el punto, mientras que el campesino no ve la razón de defenderse de algo que no conoce. + +A esta dificultad general para politizar el asunto de las velocidades se añade otro obstáculo aún más palmario. El usuario de transportes no es cliente de las carreteras únicamente. Es casi siempre un hombre moderno, lo que quiere decir que igualmente es cliente encadenado a otros sistemas públicos, tales como la escuela, el hospital y el sindicato. Está condicionado a creer que sólo los especialistas pueden comprender el porqué de las “características técnicas” según las cuales funcionan los sistemas: sólo el médico puede identificar y curar su calentura, y sólo el maestro titulado debe enseñarle a leer a su hijo. Igualmente está acostumbrado a confiar en los expertos, y a que sólo ellos comprendan _por qué_ el tren suburbano parte a las 8:15 y a las 8:41 o por qué los coches se tienen que hacer cada vez más complejos y costosos sin que para él mejore la circulación. La idea de que por un proceso político se podría encontrar una característica técnica tan elemental como la “velocidad crítica”, aquí bajo estudio, le parece fruto de la imaginación ingenua de un abuelo, de un inculto, de un _luddita_[^n01] o de un demagogo irresponsable. Su respeto al especialista, a quien no conoce, se ha transformado en ciega sumisión a las condiciones que éste ha establecido. La mistificación propia y típica del hombre-cliente es el segundo obstáculo para el control popular de la circulación. + +Hay un tercer obstáculo a la construcción de la circulación: tal reconstrucción por iniciativa mayoritaria es potencialmente un explosivo social. Si en un solo campo mayor las masas llegaran a entender hasta qué punto han sido fantoches de una ilusión tecnológica, la misma mutación de conciencia podría fácilmente extenderse a otros campos. Si fuese posible identificar públicamente un valor natural máximo para las velocidades vehiculares, como condición para el tránsito óptimo, análogas intervenciones públicas en la tecnoestructura serían entonces mucho más fáciles. La estructura institucional total está tan integrada, tan tensa y frágil, que desde cualquier punto crítico se puede producir un derrumbe. Si el problema del tránsito se pudiera resolver por la intervención popular, y sin referencia a los expertos en el campo del transporte, entonces se podría aplicar el mismo tratamiento a las cuestiones de la educación, de la salud, del urbanismo y hasta de las Iglesias y de los partidos. Si, para todos los efectos y sin ayuda de expertos, los límites críticos de velocidad los determinaran las asambleas representativas del pueblo, entonces se cuartearían las bases mismas del sistema político. Así, la investigación que propongo es fundamentalmente política y subversiva. + +## Sobre los grados del moverse + +El hombre se mueve con eficacia sin ayuda de ningún implemento. Caminando hace su sendero. La locomoción de cada gramo de su propio cuerpo o de su carga, sobre cada kilómetro recorrido en 10 minutos, le consume 0.75 calorías. Comparándolo con una máquina termodinámica, el hombre es más rentable que cualquier vehículo motorizado, que consume por lo menos cuatro veces más calorías en el mismo trayecto. Además es más eficiente que todos los animales de un peso comparable. El tiburón o el perro le ganan, pero sólo en poco. Con este índice de eficiencia de menos de una caloría por gramo, históricamente organizó su sistema de circulación, prevalentemente basado en el tránsito. Exploró el mundo, creó culturas, sostuvo comercios y, por cuanto podamos saber, no gastó más que 3.5% del tiempo social en moverse fuera de su hogar o de su campamento. Sólo algunos pueblos, en raros momentos de su historia, probablemente consagraron más de este porcentaje del tiempo común en moverse o en ocuparse con sus vehículos y motores animales, por ejemplo, los mongoles en sus guerras. + +Hace un siglo el hombre inventó una máquina que lo dotó de eficiencia aún mayor: la bicicleta. Se trataba de una invención novedosa, a base de materiales nuevos combinados en una tecnología ingeniosa, e impensados en tiempos del joven Marx. + +El uso de la bicicleta hace posible que el movimiento del cuerpo humano franquee una última barrera. Le permite aprovechar la energía metabólica disponible y acelerar la locomoción a su límite teórico. En terreno plano, el ciclista es tres o cuatro veces más veloz que el peatón, gastando en total cinco veces menos calorías por kilómetro que éste. El transporte de un gramo de su cuerpo sobre esta distancia no le consume más que 0.15 calorías. Con la bicicleta, el hombre rebasa el rendimiento posible de cualquier máquina y de cualquier animal evolucionado. + +Además, la bicicleta no ocupa mucho espacio. Para que 40 000 personas puedan cruzar un puente en una hora moviéndose a 25 kilómetros por hora, se necesita que éste tenga 138 metros de anchura si viajan en coche, 38 metros si viajan en autobús y 20 metros si van a pie; en cambio, si van en bicicleta, el puente no necesita más de 10 metros de anchura. Únicamente un sistema hipermoderno de trenes rápidos, a 100 kilómetros por hora y sucediéndose a intervalos de 30 segundos podría pasar esta cantidad de gente por un puente semejante en el mismo tiempo. + +No sólo en movimiento, también estacionado hay una diferencia enorme entre el espacio que ocupa el vehículo potencialmente rápido y la bicicleta. Donde se estaciona un coche caben 18 bicicletas. Para salir del estacionamiento de un estadio, 10 000 personas en bicicleta necesitan una tercera parte del tiempo que necesita el mismo número que abordan autobuses. + +Dotado de bicicleta, el hombre puede cubrir una distancia anual superior, dedicándole en total menos tiempo y exigiendo menos espacio para hacerlo y muy poca inversión de energía física que no es parte de su propio ciclo vital. + +Además, las bicicletas cuestan poco. Con una fracción de las horas de trabajo que exige al norteamericano la compra de su coche, el chino, ganando un salario mucho menor, compra su bicicleta, que le dura toda la vida, mientras que el coche, cuanto más barato, más pronto hay que reponerlo. Eso mismo puede decirse respecto a las carreteras. Para que un mayor número de ciudadanos pueda llegar hasta su casa en coche, se corroe más el territorio nacional. Inevitablemente el coche está ligado a la carretera, no así la bicicleta. Donde no puede ir montado en ella, el ciclista la empuja. El radio diario de trayectos aumenta para todos por igual sin que por esto disminuya para el ciclista la intensidad de acceso. El hombre con bicicleta se convierte en dueño de sus propios movimientos, sin estorbar al vecino. Si hay quien pretenda que en materia de circulación es posible lograr algo mejor, es ahora cuando debe probarlo. + +La bicicleta es invento de la misma generación que creó el vehículo de motor, pero las dos invenciones son símbolos de adelantos hechos en direcciones opuestas por el hombre moderno. La bicicleta permite a cada uno controlar el empleo de su propia energía; el vehículo de motor inevitablemente hace de los usuarios rivales entre sí por la energía, el espacio y el tiempo. En Vietnam, un ejército hiperindustrializado no ha podido derrotar a un pueblo que se desplaza a la velocidad de la bicicleta. Esto debería hacernos meditar: tal vez la segunda forma del empleo de la técnica sea superior a la primera. Naturalmente, queda por ver si los vietnamitas del norte están dispuestos a permanecer dentro de esos límites de velocidad que son los únicos susceptibles de respetar los valores mismos que hicieron posible su victoria. Hasta el momento presente los bombarderos americanos les han privado de gasolina, de motores, de carreteras y los han obligado a emplear una técnica también moderna, mucho más eficaz, equitativa y autónoma que la que Marx hubiese podido imaginar. Queda por ver si ahora, en nombre de Marx, no se lanzan a una industrialización, cuantitativamente tan superior a lo que Marx pudo prever, que sea imposible la aplicación de los ideales que él formuló. + +## Motores dominantes contra motores auxiliares + +Los hombres nacieron dotados de movilidad más o menos igual. Esta capacidad innata de movimiento aboga en favor de una libertad igual en la elección de su destino. La noción de equidad puede servir de base para defender este derecho fundamental contra toda limitación. Dentro de esta perspectiva, poco importa cuál sea la amenaza al libre ejercicio del derecho de moverse y elegir su propio destino: la prisión, la prohibición de cruzar fronteras, la reclusión dentro de un ambiente urbano que impida la movilidad innata de la persona con la sola finalidad de transformarlo en usuario. El hecho de que nuestros contemporáneos, en su mayoría, estén atados a su butaca por su cinturón de seguridad ideológica, no basta para que el derecho fundamental a la libertad de movimientos se vuelva obsoleto. La movilidad humana es el único patrón válido para medir la contribución que cualquier sistema de transporte haga a la circulación. Si por el transporte el tránsito se ve restringido, el transporte hace declinar la circulación. + +Para distinguir el transporte que mutila el derecho del movimiento de aquel que lo ensancha, hay que reconocer que el vehículo puede entorpecer la circulación triplemente: rompiendo su flujo, aislando categorías jerarquizadas de destinación y aumentando la pérdida de tiempo vinculada con la circulación. Se ha visto que la clave de las relaciones entre el transporte y la calidad de la circulación es la velocidad del vehículo. También se ha visto que, pasado cierto límite de velocidad, el transporte afecta la circulación de tres maneras: la entorpece al saturar de vías y coches un ambiente físico; transforma el territorio en una trama de circuitos cerrados y estancos, y sustrae al individuo del tiempo y el espacio de existir, convirtiéndolo en presa de la velocidad. + +Lo contrario es cierto también: bajo determinado nivel de velocidad, los vehículos motorizados pueden complementar o mejorar el tráfico, permitiendo a las personas hacer cosas que no podrían hacer a pie o en bicicleta. Los motores pueden usarse para transportar al enfermo, al lisiado, al viejo o al simplemente perezoso. + +Las motocicletas pueden transportar personas pasando sobre montículos, pero lo pueden hacer en forma sosegada solamente si no aventajan a una mayoría que tiene que subir a pie. Los trenes pueden extender el radio de vivencia para una mayoría, pero pueden hacerlo sólo si con ello ofrecen igual oportunidad a todas las personas de estar más cercanas entre sí. Un sistema de transporte bien desarrollado, a velocidades tope de 25 kilómetros por hora, hubiera permitido al policía Fix perseguir a Phileas Fogg alrededor del mundo no en 80 días, sino en 40. Pero en un sistema así, el tiempo empleado para viajar pertenece en forma dominante al viajero: más baja la velocidad, menor es la expropiación del tiempo ajeno que practica el viajero. + +La coexistencia de vehículos movidos sólo a fuerza de energía metabólica humana y de otros auxiliados por motores, será ponderada únicamente si se concede preferencia absoluta a la autonomía de movimiento del hombre y si se protege la geografía humana contra aquellas velocidades que la distorsionan en geografía vehicular. + +Se puede desarrollar un sistema de transportes con características óptimas para el tráfico siempre que el transporte motorizado se mantenga limitado a velocidades subsidiarias del tránsito autónomo. El límite a la potencia, y por tanto a la velocidad de los motores, en sí mismo no protege a los más débiles contra la explotación de los ricos y poderosos. Éstos siempre podrán idear medios para vivir y trabajar en mejores localidades, viajar en gran lujo y hacerse transportar sobre los hombros de sus esclavos. Pero al fijar velocidades máximas dentro de ciertos límites es posible reducir, y hasta corregir disparidades, combinando medios políticos con recursos tecnológicos. Una revolución política puede eliminar la institución de la esclavitud; sin limitar la velocidad no puede eliminar la nueva explotación que el sistema de transporte impone. Si no hay velocidades máximas determinadas, no pueden superarse las disparidades, ni siendo propiedad del Estado los medios de transporte, ni aplicando mejores técnicas para su control. Una industria del transporte sirve para la producción del tráfico total únicamente si no ejerce un monopolio radical sobre la productividad personal que la tecnología moderna ha elevado a un nuevo orden. + +## Equipo insuficiente superdesarrollo y tecnología madura + +La combinación de transportes y tránsito que constituye la circulación nos indica cuál es la potencia en vatios per cápita socialmente óptima y señala la necesidad de someterla a límites elegidos políticamente. Asimismo nos ofrece un ejemplo de la convergencia de metas en el desarrollo socioeconómico y un criterio para distinguir a los países que están insuficientemente equipados de los que están destructivamente superindustrializados. + +Un país se puede clasificar de _subequipado_ cuando no puede dotar a cada ciudadano de una bicicleta o proveer una transmisión de cinco velocidades a cualquiera que desee pedalear llevando a otros. Está subequipado si no puede proveer buenos caminos para la bicicleta o transportes públicos gratuitos para aquellos que quieren viajar horas seguidas. No existe una razón técnica, económica o ecológica para que por el año de 1975 se tolere semejante retraso, consecuencia de un equipo insuficiente. Sería un escándalo si la movilidad natural de los hombres se viera, contra su voluntad, forzada al estancamiento a un nivel prebicicleta. + +Un país puede clasificarse como _superindustrializado_ cuando su vida social está dominada por la industria del transporte que ha llegado a determinar sus privilegios de clase, a acentuar la escasez de tiempo y a mantener a los hombres más firmemente en los carriles trazados para ellos. + +Más allá del subequipado y del superindustrializado está el sitio del mundo de la _eficacia posindustrial_ , en donde la modalidad industrial de producción complementa la producción social sin monopolizarla. En otras palabras, hay un sitio para un mundo de madurez tecnológica. En términos de circulación, éste es el mundo de aquellos que han ensanchado su horizonte cotidiano a 13 kilómetros, montados en su bicicleta. Al mismo tiempo es el mundo marcado por una variedad de motores subsidiarios disponibles para cuando la bicicleta no basta y cuando un aumento en el empuje no obstaculice ni la equidad ni la libertad. También es el mundo del viaje largo, un mundo donde cualquier lugar está abierto a cualquier persona, a su albedrío y a su velocidad, sin prisa o temor, por medio de vehículos que cruzan las distancias sin roturar la tierra sobre la que el hombre ha caminado con sus pies por cientos de miles de años. + +El mundo superindustrializado no admite diferencias en el estilo de la producción y de la política. Impone sus características técnicas a las relaciones sociales. El mundo de la madurez industrial permite una variedad de elecciones políticas y culturales. Esta variedad, por supuesto, disminuye en la medida en que una comunidad permite a la industria crecer a costa de la producción autónoma. El razonamiento solo no puede ofrecer la medida para fijar el nivel de eficacia posindustrial y la madurez tecnológica que se ajuste a una sociedad concreta. Únicamente puede indicar, en término dimensional, el radio dentro del cual deben ajustarse estas características tecnológicas. Solamente un proceso político, dentro de una comunidad histórica, puede decidir cuándo dejan de valer la pena la programación, la distorsión del espacio, la escasez del tiempo y la desigualdad. El razonamiento puede _identificar_ la velocidad como un factor crítico en el transporte, pero no puede _fijar_ límites políticos factibles. + +Las velocidades tope en el transporte de personas se hacen operantes sólo si reflejan con claridad el interés propio de una comunidad política. La expresión común de este interés no es posible en una sociedad en la que una clase monopoliza no sólo los transportes, sino igualmente las comunicaciones, la medicina, la educación o el armamento. No tiene importancia que este poder lo ejerzan los propietarios legales o los gerentes atrincherados en la industria o si ésta es legalmente propiedad de los trabajadores. Este poder debe incautarse y someterse al sano juicio del hombre común. Su reconquista comienza al reconocer que el conocimiento experto ciega a los burócratas reservados frente a la forma evidente de disolver la crisis de la energía, así como los cegó para reconocer la solución evidente para resolver la guerra en Vietnam. + +De donde nos encontramos ahora parten dos caminos hacia la madurez tecnológica. Uno es el camino de la liberación de la abundancia, el otro el de la liberación de la dependencia. Ambos tienen el mismo destino: la reestructuración del espacio que ofrece a cada persona la experiencia, constantemente renovada, de saber que el centro del mundo es donde ella vive. + +Los hombres que tienen los pies en la tierra, que dominan su morada, que ejercen su poder innato de moverse, saben dónde está el centro de la Tierra. Saben vivir en una vecindad, conocer a sus vecinos, detenerse a hablar con el hombre que encuentran en la esquina, pasear y sentarse en una banca de la acera. + +El tráfico de la abundancia atropella y zarandea a los ricos. La _liberación_ de esta _abundancia_ empieza con el dominio sobre la aceleración destructora del tiempo ajeno. Los veloces son empujados de un lado a otro, son lanzados de una vía rápida a otra y sólo tropiezan con otros usuarios propulsados hacia rumbos diferentes. Ven las caras anónimas de los demás en el cruce de dos circuitos. Es éste un mundo de órbitas sin centro. + +La soledad de la abundancia se quebrantará cuando los usuarios rompan la servidumbre al transporte supereficiente. La liberación de la abundancia se hará cuando rompan los circuitos veloces que extienden el territorio y tomen de nuevo posesión de la tierra con sus pies. + +_La liberación de la dependencia_ comienza en el otro extremo. Rompe con la opresión de la población y del valle, deja detrás el tedio de los horizontes estrechos y sofocantes y el agobio de un mundo encerrado en sí. Expander la vida más allá del radio de la tradición, sin inseminarla por los vientos de la aceleración, es una meta que cualquier país pobre podría alcanzar en pocos años. Sin embargo, es una meta que podrán alcanzar sólo aquellos que rechazan la oferta del desarrollo de un monopolio industrial, sobre la producción hecha en nombre de una ideología de consumo indefinido de energía. + +Lo que ahora amenaza tanto a los países ricos como a los países pobres es precisamente lo contrario. Más que los jeques árabes y más que las compañías petroleras internacionales, la crisis energética recientemente “descubierta” aventaja a las clases gobernantes y a sus lacayos profesionales. En lugar de identificar el mínimo de carburante necesario para la mayor movilidad personal, ellos tratan de obligarnos a consumir el máximo de medios de transporte que puede hacerse funcionar con el carburante disponible. Los ingenieros de tráfico imponen límites de 80 kilómetros por hora en la ruta, porque a tal velocidad la eficiencia de los motores es máxima, y límites de 40 en los puntos congestionados, porque así el número máximo de vehículos cabe en cada kilómetro de asfalto. Aumentan los reglamentos y los horarios, y los privilegios para doctores, policías y potentados. El límite tecnocrático en favor del transporte está así en oposición diametral al límite político que se debería escoger en protección del tránsito humano. Así, empero, también se hace más evidente la contradicción entre la racionalización del transporte veloz y la calidad de la circulación. Entre más duros, vejatorios y evidentes se hacen los sacrificios impuestos a la mayoría por los veladores del modo de producción industrial, más probable se hace la emergencia de una conciencia mayoritaria en favor de la limitación de toda circulación a una velocidad del orden de 25 kilómetros por hora, lo que para la gran mayoría implicaría más equidad, libertad y acceso mutuo. + +La protección de la movilidad personal autónoma y sin clases contra el monopolio radical de la industria es posible únicamente donde la gente se empeñe en un proceso político, basado en la protección del tráfico óptimo. Esta protección, a su vez, exige reconocer aquellos quanta de energía que la sociedad industrial ha desatendido y sobre los cuales basa su propio desarrollo. El consumo estricto de estos quanta puede conducir a quienes lo respeten a una era posindustrial tecnológicamente madura. + +La liberación que para los países pobres será barata, costará a los ricos, y éstos no pagarán el precio sino hasta que la aceleración de su sistema de transporte triture el tráfico hasta paralizarlo. Un análisis concreto del tráfico traiciona la verdad que subyace en _la crisis de la energía_ : el impacto sobre el ambiente social de quanta de energía industrialmente empaquetado es degradante, agotador y esclavizante. Estos efectos se hacen sentir antes que la amenaza de la contaminación del ambiente físico y de la extinción de la raza humana. El punto crucial en el que estos efectos son reversibles no es, sin embargo, cuestión de deducción sino de decisión política, posiblemente sólo donde la voz de la mayoría puede limitar el poder y la velocidad de sus gobernantes. + +## Bibliografía + +Durante 1974 y 1975 se llevaron a cabo seminarios sobre “Las alternativas a la aceleración y la mejora del tráfico” en el Cidoc, en Cuernavaca. La lista que sigue es el resultado de los trabajos previos de este seminario. Sólo se reseñan aquellos títulos que, además de haberse mostrado útiles en pasadas sesiones de estudio, pueden ser más fácilmente localizados por aquellos que deseen proseguir la línea de investigación presentada en este ensayo. + +Albion, R. G., _Naval and Maritime History, Annotated Bibliography,_ Mystic, Conn., 1972. + +Anderson, Romola, y Roger Anderson, _The Sailing Ship: Six Thousand Years of History_ , Harrap, Londres, 1926. + +Banks, A., _Cross-Polity Time Series Data_ , MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1971. + +Barkin, David, “El consumo y la vía chilena al socialismo; reflexiones en torno a la decisión automotriz”, versión preliminar, _Centro de Estudios Socio-Económicos,_ Santiago de Chile, 1972. + +Bernstein, M. T., _Steamboats on the Ganges,_ Orient Longmans, Bombay, 1960. + +Bivar, A. D. H., “The Stirrup and Its Origins”, _Oriental Art_ , vol. I, 1955, pp. 62-65. + +Blaisdel, R., y cols., _Sources of Information in Transportation_ , Northwestern University Press (The Transportation Center), Evanston, Ill., 1964. + +Bowden, Frank Philip, “Friction”, en _Encyclopedia Britannica_ , vol. 9, pp. 840A-841. + +Branch, Melville C., _Comprehensive Urban Planning: A Selected Annotated Bibliography with Related Materials_ , Sage Publication, 1973. Para material de transporte, _cf_. pp. 251-272. + +Braudel, Fernand, “La Lenteur des Transports”, en _Civilisation Materielle et Capitalisme_ , XV-XVIII Siècle, Armand Colin, París, 1967, pp. 314-329. + +------, “Vicissitudes des Routes”, en _La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen_ , Armand Colin, París, 1949, pp. 242-259. + +Brunot, Ferdinand, _Histoire de la Langue Française des Origines à nos Jours_. Para referencias al transporte, _cf_. esp. tomo VI, pp. 357-360, y tomo VII, pp. 201-231. + +Buchanan, C. D., _Mixed Blessing: The Motor Car in Britain_ , Londres, 1958. + +Buffet, B., _L’Eau Potable à travers les Âges_ , Lieja, 1950. + +Cavailles, Henri, _La Route Française, son Histoire_ , París, 1950. + +Chermayeff, Serge, y Alexander Tzonis, _Shape of Community_ , Penguin, 1971. + +Claxton, E. C., “The Future of the Bicycle in a Modern Society”, _Journal of the Royal Society of Arts_ , enero de 1968, pp. 114-135. + +Cook, Walter L., _Bike Trails and Facilities, A Guide to Their Design, Construction and Operation_ , American Institute of Park Executives, Wheeling, W. Va., 1965. + +Copeland, John, _Roads and Theri Traffic_ , _1750-1858_ , Newton Abbot, 1968. + +Counter, C. F., _The History and Development of the Cycles, As Illustrated by the Collection of cycles in the Science Museum_ , Londres, 1955. + +Davenas, Paul, _Les Messageries Royales_ , París, 1937. + +Deffontaines, P., “Sur la Répartition Géographique des Voitures à Deux Roues et à quatre Roues”, _Travaux du Premier Congrès International de Folklore_ , París, 1937, Tours, Arbault, 1938, p. 117. + +Deischel, Erwin, _Umweltbeanspruchung und Umweltschaeden dur den Verkehr in der BDR_ , Munich, 1971. + +Dollfus, C., _Histoire de la Locomotion Terrestre_ , París, 1935-1936. + +Ekholm, Gordon F., “Wheeled Toys in Mexico”, _American Antiquity_ , vol. 2, 1946, pp. 222-228. + +Farvar, M. Taghi, y John Milton, _The Careless Technology; Ecology and International Development_ , The Natural History Press, Garden City, N. Y., 1972. + +Forbes, R. J., “Land Transport and Road Building, 1000-1900”, _Janus_ , vol. 46, 1957, p. 100. + +--------, _Notes on the History of Ancient Roads and Their Construction,_ Amsterdam, 1964 (segunda edición). + +Foster, George M., _Culture and Conquest; America’s Spanish Heritage_ , Quadrangle Books, Chicago, 1960. + +Fromm, Gary (ed.), _Transport Investment and Economic Development_ , The Brookings Institution Transport Research Program, Washington, 1969. + +Fuller, Buckminster, _World Resource Inventory_ , Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, 1965. _Cf_. esp. vol. 4, parte 4. + +Fuller, Dudley, “Bearing, Antifriction”, en _Encyclopedia of Science and Technology_ , vol. 2, McGraw Hill, Nueva York, 1971, pp. 124-131. + +Giedion, Siegfried, _Mechanization Takes Command_ , Norton, Nueva York, 1969. + +Ginsburg, Norton, _Atlas of Economic Development_ , University of Chicago Press, 1961. _Cf_. esp. pp. 100-101 y 60-77. + +Goetz, Wilhelm, _Verkehrswege im Dienste des Welthandels: Eine Historich-Geographische Untersuchung,_ Stuttgart, 1888. + +Haldane, J. 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Analysis to Determine the Energy Cost of Goods and Services,_ mimeografiado, 22 pp., University of Illinois (Center for Advanced Computer Studies), Urbana, 20 de febrero de 1973. + +Hirst, E., _Energy Efficiency for Passenger Transportation and for Freight Transportation,_ Oak Ridge National Laboratories, 1971. + +Hornell, J., _Water Transport: Origins and Early Evolution_ , Cambridge University Press, 1946. + +Hoskins, Halford, _British Routes to India,_ Nueva York, 1928. + +Hunter, Holland, _Soviet Transport Experience, Its Lessons for Other Countries,_ The Brookings Institution Transports Research Program, Washington, 1968. + +Jope, E. M., “Vehicles and Harness”, en Singer, _A History of Technology,_ vol. 2, Oxford University Press, 1956, p. 537. + +Kalmus, Ludwig, _Weltgeschichte des Post mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des deutschen Sprachgebietes,_ Viena, 1937. + +Kirkland, Edward, “Men, cities and Transportation”, en _A Study of New England History 1820-1900,_ dos volúmenes, Cambridge, Mass., 1948. + +Kohl, Johann Georg, _Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der Menschen in Ihrer Abhaengigkeit von der Gestaltung der Erdoberflaeche,_ Leipzig, 1841. + +Lansing, John B., Robert Marans, y cols., _Car Ownership, Annual Mileage, and the Journey to Work,_ Ann Arbor, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, 1970. _Cf_. esp. pp. 137-151. + +Lapin, Howard, _Structuring the Journey to Work,_ Philadelphia University Press, 1964. + +Lefebvre des Noettes, R., _L’Attelage et le Cheval de Selle à travers les Âges; Contribution l’Histoire de l’Esclavage,_ Picard, París, 1931. + +--------, _De la Marine Antique a la Marine Moderne: La Revolution du Governail,_ París, 1935. + +Lewis, Richard S., y Bernard I. Spinrad, _The Energy Crisis,_ Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Chicago, 1972. + +Liepmann, Kate K., _The Journey to Work, Its Significance for Industrial and Community Life,_ Londres, 1944. + +Linder, Staffan Burestam, _The Harried Leisure Class,_ Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1971. + +Lisco, Thomas E., “The Future of Urban Transportation; Mass Transportation, Cinderella in Our Cities”, _The Public Interest,_ 1970. + +López, R. S., y J. W. Raymond, _Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents,_ Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1955. + +Mackaye, Benton, “Townless Highways for the Motorist”, _Harper’s Magazine,_ agosto de 1931. + +Macmurray, David F. E., _Aspects of Time and the Study of Activity Routines,_ Thesis for the M.S. in city planning, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1968. + +Manheim, Marvin L., “Principles of Transport System Analysis”, _Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Forum,_ 1966, pp. 9-21. + +Marsh, George Perkins, _The Earth As Modified by Human Action,_ 3a. ed., Nueva York, 1888. + +Meyer, Balthasar H. (ed.), _History of Transportation in the United States before 1860,_ Washington, 1917. + +Meyer, John R., “Transportation, Economic Aspects”, en _Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,_ vol. 16, pp. 134-140. + +Mott, George Fox, “Transportation in Contemporary Civilization”, en _Transportation Renaissance, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science_ , vol. 345, Filadelfia, 1963, pp. 1-5. + +Mott, G. F., “Vehicles for Land Transport”, en _Science and Civilization in China,_ vol. 4 (Physics and Physical Technology), parte II (Mechanical Engineering), Cambridge University Press, 1965, pp. 243-281. + +Needham, Joseph, “Power Sources and Their Employment, (1) Animal Traction”, en _ibid_., pp. 303-328. + +Olsson, Gunnar, “Distance and Human Interaction”, _A review Bibliography,_ Science Research Institute, Filadelfia, 1965. + +Ostwald, W., _Energetische Grundlagen der Kulturwissenschaft,_ Leipzig, 1960. + +Ottley, George, _A bibliography of British Railway History_ , Allen and Unwin, Londres, 1965. + +Owen, Wilfred, _Strategy for Mobility,_ Brookings Institution, Washington, 1964. + +Perraton, Jean, “Planning for the Cyclist in Urban Areas”, _The Town Planning Review,_ vol. 39, núm. 2, julio de 1968, pp. 149-162. + +Platt, John, “Hierarchical Restructuring”, _Bulletin of Anatomic Scientists,_ noviembre de 1970. + +Polanyi, Karl (ed.), _Trade and Market in Early Empires,_ The Free Press, Glencoe, Ill., 1957. + +Robbins, Michael, _The Railway Age,_ Routledge and Kegan Paul, Penguin, Londres, 1964. + +Russeau, Pierre, _Histoire des Transports, Arthème Fayard,_ París, 1961. + +Sauer, Carl O., _Agricultural Origins and Dispersal,_ Bowman Memorial Lectures, Series Two, Nueva York, 1952. + +Sauvy, Alfred, _Les Quatre Roues de la Fortune; Essai sur L’Automobile,_ París, 1968. + +Schnore, Leo F., “Transportation, Comutation”, en _Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,_ vol. 16, pp. 140-144. + +Sherrington, Charles E. R., _A Hundred Years of Inland Transportation, 1830-1933_ , Londres, 1934; reimpresión Kelly, 1969. + +Smerk, George M., _Readings in Urban Transportation,_ Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1968. + +Smith, William, _The History of the Post Office in British North America, 1639-1870_ , Cambridge University Press, 1920. + +Spengler, Joseph, “On the Progress of Quantification in Economics”, en Harry Woolf (ed.), _A History of the Meaning of Measurement in the Natural and Social Sciences,_ Bobbs Merrill, Nueva York, 1961, pp. 128-146. + +Stone, Tabor R., _Beyond the Automobile; Reshaping the Transportation Environment,_ Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1971. + +Strube Erdmann, Leon, _Vialidad imperial de los incas,_ Universidad de Córdoba, Argentina, 1963. + +Stutz, Frederick P., _Research on Intra-Urban Social Travel: Introduction and Bibliography, Exchange Bibliography,_ núm. 173, Council of Planning Librarians, Monticello, Mich., febrero de 1971. + +Sundquist, James L., “A Policy for Urban Growth: Where Sall They Live?”, _The Public Interest,_ 1970. + +Taylor, George, _The Transportation Revolution,_ Nueva York, 1951. + +Terrazas de la Peña, Eduardo, “Necesidad de un incremento en la intensidad del uso del espacio”, texto presentado en el Congreso regional sobre política de desarrollo urbano, México, julio de 1972, Cidoc. + +“Transportation Renaissance”, _The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science_ , vol. 345, Filadelfia, 1963. + +Turner, John F. C., “Housing for People or Housing by People”, mimeografiado, 10 pp., MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1970. + +Westergaard, John, “Journey to work in London Region”, TPR, abril de 1957. + +Wheeler, James O., _Research on the Journey to Work: Introduction and Bibliography, Exchange Bibliography,_ núm. 65, Council of Planning Librarians, Monticello, Mich., enero de 1969. + +White, Leslie, _The Science of Culture; Energy and the Evolution of Culture,_ Grove Press, Nueva York, 1949. _Cf_. esp. pp. 363-393. + +White, Lynn, “The Agricultural Revolution of the Early Middle Age’s”, en _Medieval Technology and social Change,_ Oxford University Press, 1969, pp. 39-78. + +Wilson, George W., y cols., _The Impact of Highway Investment of Development,_ The Brookings Institution Transport Research Program, Washington, 1966. + +Wilson, S. S., “Bicycle Technology”, _Scientific American,_ marzo de 1973, pp. 81-91. + +Yurick, Sol, “The Political Economy of Junk”, _Monthly Review,_ vol. 22, núm. 7, diciembre de 1970, pp. 22-37. + + +[^n01:] En 1811, en el Condado de Nottingham, en Inglaterra, bandas de artesanos que habían sido desplazados por las máquinas empezaron a irrumpir en las fábricas de telas y a destruir los telares mecánicos. Se llamaban a sí mismos _Ludds_ o “ludditas”, según el nombre de un personaje legendario, John Ludd, supuestamente oriundo de Leicester y que, alrededor de 1780, en un acto de coraje, destruyó uno de los primeros telares mecánicos.] diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/energy/index.txt b/data/pages/es/book/energy/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6f176f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/energy/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# Energía y equidad + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Énergie et équité_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1974 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** Fue redactado por vez primera en francés y publicado en Le Monde, en mayo de 1973, en tres entregas. Desarrollado y reescrito, con ayuda de Luce Giard y de Vincent Bardet, fue objeto de una primera edición en francés en 1975, bajo las Éditions du Seuil. Sobre esta trama completa y enriquecida de trabajos conducidos en el Cidoc de Cuernavaca se estableció una versión inglesa más larga y más detallada. La primera edición en español, en la que se incluye el Desempleo creador, apareció en 1974 bajo el sello de Barral Editores, Barcelona, España. Una nueva edición la publicó Editorial Posada en 1978 y otra más la publicó Joaquín Mortiz/Planeta en 1985. + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/gender/es.md b/data/pages/es/book/gender/es.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9738ccb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/gender/es.md @@ -0,0 +1,728 @@ + +--- +title: "El género vernáculo" +author: "Ivan Illich y Barry Sanders" +date: "1982" +lang: "es" +titlepage: true +titlepage-color: "FFFFFF" +titlepage-text-color: "000000" +titlepage-rule-color: "CCCCCC" +titlepage-rule-height: 4 +documentclass: book +classoption: +- oneside +geometry: margin=1.75in +fontsize: 12pt +fontfamily: ebgaramond-maths +newtxmathoptions: +- cmintegrals +- cmbraces +toc: true +colorlinks: true +linkcolor: RoyalBlue +urlcolor: RoyalBlue +--- + + +# Introducción + +Defino la ruptura con el pasado, descrita por otros, como la transición al modo de producción capitalista, como el paso de la égida del género al régimen del sexo. Considero que la desaparición del género vernáculo es la condición imprescindible del desarrollo del “capitalismo” y de un estilo de vida totalmente sometido a la mercancía industrial. Según el _Diccionario ideológico de la lengua española_, género es el “accidente gramatical que sirve para indicar el sexo de las personas o de los animales y el que se atribuye a las cosas”. Y María Moliner dice por su parte: “Tal división responde a la naturaleza de las cosas solamente cuando esas palabras se aplican a animales, los cuales pueden ser machos (género masculino) y hembras (género femenino)”. Yo he adoptado este término para traducir la diferencia que existe entre los comportamientos humanos masculinos y femeninos —diferencia que es universal en las culturas vernáculas—. Los lugares, los tiempos, las herramientas, las tareas, los modos de hablar, los gestos, las percepciones asociados con los hombres difieren de los que se asocian con las mujeres. Esta asociación constituye el género _social_, propio de una época y de un lugar. El género es vernáculo porque el conjunto de tales asociaciones es tan propio de una población tradicional (la _gens_ latina) como lo puede ser su habla vernácula. + +Por lo tanto empleo el término “género” en un sentido nuevo, a fin de designar una dualidad que anteriormente era tan evidente que no se denominaba, y que en la actualidad nos resulta tan lejana que frecuentemente se confunde con el sexo. El “sexo” es el resultado de la polarización de las características comunes que desde el final del siglo XVIII se atribuyen a todos los seres humanos. A diferencia del género vernáculo —que refleja la asociación cultural de una cultura material dual, concreta y local, con los hombres y mujeres que viven bajo su potestad—, la división sexual de la mano de obra, de la libido, de la personalidad o de la inteligencia procede del diagnóstico (“discriminación”, en griego) de las desviaciones respecto a una norma abstracta que con este propósito ha sido definida. Es posible estudiar el sexo en términos científicos precisos. El género muestra una complementariedad enigmática y asimétrica. Únicamente la metáfora logra expresarla. + +La distinción entre la historia bajo la égida del género y la historia bajo el régimen del sexo se produjo a partir de una controversia entre Barbara Duden y yo. Originalmente nuestra discusión estaba relacionada con el aspecto económico y antropológico de las tareas domésticas en el siglo XIX. Hablo del asunto en _El trabajo fantasma_[^f0] [^f1] —primera tentativa de sentar las bases de una “Historia de la escasez”, de la cual este trabajo representa la segunda etapa. En el debate con Barbara Duden, no sé cuál de los dos, si ella o si yo, condujo al otro hacia una perspectiva nueva sin que hubiéramos de renunciar por eso a nuestras posiciones mutuamente críticas. Con Lee Hoinacki la colaboración fue de otro tipo. Como en numerosas ocasiones a lo largo de 20 años, nos reunimos para comunicarnos recíprocamente lo que habíamos aprendido durante el año anterior. Pasamos dos semanas en su casa, en el campo, y revisó la primera versión de mi texto. Lo discutimos, sopesamos sus enunciados y tomó una forma nueva. No sabría decir quién de los dos es el responsable de tal o cual giro de la frase. Pero de algo estoy seguro: sin su colaboración, este texto no tendría la forma presente. + +En este texto he incorporado la sustancia de muchos de mis cursos sobre la historia de la sociedad en el siglo XII que hube de impartir como profesor invitado en la Universidad de Kassel. Quiero expresar mi agradecimiento a Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker y a los estudiantes por haber tenido el valor y la paciencia para formular provechosas críticas. + +También quiero expresar mi agradecimiento a varias personas por todo lo que contribuyeron durante las conversaciones que sostuvimos. Norma Swenson me hizo reconocer la principal debilidad de mi _Némesis médica:_ su perspectiva unisex. Las reflexiones de Claudia von Werlhof respecto al punto ciego de la percepción económica me llevaron a distinguir los dos aspectos del asunto: la economía fantasma y el dominio vernáculo, ambos paralelamente descuidados, pero indudablemente negados. Debo a Signar Groeneveld la distinción entre topología vernácula y topología industrial, en la que me apoyo. Las conversaciones con Ludolf Kuchenbuch me aportaron una imagen nueva de la pareja conyugal preindustrial. Mis viejos amigos Ruth y Lenz Kriss-Rettenbeck (ambos etnógrafos e historiadores del arte), con quienes comparto diversos “maestros” —del periodo que se extiende entre Hugo de San Víctor y Gustav Künstler— me apoyaron y animaron más de lo que sabría expresar. Susan Hunt se ofreció voluntariamente a dactilografiar mi texto mientras trabajaba en su propia obra sobre el género y el sexo. Este ensayo y su obra estaban destinados a estudiantes de los cursos que impartí en la universidad californiana de Berkeley durante el otoño de 1982, sobre el tema “Constituir historias de género”. Apliqué la mano final a este ensayo junto con el doctor P. Wapneswski, rector del Instituto de Estudios Avanzados de Berlín, y con estudiantes de este establecimiento. + +Finalmente, quiero agradecer muy particularmente a Maud Sissung, cuyas cualidades como traductora siempre he valorado, pero quien en este libro se superó para darme la prueba de que la fuerza de lo vernáculo irriga incesantemente la lengua. A ella le debo un texto que aun siendo distinto del original es el equivalente exacto. + +_Cuernavaca, 1982_ + + +# Sexismo y crecimiento económico + +NO SÉ de ninguna sociedad industrial donde las mujeres estén en igualdad económica con los hombres. A las mujeres siempre les toca la menor parte de todo lo que la economía es capaz de medir. Las obras que exponen este sexismo económico se han multiplicado recientemente. Documentan la explotación sexista, denuncian su injusticia, la describen como una nueva versión de un mal milenario y proponen teorías explicativas que combinan con estrategias reparadoras. Los patrocinios institucionales —las Naciones Unidas, el Consejo Mundial de Iglesias, los gobiernos, las universidades— promueven la proliferación de reformadores profesionales, que forman un sector nuevo del crecimiento. Primero, el proletariado; luego, los subdesarrollados y actualmente las mujeres movilizaron por turno el interés de los “concernidos”. Ya nadie puede hablar de discriminación sexual sin que se le impute de inmediato una toma de posición respecto a la economía política del sexo: o bien se aboga por una “economía no sexista”, o bien se pretende lavar de toda culpa la economía sexista que es la nuestra. Ninguna de esas posiciones es la mía, aunque funde mi tesis en la existencia de esta discriminación. Para mí, la búsqueda de una “economía no sexista” resulta tan absurda como repugnante la economía sexista. Voy a demostrar la naturaleza intrínsecamente sexista de la economía mediante la exposición de la naturaleza sexista del postulado que es la base de la economía, “ciencia de los valores que presupone la escasez”. + +Mostraré que todo crecimiento económico implica la destrucción del _género vernáculo_ (capítulos III-V) y se alimenta de la explotación del _sexo económico_ (capítulo II). Me propongo estudiar el _apartheid_ económico y la subordinación de las mujeres, sin caer en las trampas de la sociobiología ni del estructuralismo, que respectivamente presentan esta discriminación como algo “natural” o “culturalmente” inevitable. En calidad de historiador, quiero remontarme a los orígenes de esta servidumbre _económica_ de las mujeres; en calidad de antropólogo, quiero entender lo que esta nueva sujeción revela sobre el parentesco; en calidad de filósofo, quiero clarificar lo que este esquema reiterativo nos dice sobre los axiomas de las ideas heredadas, es decir, sobre los axiomas que constituyen el fundamento de la universidad contemporánea y sus ciencias sociales. + +No me ha sido fácil dar forma a mis ideas. Más de lo que podía sospechar al inicio, el habla ordinaria de la era industrial _a la vez_ ignora el género y es sexista. Yo sabía que el género es dual, pero la perspectiva sin género que impone necesariamente el lenguaje industrializado distorsionaba constantemente mis ideas. Estaba atrapado en una red deformante de palabras dominantes, de _palabras clave_. Actualmente veo que estos vocablos clave, elementos característicos del lenguaje moderno, son claramente distintos de los términos técnicos, como por ejemplo “automóvil” o “avión supersónico”. Y he aprendido que las palabras de esta especie pueden sumergir el vocabulario de un lenguaje tradicional. Cuando esto sucede hablo de criollización tecnológica. Sin embargo, un vocablo como “transporte”, es una palabra clave. Designa una pretendida necesidad fundamental; significa algo que es diferente del “transporte público”, algo que es un medio técnico o una opción política.[^f2] + +El examen de las lenguas modernas revela que la utilización usual de las palabras clave es poderosa y persuasiva. Algunas son etimológicamente antiguas, pero han adquirido un sentido nuevo, que no tiene relación con el anterior. Tal es el caso de “familia”, “hombre”, “trabajo”. Otras se acuñaron recientemente, aunque al principio sólo para un uso especializado. Se fueron deslizando en el habla cotidiana y asumieron muy vastas connotaciones: “rol”, “sexo”, “energía”, “producción”, “desarrollo”, “consumidor”, para dar ejemplos que todos conocen. Estas palabras clave asumen la apariencia del sentido común en los idiomas de la era industrial. Toda lengua moderna posee las suyas, que dan a cada sociedad su óptica única de la realidad social e ideológica del mundo contemporáneo. Este conjunto de palabras clave es homólogo en todos los idiomas modernos de los países industrializados. La realidad que traducen es básicamente la misma en cualquier parte. Las mismas autopistas llevan a las mismas escuelas y establecimientos comerciales donde se elevan las mismas antenas de televisión que transforman los paisajes y las sociedades disímiles y les dan una monotonía uniforme. Paralelamente, los textos dominados por las palabras clave se traducen fácilmente del inglés al japonés o al malasio. + +Los términos técnicos universales que se han convertido en palabras clave, como “Coca-Cola”, “proletariado” o “medicina”, tienen el mismo significado en todas las lenguas modernas. Pero otros términos que han aparecido en campos lingüísticos distintos se corresponden casi exactamente unos con otros cuando se les emplea como si fueran palabras clave: por ejemplo, “humanidad” y _Menschheit_. Así, el estudio de las palabras clave exige cierta comparación entre las lenguas.[^f3] + +Para explicar el surgimiento y la supremacía de las palabras clave en un idioma, tuve que distinguir entre el habla vernácula, que se adquiere progresivamente por interacción con las personas que expresan lo que piensan, y la _lengua materna inculcada_, que se adquiere a través de las personas contratadas para hablar con nosotros y por nosotros. Las palabras clave son características de la lengua materna inculcada. Logran reprimir el habla vernácula con mayor eficacia que las reglas gramaticales porque su aparente sentido _común_ aplica un barniz seudovernáculo sobre la realidad mecanizada. Por lo tanto, en la formación de un lenguaje industrializado las palabras clave son más importantes que los términos técnicos, porque cada palabra clave denota un punto de vista común al conjunto del que todas proceden. Su característica principal es que efectivamente excluyen al género. Es por esto que para comprender el género y distinguirlo del sexo (que es una palabra clave), es necesario apartarse o desconfiar de todos los términos que pueden ser palabras clave. + +Así pues, cuando emprendí este ensayo me vi en un dilema lingüístico: no podía emplear los vocablos con su “resonancia” tradicional de “género” y no quería aceptarlos con su connotación sexista actual. Percibí esta dificultad cuando quise usar la versión original de este texto para mis cursos del año universitario 1980-1981. Nunca antes tantos colegas o amigos tra taron como entonces de hacerme desistir de un proyecto. Muchos me aconsejaban que me ocupara en un tema menos trivial o menos ambiguo o menos escabroso; otros consideraban que en atención a la actual crisis del feminismo no les correspondía a los hombres hablar sobre las mujeres. Tras oírlos atentamente, me pareció que sus motivos procedían del hecho de que mis razonamientos interferían en sus sueños: el sueño feminista de una economía igualitariamente neutra, exenta de roles obligatoriamente sexuados; el sueño izquierdista de una economía política que sólo supiera de seres “humanos”;[^f4] el sueño futurista de una sociedad moderna donde las personas gozarían de flexibilidad, donde podrían decidir a su antojo si habrían de ser dentistas, machos, protestantes o genetistas; todas las elecciones merecerían el mismo respeto. Lo que perturbaba los sueños de unos y otros era que yo hablara simplemente de la economía a la luz de la discriminación hacia las mujeres, pues todos los deseos que estos sueños expresan se ajustan a un mismo patrón: el de una economía unisexualizada, sin género (capítulo VII). + +Una sociedad industrial sólo puede existir si impone un postulado unisex: ambos sexos están hechos para el mismo trabajo, perciben la misma realidad y tienen las mismas necesidades[^f5] —la vestimenta es sólo una dife rencia desdeñable—. El postulado de la escasez, fundamental en la economía, también está basado en este postulado unisex. Los hombres y las mujeres no serían capaces de competir por el “trabajo” si éste no se hubiera redefinido como una actividad que conviene a los humanos, sin distinción de sexo. La teoría económica está fundada en la existencia de este _humano_ desprovisto de género, “agenérico”. Así, una vez que la escasez es aceptada, el postulado unisex se propaga. Toda institución moderna, desde la escuela a la familia, del sindicato al tribunal, retoma por su cuenta el postulado de la escasez, y por lo tanto disemina en la sociedad el elemento que lo funda: el postulado unisex. De esta manera, los niños y las niñas tienen desde ese momento la necesidad del sistema educativo para crecer. En las sociedades tradicionales, solían llegar a la edad adulta sin que las condiciones de su crecimiento hubieran sufrido escasez alguna. En la actualidad, las instituciones de enseñanza les señalan que el conocimiento y la habilidad son bienes deseables pero escasos, y por ende objeto de competencia entre los hombres y las mujeres. Pero la educación, ejemplo _típico_ de una necesidad moderna, va todavía más lejos: postula la escasez de un valor _unisex;_ enseña que el niño o la niña que de ella “se benefician” son primordialmente seres humanos para quienes es necesaria una educación a-genérica. Las instituciones económicas, desde entonces, se fundan en la suposición de la escasez de valores a-genéricos deseables —o necesarios— para seres económicos neutros que pertenecen a ambos sexos biológicos.[^f6] + +Inexorablemente, las instituciones económicas transforman ambos géneros en algo nuevo: seres neutros económicos que sólo difieren, de manera incidental, por su sexo. Un bulto característico, aunque accesorio, bajo los pantalones de mezclilla, es todo lo que distingue, en adelante, a los dos tipos de trabajadores, y sin embargo privilegia a uno respecto al otro. La discriminación _económica_ de las mujeres no habría podido existir sin la abolición del género y la construcción social del sexo.[^f7] Es esto lo que quiero demostrar. Y si esto es verdad, es decir, si el crecimiento económico destruye el género intrínsecamente, irremisiblemente, si en consecuencia el crecimiento económico es sexista, entonces el sexismo no disminuirá sino “al precio” de una contracción de la economía. La condición necesaria, aunque todavía insuficiente, para producir el declive del sexismo, es la reducción de la relación monetaria y la expansión de las formas de subsistencia fuera del mercado, fuera de la economía. + +Hasta hoy, dos realidades motivaban poderosamente la adopción de medidas de crecimiento negativo: la degradación del medio ambiente[^f8] y la contraproductividad paradójica.[^f9] Una tercera se viene a añadir ahora: es necesario el crecimiento negativo para reducir el sexismo. Esta proposición habrá de chocar a los críticos que, con las mejores intenciones posibles, desde hace un año intentan apartarme de mi actual argumentación, unos porque temen que yo me exponga al ridículo, otros porque temen que su sueño del crecimiento combinado con la igualdad habrá de parecer una fantasía. Sin embargo, pienso que ha llegado el tiempo de trastornar las estrategias sociales, de reconocer que la paz entre los hombres y las mujeres, cualquiera que sea la forma que puede asumir, depende de la contracción de la economía y no de su expansión. Hasta hoy en día, ni la buena voluntad ni la lucha, la legislación o la tecnología, han podido contrarrestar la explotación sexista que es característica de la sociedad industrial. Demostraré que en una sociedad donde impera el mercado es insostenible interpretar esta degradación económica de uno de los sexos como la exacerbación del machismo. Siempre que la igualdad de los derechos ha sido promulgada y puesta en vigor, siempre que la paridad de los sexos se ha puesto de moda, estas innovaciones han dado la impresión de una victoria de las élites que las propusieron y obtuvieron, pero la mayoría de las mujeres nada ganó con ellas e incluso a veces las padeció. + +El ideal de la igualdad económica de los sexos está en vías de morir, como también el ideal del crecimiento que habría de reducir la distancia entre el Norte y el Sur, en términos del producto nacional bruto. En vez de seguir apegados al sueño de un crecimiento no sexista, la razón exige orientarse hacia una contracción de la economía —en cuanto política que permita el surgimiento de una sociedad menos sexista, aunque no pueda dejar de serlo del todo—. Bien sé que una sociedad industrial sin jerarquía sexista no es más concebible que una sociedad preindustrial sin _género_, es decir, sin una división clara entre lo que los hombres y lo que las mujeres hacen, dicen, ven. Estas son quimeras que han sido creadas por uno o por el otro sexo. Pero la reducción de la relación monetaria, es decir, a la vez de la producción mercantil y de la sujeción a tal producción, _no es_ quimérica. Ciertamente implica la renuncia a las expectativas y conductas cotidianas que hoy se consideran “naturales”. Incluso entre aquellos que saben que los dos términos de la alternativa son el retroceso o el horror, muchos ven en ello una elección imposible. No obstante, cada vez son más las personas informadas y los expertos —algunos convencidos, otros oportunistas— que reconocen que esta reducción es necesaria. Se empieza a ver que la condición de la sobrevivencia es el desprendimiento progresivo del nexo monetario. Sin “crecimiento negativo” es imposible mantener el equilibrio ecológico, alcanzar la justicia entre las regiones del mundo y la paz entre los pueblos. Y esta tendencia tendrá que ser mucho más acentuada en los países ricos que en los países pobres. Lo máximo a lo que pueden aspirar es a que haya igual acceso a los recursos escasos del mundo, en un nivel quizá comparable al que existe actualmente en las naciones más pobres. La traducción fáctica de tal proposición, su instalación específica, exigiría una alianza multiforme entre muchos grupos que poseen vocaciones diferentes, a fin de buscar la recuperación de los ámbitos de comunidad que englobo con el término de “ecología política radical”.[^f10] Para incorporar en esta alianza a aquellos que deploran la pérdida del género, tendré que demostrar que existe un vínculo entre el crecimiento negativo y la reducción del sexismo. + +La demostración de la relación entre el sexismo y la economía requiere la construcción de una teoría. Esta teoría es una condición necesaria para la realización de una historia de la escasez.[^f11] Como se verá, yo prefiero esclarecer mi razonamiento teórico mediante ejemplos, antes que cargarlo de datos. Los datos, cuando existen, los proporciono en las notas. En virtud de la novedad del acercamiento teórico y de la pobreza de los estudios empíricos realizados de acuerdo con esta perspectiva, a veces he tenido que emplear un nuevo lenguaje. No obstante, hasta donde me ha sido posible, he elegido vocablos antiguos que he empleado de forma nueva, a fin de expresar con precisión tanto la teoría como los hechos probados. + +La estructura teórica me autoriza a contraponer dos modos de existencia que yo denomino, respectivamente, el _reino del género vernáculo_ y el _régimen del sexo económico_. Estos términos indican por sí mismos que en ellos hay dos formas duales que son de naturaleza _muy_ distinta.[^f12] Por “género” yo entiendo la dualidad que coloca respectivamente a hombres y mujeres en circunstancias y condiciones que les impiden decir, hacer, querer o percibir “la misma cosa”. Por “sexo económico” entiendo la dualidad que propende hacia la meta ilusoria de la igualdad económica de los hombres y las mujeres. En esta última construcción de la realidad, como lo demostraré, la dualidad misma es casi por completo artificial. + +Este ensayo reviste la forma de un epílogo, el epílogo de la era industrial y sus quimeras. Al redactarlo, volví a ver de manera nueva —que sobrepasa mis conjeturas de 1971 en _La convivencialidad_— lo que nuestra era ha destruido irremediablemente. En cuanto al futuro, no sé ni diré nada, lo ignoro. + + +# El sexo económico + +ES UN HECHO evidente que las mujeres sufren discriminación económica. Quince años de investigaciones de las feministas, con base en una masa enorme de pruebas, lo han demostrado sin lugar a dudas. Pero falta realizar todavía dos tareas capitales. La primera consiste en diferenciar tres campos inherentes a toda economía moderna. Al hacer esta diferenciación, aparecerán tres formas de discriminación que se han confundido hasta hoy. La segunda tarea consiste en comprender la diferencia entre estas tres formas de discriminación _económica_ de las mujeres, y la subordinación patriarcal de las mujeres en sociedades donde no existe el nexo monetario. Examinaré aquí los tres distintos tipos de discriminación en relación con las mujeres, a fin de comprender sus respectivas formas. Una vez reconocido el predominio de uno de estos tipos de discriminación económica en una variedad del trabajo femenino, será posible saber en cuál de las tres “economías” fundamentales se inserta este trabajo. En efecto, como un espejo, la estructura de la discriminación sexista refleja la división de la “economía” en las sociedades industriales avanzadas. La economía, que reposa en los intercambios codificados entre productores y consumidores de bienes o de servicios, se divide en el sector estadísticamente aparente y el sector no aparente —dominios señalados y ocultados de la discriminación de las mujeres en el trabajo—. Existe una tercera economía, a la vez invisible y oculta, que es el tercer ámbito de la discriminación de las mujeres: el trabajo fantasma. + +## La economía aparente + +En el curso de los años, la discriminación de las mujeres en los puestos de trabajo remunerados, gravables y estadísticamente registrados, no se ha hecho más severa sino más variada.[^f13] Actualmente, 51% de las norteamericanas forma parte de la población activa. En 1880 solamente lo era 5%. En la actualidad, constituyen 42% de la fuerza de trabajo, en comparación con 15% entonces. Por último, 50% de las mujeres casadas se ganan la vida afuera, contra 5% hace un siglo. Hoy en día, todas las profesiones y las carreras están abiertas legalmente para las mujeres, mientras que en 1880 en la mayoría se las excluía. Hoy en día, las mujeres tienen empleo durante aproximadamente 28 años, en 1880 la cifra era de cinco años como término medio. ¿Se habrá de inferir que hemos progresado considerablemente en la vía de la igualdad económica? Veamos lo que nos dice un parámetro significativo: el de los salarios. El salario medio anual de una mujer que trabaja tiempo completo aún fluctúa en torno a una proporción mágica (3/5) de los ingresos medios de un hombre: 59% ± 3% —el mismo porcentaje que hace un siglo—.[^f14] Ni el acceso a la enseñanza, ni las estipulaciones legales o la retórica revolucionaria —política, tecnológica, sexual—–han modificado la relación de inferioridad entre las ganancias femeninas y las masculinas.[^f15] Lo que a primera vista se podría interpretar como una serie de avances hacia la equidad, en la perspectiva de la mujer media, no es de hecho más que una serie de sucesos por los cuales a un número creciente de mujeres se les ha incorporado silenciosamente en la población que profesionalmente sufre una discriminación en razón de su sexo. Los ingresos medios de la vida de trabajo de una mujer con diploma universitario continúan siendo comparables con los de un hombre que acaso terminó el bachillerato. + +Me ha tomado tiempo asimilar el alcance de estas cifras y datos. Al principio reaccioné como lo había hecho años antes cuando vi los datos respecto a la “eficacia” de la medicalización. En ese momento me negué a creer que desde 1880 la expectativa de vida de un norteamericano de edad madura no había cambiado ostensiblemente. No podía entender cómo un incremento, en dólares contantes, de 25 veces en las sumas aportadas a la medicina, de las cuales una parte desproporcionada se dedicaba al tratamiento y prevención de las enfermedades de las personas que se encontraban en la segunda mitad de vida, no había conducido a un aumento considerable de la esperanza de vida. Es verdad que la tasa de supervivencia infantil se ha elevado notablemente; que muchas más personas alcanzan los 45 años; que los cuerpos maltrechos por los accidentes pueden reconstituirse mediante el plástico y el aluminio; que muchas enfermedades infecciosas han sido aniquiladas. Pero la esperanza de vida de un ciudadano de edad madura no se ha modificado significativamente. La medicina tiene un papel mínimo en el aumento o disminución de la supervivencia en el umbral de la muerte. Nuestras sociedades constantemente soslayan el hecho de que el dinero, la cirugía, la química y la buena voluntad fracasan en la lucha contra la muerte. Esto forma parte de aquellas cosas que al parecer tienen que ser negadas mediante el ritual o el mito.[^f16] + +Aunque totalmente distinta, la discriminación económica contra las mujeres en cuanto grupo constituye una realidad que rehúsan ver muchos de nuestros contemporáneos, a quienes sin embargo animan las mejores intenciones. En la misma medida que la poliomielitis y la difteria han desaparecido, la exclusión de las muchachas en los liceos y las universidades ha desaparecido. Así como los cinturones de seguridad ofrecen protección en los accidentes, los circuitos interiores de televisión protegen contra las violaciones. De igual manera que existen programas destinados a la salud de los pobres, hay becas de estudios destinadas al acceso de las mujeres en los más altos niveles académicos. Y, sin embargo, ni un solo programa ha modificado la expectativa de vida de los adultos ni la diferencia en los ingresos de los sexos.[^f17] He aquí una realidad que es difícil encarar. + +La diferencia invariable entre los ingresos de uno y otro sexo no es más que un aspecto de la discriminación económica en relación con las mujeres en el terreno del trabajo, del mismo modo que el estancamiento de la esperanza de vida de los adultos no es más que un aspecto del fracaso de la medicina moderna en mejorar la “salud”. Se podría objetar que _de hecho_ los colosales esfuerzos del sistema médico moderno han alargado la esperanza de vida de los adultos en la medida en que un mundo de _smog_ y _stress_ habría descendido por debajo de la de muchos países pobres. De igual manera, se podría objetar que las luchas combinadas de legisladores, sindicatos, feministas e idealistas han evitado que aumente la diferencia de ingresos en una sociedad que se ha vuelto cada vez más sexista. Sería posible estimar que tal visión pesimista de la sociedad industrial está absolutamente fundada. Multitud de señales atestiguan que la rápida declinación de la esperanza de vida, para todas las edades, que desde hace 20 años se observa en la URSS,[^f18] no es sino la anticipación de una tendencia similar en los países industrializados; paralelamente, el retroceso en relación con tantos pretendidos progresos relacionados con la igualdad de oportunidades, consecuencia directa de la crisis actual del empleo, es en realidad una tendencia que no se invertirá jamás.[^f19] Pero independientemente de que se adopte la actitud optimista o la pesimista, una cosa parece empíricamente clara: la proporción de los ingresos que se niega a la mitad de la población por motivo de su sexo parece ser un factor tan invariable como la esperanza de vida de los adultos —o incluso, según algunos, como la incidencia total del cáncer, en cuanto fenómeno social de la raza humana—. + +Las investigaciones que las mujeres llevaron a cabo durante los años sesenta abordaban dos grandes temas: la violencia física que contra ellas ejercen violadores, maridos y médicos, y las condiciones de trabajo de las obreras. Los esquemas que estas dos orientaciones académicas revelan son extremadamente uniformes y deprimentes. En todos los países la discriminación y la violencia aumentan al mismo ritmo que el desarrollo: mientras más dinero aporta su trabajo, menos ganan las mujeres y más son víctimas de violaciones.[^f20] Esta configuración social, durante tanto tiempo negada, desde hace 10 años se ha venido aceptando con hipocresía. En relación con el trabajo, la primera ola de las investigaciones que realizaron las mujeres en el seno de las universidades norteamericanas, trataba principalmente sobre la condición obrera de las mujeres: bajos salarios, opciones potenciales limitadas, nivel profesional degradante, poca representación en el aparato sindical y precariedad en el empleo. En 1981, la Organización Internacional del Trabajo indicaba que en el mundo entero la mayoría de las mujeres tienen empleos urbanos no sindicados, y esto en un número reducido de categorías; cuando pertenecen a un sindicato, los contratos colectivos rara vez las toman en cuenta, e incluso cuando un sindicato está principalmente constituido por mujeres, los cuadros que las representan durante las negociaciones son de hombres. Es evidente que los numerosos estudios sobre este hecho son inútiles, que en ningún lugar el progreso económico ha hecho disminuir la diferencia de las remuneraciones. Estas investigaciones sólo llevan a la inútil multiplicación de los datos; benefician a quienes con ellas acumulan distinciones académicas y proporcionan fundamentos cada vez más firmes a esos teóricos que en la redundancia quieren ver la explicación.[^f21] + +En conjunto, la investigación feminista de la posguerra al principio surgió de los movimientos de las mujeres y se orientaba a la acción. Las adeptas de la retórica liberal reclamaban igualdad de oportunidades, junto con programas de ayuda; otras se nutrían en los libros sacrosantos, rumiaban a Marx, Freud y Reich a fin de obtener la aprobación de un _establishment_ alternativo. Se descubría la “reproducción”.[^f22] Los derechos de las mujeres y los derechos de los trabajadores parecían compatibles con el desarrollo y el progreso. A pesar de sus debilidades y monotonías, estas investigaciones siguen siendo fundamentales para nuestra comprensión del funcionamiento de la sociedad industrial. Revelaron la sorprendente homogeneidad de la discriminación de las mujeres en el seno de la esfera del trabajo, sin importar los países o los ámbitos: socialistas o capitalistas, ricos o pobres, latinos o anglosajones, católicos, protestantes o shintos. En los niveles comparables de ingresos, las mujeres sufrían el mismo menoscabo en Francia que en Japón, por ejemplo. El esquema que las excluye de las remuneraciones privilegiadas es más uniforme que el que preside la discriminación hacia los negros o los judíos. Por añadidura, en ninguna parte del mundo las mujeres han podido instaurar un régimen femenino; existe la Tanzania de Nyerere, el Israel de Begin, pero no se ve ninguna Amazonia. + +## La economía inaparente + +Hay muchos tipos de actividades económicas que los gobiernos y sus economistas no revelan —sean o no capaces de hacerlo—. En algunos casos son incapaces de obtener los datos; en otros, no sabrían cómo designarlos o evaluarlos, aun cuando quisieran ponerlos al descubierto. Esta acumulación de actividades que los economistas excluyen de sus estadísticas habituales da lugar a una plétora de designaciones. Algunos lo llaman el sector informal, otros el sector cuaternario, aún otros el “sector D”, que ocupa el cuarto rango de importancia económica, tras el sector primario de la “extracción”, el sector secundario de la “manufactura” y el sector terciario de los “servicios”. Hay quienes hablan de economía doméstica, de economía moderna del trueque, de economía de las “transferencias en especie” o de mercado no monetario. También hay algunos que hablan de zonas de actividades individuales, espontáneas o de ayuda mutua.[^f23] Los marxistas no vacilan en etiquetar este tipo de trabajo: lo llaman “reproducción social” y, con base en esto, se dividen en sectores, cada cual pretendiendo saber mejor que los demás el significado del término. Para terminar de confundirlo todo, hacia mediados de los años setenta se puso de moda entre las feministas denominar “trabajo de mujeres” aquellas actividades, y designar “amos de casa” a los hombres que lo ejercieran —calca inversa del sexismo—. + +No es fácil evaluar el volumen de esta economía no oficial. Representa un montón de actividades que se pagan con dinero contante, pero no mediante un salario legalmente declarado que otorga el derecho a las prestaciones de la seguridad social —y también se retribuyen en especie—. Está constituida en su mayor parte por un comercio fuera del mercado oficial, por intercambios de favores o retribuciones monetarias de servicios que en su totalidad escapan al fisco o a la estadística. En Yugoslavia hay que regalarle un pollo al médico estatal para que se ocupe de uno, y en Polonia huevos de gallina al funcionario del estado civil que expide los permisos de matrimonio. En la URSS, más de tres cuartas partes de los huevos, la leche, el queso y las legumbres que consumen los hogares provienen del mercado paralelo; los libros se adquieren clandestinamente o en forma de _samizdat_. En los Estados Unidos, las transacciones que escapan a todo control son las de los cultivadores californianos de marihuana —cuyas cosechas valen miles de millones de dólares— y las de los importadores clandestinos de heroína afgana, todas las cuales incluyen los sobornos a los policías. Pero todavía existen otras formas: los trabajos agrícolas temporales, la vendimia o la cosecha de cítricos, por ejemplo, que efectúan los inmigrantes mexicanos ilegales, o el intercambio de favores: tú cuidas del jardín de un abogado, por ejemplo, y él a cambio cuida que tu casa, la cual edificaste sin el permiso de construcción, escape a la inspección administrativa; o el mecánico que remplaza el carburador del automóvil del contador a cambio de que, por su lado, le llena su declaración de impuestos. Todas estas transacciones, que son acuerdos particulares entre contratantes de buena fe, participan de la economía inaparente. En algunas el dinero interviene, mientras que otras se realizan a base del trueque. Son todas de carácter económico, pero ninguna estadística las toma en cuenta. Las hay legales y delictivas. Algunas perjudican al cliente más de lo que podrían hacerlo los servicios profesionales, y otras lo perjudican menos. Algunas otras proporcionan ventajas financieras, en contraste con la pesadez de las reglamentaciones oficiales, mientras que otras representan una explotación pura y simple. Pero todas constituyen intercambios evidentes de servicios, de productos o de dinero, y por lo tanto están relacionadas con un modelo mercantil. + +Se ha intentado evaluar el volumen de esta economía clandestina, al menos por comparación con el producto nacional bruto. El gobierno británico estima en 7.5% del PNB (¡y no solamente de los salarios!) la consecuente pérdida fiscal.[^f24] Esta cifra no representa más que una pequeña porción del mercado que escapa a su control. El fisco norteamericano (Internal Revenue Service, Washington, D. C.) evaluaba en 135 billones de dólares el producto de las actividades de los individuos o de las empresas que no fueron gravadas por las agencias federales en el año 1976. Esta cifra se encuentra en un informe sobre el volumen de los ingresos sin gravar, pero no toma en cuenta la evasión fiscal mediante el artificio de los honorarios profesionales, de las pérdidas ficticias y de otras astucias legales, todas las cuales pueden alcanzar en total una cantidad similar. Según evaluaciones recientes, en los Estados Unidos esta economía ignorada crece más rápidamente que la economía oficial, sobrepasando inclusive la tasa de inflación.[^f24] Si a esto se suman las transacciones monetarias (pero que escapan a las estadísticas) y no monetarias en los Estados Unidos, el total iguala indudablemente el volumen de la economía —excluyendo el sector militar— con base en el cual los economistas establecen globalmente sus indicadores, sus previsiones y sus recomendaciones. Y mientras que en la economía oficial, base de las deducciones fiscales y de los estudios estadísticos, la mano de obra en gran medida se emplea en la creación artificial del seudo trabajo que produce artículos inútiles y servicios superfluos, suscitando controles sociales fútiles e intermediarios económicos parásitos, en la economía inaparente la eficacia media es superior, según las estimaciones. Fue gracias al vigor de su “mercado negro” que un país como Italia pudo atravesar 10 años durante los cuales los economistas no cesaban de vaticinarle una bancarrota inminente, y que los países socialistas pudieron sobrevivir a una gestión tan catastrófica que teóricamente debería haber hundido sus economías. + +Una cosa es indudable en todo esto: incluso al eliminar con esmero del mercado inaparente todas las actividades de subsistencia y todas las tareas domésticas típicamente femeninas (las cuales no están incluidas en el modelo mercantil), esta economía que anteriormente no se percibía, que crece proporcionalmente con mayor rapidez que el PNB oficial, contiene una parte de discriminación sexista que sólo ocasionalmente se ha abordado. Sin embargo, en este sector, donde se crean nuevos empleos mientras que el “desempleo” oficial aumenta, las mujeres están en peligro de caer en una situación todavía peor que en el sector oficial. Aquí no tienen curso las estipulaciones legales contra la discriminación o por la igualdad de derechos. En comparación con los “informales”, los obreros agrícolas, los vendedores de drogas y los sobornados, cuyas actividades son ilegales aunque lucrativas, las mujeres deben conformarse con la prostitución, el pequeño chantaje o la guarda de objetos robados. Los recursos típicos de las “informales” honestas son ser sirvienta y mecanógrafa a domicilio.[^f26] + +La corriente de la escuela de Chicago que a sí misma se denomina “nueva economía doméstica”[^f27] y los recientes estudios de orientación política que abordan la economía inaparente, por lo menos tienen algo en común: reconocen que el trabajo del “mercado negro” que no proporciona ingresos fiscales, y los trabajos domésticos, que tampoco lo hacen, aun cuando a veces reciben una compensación monetaria, no dejan de contribuir al PNB, y en una proporción muy importante. Pero esto los lleva a inventar categorías nuevas que de hecho confunden una vasta gama de actividades inaparentes con el trabajo de las mujeres, tanto en el hogar como en la cama. La debilidad teórica de estas nuevas nociones reside en su incapacidad de trazar distinciones nítidas, pero, además, esta corriente de Chicago disimula perniciosamente la situación de las mujeres.[^f28] Ellas saben muy bien que se las excluye más efectivamente de la economía inaparente que del empleo asalariado donde deben pagar impuestos, pero que están _encadenadas_ por la discriminación a los trabajos domésticos. Aunque la perspectiva de los economistas de Chicago resulta molesta, esta distinción formal entre dos actividades económicas es capital para las mujeres. Al considerar los trabajos domésticos como un “tipo ideal” de la actividad económica, revela las dos características que los distinguen del trabajo que depende del sector económico comercial: se imputa su valor y no es posible “desintermediarlos”.[^f29] + +## El trabajo fantasma +[^f30]A mediados de los años setenta, los estudios femeninos relacionados con el análisis económico cambiaron de orientación. Algunos tropezaron con nociones que no entraban en ninguna de las categorías vigentes en historia, economía, etnología o antropología. La cuestión de los salarios se consideraba secundaria respecto a algo muchísimo más importante: ¿cómo explicar que las mujeres en toda sociedad industrial, además de sufrir la discriminación en el empleo, son obligadas, fuera de las horas laborales, a llevar a cabo una variedad nueva de trabajo _económicamente_ necesario, pero sin percibir _remuneración alguna?_ Se hacía patente que las mujeres pierden cuando buscan un empleo, cuando piden una promoción, cuando intentan conservar un empleo “provechoso”. Sucedía que fuera del trabajo asalariado —que durante el siglo XIX se hizo reglamentario— y paralelamente a éste, una nueva forma de actividad había nacido. En ésta, las mujeres tenían que trabajar mucho más que los hombres y de manera diferente. En el empleo se les pagaba —y paga— menos de lo justo; por añadidura, se veían obligadas a desempeñar formas de trabajo que no existían antes del nacimiento del salariado.[^f31] + +Los historiadores del trabajo doméstico han aportado las mejores pruebas de la nueva economía subterránea. Sus investigaciones me hicieron comprender que la diferencia entre los trabajos domésticos de ayer y hoy no puede describirse fielmente mediante el lenguaje tradicional, y tampoco expresarse satisfactoriamente con la jerga de las ciencias sociales. Los trabajos domésticos de la mujer moderna no tienen su origen en los de las mujeres del pasado. Y ésta es incapaz de concebir que su antepasada no hubiera tenido la obligación de trabajar en una economía subterránea. Tal como son descritas por los nuevos historiadores de los trabajos domésticos, las actividades típicas del ama de casa[^f32] en su apartamento moderno no tienen absolutamente nada que ver con lo que hacían las mujeres antes de la sociedad industrial; estas actividades no pueden ser analizadas adecuadamente como si fueran del sector informal, ni tampoco como categorías dogmáticas de la “reproducción social”. + +Al examinar con atención estos fenómenos que los antropólogos y los historiadores del trabajo doméstico han descrito, vi que el mercado contemporáneo del trabajo, tanto el aparente como el inaparente, no es más que la punta del iceberg: la mayor parte del trabajo se realiza en la economía subterránea. Cuando aumenta el empleo, en las diferentes formas de salariado, las penosas tareas informales se extienden también. Y los trabajos domésticos modernos son una parte típica, aunque no exclusiva, de esta realidad subterránea, que no solamente es inaparente, sino también imperceptible para los faros económicos. Como la nomenclatura corriente no permite hacer la distinción, yo contrapondré al trabajo que se realiza en la economía aparente e inaparente, la economía subterránea del “trabajo fantasma”, que es su complemento.[^f33] + +Al contrario de la producción de bienes y servicios, el trabajo doméstico lo realiza el consumidor de la mercancía misma, el hogar consumidor. Llamo “trabajo fantasma” a toda actividad mediante la cual el consumidor transforma la mercancía comprada en un bien utilizable. Con el término “trabajo fantasma” designo el tiempo, la labor y el esfuerzo que hay que gastar para añadir a la mercancía comprada ese valor adicional sin el cual ésta es inutilizable. Este término designa las actividades que la gente tiene que realizar si es que quiere satisfacer sus necesidades mediante mercancías. Al introducir el término “trabajo fantasma”, distingo, por ejemplo, la confección de un plato de huevos hoy en día y en el pasado. Cuando el ama de casa moderna va al mercado, compra los huevos; regresa al hogar en su automóvil, toma el ascensor hasta el séptimo piso, enciende la estufa, toma la mantequilla del refrigerador y cocina los huevos; cada uno de sus gestos añade valor a la mercancía. No sucedía lo mismo con su abuela. Ésta iba a buscar los huevos al gallinero, disponía la manteca que ella misma había fundido, hacía fuego con ramas que los niños recogían en el bosque comunal, y añadía a los huevos un poco de sal que había comprado. Este ejemplo, que puede parecer romántico, muestra claramente la diferencia. Ambas mujeres cocinan huevos, pero sólo una utiliza mercancías y bienes cuya producción depende de una fuerte inversión de capital: automóvil, ascensor, estufa eléctrica con todos sus accesorios. La abuela desempeña las tareas específicas de su género y así crea la subsistencia; la otra debe resignarse a llevar la carga doméstica del trabajo fantasma.[^f34] + +La transformación de las tareas domésticas no es para nada superficial, sino muy profunda. El aumento creciente del nivel medio de vida hace que estos trabajos dependan cada vez más de los bienes de capital porque introduce en el hogar muchas máquinas y novedades. La inversión de una familia canadiense media en sus enseres domésticos —y lo mismo se podría decir de todo hogar moderno— es en nuestros días superior a la inversión material media de una fábrica para un puesto de trabajo manual en las dos terceras partes de las naciones del mundo. De allí resulta que los trabajos domésticos son más sedentarios, y que la incidencia de las várices ha disminuido. Para una minoría de las mujeres, esto ha significado un trabajo interesante, remunerador, así como ratos de ocio “para cultivarse o divertirse”. Pero los nuevos trabajos domésticos también son más solitarios, monótonos, impersonales y bastante más contaminantes. El consumo de valium y el embrutecimiento ante la pantalla de la televisión se encuentran entre los paliativos de este tipo de estrés suave.[^f35] El trabajo doméstico se ha convertido en el paradigma de la nueva actividad _económica_ no retribuida que en la sociedad de la computadora y el microprocesador es económicamente más fundamental que el trabajo productivo —ya sea que esta producción figure o no en los informes de los economistas—. + +El trabajo fantasma sólo se hizo posible cuando el hogar se convirtió en un recinto organizado para la función económica que consiste en dar a las mercancías un “valor agregado”. No podía hacerse típicamente femenino sino desde el momento en que los hombres cambiaron el hogar por la fábrica o la oficina. Desde entonces, el hogar tenía que subsistir con lo que un salario podía comprar —un salario para el ingeniero y, forzosamente, varios para la familia del obrero—. La mujer de éste lavaba ropa ajena en casa, su hija se colocaba como sirvienta. Agregar valor a lo que el salario producía, y esto de forma no retribuida, se convirtió en el trabajo de las mujeres. Sus ocupaciones fueron definidas en términos que correspondían al nuevo empleo que se les asignaba. Las dos variedades de trabajo, el trabajo remunerado y el trabajo fantasma, proliferaron con la industrialización. Las dos funciones nuevas, la del sostén de la familia y la de la persona mantenida, dividieron al conjunto de la sociedad. La ropa de mezclilla y la fábrica definían a la primera, a la segunda el delantal y la cocina. Y cuando la mujer encontraba un trabajo salariado, se le compadecía y se le pagaba menos. + +Aunque en el siglo XIX las novedades tecnológicas revolucionaron las condiciones del trabajo fuera de casa, no influyeron mucho en el quehacer doméstico, aunque sí enclaustraron todavía más a la mujer en el hogar. Puesto que ella sólo tenía que dar vuelta a una llave para obtener agua, ya no se reunía con sus amigas en la fuente. Aunque económicamente el trabajo de las mujeres asumía una forma sin precedente, técnicamente no parecía haber una ruptura con el pasado. A principios del siglo XX, las instalaciones higiénicas interiores y las nuevas energías domésticas, el gas y la electricidad, cuya utilización sería casi universal en las zonas urbanas de los Estados Unidos hacia 1920 y en las pequeñas ciudades hacia 1930, no eran entonces más que posibilidades tecnológicas, en su conjunto. Sólo recientemente, durante el segundo cuarto de ese siglo, la técnica pudo transformar la realidad material de los trabajos domésticos; simultáneamente, la radio y luego la televisión comenzaron a remplazar las conversaciones en el seno de las comunidades. La industria empezó entonces a producir maquinas para el trabajo fantasma. Si bien gracias al progreso industrial el trabajo fabril requería menos mano de obra, los trabajos domésticos, sin que por eso disminuyeran, se hacían tributarios de una inversión de capital que se multiplicó desmesuradamente.[^f36] + +Se suele describir el progreso económico como un proceso creador de puestos de trabajo, creador de _empleos_. Pero también se puede describir con igual legitimidad como un proceso mediante el cual más mercancías se ofrecen en el mercado; cada una ha sido convertida en una necesidad y cada una exige un _input_ creciente de trabajo fantasma antes de poder satisfacer una necesidad.[^f37] El desarrollo, en su sentido usual, es una operación en la que la producción se basa en una fuerte inversión de capital. Pero es posible definirlo como un proceso mediante el cual el trabajo fantasma se vuelve necesario, sobre la base de una inversión creciente de capital, a fin de alcanzar un nivel mínimo de bienestar.[^f38] Muy probablemente, el volumen del trabajo asalariado productivo no aumentará más, en ningún lugar del mundo, y los empleos estériles que se inventan de la nada con el propósito de dar ocupación a la gente —el sector terciario e incluso “cuaternario” de servicios— ya no serán retribuidos de manera tan exorbitante como hasta hoy ha sido. La automatización disminuirá el volumen global del trabajo asalariado y conducirá a la comercialización de mercancías que requerirán todavía más —no menos— labor gratuita del comprador-utilizador. Esta parte oculta del crecimiento económico, el crecimiento previsible del trabajo fantasma, paralelamente con la reducción del volumen del trabajo salariado, acarreará un nuevo tipo de discriminación de las mujeres: la discriminación en el trabajo fantasma. + +El trabajo fantasma no es el dominio exclusivo de las mujeres. Es patentemente tan unisex como el trabajo asalariado. También los hombres agregan, sin retribución alguna, un valor a la producción industrial. El marido que estudia obsesivamente un tema árido y difícil con la intención de prepararse para los exámenes que le permitirán subir en el escalafón, el habitante de los suburbios que pierde horas para transportarse a la fábrica o a la oficina, también hacen su parte de trabajo fantasma. Ciertamente, el “consumidor” por excelencia es el hogar, que la mujer dirige —eufemismo para expresar que allí sufre y trabaja—. Pero hablar de la _discriminación_ de las mujeres en el seno del trabajo fantasma no tendría sentido si sólo ellas cargaran con todo el peso. Sin embargo, esta discriminación existe, y de manera aún más intensa que en el trabajo asalariado. De manera menos mensurable pero mucho más masiva que en el trabajo asalariado, hay en la sujeción al trabajo fantasma una diferencia entre los sexos. Las mujeres están atadas a éste de forma más amplia, están obligadas a consagrarle más tiempo, tienen menos posibilidades para librarse de él, su carga no disminuye cuando consiguen un empleo fuera de casa, y a ellas se las penaliza más cuando se niegan a realizarlo. La parte que se le roba a las mujeres en virtud de la discriminación en el empleo, ya sea declarado o no declarado, no es más que una pequeña fracción de lo que deberían percibir por el trabajo fantasma que realizan sin retribución en su hogar. + +El dominio educativo proporciona un buen ejemplo de esto. En el pasado, los niños crecían sin pasar por un proceso “económico”: lo que el niño o la niña aprendían en casa no era poca cosa. Todos aprendían la lengua vernácula y las habilidades indispensables para la vida vernácula. Con rarísimas excepciones, jamás hubiera sido posible describir el hecho de criar a un niño como un proceso de capitalización de la mano de obra. Todo ha cambiado hoy en día. Los padres se han convertido en educadores auxiliares en el seno del sistema educativo. Son responsables de impartir los básicos _inputs_, o insumos, de capital humano, para utilizar la jerga de la economía, gracias a los cuales su vástago podrá ser calificado de _homo œconomicus_. Lógicamente, al economista del dominio educativo le interesa que la madre inyecte en su hijo la mayor cantidad de _input_ posible, sin costo alguno para el sistema. Como lo expresa un economista: + +… cuando los niños entran en la escuela, entre ellos existen importantes diferencias respecto a la capacidad verbal y matemática. Estas diferencias reflejan, primero, la diversidad de sus aptitudes naturales y, luego, la cantidad de capital humano que el niño adquirió antes de la edad de seis años. Los _stocks_ almacenados de capital humano reflejan, a su vez, diversos _inputs_ de tiempo y otros recursos provenientes de los padres, maestros, hermanos y del niño mismo. El proceso de adquisición de un capital preescolar es análogo a la adquisición posterior de capital humano mediante la enseñanza escolar y la formación laboral.[^f39] + + +Las aportaciones de tiempo y esfuerzos que la madre aporta gratuitamente a la capitalización de su hijo, en este pasaje se describen precisamente como la fuente primera de la formación de un capital humano. Es una afirmación grotesca; sin embargo hay que reconocer la veracidad de su contenido en una sociedad donde se considera que hay escasez de talento y que por lo tanto debe producirse económicamente. El trabajo fantasma de la madre constituye una actividad económica de la que dependen en última instancia la ganancia bruta de autofinanciamiento, los salarios y la plusvalía del capital. Y la “operativización” del trabajo fantasma constituye paulatinamente la nueva estrategia del desarrollo que no puede designarse más adecuadamente que como la _colonización del sector informal_. + +Sin embargo, no es posible medir el trabajo fantasma con unidades monetarias, aunque es posible traducir esta actividad, actualmente impuesta en forma de trabajo fantasma, como trabajo realizado contra salario. Fue esto lo que se intentó en relación con el transporte laboral. Con base en un modelo sueco, ciertos sindicatos austriacos consiguieron de los patrones que se incluyera el transporte en el tiempo de trabajo. Les hicieron ver que esos largos desplazamientos son imposiciones laborales —pues las fábricas no están situadas en lugares de acceso fácil para los trabajadores, sino allí donde el terreno es barato y las autopistas numerosas, y donde las residencias patronales pueden implantarse en las cercanías—.[^f40] El trabajo fantasma del obrero que acude a su lejana fábrica, por ejemplo, consiste en ir a recoger la mano de obra (es decir, a sí mismo) con su auto personal, y en fungir de chofer para conducir hasta el lugar de trabajo a la máquina humana que el patrón alquila, mediante contrato, ocho horas por día. Por añadidura, este trabajo fantasma requiere de una fuerte inversión de capital. Una buena parte de lo que gana cotidianamente el trabajador se dedica a la compra y mantenimiento del vehículo, y a los impuestos que financian las autopistas por donde circula. Estos traslados, ya sea que se efectúen en automóvil, autobús o bicicleta, representan trabajos fantasma. Ciertos pequeños sindicatos han ganado juicios en esta materia. A sus miembros se les consideró como choferes que llevaban hasta el sitio de trabajo la máquina humana que ellos mismos eran. Pero si esta clase de argumentación se generalizara, si por doquier los trabajadores recibieran un salario por la labor, no retribuida hoy en día, que realizan cuando se “capitalizan” para su empleo y aseguran su traslado de ida y vuelta, el sistema industrial dejaría de funcionar.[^f41] + +Al igual que los hombres, las mujeres podrían exigir que su trabajo fantasma se transformara en trabajo retribuido. Pero desde el momento en que se compara el valor del trabajo fantasma y el del trabajo asalariado en términos monetarios, la naturaleza paradójica del primero se vuelve evidente. Es posible decir que en toda economía moderna (excluyendo al sector militar), el _input_ del trabajo fantasma es superior al _input_ del trabajo retribuido.[^f42]Por ejemplo, la cantidad de tiempo que se gasta en producir bienes y servicios, respondan o no al deseo del cliente, es sin duda inferior al tiempo que se invierte en hacerlos consumibles. Con la nueva economía de los autoservicios, la proporción del trabajo fantasma no puede sino aumentar de manera dramática. Ésta es la razón por la que no puede pagarse el trabajo fantasma —no porque no sea un trabajo, sino porque las correspondientes retribuciones rebasarían el volumen global de los salarios—. + +Se equivocan las feministas cuando sostienen que a las mujeres se les debería pagar en proporción a la labor que consagran a preparar, para el consumo, aquello que la familia adquiere con sus ingresos. Lo más que pueden esperar es un premio de consolación, que no una retribución fantasma. La realización gratuita del trabajo fantasma es la condición única, fundamental, de la dependencia de la familia respecto a las mercancías. Aunque éstas fueran producidas por robots, la sociedad industrial no podría prescindir del trabajo fantasma. En relación con el dinero representa lo que el neutrón es al electrón. Difiere tanto del “empleo” productivo que fabrica mercancías para los demás, como de la pequeña explotación agrícola y de otras actividades domésticas tradicionales, cuyo rendimiento es poco pero que requieren de poca inversión monetaria. + +Hoy, el trabajo fantasma se disimula detrás de casi todo lo que se llama _self help_, es decir, el autoservicio. Es un término moderno que todavía ayer podía haber designado, de manera velada, la masturbación. El autoservicio divide en dos al sujeto: una mano lava a la otra. Su utilización por las agencias norteamericanas de ayuda internacional hizo que el término se extendiera en el contexto del desarrollo internacional. Con este término se proyecta en el consumidor la distinción tradicionalmente establecida por los economistas, para quienes todas las actividades son de producción o son de consumo, las “relaciones” son productivas o reproductivas. Se le enseña a producir con la mano derecha aquello que su mano izquierda supuestamente necesita. Se le enseña a realizar lo máximo con lo mínimo, a mejorar las mercancías más indigentes por medio de la mayor cantidad posible de trabajo fantasma. No sólo se conciben incesantemente nuevos productos, concebidos para el trabajo fantasma, para el autoservicio, sino que con la intervención creciente de las computadoras se remplaza a los asalariados, que dejan de ser útiles y son impulsados hacia el trabajo fantasma.[^f43] Como resultado, el trabajo fantasma deja de ser la actividad femenina por excelencia. Con el paso de los años, el trabajo fantasma es más patentemente unisex, y de ser el campo donde se oprime a las mujeres, se transforma en el campo principal donde se las discrimina.[^f44] + +Hoy en día los papás de la clase media reivindican las tareas culinarias o “maternales”. Quieren “asar los bistés” para los invitados, pasar una hora jugando con el bebé. Pero con el pretexto de querer participar en las “tareas domésticas”, abren un nuevo espacio para la competencia y el resentimiento entre los sexos. Anteriormente, las mujeres se sentían obligadas a luchar para obtener la igualdad de oportunidades en el salariado. Actualmente, los hombres comienzan a reivindicar la satisfacción del trabajo fantasma del hogar. En el curso de los últimos 20 años, la discriminación en el empleo se ha extendido más y las mujeres lo han padecido de manera más aguda, al mismo tiempo que han obtenido la garantía legal de la igualdad y de las oportunidades en el empleo. Actualmente, la escasez del empleo relega a cada vez más hombres al trabajo fantasma, por lo que la discriminación contra las mujeres en su propio hogar habrá de ser todavía más grave. + +Los estudios recientes presentan el siguiente panorama.[^f45] La discriminación de las mujeres en el empleo y en el trabajo fantasma es un fenómeno mundial, y seguramente pasa lo mismo en el sector inaparente o subterráneo, aunque se haya estudiado poco. La discriminación en el empleo y fuera del empleo se extiende al mismo tiempo que aumenta el PNB, del mismo modo que se extienden los demás efectos secundarios: estrés, contaminación, frustración. Sea cual fuere la forma que asuma, la discriminación no se ve afectada ostensiblemente por el medio cultural, la política, el clima o la religión. Los estudios sobre la discriminación revelan un cuadro poco diferente del que muestran los estudios sobre el cáncer del seno o del útero: igual que el PNB _per capita_, lo que cambia según el lugar geográfico es la manera como se considera y discute la enfermedad, más que el esquema de su aparición. Las mujeres australianas tienen estadísticas admirables; las italianas cultivan un cinismo apacible. Las barreras que separan a las mujeres de los empleos lucrativos y las trampas que las encierran en las cocinas se explican de manera diferente en Japón y en la URSS pero su importancia y profundidad son comparables por doquier. En este caso también, la formación escolar proporciona un buen ejemplo. Con igual bagaje —mismos años de estudios, mismas disciplinas—, en todas partes las mujeres ganan menos que los hombres. Por añadidura, mientras mayor sea el nivel de instrucción de las mujeres, más se las confina en su puesto, en comparación con los hombres; en todas partes sucede que tienen menos posibilidades de encaminarse por una vía diferente. Las luchas de los años sesenta abrieron la oficina del director para la mujer, o entreabrieron la trampa de la cocina, pero sobre todo en beneficio de las “hermanas” de las clases privilegiadas. Algunas mujeres más en el quirófano o en una cátedra universitaria, algunos maridos domésticos que lavan los platos: estas raras “conquistas” simplemente hacen que resalte todavía más la discriminación de las mujeres en general, y la hacen todavía más dolorosa para la mayoría. Su resentimiento contra los hombres aumenta, incluso fuera de la esfera del trabajo. + +## La feminización de la pobreza + +Aunque la discriminación sexista es mundial, parece ser diferente en los países pobres. Ni los ingresos ni la discriminación económica son iguales en las sociedades del Tercer Mundo. La discriminación sexista se dirige sobre todo a las mujeres que han podido beneficiarse, de un modo u otro, del crecimiento económico. La esposa de un dentista de Oaxaca termina por apreciar su nueva marginación económica. A diferencia de la esposa de un médico neoyorquino, la mexicana, cuyo hogar posee dos automóviles, deja su casa al cuidado de una sirvienta cuando sale a una reunión feminista. Sólo el Tercer Mundo capitalista ofrece un medio ambiente propicio para la mujer parásito, cuyo surgimiento había previsto en 1911 la feminista sudafricana Olive Schreiner. A diferencia de su homóloga neoyorquina, puede florecer como “ama de casa”. Su situación es totalmente incomprensible para la lejana prima que vive con el sacamuelas de una aldea provinciana. Cada martes, esta mujer acude al mercado, caminando detrás de su marido. Allí vende sus jitomates mientras que éste arranca dientes y vende “menjurjes”. Ella está sometida a su marido, pero no depende económicamente de él.[^f46] + +En América Latina, la inmensa mayoría de los hombres y las mujeres no vive ni como la primera ni como la segunda pareja mexicana que acabo de evocar. La existencia para muchos se reduce a la pobreza modernizada de los arrabales. El hogar gasta casi todo lo que gana. Pero sus ganancias han aumentado con mucha mayor lentitud que el ritmo con que el progreso ha destruido el valor de utilización de su medio de vida. En el curso de una generación, se han visto privados de aquellos recursos ambientales que a sus padres les permitían procurarse casi todo lo que necesitaban sin recurrir al mercado, y simultáneamente han olvidado la mayor parte de las habilidades necesarias para la subsistencia. Al contrario de sus primos, que cruzaron la frontera ilegalmente para trabajar en Texas como obreros agrícolas, y que luego lograron llegar a Nueva York para vivir entre los escombros del South Bronx, los habitantes de los arrabales del Tercer Mundo todavía creen que obtendrán su parte del progreso; aún creen en la retórica del _Brandt report_ o de Fidel Castro. No pueden aún comprender por qué, en el South Bronx, los “latinos” se unen contra la modernización de la pobreza[^f47] e intentan evitar que los educadores, trabajadores sociales y las campañas de salud penetren en su barrio. Sin distinción económica de sexo, se han hecho dependientes de las mercancías que hay que comprar en un mundo que es incapaz de ofrecerles empleo: la fuente del dinero. Privados de las posibilidades tradicionales de subsistencia, también se les niegan los puestos de trabajo que el desarrollo crea a cuentagotas—.[^f48] Así, hombres y mujeres se encuentran en el mismo callejón sin salida que el ama de casa neoyorquina: se les excluye de los empleos que permiten vivir y, al mismo tiempo, de la subsistencia. Para estos pobres modernizados de los países más pobres, la discriminación económica todavía no es enteramente sexista. + +La exportación del trabajo fantasma de los países ricos a los países pobres es un hecho que se sigue desconociendo. Los especialistas de la economía no lo reconocen porque la insuficiencia de su terminología los paraliza —sus conceptos no les permiten identificar en el trabajo fantasma una entidad _sui generis—_. No pueden distinguir entre las actividades de una granjera y las de un ama de casa norteamericana que intenta sazonar la comida chatarra, así como tampoco entre las actividades de subsistencia que están dirigidas a la producción de valores de uso, y la economía del arrabal, cuyos habitantes hacen su guarida con las cajas y los desechos de otra gente. Claudia von Werlhof denomina la producción de esta variedad de existencia subterránea el “ángulo muerto” de la economía. Al miembro de la pareja que es mantenido por el salario, la sociedad moderna le obliga a convertirse en una “fuente de acumulación primitiva”. Cuestión que de inmediato suscita la pregunta respecto al tipo ideal de consorte: ¿es igual el ama de casa que está obligada a realizar el trabajo fantasma, al habitante del arrabal sudamericano, o se ha convertido éste, dentro de la economía mundial, en el nuevo “encargado del hogar”, desprovisto de género, de su socio del Norte?[^f49] + +La discriminación económica de las mujeres aparece cuando se instala el desarrollo. Posteriormente, ya no desaparece; nada indica que lo hará jamás. La discusión con Frank Hubby me hizo llegar a la conclusión de que luchar por crear la igualdad económica entre humanos neutros, que no se distinguen más que por el sexo, es similar a querer encontrar la cuadratura del círculo con regla y escuadra. Eudoxio lo intentó, esforzándose por comparar los números irracionales entre sí. Pero el problema frustró los esfuerzos de los matemáticos hasta el siglo XIX, cuando Lindemann probó que no existe una solución. Demostró que π no es un número algebraico, y de esta manera nos permitió entender por qué los números reales son inconmensurables. La ciencia económica podría encontrarse en la misma situación que las matemáticas en el pasado. Ante el fracaso evidente y reiterado por crear la igualdad económica, tendríamos que considerar otra eventualidad —que el paradigma del _homo œconomicus_ no se puede aplicar a lo que en realidad son los hombres y las mujeres, a quienes no es posible reducir a un ser que sería lo “humano”, a un neutro económico de uno u otro sexo—. La existencia económica y el género por lo tanto serían literalmente “incomparables”. + +# El género vernáculo + +FUERA de la sociedad industrial, es raro el trabajo unisex, sí es que existe. Pocas cosas pueden ser hechas indistintamente tanto por las mujeres como por los hombres. Por regla general, éstos no pueden realizar los trabajos femeninos. En París, a principios del siglo XVIII, el soltero desde lejos se anunciaba con su hedor y su aspecto sombrío. Los archivos notariales nos revelan que los hombres solos a su muerte no dejaban ni sábanas ni camisas. Y en tiempos de Luis XIV, al hombre que no tuviera una mujer —esposa hermana, madre o hija— que cuidara de su casa, le era difícil sobrevivir. De él no se podía esperar que confeccionara su ropa, que la lavara y remendara; le era imposible alimentar a las gallinas, ordeñar una cabra; si era pobre, tenía que olvidarse de la mantequilla, la leche, los huevos. No era capaz de preparar sus alimentos, aunque dispusiera de los ingredientes necesarios.[^f50] Y en nuestros días, en el México rural que tan bien conozco, una mujer moriría de vergüenza antes de dejar a un hombre cocer los frijoles. + +El nativo sabe desde lejos, aunque apenas pueda vislumbrarlos, si unas personas que ve trabajando son mujeres u hombres. En cualquier momento del año y a cualquier hora del día, tanto el lugar donde realizan su actividad como sus herramientas revelan su sexo. Según la manera de cargar un bulto: en la cabeza o al hombro, sabrá a qué género pertenecen. Si ve gansos en un campo segado, sabe que una niña los cuida, y si ovejas, que un niño está cerca. Si alguien hace lo que _nosotros_ consideramos un trabajo propio del otro género, muestra ser un extranjero. O entonces un esclavo, privado de toda dignidad. El género está en la manera de caminar, está en el gesto más pequeño, y no solamente entre las piernas. Puerto Rico está a sólo tres horas de vuelo de Nueva York. Dos terceras partes de la población han estado en el continente. Y, sin embargo, todavía hoy en día, en el interior de la isla, las mujeres navegan los caminos como goletas mecidas por los alisios, mientras que los hombres caminan contoneándose al ritmo de los machetes, ellas y ellos con el inconfundible estilo jíbaro. Es obvio que no pueden ser de la cercana isla de Santo Domingo, y menos ^aún _gringos _ de los Estados Unidos. En muchos puertorriqueños sobrevive el género vernáculo durante decenios, no solamente en el barrio de Harlem, sino también cuando habitan entre los blancos sureños o los negros del Bronx.[^f51] + +El género no es el sexo y es más que el sexo. Traduce una polaridad social que es en sí fundamental y distinta entre dos lugares, entre dos momentos. Lo que se hace o lo que no se hace difiere de un valle a otro, igual que las maneras de hacer las cosas y de hablar de ellas. La terminología que emplean los especialistas de antropología social con frecuencia reviste la forma de una máscara unisex que oculta una realidad que tiene dos rostros. En las ciencias sociales aún no existe el equivalente de lo que en el ámbito de la epistemología y la física hicieron Bohr y Heisenberg. Que la luz responde tanto al paradigma de la partícula como al de la onda, que ninguna de estas dos teorías puede explicar por sí sola su realidad compleja y que tampoco una perspectiva más amplia permite entenderla con mayor claridad, estas son ideas hoy en día comunes. En cambio, para muchos todavía resulta novedoso que un acercamiento similar sea necesario en las ciencias sociales.[^f52] + +Se manipulan alegremente los términos de “cultura” y de “comportamiento” en cuanto se empieza a estudiar _al_ puertorriqueño. En Nueva York los especialistas se preparan para entender la “cultura puertorriqueña”. El trabajador social se esfuerza en ocuparse de “ellos”. Se ignoran y se confunden la distinción nítida y los sutiles matices que contienen cada uno de estos términos, en menoscabo de las tradiciones seculares. El educador neoyorquino intenta ayudar al “niño” puertorriqueño. No entiende que la infancia sólo ha podido nacer con la desaparición del género. Y el educador rara vez reflexiona en el hecho de que está a punto de transformar el género en simple sexo —cuando es capaz de reflexionar en ello—. La simbiosis de las ciencias sociales y las instituciones modernas es así un instrumento eficaz para reducir a sexo el género. Mostraré más adelante que esta ruptura constituye la característica antropológica decisiva que distingue a nuestro tiempo de todos los demás. + +Antes de lanzarme en esta primera exploración del género, indicaré tres escollos en los que es fácil encallar antes de haber alcanzado alta mar. Estas observaciones preliminares habrán de proporcionar un útil acercamiento al sexo económico. + +## Una complementariedad ambigua + +Solamente un extranjero puede percibir la cultura de un grupo. Para los del grupo hay hombres, hay mujeres, y luego una tercera realidad: los extranjeros, que pueden ser individuos de otro país, esclavos, animales domésticos, intocables, monstruos. Si al fuereño se le percibe como a un ser sexuado, su sexo, o más exactamente su género, se percibe más o menos por analogía con el de los “nuestros”, hombres y mujeres. El parentesco sólo se forma a partir de las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres; resulta de la correspondencia entre los géneros. Hombres y mujeres se avienen no solamente en virtud sino a pesar del contraste singular entre ambos. Se corresponden como la mano derecha a la izquierda.[^f53] La correspondencia entre varón y hembra y la dualidad entre derecha e izquierda vienen al caso para permitirme disipar ciertos malentendidos. En muchas culturas, la mano izquierda es la menos fuerte, la menos hábil; ha padecido siglos de descrédito. El empleo de la mano derecha no es algo que simplemente se admite, o experimenta, sino una norma inculcada. Se regaña al pequeño zurdo, se castiga la mano culpable, se la sujeta a la espalda —y puede suceder que se la mutile—. La asimetría orgánica se ha convertido en un hecho. La predominancia neurológica que se traduce en sensibilidad táctil, en fuerza o en habilidades mayores, ha sido transformada en un ideal de dominación diestra. La izquierda se ha adaptado a la derecha, se ha convertido necesariamente en su auxiliar. Ésta es la analogía que constantemente se emplea para sostener la idea de que “sociobiológicamente, la hembra se adapta al macho”.[^f54] + +Pero precisamente mi propósito _no es ése_. La correspondencia significa algo muy diferente. Fuera de la sociedad de los botones y enchufes, hombres y mujeres dependen constantemente de la interacción de las dos manos para sobrevivir. En algunas sociedades se insiste particularmente en el uso de la mano derecha. En otras, entre los chinos, por ejemplo, la etiqueta, el buen gusto y la visión del mundo exigen la predominancia alternada de la derecha y la izquierda, mediante una orquestación detallada y sutil.[^f55] En otras sociedades, en el pueblo nyoro de África, por ejemplo, el zurdo está predestinado a formar parte del grupo sagrado de los adivinos. Pero sea cual sea el poder, la habilidad o la dignidad que se atribuyen preferentemente a una de las manos, con más frecuencia a la derecha que a la izquierda, las dos manos se conjugan en las acciones y los gestos. La tradición prescribe rigurosamente qué mano debe usar el chamán zurdo para hacer la ofrenda. Las dos manos siempre actúan juntas de acuerdo con dos programas, ninguno de los cuales es jamás la imagen inversa del otro. Así, este tipo único de dualidad siempre es ambiguo. + +Las tradiciones más antiguas sitúan la propiedad fundamental de nuestra existencia en este tipo singular de bifurcación. Constituye una complementariedad ambigua, tan diferente de un reflejo en el espejo como de una sombra. En cuanto dualidad, es tan distinta de la pareja positivo/negativo de una fotografía, como de la correspondencia determinista de la doble hélice del ADN. Yo veo ahí la base de la metáfora y del discurso poético —única forma adecuada para expresarla—. Los gemelos, el ombligo/cordón umbilical, el _yin/yang_, son algunas de las representaciones mitológicas mediante las cuales esta dualidad busca expresarse.[^f56] + +Hoy en día debería ser menos oscura una de las dificultades de la oposición entre género y sexo. Es posible considerar el género vernáculo como la base de una complementariedad ambigua, y el sexo de los neutros económicos como una tentativa moderna de negar o de trascender esta base. Al reducir toda interacción a intercambio, las ciencias sociales han construido tanto los fundamentos de esta negación como los de la legitimidad de un análisis _económico_ de las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres. _Es por esto que hablo de “sexo económico”_. Efectivamente, se requieren dos tipos distintos de lenguaje para hablar de lo que existía en el pasado y de lo que hoy prevalece.[^f57] + +## El sexismo sociobiológico + +Quise iniciar esta introducción al género y al sexo en la historia mediante la analogía de las dos manos, porque ésta es contundente. Además, tal analogía evoca de inmediato una segunda dificultad, la cual no es fundamental, al contrario de la primera, sino contingente —está ligada a corrientes de pensamiento que están de moda actualmente—. En los Estados Unidos, hoy es prácticamente imposible analizar el género en conjunción con el comportamiento, sin provocar una reacción defensiva en dos campos: el de las feministas marxistas y el de los sociobiólogos. Mi tesis se ubica fuera de este remolino. Sobre todo, no me rebajaré a debatir con aquellos a quienes seduce la retórica de Lionel Tigre, E. O. Wilson o Alain de Benoist y compañía. Con ellos alterna el llamado _establishment_ liberal de los Estados Unidos, grupo al que no le interesa discutir la distinción que yo establezco entre género y sexo. La sociobiología del sexo, que tiene su origen en los bastiones de Harvard y de la Sorbona, remplaza la sociobiología de la raza que seducía al conde de Gobineau. Cuando vemos lo que el sexismo revela, el racismo parece ser su homólogo precoz y titubeante. Las teorías racistas sirvieron de apoyo a los propósitos colonizadores de los europeos, y las ideas sexistas contemporáneas sirven para acreditar la farsa moderna del sujeto unisex en todo el mundo. El nuevo sexismo responde a las expectativas de las pintorescas élites que hoy dirigen las economías poscoloniales. + +Los sociobiólogos no tienen más que un postulado, a pesar de los matices que presentan, así como una sola tesis, cuyo poderoso atractivo consiste en su ingeniosa simplicidad.[^f58] Los lectores de sus obras no logran siempre entrever que más allá de oscuras discusiones tejidas con algoritmos matemáticos y temerarias estadísticas, no hay nada. La argumentación de los sociobiólogos se reduce a esto: entre los primates, la hembra se adapta al macho;[^f59] el hombre primitivo domina a su mujer; la civilización no hace más que institucionalizar esta primacía. De tal forma, se fundamenta científicamente la deducción de que este patrón regular de la dominación masculina y de la sumisión femenina está inscrito en los genes. Los roles de los sexos resultan de la dominación genética del macho. + +Sin embargo, si rechazo la controversia con esta escuela de pensamiento sexista, no es por la debilidad de sus argumentos, sino más bien por el estilo que adoptan estos biócratas para presentar su teoría. Su estilo tiene mucho en común con el estilo del racismo, desde Gobineau a Rosenberg —es un alegato “científico” que únicamente se dirige a los convencidos—. No sólo las tesis y deducciones del racismo y del sexismo son por así decirlo intercambiables, sino que sus respectivas imágenes del hombre y de la mujer son astillas del mismo palo. En ambos casos, los humanos representan “culturas”, es decir, seres sin género cuyas categorías se diagnostican para luego clasificarlas de acuerdo con una jerarquía. En el nivel más bajo de la escala está la piel oscura, el bajo coeficiente intelectual, el sexo femenino y otras deficiencias genéticas. Por lo tanto, dejo la discusión con los nuevos sociobiócratas para aquellos cuya óptica científica los hace imputar “necesidades” en vez de medir “inferioridades”; para los educadores, terapeutas, ginecólogos y trabajadores sociales que se han adiestrado con el propósito de degradar a los otros, convirtiéndolos en consumidores de sus servicios, en virtud del diagnóstico científico que ellos mismos han elaborado. Velando por los propios intereses y por las perspectivas risueñas que destilan, tienen que distanciarse del nuevo sexismo sociobiológico, enemigo de la igualdad de las “necesidades”.[^f60] + +## La trampa del rol de los sexos + +La noción del rol de los sexos se ha extendido sobremanera desde hace 15 años.[^f61] Es el origen de los juegos de sociedad, de los tratados científicos, de los métodos pedagógicos y de los discursos políticos. La preocupación del rol de los sexos parece crecer con el PNB. En los países ricos, la elección, adopción y transmisión del propio rol causan gran inquietud. Ahora bien, todavía más que las novedosas ideas de la sociobiología, la teoría del rol sociológico obstaculiza el análisis del género. Efectivamente, los conceptos respecto al rol impiden percibir lo que recubre el género, tanto en la expresión como en la acción. + +La distinción entre el género vernáculo y el rol de los sexos es comparable a la distinción entre el habla vernácula y la lengua materna inculcada, entre la subsistencia y la existencia económica o monetaria. Si contrapongo estos términos es porque parten de presupuestos distintos. El habla vernácula, el género y la subsistencia son característicos de una finitud morfológica de la vida comunitaria que está basada en el postulado implícito —el cual con frecuencia se expresa ritualmente y se representa mitológicamente— de que la comunidad, al igual que el cuerpo, no puede rebasar su talla. La lengua materna inculcada, el sexo y la sujeción a los bienes de consumo proceden del postulado de un universo abierto donde toda correlación de las necesidades y de los medios supone la escasez. El género implica una complementariedad fundamental en el mundo que “nos” encierra en éste, aunque esta clausura sea ambigua y frágil. Al contrario, el sexo implica una apertura ilimitada, un universo donde siempre hay algo más. + +De hecho, el discurso sobre el género tiene que recurrir al lenguaje metafórico; el género no puede significar inequívocamente lo mismo en distintos ámbitos. Y esa totalidad dual y específica que la complementariedad de los géneros engendra —un “mundo”, una “sociedad”, una “comunidad”— es a la vez modelada y limitada, asimétricamente, por sus componentes. Sólo la morfología permite percibir el género: su existencia depende de la dimensión y de la forma del mundo dual que estructura.[^f62] Para construir la delicada arquitectura de su concha, el caracol añade una tras otra las espirales crecientes, y luego cesa de hacerlo bruscamente y comienza enroscamientos decrecientes. Sucede que una sola espiral más larga le daría a la concha una dimensión 16 veces mayor. En vez de contribuir al bienestar de la criatura, la sobrecargaría. A partir de entonces, cualquier aumento de su productividad tan sólo serviría para paliar las dificultades creadas por el agrandamiento de la concha más allá de los límites de su finalidad. Una vez que el límite del crecimiento de las espirales se rebasa, los problemas por el sobrecrecimiento se multiplican geométricamente, mientras que la capacidad biológica del caracol en el mejor de los casos sólo puede crecer de forma aritmética. Así, el género fija límites a la forma social que estructura, una forma que se expresa en todos los aspectos de la existencia, pero antes que todo en el parentesco. + +Ahora bien, el término “rol sexual” en su acepción usual implica precisamente lo contrario, la noción tácita de un individuo de plástico, cuya existencia sin género es más o menos modelada por el “sexo”. Desde hace un siglo, el estudio de lo que distingue las actividades de los hombres de las actividades de las mujeres proviene de las observaciones en torno al rol de los sexos —incluso en la época en que el término mismo todavía no se conocía—.[^f63] + +Melville J. Herskovits ilustró bien esta confusión cuando en 1947 afirmó: “No hay fase alguna de la vida de los pueblos iletrados que haya atraído más la atención que la división sexual del trabajo, y ha habido muchos intentos de explicarla”.[^f64] He aquí una frase repleta de afirmaciones sin fundamento: la frontera que los separa de nosotros es _nuestra_ alfabetización; todos los pueblos tienen una existencia _económica_—el _homo sapiens_ es siempre el _homo œconomicus_— y por lo tanto todos actúan a partir del postulado de la escasez; el autor sabe lo que el “trabajo” es; en última instancia, la división sexual que prepara para el trabajo es el gran misterio que la antropología moderna debe intentar explicar. La larga lista de obras que Herskovits evoca ha crecido considerablemente desde entonces, pero son apenas unas cuantas las que aclaran la distinción entre sexo y género. + +El estudio de los roles de los sexos ha creado confusión. Resulta evidente al examinar las obras de tres periodos en los que el “trabajo de las mujeres” estaba de moda: la etnografía victoriana, la antropología cultural del _New Deal_ y los estudios feministas recientes. Los victorianos creían en la evolución social y buscaban su confirmación en los escritos de los viajeros y misioneros. Las conductas extrañas, inesperadas, los fascinaban tanto como las extraordinarias especies que Darwin había descubierto en las islas Galápagos. Pero a diferencia de sus predecesores, los victorianos sentían la necesidad de clasificar lo que encontraban. Los comportamientos, al igual que los fósiles, debían ser colocados en categorías que se pudieran ordenar de acuerdo con las etapas evolucionistas, cuya culminación era la burguesía inglesa victoriana, compuesta por los más civilizados, los más aptos para sobrevivir. En los Estados Unidos, las mujeres y los eclesiásticos conjuntamente sacaron de estos relatos la prueba del rol eterno de la mujer como guardiana del hogar, rol eterno de su _naturaleza_ —don que se entrega a los hombres— quienes deben emprender la ardua conquista de la _Naturaleza_ en aras de las mujeres. La antropología del rol de los sexos hizo su aparición en calidad de prueba científica de aquello que Ann Douglas ha llamado la mentira sentimental. En este contexto, el trabajo de las mujeres era la huella del maltrato que el sexo débil había sufrido en las sociedades primitivas. Por lo tanto el progreso significaba el encierro de la mujer dentro de una decorosa domesticidad, acompañado de la especialización gradual de la posición y vocación de ambos: el varón mantendría el hogar mediante su dura labor; su esposa estaría libre de la carga de la producción.[^f65] + +Durante las dos generaciones siguientes, el interés por el trabajo femenino fue muy tibio, pero entre 1935 y 1937 volvió a resurgir con vigor. En menos de dos años se publicaron tres estudios que habrían de convertirse en clásicos. Margaret Mead destacaría el hecho de que el sexo biológico por sí mismo no podía ser el origen de las diferencias socioculturales que se ven por doquier en la estructura de la personalidad de los hombres y las mujeres.[^f66] Buscó elucidar estas diferencias recurriendo a los conceptos psicológicos de su época, los cuales en fin de cuentas estaban fundados en la familia norteamericana. Ese mismo año, Ralph Linton centraría su investigación en el contraste entre los comportamientos femenino y masculino. Describió la plasticidad casi ilimitada de los roles sexuales que una cultura puede otorgar a sus miembros. Le interesaba más el comportamiento que la personalidad. Finalmente, George Murdock[^f67] emprendería la edición de su _Atlas etnográfico_. Ante todo le interesaba el “trabajo” y cómo se distribuye entre los hombres y las mujeres. Gracias a sus tablas y cuadros, es posible ver de inmediato que en Okinawa ambos sexos participaban en la manufactura de la cerámica, pero los hombres en una proporción mucho mayor que las mujeres; entre los drusos, sólo las mujeres hacen cerámica, y entre los coreanos, los hombres. Se muestra la participación hombres/mujeres en 11 tipos de actividad y nueve niveles diferentes, en cientos de culturas diferentes. Pero el acento que Mead pone en la personalidad, Linton en la conducta y Murdock en el trabajo, en vez de clarificar la distinción entre el género y el rol sexual, sólo la oscurece. + +Hacia mediados de siglo, el interés por las actividades distintivas de las mujeres nuevamente decrece. La modernización está a la orden del día. Por primera vez, los responsables políticos acuden a los antropólogos, solicitándoles que identifiquen los obstáculos para el progreso. Y precisamente durante estos decenios —cuando la participación en la vida del grupo investigado se perfeccionó como método para informar con detalle y delicadeza sobre quién hace qué en una aldea o una choza— el comportamiento vinculado con el género se consideró sobre todo como un obstáculo para el desarrollo, un estereotipo del rol sexual, una causa de la baja productividad y un ingrediente esencial de la pobreza. Las investigaciones anglonorteamericanas realizadas por mujeres en torno a la situación de las mujeres cambiaron totalmente la situación: representaron una tercera ola de interés en la materia, esta vez con la perspectiva feminista. De hecho, la perspectiva masculina que coloreaban las investigaciones de las dos grandes etapas anteriores se convirtió en objeto de estudio para aquellas investigaciones. Pronto los trabajos de varias generaciones de antropólogos dieron clara prueba de su incapacidad casi grotesca para siquiera sospechar lo que las mujeres hacen. Sin embargo, es evidente que estos nuevos estudios en su conjunto solamente han reforzado, aunque con la perspectiva femenina, los mismos postulados fundamentales sobre el género como forma primitiva de rol sexual, postulados que, primero de manera implícita y luego explícitamente, habían guiado a los antropólogos anteriores.[^f68] En su conjunto estos estudios también camuflan el género; pretenden ser auténticamente modernos —es decir, paradójicamente contraproductivos. + +# El género y la cultura + +LAS HERRAMIENTAS son intrínsecas a las relaciones sociales. Cada persona, cuando actúa, se relaciona con su sociedad mediante las herramientas que domina eficazmente. En la medida que las domina, la forma de estas herramientas —las de las mujeres o las de los hombres— determina la imagen que se hace cada quien de sí mismo. En todas las sociedades preindustriales, al conjunto de tareas específicas que son propias de uno de los géneros, corresponde un conjunto de herramientas igualmente específicas. Incluso las herramientas que pertenecen a toda la comunidad no pueden ser utilizadas sino por la mitad de sus miembros. Al tomar una herramienta y al servirse de ella, las personas se relacionan esencialmente con el género que manipula esa herramienta preferentemente. La relación entre los géneros es por lo tanto y ante todo social. Las distintas herramientas determinan la complementariedad material de la vida. + +La separación de las herramientas puede conducir a una división extrema de los dominios. Pierre Clastres, quién vivió con los guayaki, en un capítulo conmovedor de su libro habla de un mundo así dividido en la selva amazónica. Allí, el dominio de las mujeres se organiza en torno a la canasta que cada una hubo de tejer tras la primera menstruación, y el de los hombres, en torno a su arco. No existe autoridad personal por encima de ambos dominios.[^f69] La división, constantemente experimentada, engendra la tensión que da cohesión a esta sociedad. Si alguna mujer toca el arco de un cazador éste pierde su virilidad y deviene _pané_. Su arco ya no le servirá, perderá su potencia sexual y será excluido de la caza; o bien habrá de languidecer y morirá, o bien habrá de vivir tras las chozas de las mujeres, recolectando su comida en una canasta desechada. + +## El género y las herramientas + +Pero no es necesario buscar en ámbitos exóticos los vínculos culturales entre el género y la herramienta. Nuestro pasado reciente nos puede proporcionar ejemplos que son a la vez más convincentes y más accesibles: los utensilios de nuestros abuelos, principalmente. Cuando yo me encontraba escribiendo este capítulo, fui huésped de una mujer del Québec nacionalista, una artista en su género: repostera que trabaja con sus instrumentos culinarios tradicionales. En su _boutique_, no lejos de Sherbrooke, además de sus pasteles, a sus clientes les ofrece un espacio que es una versión moderna del _studium_ medieval, un lugar de reflexión y discusión. A mí me invitó a leer estas páginas ante personas interesadas en esta materia. Una docena de viejos instrumentos agrícolas decoraban los muros del comedor. La anfitriona los había coleccionado porque eran de procedencia local y a ella le parecían bellos. Todos examinamos estas reliquias rurales, ninguna de las cuales tenía más de un siglo de antigüedad. Forzosamente tenían que tener algún nombre, pero la mayoría de los nombres habían sido olvidados y nadie supo adivinar la función de algunas de las herramientas. El propósito de otras era evidente: cavar, serrar, aunque todo el mundo ignoraba para qué cultivo o cuál madera habían sido destinadas. Y ni uno solo de los jóvenes franconorteamericanos presentes tenía la menor idea del género al que estaban vinculados los diferentes utensilios; si se habían destinado a la mano del hombre o a la de la mujer. La única persona que pudo decirlo fue una dama de avanzada edad. + +Mientras que en Norteamérica, incluso en Québec, a las herramientas se las ha despojado de género, éste sobrevive todavía en muchos terruños de Europa, aunque de manera desigual. En cierto lugar, los hombres manipulan la guadaña y las mujeres la hoz. En otro, ambos emplean la hoz, pero ésta difiere según el género. En Estiria, por ejemplo, la hoz de los hombres tiene filo, pues sirve para cortar, mientras que la de las mujeres tiene la hoja dentada y su curvatura es mayor, pues sirve para recoger las espigas. El gran inventario del trabajo campesino de Wiegelman[^f70] recoge cientos de ejemplos similares en una extraordinaria diversidad de lugares. En algunos valles de los Alpes, ambos géneros usan la guadaña, pero la mujer siega el forraje, mientras que el hombre, el centeno. Allá, solamente la mujer puede tocar los cuchillos de la cocina; acá, los dos pueden cortar el pan, pero una lo rebana y otro lo taja, con el filo del cuchillo hacia el pecho. Casi por doquier, los hombres son quienes siembran, pero en una región del alto Danubio son las mujeres quienes siembran y trillan —este lugar constituye una excepción, pues los hombres no tocan las semillas—. Aún más que los cultivos, al género se vinculan los animales. En cierto lugar, las mujeres alimentan a las vacas, pero jamás a las bestias de tiro. Más al oriente, las mujeres ordeñan las vacas de su granja, mientras que los hombres ordeñan las del patrón. A pocas horas de camino, sólo las muchachas desempeñan esta tareas. Los vínculos entre el género y la herramienta sobrevivieron durante la época en que las guerras devastaron a Europa, que sus ciudades fueron destruidas, que el crecimiento económico transformó la vida rural. Aunque imperan los pesticidas químicos, las segadoras-trilladoras y la televisión, ciertos utensilios presentan el anacronismo de seguir siendo típicos de uno de los géneros. + +Sin embargo, en su conjunto, el vínculo ha sido destruido, y con mayor ahínco en la Europa oriental que en la occidental. Sólo permanece en la memoria de los ancianos. Hará unos 10 años que un campesino serbio me relataba cómo se preparaba el forraje en la generación anterior. Describía la forma de recolectar, transportar y almacenar el heno como si hubiera sido un ballet, en el cual los hombres y las mujeres tenían sus pasos de danza respectivos. Mientras hablaba, la misma escena se desarrollaba ante nuestra vista, pero al estilo moderno. Toda la tarea se había transformado en una labor unisex que los “trabajadores” llevaban a cabo. El anciano miraba con una mezcla de tristeza y orgullo a la muchacha que conducía el tractor de la aldea. Había desaparecido al volante de la máquina el género que había perdurado a través de los siglos, adaptándose a condiciones siempre nuevas. Ha sido ampliamente demostrado que el vínculo del género masculino y el buey ha sobrevivido desde la prehistoria. Ni una sola de las antepasadas de la joven tractorista jamás hubo de alimentar a los bueyes o de uncirlos a la yunta. Esta característica de su género se remonta a la época en que su raza todavía no poseía la lengua eslava y aún vivía en puntos diferentes de Europa. + +## El género en los tributos feudales en el comercio y en los oficios artesanales + +Toda vida “primitiva” está fundada en esta separación de las herramientas.[^f71] Se puede observar tal división en la vida del cazador-recolector y también en la del agricultor-pastor, desde el periodo neolítico hasta los tiempos modernos. En las sociedades no urbanas, con raras excepciones, la línea divisoria de los géneros es nítida y patente. La economía de subsistencia coincide con la existencia del género. De allí resulta la fuerte propensión a considerar que el género es típico de la vida tribal y campesina. El género social por ende no se estudia —si es que se estudia— más que por los antropólogos. Los historiadores ignoran que el género impera en todas las épocas históricas, que forma parte integral de todas las grandes civilizaciones, y que si su dominio a veces se relajó, esto no sucedió salvo dentro de las élites decadentes, y aún así durante breves periodos.[^f72] La historia de la desaparición del género, durante los siglos XIX y XX, aún está por escribirse. No será posible poner al descubierto la descomposición del género en la sociedad industrial hasta que no se reconozca el capital interés histórico de esta cuestión. Aquí estudio tres ejemplos. + +### Los tributos feudales + +En la Edad Media, los campesinos, ya fueran aparceros o propietarios, estaban sujetos al pago del tributo señorial. Puesto que por lo general vivían al margen de la economía monetaria, era ése su solo excedente real, el único valor económico que producían. Calificar de “producción” sus demás actividades sería erróneo, pues este término implica hoy en día una transferencia de valor y de consumo que, para el campesino medieval, sólo podía consistir en el tributo. Aparte de esto, no hacía prácticamente nada que “rindiera”. Es esta ausencia de diferenciación entre las funciones de producción y de consumo la que contrapone de manera más nítida la subsistencia a la existencia económica. + +Gracias a cientos de contratos establecidos entre los campesinos y su señor durante los siglos IX al XII sabemos que el tributo se pagaba a la vez con productos y con trabajo. Y este tributo frecuentemente se exigía de manera específica a uno u otro de los géneros. Muchos contratos detallan lo que se debía por parte de cada uno de los géneros. Por ejemplo, Ingmar paga a la abadía con 15 días de trabajo (acompañado de dos bestias de tiro), más una oveja cada dos años; su mujer —o en caso de su muerte, una sirvienta— entregaría cinco pollos cada otoño. Los términos del contrato indican claramente que en el pago participan dos competencias que no son intercambiables, y que entre ambas no existe denominador común. Los “productos de las mujeres” y los “productos de los hombres” son dos cosas inconfundiblemente distintas. En cuanto a la Iglesia, lo que ésta prohíbe durante los días feriados no es el “trabajo servil” indeterminado. Especifica claramente que los _hombres_ no pueden cazar, talar árboles o levantar cercas; las _mujeres_ no pueden desyerbar, trasquilar ovejas o podar árboles. Ambos géneros por lo tanto no pueden producir indistintamente el excedente que se destina al tributo. Tanto el producto como las tareas obligatorias están vinculados a uno u otro género.[^f73] + +### El comercio + +El comercio también puede tener género. Y el comerciante no siempre es el hombre. Asimismo, la noción de que las mujeres sólo comercian en el mercado de la aldea, mientras los hombres vagabundean mucho más lejos, concuerda poco con la realidad. En Malasia, en el Sahel occidental, y en el Caribe no español, son las mujeres quienes se ocupan de los negocios en el hogar. Los circuitos comerciales de las mujeres están basados en sus contactos con su parentela, y los hombres no pueden en ningún caso insertarse en ellos. Ya sea que el comerció involucre la cerámica o la joyería, es la mujer quien viaja a las lejanas aldeas, y el hombre el que cuida el hogar. Puede suceder que para mantener a su marido en casa, la comerciante le imponga una segunda esposa, bajo la amenaza de abandonarlo si se niega a aceptarla —amenaza que todavía hoy en día se ejerce en el Senegal—. Bien sabe el hombre que lo que ella vende a él nadie se lo compraría si tomara el lugar de su mujer, y que además el hogar necesita esos ingresos. Al igual que el tributo feudal, también las mercancías tienen género. En el norte de Birmania hace falta haber perdido la razón para comprar en el mercado joyas vendidas por un hombre; éstas sólo pueden ser falsificaciones destinadas a los turistas.[^f74] + +### La artesanía + +También los trabajos manuales tienen género, y con frecuencia de forma compleja. No se trata nada más de aquellos que conciernen a la subsistencia: la cocina o las conservas alimenticias para el hogar, el hilado y el tejido del arnés del camello de la familia; sino las artesanías que se destinan a la venta. Éstas también están marcadas por el género. En los bazares de África septentrional, una costurera no puede remplazar a un sastre; y sin tener que indagar, bien se sabe que allí no puede haber mujer zapatera alguna. La vista aguzada para la percepción del género puede ver en un simple retazo de tela un esquema tan sutil pero tan real como una filigrana. Enfurtir, teñir, cortar, acabar, cada función exige diversas colaboraciones, algunas de las cuales se deben solamente a las mujeres, otras sólo a los hombres —sinfonía a cuatro manos de donde surge el objeto terminado—. + +Dos estudios recientes sobre los oficios en la Edad Media destacan el hecho de que muchos gremios permitían a las mujeres llegar a ser “maestras”. Así, en Colonia, durante el siglo XIV, la corporación de la seda (hilado y tejido) era únicamente femenina. Pero lo más sorprendente es que era posible encontrar mujeres en los gremios de los oficios netamente masculinos: en el siglo XIV hay mujeres a la cabeza de fundiciones que emplean más de una veintena de obreros y poseen herramientas pesadas, martillos accionados por molinos hidráulicos. Sucedía que por ser miembros del gremio, las viudas podían conservar en la familia el taller del difunto esposo. Sin embargo, sería absurdo deducir, con base en el estatus de tales “gerentes”, que las mujeres trabajaban el hierro codo a codo con los aprendices o compitiendo con ellos.[^f75] + +El tributo feudal, el comercio y los oficios artesanales no son más que ejemplos de dominios relacionados con la historia del género en las civilizaciones avanzadas. Pero el género no está limitado únicamente al presente de una época histórica dada, a las herramientas y a las actividades que tejen su vida cotidiana. También la memoria conserva la huella dual. Cuando una cultura celebra su pasado, asigna ciertas tareas a los hombres y otras a las mujeres. En Minot (norte de Borgoña) la misma mujer baña a los recién nacidos y a las personas que mueren. Desde épocas muy remotas, en las ocasiones solemnes siempre se preserva el género. Todavía hoy en día en Tracia, aunque los hombres pueden hablar de los difuntos y sus actos, sólo las mujeres pueden hablar a los muertos. Son ellas únicamente quienes se quejan, quienes lloran el deceso, quienes invocan la protección de los desaparecidos. Este acto, caracterizado por el género, tiene sus raíces en un pasado muy lejano. + +El género no es un rasgo pintoresco de la existencia primitiva que la vida urbana, la “producción” o las complejas operaciones del mercado hacen forzosamente desaparecer del tejido social. En las sociedades de avanzada cultura, el género florece. En la vida urbana medieval, al conjugarse con la especialización de los oficios y los artesanados, forma configuraciones nuevas y complejas mucho más difíciles de dilucidar que la división primitiva a la cual se han apegado los antropólogos. + +Nadie se ha arriesgado todavía a hacer la “historia del género”: al contrario de toda nueva “historia de la mujer”, éste sería un tema difícil de cernir. Resulta demasiado vasto para los historiadores del “sexo” y, en la historia de los “humanos”, desde Tucídides a la fecha, todo lo que de él se conserva es una sonrisa —la del gato de Cheshire—. + +## El género y el parentesco + +Los historiadores eluden la discusión del género al asignarle un reino puramente prehistórico —y por ende perteneciente a la antropología—. Pero también los antropólogos poseen sus mecanismos de evasión. Como los médicos que pierden de vista al enfermo para concentrarse en la enfermedad, descuidan el género al centrar su interés en el parentesco. Tal actitud se remonta al propio Lewis Henry Morgan, padre del estudio de los sistemas de parentesco, elaborados a mediados del siglo XIX. Al describir estos sistemas como estructuras de relaciones complejas entre individuos sexualmente divididos en hombres y mujeres, Morgan y los antropólogos ulteriores tienden a atenuar un hecho evidente: antes que todo, el parentesco estructura los ámbitos del género en su complementariedad. Son parientes aquellos que, en términos netamente definidos, pueden relacionarse a pesar de la línea de separación de los géneros. La esencia del parentesco consiste en fijar quién es quién en relación con quién, lo que es mucho más importante que establecer un marco en el que a ciertos hombres se les otorga el poder sobre ciertas mujeres. Además, el parentesco presupone dos géneros, entre los cuales se establece un vínculo. El género no solamente expresa lo que es un ser, sino lo que es en cierto momento, en qué lugar y con qué herramientas y palabras divide el espacio, el tiempo y las técnicas. La fascinación que ejerce el tabú del incesto en los científicos que han surgido de familias “normales”, les impide ver la división de los géneros que yace bajo el parentesco. Explicar el género a partir del parentesco es bastante similar a reconstituir un cuerpo a partir de sus radiografías. El género no es algo que se puede inferir del parentesco, ni tampoco reducir, según la moda estructuralista, a un aspecto de una dualidad cósmica.[^f76] + +Sin embargo, no puedo dejar de pensar que al hacer así del género una dualidad entre otras, se elude la obligación de buscar sus orígenes. Robert Graves habla de esta búsqueda imprescindible de _sus_ orígenes que debe conducir al poeta a los nidos de la Diosa Blanca, los nidos de la Pesadilla adornada “con el plumaje de aves proféticas y regados de mandíbulas y entrañas de poetas”. La tarea es aventurada y temible, tanto para el poeta como para el humano moderno desprovisto de género. El primero deberá atravesar los extensos yermos sin senderos de los pantanos y montes; el segundo, las ruinas y los desiertos fuera de los caminos trillados y de los lugares comunes. + +## El género y la unión conyugal + +Aunque con frecuencia la disfrazan, cubriéndola con densos velos, los antropólogos hacen de la pareja conyugal el meollo de su investigación. Postulan que como en su propio caso, tras todo ser hay procreadores ligados matrimonialmente. Su percepción sexuada de su origen personal, su etnocentrismo, deforman el objeto estudiado —y esto es lo que no comprenden—. Tanto el historiador como el antropólogo son prisioneros de esta idea preconcebida, que les impide ver lo que hace única y singular a la pareja moderna. Por esta razón el estudio del género y de la actividad genital debe empezar con el reconocimiento de que la palabra “matrimonio” está tan privada de género como los vocablos “rol” o “intercambio”. + +En el siglo XII nace en las sociedades occidentales un tipo único de existencia, una “cosa pública” basada en la apropiación del excedente que se produce en los hogares constituidos por parejas conyugales. Sabemos que tal apropiación puede lograrse de diversas maneras. Karl Polanyi y sus alumnos han propuesto una tipología para estas formas. Pero la pareja conyugal, en cuanto unidad que produce un excedente, crea un tipo particular. El nuevo factor esencial no es el tamaño de la familia que comparte el mismo techo, ni la capacidad de organizar a los parientes, sirvientes, invitados o esclavos en el seno de esta unidad, sino la función _económica_ de la pareja. La etnología no conoce nada comparable a esta especie de familia, condición antropológica _sine qua non_, que es común en todas las formas sucesivas y aparentemente distintas que produjeron en Europa y en el mundo occidental la acumulación de los excedentes y su organización por el Estado. Desde el punto de vista antropológico, la occidentalización puede definirse como la convergencia de numerosas estructuras de parentesco diferentes en el modelo del hogar conyugal. + +A lo largo de este proceso de fusión, los dos sentidos del vocablo “matrimonio” se asimilaron progresivamente entre sí. Por una parte, el matrimonio designa los ritos y las festividades de las nupcias que en casi todas las sociedades existen y, por otra, designa el estado matrimonial, que no se encuentra en muchas sociedades. En la Europa medieval, el matrimonio adquirió una importancia mayor. Aquello que esencialmente había sido una ceremonia destinada a vincular conjuntamente a dos familias emparentadas por un tejido complejo de alianzas, se convirtió en el suceso mediante el cual dos individuos se unen de por vida, dentro de la nueva unidad económica de la pareja, una entidad fiscalizable. Pero tal deslizamiento fue encubierto por el hecho de que el “matrimonio” vino a significar indistintamente las nupcias y la resultante unidad de la pareja conyugal. + +Hay un rasgo que es importante señalar retrospectivamente, y es que en estos primeros tiempos de la producción conyugal, las actividades cotidianas creadoras del excedente estaban estrictamente determinadas por el género. Las prescripciones de la Iglesia con frecuencia interpretaban esta división y la reforzaban. Pero a medida que la pareja conyugal se iba convirtiendo en la unidad fiscalizable fundamental, el excedente creado perdía su género tradicional. La mujer ya no acudía ella misma a entregar al señor los huevos; como representante de la familia, al hombre ahora le tocaba pagar el tributo. Es cierto que las tareas obligatorias durante mucho tiempo diferenciaron todavía a los géneros. Pero cada vez más los tributos asumían una forma monetaria, las monedas locales eran remplazadas por las del Estado moderno, y la pareja conyugal mostraba ser una unidad productiva flexible, superior a cualquier otra forma anterior de organización familiar. Por estar fundada en el género, siguió subsistiendo en gran medida por sí misma, mientras que la capacidad creciente del Estado y de la Iglesia para imponer funciones genéricas nuevas, extrañas o contrarias a las normas tradicionales, hizo a la pareja capaz de adaptarse al rápido cambio tecnológico. El surgimiento de la producción del hogar conyugal es la condición antropológica de la formación inicial, en Europa, de campesinos y ciudadanos urbanos que son diferentes a los agricultores, comerciantes y artesanos del resto del mundo. + +La extensión de la producción intragenérica, pero conyugal, no fue más que la primera etapa del proceso que creó la separación de Europa respecto a todas las demás culturas. En la Europa cristiana la unión conyugal constituía una homogeneidad fundamental, a pesar de que se asumía de diversas maneras en las sociedades. Hubo variaciones según las épocas y los lugares, y muchas comunidades permanecieron fuera de la corriente general —incluso, en algunos casos, hasta después de la segunda Guerra Mundial—. Este matrimonio económicamente productivo fue un _primer_ paso; no implicaba la desaparición del género. Durante 500 años, del siglo XIII hasta principios del siglo XIX, se extendió un tipo de matrimonio donde el hombre y la mujer, socios en la producción matrimonial, conservaban las tareas de su respectivo género. Tanto la estructura feudal como la organización mercantilista de la cosa pública, están fundadas en el excedente producido por la pareja conyugal, todavía con género.[^f77] + +Pero he aquí que en el siglo XIX, y de forma bastante brusca, las tareas intragenéricas del hogar son remplazadas por la división _económica_ del trabajo asalariado y del trabajo fantasma, que se asignan de forma discriminatoria en función de las características sexuales, recién descubiertas, de los cónyuges. Sólo al llegar esta segunda etapa, los socios conyugales, económicamente distintos y privados de su género, se convierten en la base de la producción industrial. Y las parejas de esta especie habrán de proporcionar a los antropólogos que han nacido dentro de su marco, la norma de la “estructura libidinal” y la percepción que de ésta tendrán. Para ellos, que ven en el parentesco el resultado de una preferencia y de una asociación sexuales, el género sólo puede carecer de sentido, cuando no les resulta absolutamente aterrador. + +# Los dominios del género y el medio vernáculo + +EN LA SOCIEDAD del género, ni el espacio ni el tiempo son neutros. Lo que Einstein denominó el “espacio-tiempo” es en la cultura vernácula una función de dos movimientos ambiguos, cada cual en sí único. Cada género se desplaza a su propio ritmo en su camino propio, y el medio vernáculo forma una especie de contrapunto de esta sutil danza. Es por esto que una parte del medio vernáculo siempre permanecerá en el punto ciego de los hombres. Lo que saben de esta parte velada no lo aprenden sino indirectamente. _Aquí_, los hombres no tienen el derecho a la palabra; _allá_, lo tienen las mujeres. Ser hombre significa estar consciente de que las mujeres saben cosas que los hombres ignoran, que poseen vocablos para designarlas y cierto poder sobre ellas. + +## Espacio tiempo y género + +Los lugares y las horas determinan quién hace qué, quién usa qué y en qué momento. El género determina que la mujer berebere se apoye contra la pared oriental de una habitación, mientras que la parte externa de la misma pared está reservada al hombre. El trazado de la línea de separación de los géneros determina en qué territorios, en qué ocasiones y hasta en qué grado los dos géneros pueden entremezclarse. En cierto valle de los Alpes, ambos se reúnen en la era, él con el mayal y ella con la criba. Río abajo, este espacio es dominio exclusivo de los hombres. De la misma manera que se encuentran separados, así los géneros se entremezclan distintamente según la cultura y la época.[^f78] A veces gobiernan territorios totalmente separados, a veces se entrelazan como los arabescos celtas del _Libro de Kells_. Hay lugares donde una canasta no se teje, una hoguera no se enciende, sin la dualidad de las manos masculinas y femeninas. Cada cultura conjuga los géneros a su manera, desde la cuna a la tumba. Existen lugares donde los muchachos y las muchachas viven todos juntos, comunitariamente, durante algunos años, tras lo cual se instalan en sus respectivos territorios. + +A lo largo de su notable obra sobre las “maneras de hacer” en la cocina, el lavado de la ropa y la costura en Minot, una pequeña aldea francesa, Yvonne Verdier describe, desde el punto de vista femenino, esta sutil textura. Así, cuando se mata al cerdo, únicamente a la mujer le toca elegir el animal que será sacrificado, pero es el hombre quien fija el día de la matanza. Como si se tratara de un minueto, ambos ejecutan decenas de pasos bien armonizados. Las mujeres preparan la longaniza y los hombres salan la manteca. Pero, mientras que en Minot solamente las mujeres menopáusicas pueden sacar la carne salada de la despensa, en una aldea próxima no pueden penetrar este espacio masculino. Cada aldea baila al son de su propia música. + +Recientemente, en su obra sobre _El marido y la mujer en la sociedad rural_ francesa,[^f79] Martine Segalen ha desbrozado un campo nuevo describiendo sus ritmos complementarios. Analiza de forma detallada la correspondencia recíproca de las tareas específicas de los géneros, y las distingue de manera explícita de los roles, del estatus y del rango. Examina con óptica femenina la arquitectura de las granjas y los trabajos de los agricultores; recoge proverbios y fotografías e interpreta pinturas antiguas y estudios etnológicos para reconstituir, partiendo de las pautas de comportamiento que sobrevivieron, cómo eran las cosas a mediados del siglo XIX. Descubre relaciones entre hombres y mujeres mucho menos regidas por la familia y el parentesco que por las necesidades de hogares basados en la interdependencia armoniosa de las manos femeninas y masculinas. Describe a hombres y mujeres que realizan sus tareas cotidianas más como miembros de su género que como los elementos constitutivos individuales de una pareja apareada gracias al matrimonio. La pareja no pesa mucho en el hogar rural francés del siglo XIX. Tanto el mito de la brutal dominación masculina como el del romántico idilio campesino tergiversan la realidad. + +Según Martine Segalen, es el hogar lo que media entre el individuo y la comunidad rural, y no ambos cónyuges, la pareja. Si el hogar se desintegra y sus miembros no actúan de conformidad con las exigencias de sus respectivos géneros, será la comunidad quien castigará directamente al individuo ofensor. Por ejemplo, en el norte de Francia la hortaliza debe binarse en el mes de abril; ésta es tarea de la mujer. Si para el primero de mayo la tierra aún no ha sido removida, ante su ventana aparecerá un maniquí de paja con una azada en los brazos. En cuanto al bruto que golpea a su mujer, será objeto de una cencerrada: se le paseará en una carreta por toda la aldea, embarrado de lodo, entre las burlas de las personas y el estrépito de ollas y cacerolas. Si, al contrario, un hombre se deja pegar por su esposa, también tendrá derecho al paseo, pero atado sobre un asno, montado al revés y con la cola de la bestia en las manos.[^f80] + +Mientras la separación de los géneros sea la regla, se mantendrán estas prácticas, que han asegurado eficazmente la supervivencia de esta comunidad específica. Han sido acuñados diversos términos para designar la adhesión normativa a un código que ha sido sancionado por la supervivencia. La antropología rural habla de la “ética de la subsistencia”. E. P. Thompson emplea el concepto de “economía moral”, respecto a las poblaciones que por lo general son más urbanas. Constituyen términos sólidos, pues nos permiten comparar el sentimiento de lo que se considera correcto bajo la égida del género, con una posible norma moderna, norma que corresponde a los postulados de la escasez. Estos dos términos afirman que el derecho de todo aldeano, de todo miembro del pueblo a la supervivencia pura y simple es la regla suprema del comportamiento _común_, y para nada el derecho aislado de un individuo. Expresan una actitud, una orientación que protege a los más débiles del naufragio. Enuncian el derecho a una decorosa existencia consuetudinaria, aunque tal derecho no se formule sino cuando hay que luchar para defenderlo. Pero la “ética de la subsistencia” o la “economía moral” son nociones modernas que hablan de pautas de comportamiento apropiado, que a lo largo de la historia se han dado dentro del género. Por lo tanto, yo mismo prefiero no retomar los términos de “moralidad” o de “ética” en su acepción neutra actual, y buscar otros términos para hablar del imperativo que otorga a los géneros sus normas. + +Para nuestros contemporáneos es difícil reconstituir el sentimiento de haber faltado al propio género, a la vez porque este sentimiento es tan vernáculo y por lo tanto tan “agramático” como el dominio del género mismo, y porque se ha disipado al mismo tiempo que el género. No se trata de sentir vergüenza o culpa, al menos en el sentido actual de estos vocablos. Yves Castan ha investigado lo que la gente de Languedoc llamaba la _honnêteté_ (la probidad) en el periodo de 1715 a 1780.[^f81] Estudió las minutas de los escribanos forenses relacionadas con delitos de alteración de la paz pública. Pudo explorar de esta manera uno de las raros inventarios del habla común de la gente sencilla desprovista de instrucción. Una parte de su trabajo muestra de qué forma la probidad obligaba a actuar conforme al género, hasta en las cosas más insignificantes. Por ejemplo, cuando llegaban visitas a casa, era _ella_ quien tenía que ir por los vasos, preparar la ensalada, servir el vino sin que pareciera que escuchaba la conversación y sin participar en ella. Era ésa la conducta que se esperaba de una mujer, pues en cuanto tal, ella para defender los intereses del hogar tenía medios mucho más eficaces que la discusión directa entre los hombres. Si ella se inmiscuyera en la conversación, cometería una falta en relación con su género, pues perdería el poder real que poseen las murmuraciones y los comadreos.[^f82] En cambio, le tocaba proteger el hogar contra el cobrador de impuestos, gritando que se encontraba sola en casa —en cuyo caso éste no podía traspasar el umbral—. También debía tomar partido por sus hijos en un altercado, aunque ellos fueran totalmente culpables. La probidad le exigía, cuando fuera necesario, atacar al enemigo con uñas y dientes. En cuanto al hombre, la probidad le exigía exactamente lo contrario. De él se esperaba, en el caso en que la mujer hubiera defendido al vástago, que lo castigara, a veces moliéndolo a palos brutalmente.[^f83] + +Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie ha explorado la relación entre el hogar y el género en la misma región del sur de Francia, pero en una época mucho más antigua. Analizó los registros que mantuvo el futuro papa Benedicto XII cuando, siendo un joven obispo e inquisidor, sometió a varias docenas de habitantes de una pequeña aldea de las montañas —Montaillou— de quienes se sospechaba que eran herejes cátaros, a hábiles y rigurosos interrogatorios. De manera extremadamente sutil, los obligó a revelar innumerables detalles sobre su vida cotidiana, registrando palabra tras palabra las respuestas de esos campesinos y pastores de los Pirineos septentrionales. Con base en estas respuestas, de una antigüedad de seis siglos y medio, Le Roy Ladurie realizó su trabajo. Yo no sé de otro documento que proporcione una visión a la vez de primera mano y tan exhaustiva de una comunidad, respecto a lo que la gente sentía sobre sus hogares y su territorio común, sobre lo que esperaban y toleraban unos de los otros. Cada una de las víctimas de esta inquisición vuelve a la vida como persona, no solamente cuando se comporta de una manera que el obispo aceptaría, sino sobre todo cuando obedece los imperativos de su género en formas que el inquisidor desea saber detalladamente. Y, página tras página, la _domus_, la “casa”, en el sentido más poderoso del término, significa el techo bajo el cual, y el territorio en el que dos géneros interactúan: la cocina, los bienes y la tierra, los hijos y la familia en un sentido extendido, incluyendo los esclavos y los huéspedes. + +Más que la gente, la _domus_ parece ser el sujeto de la historia —la unidad social básica—. La casa, a la vez construcción y familia, vincula a hombres y mujeres a sus posesiones, las cuales determinan sus relaciones genéricas recíprocas. Cuando se exploran los interrogatorios judiciales de estos aldeanos occitanos del siglo XIII, resulta evidente que aún no tienen la obsesión de la tierra y su tenencia, cosa que será típica del campesino europeo tras la Edad Media; para ellos, la _domus_ es lo que importa, más todavía que el cónyuge o el hijo. No es la familia, en el sentido restricto del término, la que subsiste en la autarquía, sino la _domus;_ es ésta la que se reproduce en su descendencia. Aquí, en Montaillou, las mujeres de la casa se encargan del fogón, de la cocina, de la hortaliza, de la pastura de los animales y de acarrear el agua. Los hombres cuidan los campos, los bosques y las ovejas, con la ayuda ocasional de una mujer de la _domus_ o de una sirvienta contratada para ello. La vida material es creada por el hogar, el principal sujeto activo, a través de sus hombres y mujeres.[^f84] + +En las tierras etruscas del centro de Italia, una misma palabra latina sirve para designar el sujeto central de la historia, la _domus_, y sus divinidades tutelares, los _lares_. Son dioses antiguos, cuyos órganos sexuales, ya sea el falo o la vulva, están señaladamente representados. Juntos protegen las márgenes de los campos. Se les venera tradicionalmente en las encrucijadas, aunque sus efigies se conservan sobre el fogón. Son objeto de un culto diurno, aunque surjan de las profundidades de la tierra, residencia de los muertos, para velar por el orden de la casa. Y la casa misma, el “hogar”, la fundación doméstica en torno al fogón, también se denomina _lar_. Este vocablo podría servir como un término técnico para designar aquella realidad de la cual la _domus_ es un ejemplo específico. + +## El cuerpo y el género + +El género modela los cuerpos como los cuerpos modelan el espacio, y a su vez son modelados por sus configuraciones. El cuerpo en acción, con sus movimientos y sus ritmos, sus gestos y sus cadencias, modela el hogar; éste es algo más que un refugio, una tienda de campaña o una casa. Vivir en algún lado significa hacer la propia casa allí, tanto trayendo hijos al mundo como plantando árboles y construyendo muros. En la cultura vernácula, habitar y vivir son coincidentes. Al manejar las herramientas que están ligadas al género de manera específica y patente, la vida vernácula teje un capullo genérico en un nicho biológico. Toda vida es morada, formación de una morada. Los vestigios de las moradas sobreviven del mismo modo que las osamentas. Los espacios inhabitados pronto se convierten en un desierto. + +Construirse un hogar significa invadir los territorios de otra vida, la vida salvaje, a fin de crear campos, pastizales, lugares para cultivar las formas domésticas de la vida —los cereales, los asnos y las bacterias sin las cuales la mantequilla no puede cuajar—. Entre los nichos ecológicos posibles, la vivienda constituye una clase aparte, pero su carácter particular ha quedado más oscurecido que iluminado por el reciente discurso ecológico. El movimiento ecológico ciertamente engendró un sentido común nuevo, pero también alentó sutilmente el sexismo al enriquecer un lenguaje neutro o, dicho de otro modo, sexista. Los términos de la ecología, de reciente ingreso en el vocabulario de las palabras clave, deben utilizarse con prudencia. + +El hogar no es un nido ni tampoco un garaje. El ecologista es capaz de llamar a estos tres “nichos” o “hábitats”. Para el filósofo se trata de sitios en tres tipos de espacios, cada cual creado en virtud de una especie diferente de acción. El nido (biológico), el garaje (técnico) y la habitación (histórica) engendran espacios heterogéneos. Por instinto, el animal “marca” su territorio. El nido es la modalidad espacial de la reproducción instintiva de la especie. El garaje es exactamente lo contrario, pues ha sido concebido para estacionar los vehículos, partiendo de la suposición de la escasez de espacio. El nido, por su parte, supone la porosidad del espacio y la vitalidad de la materia. + +El apartamento moderno procede del mismo tipo de espacio para el cual se diseñan los garajes. Se construye económicamente, es decir, mediante la agregación de módulos espacio-temporales sin género, y su función consiste en responder a las necesidades imputadas a sus habitantes. Y por lo general está vinculado a sistemas de transporte. Tanto el garaje como el apartamento han sido construidos racional y económicamente con el propósito de almacenar durante la noche un recurso productivo. Ambos ofrecen seguridad para, y contra, lo que allí se guarda: sus muros están asegurados contra los ocasionales daños que los niños y las defensas de los autos pueden causar, así como niños y autos están asegurados contra los accidentes. El apartamento es un almacén que sirve para confinar a las personas, a quienes se considera frágiles y peligrosas. Es imposible para los ocupantes “hacerse su hogar” allí; el espacio está estructurado y equipado para el trabajo fantasma, únicamente. Es un domicilio a donde llegan los cables y las vías urbanas, el cartero y el policía, a fin de comunicar a aquellos que todavía se encuentran sanos espiritual y físicamente, aquellos civiles que sobreviven “en libertad” gracias al valium, a la televisión y a sus fantasías sexuales. Es el lugar reservado para el comercio carnal entre humanos sin género, el único sitio donde los dos sexos aún pueden compartir el retrete.[^f85] + +En Montaillou, en Minot o en la aldea mexicana de hoy en día, el hogar no es un territorio delimitado por animales que se reproducen porque sus genes lo exigen, ni una vivienda especialmente destinada a compañeros sexuales, mezquinamente dispuesta en un espacio económico. Es una vivienda que está hecha _por_ la gente, no _para_ ella, es un espacio engendrado por los cuerpos de aquellos que la habitan, es el vestigio ambiental de la vida vernácula. No es un ámbito para el engendramiento ni una cómoda caja fuerte; es el reflejo de los hombres y las mujeres en su medio ambiente. Por tal razón, _estar en casa_ significa algo diferente para ambos géneros. + +## La procreación y el género + +Así como un tejido nace del entrelazamiento, en ángulo recto, de la urdimbre ininterrumpida y de la trama transversal, las acciones que engendran el hogar, las acciones que engendran el espacio vital, son necesariamente diferentes según los géneros. Los hombres y las mujeres se crean su hogar mediante cada uno de sus movimientos. Pero sólo la mujer crea la sucesión ininterrumpida de la vida. No importa que la cultura sea matriarcal o patriarcal, que sean las mujeres o los hombres quienes detenten el poder, vivir y habitar significan para las mujeres, y para ellas únicamente, parir cuerpos, dar la vida. En cierta cultura, los hombres construyen el refugio, levantan bardas o hacen terrazas de cultivo en las colinas; en otra, las mismas tareas las realizan las mujeres. Pero solamente las mujeres pueden dar vida a otros cuerpos. Importa poco la representación del creador que la mitología local impone —madre, padre o andrógino; poco importa el nombre que se le dará al hijo—, el de su madre, padre o tío. Este espacio particular, y el tiempo que le corresponde, que hacen del hogar algo más que un nido o garaje, _solamente_ es creado por las mujeres, porque sólo ellas procrean cuerpos. + +Son éstas ideas que pueden parecer poéticas, oscuras o románticas, hasta que recordamos que en el espacio del departamento moderno las mujeres se encuentran doblemente _desplazadas_, y que ellas lo dicen claramente. La invasión y la usurpación del espacio normativo frustran a las mujeres en su carne de una manera que los hombres no pueden experimentar. La arquitectura unisex es necesariamente sexista. Su concepción amenaza a las mujeres en dos sentidos, en su carne y en sus ritmos: se obstaculiza su potencial contribución a la creación del hogar y se les excluye del contexto específico de su género; sufren más que los hombres por ambas razones. Para ellas, crear “su hogar” no equivale más que a cambiar los muebles de lugar. Despojadas de su propio dominio, han sido privadas de la posibilidad de traer hijos al mundo en el seno de su género, en el seno de su contexto de mujeres en su hogar. + +Al ser transformadas en productoras económicas —remuneradas o no, en un empleo o en la casa—, a las mujeres se les priva, tanto como a los hombres, de las condiciones ambientales que les permitirían vivir en un lugar _habitándolo_, y al hacerlo, crear su hogar. En la medida que las mujeres y los hombres se vuelven más productivos económicamente, menos poseen un medio de vida. Pero esta pérdida de un hogar intragenérico, el cual ha sido remplazado por “módulos habitacionales”, priva a las mujeres de la amplitud indispensable para crear una existencia generadora de espacio. Cada cual en su soledad procrea individuos en un espacio económico neutro, en un mundo hecho de ladrillos espacio-temporales estandarizados. En este sentido, el espacio de un departamento y el de la sala de partos de un hospital son igualmente rígidos y carentes de género; el parto en el seno del género es allí imposible. Aquellas que han querido dar a luz en casa, en su apartamento, y que lo recuerdan gratamente, aunque con cierta desilusión, en comparación con la estancia en una maternidad, saben que la topología de su cuerpo no está hecha ni para parir camadas ni para la reproducción estandarizada; no está hecha para el nido ni para la línea de montaje; está hecha para crear, al parir, el espacio y el tiempo vernáculos. + +El espacio vernáculo no sólo da forma al paisaje y a la casa, no sólo está en contacto con el pasado y aún más allá, sino que también se extiende en el cuerpo mismo, y esto de manera diferente en hombres y mujeres. De ahí resulta que la arquitectura económica, que está desprovista de género y que forma un espacio-tiempo internacional rígidamente definido, _invierte_ a las mujeres, transformando al género femenino en el segundo sexo. La “perspectiva clínica”, como la ha llamado Michel Foucault, que se desarrolló durante el siglo XIX, vacía el cuerpo del género.[^f86] + +Hay estudios recientes que han analizado con cuidado las etapas de esta extirpación corporal del género, la cual se da a la par de una reconstitución anatómica de la mujer en cuanto ser humano singular, dotado de órganos sexuales aunque escasa capilaridad. Pero la innovación decisiva de esta “humanización” polarizada de la mujer es el nuevo sitio que se le ha asignado al alumbramiento, el cual es objeto de estudio y de reglamentación pública. Aproximadamente hasta 1780 los tratados médicos y la legislación civil consideran que éste pertenece al dominio de las mujeres. La cesación de las menstruaciones, la confirmación del embarazo, el mal parto, el aborto, el alumbramiento, la lactancia, como también el infanticidio y los cuidados del bebé, todo ello es asunto de las mujeres. No es que estas cosas sean privadas o secretas, pero están relacionadas con el género. No se llama al médico más que para los partos verdaderamente difíciles, a fin de que la mujer no se arriesgue, si hay un accidente, a ser acusada de haber matado a su bebé, aunque por lo general las autoridades no se conmueven por el deceso de un recién nacido. En la lengua como en el discurso médico y legal, traer al mundo hijos es claramente asunto de las mujeres. + +Es sólo en la última generación del _Ancien Régime_ cuando evoluciona la percepción de las mujeres como fuente de vida. Durante este periodo, la lengua jurídica traspasa el umbral de la vulva de la misma manera que antiguamente el inquisidor había traspasado el de la _domus_. Se empieza a ver en el feto al ciudadano futuro. La ley se emplea en regir la matriz a fin de proteger la vida que contiene. El principal agresor, la amenaza contra el ciudadano o el futuro soldado, en adelante será la madre, particularmente si es pobre o no tiene marido. Hacia 1785, la policía prusiana inicia el registro de las mujeres solteras cuya regla ha cesado. Las plantas abortivas clásicas se encuentran entre los primeros fármacos cuya venta se prohíbe, o que sucesivamente los farmacéuticos sólo entregarán bajo prescripción; en los jardines públicos, la policía arranca las plantas de ruda. + +El vientre materno es declarado territorio público. Las parteras sólo pueden ejercer su oficio tras seguir estudios formales y obtener un diploma. Tal transformación de la vecina experimentada en partera especializada, con licencia o ilegal, es uno de los acontecimientos clave del profesionalismo mutilador. Y la lengua refleja este cambio. El alumbramiento deja de ser un acontecimiento femenino que las mujeres viven entre sí. En el vocabulario de la policía médica la matriz se convierte en el órgano especializado que produce hijos. A las mujeres se les describe como matrices ambulantes. + +A mediados del siglo XIX, los ginecólogos comienzan a colonizar el nuevo territorio del vientre materno incluso antes de iniciarse los dolores del parto. Hacia fines de siglo, ante todo se preocupan por desinfectar el canal por donde saldrá el vástago, a fin de protegerlo contra las enfermedades que la madre podría comunicar durante el parto. En el siglo XVIII, mientras más pobre fuera una mujer, más se podía sospechar que intentaría abortar; en el siglo XIX se le considera particularmente propensa a infectar al hijo. De cualquier modo, su pobreza proporciona el pretexto para aislarla de la compañía de otras mujeres y hacerla parir en un establecimiento, cosa que al mismo tiempo la pone a disposición de los futuros médicos para que se entrenen en la práctica. Y a principios del siglo XX, más precozmente en Massachusetts que en Berlín o en Milán, el parto neutro de hospital —hasta entonces considerado como una precaución contra las vilezas o las enfermedades de las mujeres— empieza a ser presentado como un beneficio para la madre misma. La intrusión del cuidado médico fuera del género opera una metamorfosis en el vientre materno, haciendo de éste una especie de garaje prenatal. Yo veo en esta vigilancia profesional intensiva del embarazo el ritual solemnizador de la victoria final del espacio-tiempo imperial sobre el espacio-tiempo vernáculo.[^f87] + +En este ensayo quiero mostrar la oposición entre una existencia genérica y una economía sexista. Pero no intento dilucidar por qué un régimen sexista opera perseverantemente en contra de las mujeres. La razón principal de esta limitación que me impongo es que pienso que solamente una filosofía auténtica del género podría proporcionar una explicación satisfactoria —y tal filosofía aún no existe—. No obstante, si yo intentara explicar por qué la pérdida del género es más perjudicial para las mujeres, comenzaría por el análisis de los efectos distintos y diversos que el espacio-tiempo imperial y fuera de género produce en el cuerpo de los hombres y de las mujeres. + +## La influencia del género + +El género es vernáculo. Es tan resistente y adaptable, tan precario y vulnerable como el habla vernácula. Es obliterado, al igual que ésta, por la Instrucción, y su existencia rápidamente se olvida o incluso se niega. Son muchos quienes hoy en día no se acuerdan más del género que del habla vernácula, e incluso no serían capaces de imaginarlos. Para el bachiller, el habla vernácula de sus padres es un dialecto en comparación con la lengua materna que se le ha enseñado en la escuela. Para la joven egresada de la universidad que regresa con su diploma a la provincia mexicana, el género de su madre puede muy bien parecer como una servidumbre de la cual _ella misma_ ha escapado. + +El profundo contraste entre el habla vernácula y la lengua materna inculcada, con frecuencia es evidente para los padres e inasequible para los hijos. Ellos perciben que estos dos medios de expresión oral pertenecen a mundos irreconciliables. Pero la diferenciación entre el género y el sexo es todavía más difícil de captar. Efectivamente, ahí encontramos dos especies de dualidades cuyas complementariedades respectivas se sitúan en planos diferentes. Una y otra son, en verdad, construcciones sociales. Yo adjunto al género como al sexo los epítetos “masculino” o “femenino”, porque ambos son construcciones sociales que implican la referencia a una distinción biológica; pero género y sexo no son dualidades del mismo orden. El género es sustantivo; el sexo, adjetivo. + +El género es una realidad primordial. Es también una entidad social que exige un complemento; jamás está completo en sí mismo. Los géneros no se comprenden sino juntos, como el yin y el yang. Como en el símbolo yin/yang, solamente desde fuera se puede ver que lo negro y lo blanco forman un todo. No sucede lo mismo con el sexo en el neutro económico. Aquí el sexo es un atributo secundario, la propiedad de un individuo, una característica del ser humano. El rol de los sexos es algo que se adjunta a la existencia de lo humano. Ciertamente, el individuo no alcanza a percibir su sexo como un rol más, como una vestimenta entre otras, una prenda de trabajo o de gala. Este rol no se puede cambiar a voluntad: las mujeres, hundidas en el suyo, bien lo saben. Pero se quiera o no, tener un rol sexual —ya sea aceptado o padecido— es otra cosa enteramente que pertenecer a un género. Decir que se es hombre o mujer es totalmente diferente de decir que se es del sexo masculino o femenino. A diferencia del género, que significa que se es un círculo o bien un cuadrado, el sexo es un rol básico sobre el cual se pueden edificar otros roles. En el ámbito vernáculo se nace o se crece en el seno del género; pero el rol del sexo se adquiere. Podemos reprocharle a nuestros padres o a la sociedad el habernos “asignado” un rol sexual, pero no podemos culpar a nadie por el hecho de que poseamos un habla vernácula o un género vernáculo. + +## El género y el universo conceptual + +Por doquier muchachos y muchachas asumen precozmente sus respectivos géneros. Al llegar el destete, ya poseen maneras típicamente diferentes. En el Mashrik, corazón del Islam entre Egipto y Persia, donde no se desteta a los infantes antes de la edad de dos años —y los niños después que las niñas—, existen docenas de dichos relacionados con las formas distintas de mimar a un género o al otro. En ciertas lenguas, donde los hombres y las mujeres emplean un término diferente para designar al mismo tío, esa palabra propia de su género es frecuentemente una de las primeras que aprenden y pronuncian. Y los deberes propios de cada género son inculcados desde la más tierna edad. Entre los bembas, a los nueve años una niña sabe reconocer 40 variedades de hongos, mientras que un niño distingue los cantos de las aves.[^f88] Vemos aquí que la división cognitiva más fundamental en la evolución de los conceptos es la del género. Sin embargo, desde hace tres generaciones la epistemología psicológica se desentiende del tema. La identificación y la oposición del género forman parte del desarrollo empírico inicial, que todavía no es verbal. Piaget ha creado para estas primeras distinciones el calificativo “infralógicas”, a fin de significar que no sólo son prelógicas. Pero al parecer la más profunda, la del género, lo evade. + +El recién nacido no puede llegar a formar un concepto más que captando físicamente lo que está “ahí”. No es capaz de discernir sino extendiendo los brazos, tocando, asiendo, abrazando. No se trata de movimientos “espontáneos”, de simples reflejos biológicos en los que no interviene la cultura. Los ojos de la madre, que miran de modo diferente al niño y a la niña, imprimen desde entonces un ritmo diferente en los ojos del bebé. Así, el bebé adquiere su primer contacto, su aprehensión inicial del mundo, mediante su cuerpo y bajo el dictado del género, de conformidad con su sexo biológico. Allí donde el género impera, crecer no significa jamás convertirse en un “humano”, solamente un neutro lógico, en un _niño_ de género no especificado. + +Cuando desde la cuna hombres y mujeres captan el mundo según dos maneras complementarias, desarrollan dos modelos distintos de conceptualización del universo. Un estilo de percepción ligado con un género que corresponde a un dominio de herramientas y de tareas propias de este género. Los dos géneros no sólo ven las mismas realidades con una perspectiva y con matices diferentes, sino que aprenden precozmente que toda cosa tiene su envés. + +Los vocablos clave fuera de género del discurso contemporáneo nos obligan a describir la bilateralidad ambigua de la realidad vernácula como una guerra de sexos inaugurada por Adán y Eva. Hoy en día la reacción ante la alteridad ya no es el miedo sino la comparación envidiosa. Los rituales que orquestan la danza de la vida, marcando los cuerpos, entremezclando los géneros y luego separándolos, nos los presentan como una educación sexual primitiva. La extraña aberración que nos impulsa a imaginar a “la madre” que habla de Yocasta acarrea un mito _monstruoso_, una visión tan anormal como la de atribuir a un muchacho las pasiones de Edipo. El sexo y el género no pueden cohabitar en el mismo universo conceptual. La intención de conjugarlos necesariamente conduce al sexismo científico de la antropología. + +En este ámbito, casi siempre la perspectiva corresponde al observador _masculino_, y por lo tanto es más que extensamente sexista —cosa que hoy se sabe muy bien—. La aplastante mayoría de los etnógrafos son hombres. Las raras mujeres que trabajan en esta disciplina son discípulas o rivales de sus colegas masculinos. Para un investigador es tentador interrogar de preferencia a los _hombres_, quienes, por lo demás, con mayor frecuencia que las mujeres, saben una lengua vehicular —el hausa que se habla en el mercado, el árabe de la escuela coránica, el francés si han servido en el ejército—, lo cual reduce las dificultades de la comunicación verbal. Además, resulta decepcionante interrogar a las mujeres, porque, como observa Edwin Ardener: “Las jóvenes ríen, las viejas gruñen, encuentran las preguntas ridículas, rehúsan hablar con un extraño”. Por añadidura, los hombres impiden llegar a ellas, con el pretexto de que las mujeres son peligrosas, están impuras, o hay que protegerlas. En consecuencia, es a los hombres a quienes los etnógrafos hacen las preguntas que confirman sus propios modelos, y sus interlocutores, aunque modifican o adornan tales axiomas, o equivocan su sentido o acomodan sus respuestas para que cuadren con el tema. Puesto que las preguntas se hacen en un idioma que no toma en cuenta el género, evidentemente resulta que el género no aparece en las respuestas. + +Desde hace poco tiempo, las investigadoras han proporcionado una descripción “complementaria”, un espejo feminosexista, en el cual ellas leen una suerte de imagen invertida de la visión masculina a que ha sido reducida la realidad genérica por la “ciencia”. Su investigación se halla centrada sobre todo en el contraste entre la óptica femenina y la óptica masculina, en la manera en que las mujeres manejan el símbolo y el poder. Pero como estos nuevos estudios abordan principalmente la dominación y la sujeción en las sociedades no europeas, también están ubicados en una perspectiva sin género. En último análisis, la dominación y la sujeción no son más que asuntos de poder, ya sea que resida aquí o allá; implican la competencia por valores o posiciones que desconocen el género. Desde el momento que se postula la escasez de estos valores, y su igual conveniencia para hombres y mujeres, la lucha por tales valores es inevitablemente estudiada desde una perspectiva “sexista”, aun cuando sea bajo la forma inversa del “feminosexismo”. + +Edwin Ardener es uno de los raros antropólogos que han tratado de separar el estudio de la dominación masculina del análisis de universos conceptuales asimétricos donde la complementariedad es ambigua —sin negar por eso la importancia de tal asimetría—.[^f89] En su investigación de las mujeres bakweri, da constancia que son ellas las que definen las fronteras de su mundo, de modo y manera que viven como mujeres —aunque solamente hasta cierto punto— dentro de aquello que para los hombres es lo “salvaje” y para los antropólogos un laberinto aparentemente impenetrable. “Para ellas, la sociedad no esta forzosamente separada de la naturaleza; ellas no proporcionan necesariamente un modelo unitario de la sociedad, que las contenga a la vez a ellas mismas y a los hombres. Pueden concebir perfectamente un modelo en el que las mujeres y la naturaleza son exteriores respecto a los hombres y a la sociedad.” + +Por desgracia, Ardener emplea términos tales como “sociedad”, “salvaje”, “naturaleza” sin insistir en el hecho de que para él son metáforas.[^f90] Sus críticos por lo tanto se han esforzado en mostrar que estos términos están impregnados de ideología, con base en la forma en que fueron usados por los pensadores de la Ilustración. No son capaces de captar el argumento de Ardener —a saber, que no poseemos términos aptos par expresar, en prosa, la simetría de las percepciones en el seno del género—. + +En última instancia, el prejuicio sexista de tantos antropólogos resulta de algo mucho más fundamental que la intervención de informadores masculinos, el enfoque elegido por las investigadoras o los malentendidos. Los prejuicios contra el género están inscritos en la antropología porque ésta pretende ser una ciencia. Su lógica científica hace de ella una herramienta analítica para estudiar a los hombres y a las mujeres en calidad de _anthropoi_, para reducir el género al sexo y para hacer de una complementariedad que solamente son capaces de describir los poetas de una cultura, un sistema de dos contrarios homogéneos. Cosa que plantea una cuestión más fundamental: si la antropología no es capaz de captar el género como sujeto, ¿cómo puede explorar el dominio vernáculo?[^f91] + +## El género y el habla + +La manera distinta mediante la cual cada género aprehende la realidad encuentra su expresión en el lenguaje. El niño y la niña a los cinco años no emiten los mismos sonidos, aunque sus órganos vocales son similares anatómicamente. Al pasar del balbuceo al habla, adoptan la forma y el estilo conveniente para su género, y esto incluso durante sus juegos.[^f93] + +Al igual que lo que pasa con el “trabajo de las mujeres”, el “lenguaje de las mujeres” también ha atraído el interés académico en tres olas sucesivas.[^f94] La curiosidad al respecto nace a fines del siglo XIX, época en que cualquier posible prueba de la alteridad constitucional de las mujeres resultaba para muchos atrayente. Por entonces el lenguaje femenino era uno de aquellos descubrimientos que habían surgido de la iniciativa clínica que había definido a _priori_ una realidad y una existencia humanas totalmente nuevas, desde el punto de vista anatómico, psicológico y de comportamiento. Esta definición ubicaba a las mujeres, en cuanto segundo sexo, en una sociedad de neutros, una sociedad estandarizada de acuerdo con una norma común. Todo aquello que pudiera probar que las mujeres se apartaban de esa norma era agua para el molino de los profesionales que con ello obtenían ganancias: ginecólogos, clérigos, profesores de economía doméstica y trabajadores sociales que se obligaban a definir “necesidades” para las que sólo ellos podían formular un diagnóstico y prescribir una terapia normativa. + +Pero el interés del siglo XIX en el habla femenina fue efímero.[^f95] A pesar de que cada vez más lingüistas competentes han explorado toda suerte de variantes de la lengua —según la edad, el estatus, el grado de instrucción o el coeficiente intelectual—, las distinciones lingüísticas entre el habla de las mujeres y el habla de los hombres han sido relativamente despreciadas. Los estudios de la segunda ola de interés que registraron correctamente las singularidades del comportamiento lingüístico de las mujeres tendían por lo general a describirlo como un “dialecto” particular de las mujeres, algo subalterno en comparación con una entidad superior que sería la lengua “real”. Durante los años setenta, las mujeres mismas exploraron este ámbito. Pudieron hallar en cada dimensión y área del habla moderna incontables pruebas de la dominación masculina.[^f96] + +Sin importar el idioma —francés, alemán o inglés—, las estadísticas muestran que los hombres hablan más alto y con mayor frecuencia que las mujeres, son más propensos a interrumpir, a imponer el tema de la conversación y a callar a los demás hablando más fuerte. En cuanto a las mujeres, éstas tienden a sonreír con complacencia, a abstenerse de hablar, a tartamudear, si bien para disimular su inseguridad también son capaces de imitar y superar a los hombres. En ese caso adoptan su vocabulario y sintaxis, sus estrategias y argumentos. Pero mientras más unisex son las palabras y los temas, resulta más patente que tanto las expresiones estridentes como el mutismo soñador colocan a las mujeres en el segundo sexo lingüístico. La educación mixta y la fábrica, la mesa de conferencias y el cóctel han hecho sexista el habla, así como el mercado laboral lo ha hecho con el trabajo.[^f97] + +Todavía hoy en día, en muchos sitios del mundo, los hombres y las mujeres no solamente hablan de cosas diferentes, sino que el lenguaje mismo se los impone. Por ejemplo, fuera de la oficina, la fábrica o la arena política, las mujeres japonesas rara vez tocan —mucho menos que las euro peas— los temas que interesan a los hombres. Sin embargo, cuando lo hacen, sus expresiones difieren de las de los hombres. Y la diferencia es tanta que sería inútil buscar frases equivalentes en el habla masculina y femenina. Cinco minutos de conversación tocante a un jardín o a una fiesta se reducen, en un intercambio verbal entre hombres, a tres vocablos que como respuesta tienen un gruñido inarticulado.[^f98] + +El estudio regional del lenguaje específico de un género aporta una visión parcial del ámbito multidimensional del género. Una encuesta que recientemente se llevo a cabo en una aldea española mostró que los hombres hablan sobre el trabajo en el campo, sobre el ganado, el comercio y el oficio, mientras que las conversaciones de las mujeres giran en torno a observaciones sobre las personas y sus motivos, sobre la existencia y las necesidades del hogar. Pero los temas mismos, como las herramientas que se utilizan, no son suficientes para revelar de qué manera se percibe el mundo. Las diferencias fonológicas, la entonación, la sintaxis, el vocabulario, las referencias nominales y pronominales, distinguen al habla masculina del habla femenina.[^f99] No es posible conjeturar lo que estas diferencias podrían revelar acerca de la complementariedad simbólica, si se las admitiera más como constituyentes del lenguaje que como rasgos marginales. En una lengua vernácula de Madagascar, se considera prestigioso el lenguaje de los hombres precisamente porque es indirecto y esquiva la confrontación.[^f100] El orador hábil ha de recurrir a un estilo alusivo convenido. Aquello que a un blanco neoyorquino le podría parecer vacilante y vago, para el hombre de raza merina queda muy claro. En esta sociedad, el comercio es asunto de las mujeres. Ellas discuten agresivamente los precios, gritan tras los niños, ponen a todos en su sitio, divulgan a voz en cuello las conductas reprobables. Las mujeres se hacen respetar porque son capaces de expresar sin reservas lo que sienten. El lenguaje femenino y el lenguaje masculino revelan la complejidad de la dominación relativa del género, incluso mejor que la utilización de las herramientas.[^f101] + +Son de lo más frágil y vulnerables los rasgos masculinos y femeninos del lenguaje, aun cuando éste se encuentre en pleno vigor. En el pasado, se los ha visto desaparecer, particularmente cuando un habla se convierte en el instrumento de un imperio, en una lengua del comercio o de la administración. Son estos rasgos masculinos y femeninos los que primero peligran cuando una lengua se estandariza; lo que de ellos queda se reduce a un simple género gramatical vaciado de sus antiguas dualidades, y cuya utilidad primordial consiste en permitir la expresión discriminatoria. Cuando el habla vernácula desaparece por absorción en una lengua materna inculcada, su dualidad lingüística se reduce solamente a diferentes esquemas, entonaciones y temas de conversación, y a la dominación masculina del género gramatical. Esto se puede comprobar dondequiera que el proceso haya sido estudiado, dondequiera que el género vernáculo haya sido abolido por la relación monetaria, y el habla vernácula por la alfabetización, la escolarización y la televisión. En el suroeste de Luisiana, la lengua indígena _koasati_ que se hablaba en el pasado poseía sutiles y claras diferencias en el habla masculina y en el habla femenina.[^f102] Pero tras la segunda Guerra Mundial, sólo los ancianos recordaban aquellas distinciones, aquella facilidad, lentitud y dulzura propia del habla femenina. Hoy en día éstas emplean las formas masculinas. Las femeninas solamente sobreviven en calidad de curiosidades, cuando se recuerdan las expresiones de las mujeres del pasado. Así, la transición al predominio masculino —al igual que en el nuevo “medio de comunicación” unisex que tan perfectamente se adapta al estilo de vida industrial— se observa en el lenguaje, sin importar el número de “géneros” gramaticales que éste pueda poseer. + + +# El género a través del tiempo + +COMO el lenguaje, la cultura evoluciona. ¿No implica ésta por sí misma una evolución _sui generis_? Si el término “cultura” tiene un significado que todos los antropólogos admiten, es éste: forma de comportamiento que no está inscrita en el programa genético, que no está totalmente sometida al instinto. La cultura traduce un nivel de la vida que no puede explicarse en términos biológicos. El bagaje genético y la herencia cultural evolucionan según leyes opuestas. La selección natural opera a base de una variación no orientada que conduce a una divergencia genética; la evolución cultural transmite a la sucesiva generación rasgos modelados por la generación actual. La evolución biológica extiende nuevas ramas que no pueden fecundarse entre sí, que una vez que se solidifican jamás podrán reunirse. La evolución cultural responde a la forma opuesta, la anastomosis:[^f103] como los de un río, sus brazos se dividen, se extienden serpenteando y vuelven a unirse. La evolución biológica queda grabada; la cultura implica el recuerdo de las cosas pasadas que no sobreviven más que en el mito y en la historia. + +En el Museo Nacional de México se puede ver una bella ilustración de este sistema fluvial: la presentación de una serie de _malacates_[^t01]. Éstos son pequeños discos de cerámica con una perforación en el centro donde se inserta el huso para hilar, y que sirven de contrapeso. Cada año los arados mexicanos exhuman miles de ellos, de todas las épocas, incluso de las más lejanas. Un arqueólogo del museo los ha dispuesto como un sistema reticular de afluentes: comenzando por las formas muy antiguas, arcaicas y diversas, los malacates se adaptan, intercambian ciertos rasgos, se vuelven más elaborados, práctica y artísticamente. Se puede ver que en tal región, el malacate permanece sin cambiar durante siglos y luego, bruscamente, se hace mestizo, incorporando un detalle característico de un valle distante. Me encanta contemplar esta red y preguntarme si fue hombre o mujer quien introdujo aquel nuevo detalle.[^f104] + +En algunos casos, la modificación pudo haber sido el fruto del azar: el malacate se mella accidentalmente, y alguien se da cuenta de que la muesca lo hace más práctico. Pero es más probable que esta mejora haya venido de afuera: que un forastero al pasar por allí haya dejado su malacate, o que un esclavo capturado trajera consigo un modelo diferente. Ese malacate con la extraña muesca fue examinado, probado y adoptado. Pero el peso del huso cambia. La mano que lo hacía girar aprende un nuevo movimiento y la otra mano responde con una nueva torsión del hilo. Un nuevo movimiento de una mano produce nueva respuesta de la otra mano. Puesto que en las culturas los utensilios corresponden forzosamente a un género únicamente, aquello que se denomina “cambio cultural” jamás sobreviene, inicialmente, sino en el dominio de _un_ género; seguidamente tiene lugar una reacción correspondiente en el otro género. En la evolución cultural, como en una danza, siempre hay uno que manda y otro que sigue, a veces con un gesto, a veces con un paso. + +Hace miles de años, en la vertiente meridional de la Sierra Madre se comenzó a cultivar una nueva forma de maíz cuyos primeros granos debieron haber llegado de muy lejos. Este nuevo maíz era azul, y mucho más productivo que la antigua variedad. Tenía que ser plantado a mayor profundidad, así que la coa cambio de manos, pasando de las de la mujer a las del hombre. Pero el nuevo maíz, que un nuevo dios protegía, requería un nuevo metate también, uno mayor, para que las mujeres pudieran molerlo. Si la antropología cultural se ubicara a sí misma en la perspectiva del género, sólo con base en los datos ya recopilados sería capaz de decirnos mucho sobre la evolución técnica y cultural. + +## El género y la transgresión + +En periodos largos, la línea divisoria de los géneros puede cambiar de ruta. Y también, en ciertas condiciones, puede —incluso debe— ser transgredida. Es esto lo que distingue a las usurpaciones que un género inflige en el otro, de las desviaciones de los animales relacionadas con su comportamiento sexual. Pero he de decir que hay algo más importante que la diferencia entre el sexo animal y el género social: es la diferencia entre las usurpaciones mutuas de los géneros y la desaparición de su línea divisoria. Esta desaparición del género, la característica antropológica _por excelencia_ de las culturas industriales, tiene que ser cuidadosamente diferenciada de la transgresión del género. + +La violación de la frontera entre los géneros aparece claramente cuando en el curso del tiempo una herramienta cambia de manos. Pero solamente podemos especular sobre los numerosos factores que han podido intervenir para modificar el entorno del género. Es probable que el cambio con frecuencia sea el resultado de un descubrimiento tecnológico: un utensilio o un elemento que, hasta ese momento, era extranjero pero no tabú, accede al dominio de un género. Así sucedió con el burro, que los antiguos mexicanos desconocían, y que fue introducido por los españoles. No podía ser exclusivo de los hombres, ni de las mujeres, y no era tabú —nada prohibía que ambos géneros lo tocaran—. Pero pronto, en las montañas de guerrero, entre los indios este animal pasó a manos de los hombres exclusivamente y así fue descubierto culturalmente. El descubrimiento cultural, o como frecuentemente se le llama, la evolución tecnológica, siempre ha sido un proceso de domesticación vinculado con un género. Inevitablemente, el empleo del asno hizo más que enriquecer el equipo del hombre: amplió la provincia territorial de un género, introduciendo una asimetría nueva entre el dominio de los hombres y el de las mujeres, y con toda seguridad aligeró el trabajo de éstas, al tiempo que redujo su estatus público. + +Para los antiguos mexicanos, el burro fue algo totalmente sorprendente, pero no tabú. Yo prefiero reservar este término “tabú” para una prohibición que afecta a _ambos géneros_, aunque de manera muy diferente, prohibición que mediante su “¡No!” absoluto, mantiene a los géneros en el seno de su _gens_. Por haber comido el fruto del único árbol prohibido, Adán y Eva son expulsados del jardín del Edén junto con toda su descendencia. La violación de un tabú acarrea terribles consecuencias para toda la comunidad; exige un sacrificio extraordinario, un redentor. Pero traspasar la línea de separación de los géneros no es tabú, es algo que denominaré _pané_. El género les dicta a los hombres guayaki: “No tocarás ninguna canasta; _ésa_ pertenece al dominio de la mujer”. Lo que para el género femenino es adecuado, para él es _pané_. + +Tanto el _tabú_ como el _pané_ son prohibiciones, pero las cosas que respectivamente prohíben se encuentran en espacios diferentes. El tabú es una amenaza desde fuera contra el dúo genérico, donde hombres y mujeres de la _gens_ dicen “nosotros”. _Pané_ implica la otra cara de la luna, la otra mitad del mundo, aquella parte de la realidad que sólo conozco a través de su reflejo en la apariencia, la palabra, la acción del género opuesto. + +Desde siempre y por doquier, la barrera entre los géneros se ha traspasado, aunque no haya cambiado ni de tamaño ni de lugar. Los motivos más comunes son los desastres, las calamidades. En la Edad Media, el pesado arado del que tiraba un caballo herrado y guarnecido era casi un símbolo del género masculino. Las mujeres jamás se hubieran atrevido a acercarse a la herramienta o al animal. Pero a finales del siglo XIV, en un periodo de 15 años diversas miniaturas provenientes del norte de Francia muestran a mujeres tras el arado. Sucedía que la peste había diezmado a la población, mientras que la guerra segaba a los hombres que habían sobrevivido. Por lo tanto, las mujeres tenían que labrar la tierra en espera de que sus hijos varones llegaran a la edad de relevarlas.[^f105] + +Las calamidades públicas y también las desgracias personales pueden conducir a un campesino a despreciar las conveniencias y hacer el trabajo de una mujer. Hasta hace poco tiempo, en el norte de Suecia los hombres no podían entrar en los establos. En ese lugar cálido, las muchachas vivían y dormían junto al ganado y, durante el largo invierno, ellas y las amigas que las venían a visitar tenían la seguridad de que estarían a salvo entre mujeres. Pero el viudo que no tenía hija ordeñaba él mismo su vaca al abrigo de los muros del establo, cosa que jamás habría hecho afuera, a la vista de todo el mundo. Si amenaza con caer una tormenta mientras las mujeres cosechan el heno en un prado alpino, el granjero y sus hijos acuden a ayudarlas —pero jamás le pedirían a un obrero agrícola realizar esa tarea—. Aparentemente, tener rango superior en una comunidad implica mayor libertad para traspasar las conveniencias. Pero estas excepciones no hacen más que confirmar la regla general; fueron dignas de atención y mención porque se las consideró notables, y hoy constituyen una fuente para el estudio del género. + +Paradójicamente, el travestismo también confirma la separación de los géneros, y por eso mismo sirve para informar al historiador. Las violaciones espontáneas de esta frontera rara vez son obra de grupos, y siempre se ven con terror. En Alemania, durante las guerras campesinas, nada aterrorizaba tanto a los nobles como la furia de las mujeres que habían tomado las armas. En ciertos casos, hombres disfrazados de mujeres pusieron al enemigo en fuga antes de que empezara el combate.[^f106] + +Pero el travestismo también puede ritualizarse, convertirse en un acontecimiento público periódico. Durante las fiestas del carnaval, desde Sicilia a Escandinavia, era obligado que las mujeres hicieran de hombres, los hombres hicieran de mujeres, y los hombres también de mujeres que hicieran de hombres. Hay quienes han sugerido que las mascaradas a veces eran empleadas para suscitar agitaciones políticas. Especialmente en el siglo XVIII, tales inversiones tradicionales de los géneros dieron ocasión para burlarse del “progreso de la civilización” que a la población le disgustaba, para oponer resistencia al maestro escolar o al clérigo. La sátira y la comedia utilizaron con gran libertad estas violaciones de la frontera entre los géneros. Estudios recientes que se han consagrado a la cultura de las diversiones, fiestas, mascaradas y tumultos ponen al descubierto precisamente la utilización política del travestismo a fin de proteger la economía moral, la existencia intragenérica de las muchedumbres.[^f107] Estas inversiones también servían para satirizar y por lo tanto para refrenar la dominación relativa de un género. Ridiculizaban a los hombres al poner a las mujeres ocasionalmente en la cima, de manera pública y divertida. Al contrario, en un pueblo mexicano actual donde sigue vigente el temor a los brujos, la danza de hombres disfrazados de viejas que persiguen a jovencitos disfrazados de coyotes da inicio a la celebración anual de una jornada de diversiones que alivia la angustia latente.[^f108] + +Pero el travestismo posee una función todavía más profunda. En casi todas las culturas, ciertos sacerdotes deben vestirse de mujeres, ciertos actos mágicos se relacionan con ritos sodomitas, la persona condenada lleva vestidos del sexo opuesto, el héroe cultural debe desafiar la división de los géneros. Se trata de otras tantas maneras de subrayar esta separación: su perspectiva pública inversa la hace todavía más evidente. De manera mágica, el travestismo sorprende a los demonios guardianes, manteniéndolos a distancia al mismo tiempo que los satisface. Refleja la inserción del género en lo más profundo de la experiencia mística. + +## La exaltación de lo heterosexual + +La sexología moderna nubla la óptica del historiador respecto al travestismo tradicional. Sus categorías interesan al sexo, y no al género.[^f109] Esto se ve bien en el vocabulario que se usa para describir a los homosexuales. Solo un número limitado de sociedades posee términos para clasificar a sus miembros según el género que les atrae _eróticamente_. En este sentido, el tipo de clasificación vigente en las sociedades europeas modernas es único. El hecho de que el amor entre hombres o entre mujeres haya sido más o menos frecuente en ciertos lugares y ciertas épocas no autoriza al historiador a concluir que todas las sociedades han considerado al “homosexual” un ser singular. Antes del renacimiento europeo, una persona no se definía a sí misma ni como homosexual ni como autor —podía preferir más a los muchachos que a las chicas, o podía ser hábil para escribir versos—. Podía entregarse a la pederastia de la misma manera que a la ira asesina. Sus contemporáneos le llamaban pederasta o asesino, pero estos términos no poseían el contenido _diagnóstico_ que los términos modernos revisten. El que un hombre amara a los hombres no lo volvía intrínsecamente “otro”. Se reconocían las prácticas homosexuales y cada cultura tenía su manera de considerarlas —diversión juvenil, inversión ritual, vicio risible o merecedor de atroz castigo—. Pero en el reino del género el homosexual no podía concebirse como una entidad singular. El desviado europeo moderno es tan singular como la pareja conyugal heterosexual. + +Dos importantes estudios recientes han examinado la historia de la homosexualidad como una propensión que se percibe socialmente distinta del comportamiento sexual mismo. D. S. Baily ha mostrado que la tradición cristiana preescolástica no veía en la homosexualidad una desviación sexual “característica” de ciertas personas. Legisladores, teólogos o moralistas condenaban las prácticas amorosas entre gente del mismo sexo y, siguiendo al apóstol san Pablo, abominaban de los grupos que hacían ostentación de tales prácticas. Con base en el estudio crítico de gran cantidad de documentos, John Boswell nos permite seguir las etapas que condujeron a ver a los homosexuales como un grupo dotado de una naturaleza desviada.[^f110] Es obvio que no podía haber allí tal “desviación” si al mismo tiempo no hubiera surgido la norma heterosexual —base de la consagración de la producción conyugal—. Pero todavía no se ha escrito la historia paralela del “heterosexual”. Por lo tanto, hay que utilizar al “homosexual” como un espejo donde se puede ver la conquista del Occidente por el régimen heterosexual. + +Aquí no puedo hacer más que evocar la relación compleja entre la Iglesia y la transformación del género en sexo. Tomemos el primer ejemplo de la historia de Montaillou, donde el inquisidor interroga al subdiácono Arnaud, a quien se acusa de sodomía. Sus respectivos criterios divergen radicalmente. Arnaud considera sus actos desde la perspectiva del género, mientras que el inquisidor los enfoca con la óptica naciente del sexo _contra natura_.[^f111] Lo que desconcierta totalmente al religioso es que el superior quiera tratarlo como hereje porque es sodomita. Expresa con toda buena fe: “Yo creía … con la sencillez de mi corazón, que la sodomía y la simple fornicación ciertamente eran pecados mortales, pero mucho menos graves que el desfloramiento de vírgenes, que el adulterio y el incesto”. El tal Arnaud era de familia noble y urbana. Poseía cierto refinamiento y una cultura asaz “lite raria”. En esa época en que era extremadamente raro poseer un libro, podía prestar libros a sus amigos. Entre sus tomos, no había únicamente biblias y calendarios, sino también clásicos; poseía un Ovidio, autor que transmite explícitamente lo que la Antigüedad sabía sobre la teoría y la práctica del arte de amar. Y aunque no había sido jamás ordenado sacerdote, Arnaud realizaba sus funciones clericales con evidente devoción. La perplejidad que sus respuestas muestran refleja todavía el punto de vista intragenérico. No alcanza a entender que el inquisidor (el futuro papa Benedicto XII) pueda interpretar su sodomía como una desviación. Para él aquélla significaba una manera entre otras de aplacar la concupiscencia. + +La historia del vocablo “ _bougre”_ con que por entonces se designaba en Francia al sodomita puede ilustrar este conflicto. Originalmente había sido un término eclesiástico. Designaba a los búlgaros que se habían convertido al cristianismo en el siglo IX, entrando en la comunidad católica de Constantinopla, entonces separada del papado. Posteriormente, la designación pasó de estos cristianos “separados” a los bogumiles, secta gnóstica que se extendió desde Tracia a Bulgaria y de allí hasta los Balcanes, dejando sus huellas en forma de grandes y sobrias tumbas de piedra. Si se había acuñado para designar a cristianos, incluso cismáticos, ahora la palabra se refería a un grupo extranjero y no cristiano. Tres siglos después se desplazaba nuevamente y servía para calificar a esos primos de los bogumiles que eran los “albigenses” o los “cátaros”. Estos languedocianos, nacidos en el corazón de la cristiandad, habitaban la vertiente septentrional de los Pirineos, el baluarte de Europa contra el Islam. Hogar tras hogar fueron seducidos por el espíritu del gnosticismo; las creencias, los ritos y las costumbres de los cátaros eran calificados indiferentemente de “herejías” o _bougreries_. + +Precisamente por entonces la Iglesia tenía amplios motivos para temer la expansión de un adversario espiritual. A unos cuantos siglos se remontaban la doctrina, el clero, la organización y el método necesarios para cuidar _pastoralmente_ de los hogares constituidos por almas individuales. Las iglesias habían pasado de ser lugares de culto público y de enseñanza religiosa, a agencias para cuidar personalmente de las almas —transformación que se había iniciado con Carlomagno—. Tal solicitud pastoral implicaba, ante todo, el fomento y la regulación de los hogares _conyugales_. [^f112] Se olvida que sólo fue en la alta Edad Media cuando el matrimonio lentamente se convirtió en un sacramento —es decir, un asunto sujeto a la autoridad de la Iglesia—. De ahí resultaron innumerables conflictos entre los antiguos modelos vernáculos del género y los nuevos modelos católicos. La solicitud pastoral de la Iglesia debilitó el dominio del género local que había sobrevivido autolimitándose, y suscitó simultáneamente una átmósfera de resistencia a la administración eclesiástica de un _género_ católico. Era propicio el momento para la propagación de una “herejía” que pudiera ofrecer a los aldeanos una fe “católica” donde no intervenía una autoridad y una vigilancia superiores que imponían un género de su cosecha. + +La cruzada en el siglo XIV contra los herejes de Languedoc se dirigió a la red de caseríos de la región de Albi que habían abrazado creencias heterodoxas que eran atrayentes porque estaban regidas _localmente_. Estos hogares cátaros eran considerados cánceres que proliferaban en el cuerpo de la Iglesia. La inquisición acudía al terreno para interrogar a la gente una por una, investigando si el veneno se había difundido por el conducto de una _domus_ emparentada. Hasta entonces, los miembros de los hogares habían sido quienes iban a la iglesia; ahora, mediante un movimiento inverso, ésta traspasaba el umbral de las casas. El inquisidor diagnostica la desviación y se encarga de su tratamiento. Sabueso religioso, el teólogo husmea al _bougre_, todo aquel que huele a herejía. En tal contexto, el término _bougre_ se emplea de manera doblemente novedosa: imputa un comportamiento criminal a una natualeza pervertida, y ya no solamente el gozo que experimenta una naturaleza pecaminosa que transgrede la ley divina. + +Para salvaguardar el sentimiento religioso, la Iglesia remplazó la normalización católica del comportamiento cotidiano; a su misión de hombres consagrados al servicio litúrgico, los clérigos sustituyeron la de pastores y confesores de fieles constituidos por los dos _sexos_ —a partir de entonces, la _bougrerie_ sexual se convertía en herejía teológica—. Para el pastor, ahora representado por la imagen de un gallo célibe sobre el campanario, velando sobre un rebaño compuesto por dos sexos, el _bougre_ se había convertido en el enemigo irredimible, aquel que se debía condenar a la hoguera. + +El _plebanus_ que cuida desde lo alto del campanario al rebaño que se le ha confiado, es el prototipo del profesional de los servicios. Tiene a su cargo las almas, posee el instrumento que le permite leer las conciencias. Se le ha formado para que considere toda alma igualmente digna y dotada de una conciencia que es necesario explorar y formar. + +El obispo inquisidor de Aviñón habla en nombre de la Iglesia, de una nueva Iglesia en pleno auge que sucesivamente, cuando llegue a secularizarse y dividirse, habrá de asumir su forma contemporánea de estructura profesional. Este prelado pertenece a la Iglesia que ha transformado el ritual de la penitencia en un acto de confesión anual, a la Iglesia que desde hace un siglo apenas —a partir del Concilio de Letran de 1215— ha impuesto a todos los creyentes decir sus pecados a su párroco una vez al año. A esta nueva regla correspondía una fórmula original que refleja una nueva perspectiva, la perspectiva homogeneizadora del sexo: _Omnes utriusque sexus fideles_ —todos los fieles, hombres y mujeres, en adelante deberán comparecer ante su pastor una vez al año para acusarse—. A fin de que éste estuviera preparado para oír su confesión, en el siglo precedente se habían redactado manuales especiales —aparentemente Arnaud no los conocía—. Éstos indicaban a los confesores cuáles son las preguntas que deben hacer a los fieles para ayudarlos a discernir las transgresiones que en lo sucesivo se calificarán de pecaminosas. Ahora las mujeres tendrán que obedecer con toda franqueza como mujeres y los hombres como hombres. Y los nuevos manuales cada vez con mayor precisión definían lo que esto significa para los humanos en general, sin consideración para la línea de separación específica de los géneros en cada lugar, y ocasionalmente contradiciéndola. La ley eclesiástica no era, en sí, sexista, porque reservaba el poder, los privilegios y la ordenación para los hombres —en esto no hacía más que reflejar sus orígenes—. Pero _inauguraba_ el sexismo rigiendo las conciencias de almas que eran todas igualmente inmortales y capaces de cometer el mismo pecado con cuerpos diferentes. Al afirmar que en términos del pecado eran iguales las transgresiones de la misma ley por hombres y mujeres, sentaba las bases de los códigos sexistas.[^f113] + +La confesión obligatoria de los pecados en la intimidad del confesionario es algo radicalmente nuevo, es el primer paso, sin duda el más importante, hacia la educación universal. Es casi lo contrario de la penitencia pública, largo y penoso ritual, que tenía lugar frecuentemente ante el portal de la Iglesia, y al cual se sometían irlandeses y escoceses en la época de su conversión, a principios de la Edad Media. Ese antiguo orden penitencial era asunto de los hombres. Expresaba la sumisión pública y voluntaria de los recién conversos a las leyes nuevas de los misioneros. Ranulf había matado al asesino de su padrastro. Había actuado como le correspondía a un hijo; según las antiguas leyes de su clan; no tomar venganza habría sido imperdonable. Pero según la nueva ley de Jesucristo, debió haber perdonado al asesino. Haciendo penitencia por haber recaído en el paganismo, Ranulf permaneció de pie ante la Iglesia durante 17 años, bajo la canícula del verano y los hielos del invierno. Pero el nuevo orden confesional traslada la penitencia del espacio exterior al espacio interior; obliga a toda “alma” a crear este espacio dentro de sí misma, y a hacerlo de conformidad con las reglas arquitectónicas decretadas por la ley eclesiástica. Contrariamente a la penitencia pública, que se cumple de _una vez por todas_, durante un periodo, a causa de un crimen de sangre, la confesión constituye el relato anual de las transgresiones secretas de las leyes formuladas por una institución católica, es decir, universal, la Madre Iglesia. La confesión crea un tribunal de la conciencia, un “foro interno”. Una vez al año, el pecador abre la cámara íntima de su alma a un juez público, nombrado por la Iglesia, el cual en secreto absoluto escucha al culpable que se acusa. El varón consagrado, el juez sacerdotal, escucha cada año al alma sin género y evalúa sus transgresiones a una ley escrita que define lo que es un comportamiento sexuado. + +Es aleccionador el ejemplo del adulterio. En cada sistema de parentesco, la infidelidad significa algo diferente —para la mujer jamás significa el mismo tipo de crimen que para el hombre—. Pero el criterio de la transgresión de la ley de la Iglesia ahora lo convierte en un pecado único. Hombres y mujeres son iguales en el pecado, si bien en cuanto miembros de sus géneros respectivos hayan cometido un crimen diferente. La sexualidad empieza a tomar la forma de un concepto fuera del género: es un conjunto de pecados contra el sexto mandamiento que la Iglesia ha definido así: “No cometerás adulterio”. Al considerar este proceso, hay que cuidarse de no confundir la nueva capacidad del alma para aplicar los decretos de la Iglesia en su foro interno, con el sentido de la rectitud y de la “honestidad” que mantiene intacta la separación entre los géneros. La conciencia se afina mediante la interiorización de una ley positiva para el _humano_, mientras que la “honestidad” es el resultado de la formación del ser dentro de su género; la conciencia procede de la educación, el género procede de lo inverso de la educación. El _speculum confessoris_ nace en el siglo XIII y se desarrolla: gracias a esta herramienta, el confesor puede sondear el alma del penitente, hacer las preguntas convenientes, juzgar si la respuesta es correcta. Así, el reino de la honestidad vernácula se ve eclipsado progresivamente por los mandamientos de la conciencia. Si durante un milenio las mujeres no tuvieron la palabra en una Iglesia gobernada por los hombres, he aquí que ante el sacerdote ellas son iguales a los hombres respecto a la penitencia, en el seno de un régimen sexista. La ley unisex hace a esta cohabitación sexista: decreta que el hombre y la mujer son iguales como pecadores, aunque aun así el lugar natural del hombre es superior. Los textos mediante los cuales la Iglesia se esfuerza en reglamentar la frecuencia, las circunstancias y las posiciones de las relaciones sexuales,[^f114] contrastan de manera tajante con la tradición del _Ars amatoria_ de Ovidio que, según el registro del inquisidor, Arnaud había prestado a un amigo días antes de su proceso. A través de estas reglas se puede ver la formación de un nuevo tipo de misión, para el cual la Iglesia se consideraba investida: penetrar en los hogares, los lechos, las almas. Había comenzado la derrota del género por la propagación del sexo, la reglamentación de la “honestidad” por una ley normativa. + +En el corazón de Europa, el periodo que se extiende desde el siglo XII hasta finales del XVIII podría llamarse la época de la “honestidad” bajo la sombra creciente de la conciencia.[^f115] Con la penetración de la conciencia en las sociedades que hasta entonces habían sido regidas únicamente por la “honestidad”, las imágenes del “hombre” y de la “mujer” tenían que modificarse inevitablemente. Sin duda alguna, la dama a quien el trovador dedica su canción es una especie nueva de mujer, es su “amante”, que para él está más allá del matrimonio y el parentesco. Con frecuencia es una mujer educada; y en el mejor de los casos representa un tipo de mujer que sólo una minoría es capaz de imaginar. Que esta minoría no hubo de ser pequeña es cosa que se transparenta en la capacidad de ciertos habitantes de Montaillou, gente sencilla, para distinguir entre las mujeres que han amado y las que han querido _(adamari)_. + +## La iconografía del sexo + +Marina Warner ha propuesto otra vía para seguir las transformaciones de la imagen de la mujer. Ha sondeado el inmenso acopio iconográfico de la virgen. Ha intentado descubrir la visión de la mujer a través de las representaciones de la Virgen María. Claramente, a finales de la Edad Media, la virgen no es ya más la “bendita _entre_ todas las mujeres”; por entonces aparece simplemente como una persona “de su sexo”. + +En el estilo y el carácter de sus representaciones pictóricas, no solamente en la Edad Media sino también durante dos milenios, yo veo una guía de la ruta que conduce de la _Théotokos_ del ábside griego a las cursis ilustraciones que decoran las recámaras de los cónyuges. María jamás fue representada como una diosa. Desde sus primeras imágenes en las catacumbas de Priscilla, a las miles de efigies pintadas que el arte románico nos ha legado, una cosa la distingue de todas las otras efigies femeninas que jamás fueron pintadas o esculpidas: los artistas han querido representarla como una mujer histórica a quien le tocó un destino sin igual. Había sido la mujer elegida entre todas las mujeres para ser la madre virgen, para dar a luz a Dios. Había sido la nueva Eva, puesto que el fruto de su vientre fue la fuente de un nuevo principio entre los hombres. Pero esta visión ya no prevalece en los retratos góticos y, con más razón aún, en los posteriores. Poco a poco, la virgen se despoja del género, abandona su aura mítica que había tomado prestada de la diosa, así como la serie de vigorosos calificativos teológicos con que la habían adornado los Padres de la Iglesia. Se transforma en un modelo de la “mujer”, un tipo que se opone al “hombre”.[^f116] Dante formula claramente esta idea cuando, en el trigésimo tercer canto del _Paraíso_, le dice a la virgen _umile ed alta più che criatura_… + +Los cuentos pueden relatar lo que la historia no es capaz de describir. Contaré cómo la Madre de Dios se transformó en Nuestra Señora. Cuando ella se convirtió en el prototipo de “la mujer” —no habiendo sido jamás una diosa, no siendo ya un icono ni tampoco la figura sentimental del arte barroco— las otras figuras que poblaban las catedrales románicas también emprendieron su propio camino. Muchas habían ingresado en la Iglesia al mismo tiempo que una población que se había convertido, al mismo tiempo que su _gens_. Ya en el presbiterio, algunas de las bestias que eran las guardianas del género local fueron vestidas con las ropas de los mártires o recibieron los atributos de un santo eclesiástico. Otras encontraron un nicho en la decoración vegetal esculpida en la piedra, conservando sus cuernos o sus escamas. La muchacha de la leyenda que fue arrojada al dragón recibió el hábito de santa Margarita y fue colocada arriba del altar, junto al dragón encadenado. Los dioses fluviales y los sátiros, los gnomos y las tormentas personificadas, todos encontraron su lugar, ya en un capitel, ya en el bestiario esculpido de un friso, y muchos en los portales y los asientos, en forma de piedras angulares o soportes. En una sola columna se asociaban hirsutos monstruos nórdicos, leones sasánidas, quiméricos pavorreales sacados de un manuscrito con estampas y cantidad de personajes bíblicos. La Iglesia se sentía cómoda en la seguridad de poder abrazar el cielo, el infierno y la tierra, y todo lo que vuela y se arrastra. A lo largo de cinco siglos, su método empírico fue: _Ecclesia omnia benedicat_ —“la Iglesia bendice todo y a todos”—. En el siglo XI, el Diablo mismo se había convertido más en una farsa que en una amenaza. Mitos y costumbres de cosecha local enriquecían el ritual y hacían de la catedral un invernadero donde se mantenían vivos los frutos del pasado. La presencia de estos ejércitos de símbolos bautizados era testimonio del poder del mensaje de la Iglesia, y la posibilidad de una infinita diversidad de existencias vernáculas bajo la égida de la religión.[^f117] + +Esta fraternidad, dentro de la Iglesia del periodo románico, de espíritus locales recientemente domesticados, de dioses de importación “bautizados”, de cabezas de gorgonas revestidas con un nuevo significado, de profetas y de apóstoles “legítimos”, esta fraternidad hay que representársela claramente si se quiere comprender lo que significó el éxodo de estos recientes huéspedes, que inevitablemente se habría de producir. Para empezar tuvieron lugar las fulminaciones del austero y rígido reformador del mona-quismo, Bernardo de Claraval, contra los monjes que toleraban en sus claustros efigies que acaso fueran necesarias para conducir a almas más simples y sencillas hacia la pura luz de la fe. Luego, un siglo más tarde, la Iglesia acoge a la Inquisición y en adelante se preocupará más de la conciencia que de la creencia, esforzándose por destruir el ámbito de estos huéspedes. Los antiguos guardianes de la “honestidad” ya no habrían de tener un hogar bajo los austeros arcos de la moralidad gótica. La cacería de los disidentes de toda especie desalojó a los antiguos dioses de los contrafuertes y los nichos desde donde habían vigilado, durante generaciones, las convenciones locales que la fe católica había amparado. + +Los dragones y gnomos, basiliscos y seres salvajes fueron expulsados de las naves al tiempo que la arquitectura pasaba del románico al gótico. Ya no podían alojarse en los pilares, ahora más angostos y largos. Pero en el exterior siguieron aferrados a la Iglesia durante más de un siglo. Como gárgolas se extendían sobre el vacío, a punto de iniciar el vuelo, derramando agua por sus fantásticas fauces. Los teólogos, absortos en la cuestión de la conciencia, ya no podían bendecirlos. Al acercarse el Renacimiento, ciertos eruditos interpretaron la supervivencia de esta chusma disparatada como vestigios de la cábala, y en ellos buscaron símbolos, emblemas, tipos. Pero las gárgolas efectivamente emprendieron el vuelo y, durante tres siglos, fueron a vagar por los campos, convertidas en criaturas nunca antes vistas: santos depuestos, mártires cojos, dragones de roídas alas, que se comportaban como hatos de animales domésticos que hubiesen retornado al estado salvaje, como gatos errantes en una ciudad bombardeada. Estos extraños espíritus dieron origen a una nueva especie de sacerdotes, por lo general llamados “brujos”. + +Una parte de la historia del género se podría encontrar en las historias que podrían contar de su éxodo algunos de estos espíritus transformados en fantasmas o en diablos.[^f118] Por ejemplo, Shela-na-gig, una pequeña figura en cuclillas de Escocia. Este tipo de encuclillada se conoce en todo el mundo. Los iconógrafos las llaman encuclilladas _obscenas_. Algunas son masculinas, pero la mayoría femeninas. Exhiben una vulva abierta, en una posición que sugiere un poder. En Egipto se llama “Bes” a esta representación, que era la de un genio hogareño que protegía a las mujeres en el parto. Originalmente fue una divinidad sudanesa que descendió el Nilo para dominar a sus semejantes, en todas las márgenes mediterráneas, durante el periodo de las antiguas dinastías. En su _Historia natural_, Plinio testifica que un cultivo a punto de cosecharse se salvará de una tormenta de granizo si una mujer que está menstruando se acuesta allí de espaldas con el sexo al descubierto. A veces, sólo el amuleto sería suficiente. También consigna que en cualquier día del mes una mujer tiene la capacidad de ahuyentar la tempestad en alta mar. La acuclillada ha subsistido hasta nuestros días, como lo muestran cientos de ejemplos. Al final del periodo románico, en las iglesias se mezcla con una hermana del Mediterráneo: la sirena de doble cola o Melusina. Y desde las Islas del Norte, otra acuclillada baja hasta Francia. Tiene la forma de Eva, nuestra madre común. Ésta es Shela-na-gig, que debió haber tomado su lugar en el santuario cuando una tribu irlandesa, o un clan escocés, ingresó en la Iglesia en una fecha precoz. En sus orígenes fue también un espíritu guardián del género, un poderoso antídoto contra los maléficos espíritus masculinos. Pero al ingresar en el cosmos cristiano, se convirtió en el símbolo de todo lo que en la Tierra vive y en consecuencia asumió el rostro de Eva, el origen de la vida. En cuanto Eva, se halla esculpida en el pilar central del portal occidental, el de la fachada. En consecuencia orienta su desnudez hacia el poniente, la noche, la dirección desde donde todos los espíritus y potencias del mal amenazan al pueblo de Dios. Ella sola es suficientemente poderosa como para proteger a la multitud de fieles y a las figuras zoomorfas en el interior de la Iglesia. Pero a veces otras dos figuras en cuclillas, una de ellas itifálica, cuidan del portal occidental, en cuyo caso la primera pareja original aparece siempre encima, en el tímpano. Shela-na-gig con el rostro de Eva es el paradigma de la hierofanta tradicional que ha sido bautizada por la Iglesia. Todas las acuclilladas son hierofantas, revelaciones de la potencia y la protección de lo sagrado. En calidad de Eva, la acuclillada es elevada al rango de protectora de un pueblo católico. + +Pero si Shela-na-gig como Eva representa el apogeo del poder de las acuclilladas, su destierro de la Iglesia la despoja de su nimbo sagrado —a ella y a todas las demás—. Estas figuras que los doctos humanistas transforman en emblemas eruditos son símbolos, no hierofantes; ningún demonio se atemorizaría con las sirenas de doble cola que en las _loggias_ de Rafael abundan. Los teólogos de entonces convierten a la sirena en una alegoría de la lujuria, a la que presentan como un vicio seductor. Vuelta uno de los siete pecados capitales, la lujuria atormentará en lo sucesivo a la conciencia. Se le ha dolorosamente arrebatado su carácter sagrado como guardiana de la línea de separación de los géneros. Pero lo que resulta más importante es que apartada de la manzana de Eva, de la conversación con la serpiente y con Adán, sin la diáfana transparencia con la que reveló su poder sagrado, y expulsada de la Iglesia, la acuclillada ha sobrevivido. Con su género dislocado pero aún no suprimido, se convierte en una de las representaciones de la brujería y como tal sobrevive en la cocina y en la caverna. + +Durante el medio milenio a través del cual habían sostenido dócilmente los pilares, portales y púlpitos, la acuclillada, el macho cabrío, el dragón, el gigante y el enano vieron debilitarse su género sagrado. Las bendiciones indiferenciadas de la Iglesia lo habían borrado. Ahora los nuevos teólogos aprendieron a distinguir esmeradamente entre los _sacramentos_ —ni más ni menos que siete, universales, imprescindibles para la salvación— y las antiguas bendiciones, que formarían el estrato de las cosas sacramentales, claramente de segunda categoría. Para los nuevos doctores, los antiguos espíritus de las conveniencias locales en el mejor de los casos no eran más que símbolos, en todo caso intrusos, cuando no parásitos. Los antiguos duendes bajaron de los campanarios, fueron obligados por la fuerza a abandonar los claustros y, mientras huían, se metamorfosearon. Ya no dioses paganos sino diablos cristianos, ya no custodios irredentos sino espíritus apóstatas, ya no hierofantes ambiguos sino espectros con olor a azufre, comenzaron su errancia. Habían perdido el poder de exorcizar los temores vernáculos, pero todavía podían rondar el campo. Expulsadas por la Iglesia de Aviñón, las sombras domeñadas del pasado regresaron a las plazas de las aldeas, a los ríos y a las montañas en la forma de demonios exangües y mutilados con nombres cristianos, creando una nueva amenaza para un clero que ahora estaba al servicio de un nuevo orden. + +Jean Delumeau ha descrito el nuevo temor característico de esta situación peculiar durante el ocaso de la Edad Media. La confusión, la angustia, el terror de la gente que había perdido simultáneamente la tranquilidad de su fe cristiana y los símbolos vernáculos de la rectitud que las guiaba, dieron origen a una situación religiosa sin precedente. Se había roto la cadena de los sacerdotes y adivinos que anteriormente sancionaban ritualmente la existencia intragenérica, y los sacerdotes cristianos que los remplazaron se transformaron en pastores encargados de administrar y normalizar esta existencia. Se había creado un vacío, que exigía un nuevo rito. Su celebrante sería la bruja, la sacerdotisa de la época del género dislocado. Es posible que ésta haya sido tan singular como el estado conyugal en el seno del género, característica de ese tiempo, tan nueva como el homosexual, tan extraña como pretendían sus perseguidores. Sea como fuere, la lucha que se entabló contra ella creó la unión de la Iglesia y el brazo secular del nuevo Estado.[^f119] + +# Del género dislocado al sexo económico + +EL PROPÓSITO de este ensayo no es hacer una historia del género sino de elaborar conceptos que nos permitan disociar el género del sexo. La historia de la escasez es lo que me interesa. Pero primero tengo que hablar de la desaparición del género y del patriarcado, en conjunción con el auge del individualismo no genérico y sexista. He señalado que a finales de la Edad Media un nuevo orden económico se instaló en las almas mediante la conciencia. Ésta debilitó a los guardianes del género vernáculo varios siglos antes de que el sexo viniera a remplazar al género. Un largo periodo de _dislocación_ del género media entre la sujeción de las parejas en el yugo conyugal y su polarización industrial en el trabajo salariado y el trabajo fantasma. Este periodo del género dislocado difiere considerablemente según los lugares. Es el material con que se teje la ciudad medieval, sin el cual la aldea “europea” característica no existiría. En Florencia, el factor importante para el surgimiento del sexo social, en el curso de solamente dos siglos, es el comercio. En Milán, e inclusive en Ámsterdam, es la _workhouse_, el asilo-taller de fines del siglo XVII. Y en ciertas aldeas, a pesar de la escuela pública, el género dislocado ha sobrevivido hasta nuestros tiempos.[^f120] + +La etapa del género dislocado puede llamarse de diversas maneras. Cuando se dice que es la guerra contra la subsistencia, se pone al descubierto la acción que ejerce el Estado-nación. Cuando se dice que es el cercado de las tierras comunales, se destaca el aspecto ambiental que igualmente lo define: la supresión de los derechos adquiridos sobre la propiedad o la producción de bienes comunes que permiten anclar los ámbitos del género en los recursos productivos, a fin de asegurar el trabajo económico, retribuido o gratuito. Pero para hacer justicia a los procesos que operan, también habría que llamarla la era de la brujería, el periodo del alumbramiento del sexo. Se inicia con la formación de la conciencia y termina cuando el sexismo se vuelve banal. + +Para las poblaciones que viven en un régimen de subsistencia, la pérdida del género es una experiencia central que los historiadores incapaces de ver el género disfrazan, describiéndola como una “transición a un modo de producción capitalista” —cosa que oculta el hecho de que un _novum_ ahistórico surgió de esta mutación, un productor sujeto al consumo y necesariamente sexista—. + +Las sociedades precapitalistas están fundadas en el género.[^f121] Ésta es la condición de la subsistencia, lo es también de la supervivencia. Las sociedades donde el reino del género se ha hundido _son_ sociedades capitalistas; sus sujetos sin género son productores individuales. Curiosamente, esta transformación decisiva aún no ha sido reconocida como lo que es: la condición antropológica principal de la transición de las economías precapitalistas a la sujeción de las necesidades cotidianas a la mercancía, sujeción que se denomina “capitalismo”. El pasaje al capitalismo coincide antropológicamente con la declinación que lleva al género dislocado hasta el régimen del sexo. + +“Capitalismo” es un término curioso.[^f122] Era desconocido para Marx cuando Engels lo usó por primera vez en 1870. Proudhon lo había empleado ocasionalmente en algún texto, pero fue Sombart quien le dio su familiar resonancia. Fernand Braudel juzga necesario disculparse por su utilización en el título de su obra monumental: _Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe-XVIIIe siècles_.[^f123] La obra de Braudel constituye un magnífico fresco de la vida económica posterior a la Reforma y anterior a la Revolución francesa. Ante nosotros hace desfilar tres siglos de vida económica, institucional y política. Revive la Europa posmedieval, territorio pletórico de ferias, mercados, talleres, donde se multiplican las rutas del comercio y los gremios. Insiste en destacar que eso que nosotros llamamos “capital”, “capitalista”, “capitalismo”, penetra muy lentamente en la producción, el intercambio y la adquisición de necesidades. Escruta minuciosamente los cambios que podrían explicar esta penetración y los motivos por los cuales la acumulación exponencial del capital se había convertido en un factor de la existencia cotidiana de la mayoría de la gente antes de inaugurarse el siglo XIX. Muestra que la dependencia creciente en relación con el mercado, las condiciones legales de la acumulación a largo plazo y la expansión del espacio económico en el extranjero son las condiciones convergentes sin las cuales la producción industrial capitalista jamás habría podido llegar a predominar. Pero, a lo largo de estos tres volúmenes, la pérdida del género no figura más que de manera implícita, jamás de manera expresa. El autor pasa por alto totalmente la universalidad de la existencia intragenérica en las sociedades precapitalistas y el debilitamiento del género en la transición al capitalismo. Para él, el género no es un factor histórico esencial. + +Escribir la historia de los cimientos en los que reposa nuestro mundo es muy distinto a tratar de contar la historia de lo que ha desaparecido. Para el historiador que mira hacia el pasado por un espejo retrovisor, la guada ña y la hoz son instrumentos agrícolas locales que solían usarse en las cosechas; las _técnicas_ se adoptan cuando sobreviene la modernización. Cuando la investigación histórica se interesa en las mentalidades y en los sentimientos, suele centrarse en la enajenación, la soledad, la explotación que se dan a la par con las nuevas técnicas. Examina los sufrimientos que en las personas infligen la nueva economía de mercado, la mecanización y el hambre. El otro sufrimiento, el que experimentan por la pérdida del género, el cual se evacua con las aguas negras en el nuevo sistema de plomería, es el aspecto oculto del triste cuento. ¿Qué perdió la _mujer_ al mismo tiempo que la hoz? ¿Qué debió abandonar el _hombre_ al mismo tiempo que la guadaña? Para contar la historia de estas pérdidas de toda especie un historiador tiene que estudiar los sentimientos vernáculos que han dejado huella muy tenue, tiene que describir la muerte de una realidad genérica que ha escapado a sus colegas, a pesar de haber existido durante milenios. + +A fin de prepararme en esta tarea, me esforcé en apoyar la reflexión teórica en una especie de telón de fondo donde ciertos decorados estaban esbozados con más vigor que otros. Varios de estos ilustraban la dislocación de la _domus_—y por ende del género— en beneficio de la pareja conyugal, es decir, de la dualidad sexuada. Añadiré todavía una escena a mi descripción del alumbramiento del sexo económico. Es la de una aldea luterana de Wurtemberg que dejó testimonios de las reacciones de los hombres y las mujeres al ser confrontados por vez primera con la obligación del trabajo fuera del género. + +Entre 1800 y 1850 en esta aldea se registró la cantidad anormalmente alta de 48 peticiones de divorcio. David Sabean ha intentado interpretar los motivos aducidos, en la medida de que eran enteramente nuevos.[^f124] Para entender lo que había sucedido, tuvo que examinar las transformaciones económicas de la región en el curso de aquel medio siglo: construcción de la vía férrea, modificación de la tenencia de la tierra, abandono forzado de la pequeña explotación agrícola familiar a cambio de los cultivos frutales con mayor rendimiento. Los huertos frutales (ciruela y manzana) y la remolacha remplazaron a los pequeños cultivos diversificados. Ahora bien, éstos requerían más mano de obra. Súbitamente las mujeres tuvieron que participar en el trabajo de los hombres a fin de asegurar un ingreso familiar suficiente para comprar lo que hasta entonces la hortaliza había proporcionado. Al mismo tiempo debieron acortar el tiempo que dedicaban a sus propias ocupaciones en la cocina. Los procesos de divorcios reflejan la profunda perturbación que estas innovaciones causaron en la vida de los hombres y las mujeres, sus sentimientos de impotencia, su incapacidad para comprender las implicaciones de sus decisiones aparentemente racionales. Las mujeres se quejaban de que los hombres repentinamente habían empezado a darles órdenes respecto al trabajo, algo totalmente nuevo para ellas. Aunque las ocupaciones definidas por el género de las mujeres pudieran haber parecido subordinadas al trabajo de los hombres, la idea de que los hombres pudieran dar órdenes a las mujeres que hacían su trabajo había sido inconcebible hasta entonces. Otra queja de las mujeres: mientras que los hombres tenían tiempo de relajarse en la taberna tras terminar de trabajar al ritmo de la yunta, ellas estaban continuamente apresuradas, tanto en los campos, manejando la azada, como en la cocina. De esta manera aparecía una nueva especie de envidia, una envidia destinada a perdurar como una característica central de la vida moderna, una envidia plenamente “justificada” en el contexto de la labor unisex, aunque impensable en el contexto del género. La queja recurrente entre los hombres: su esposa no valía lo que su madre; en el pasado comían alimentos ricos y variados; actualmente tenían que contentarse con _spaezli_, pastas de huevo, día tras día. Había bajado el telón para la coproducción conyugal fundada en el género dislocado. En este microcosmos podemos ver vívidamente cómo habría de escribirse el nuevo guión de la era industrial. Para que la obra se animara, la escena tendría que poblarse de actores heterosexuales que al mismo tiempo fueran seres neutros económicos —es decir, trabajadores—. + +En todas las versiones de este drama moderno, generalmente hay un breve intermedio entre el género y el sexo, que separa el reino del género, donde el hogar obtiene su subsistencia gracias a la repartición de tareas realizadas por dos pares de manos no intercambiables, del régimen de la economía industrial, donde manos desprovistas de género producen mercancías a cambio de un salario. Durante este intermedio protoindustrial, el hogar se ve sujeto al trabajo unisex que tiene que realizarse en casa.[^f125] De esta manera, el hogar se transforma en un molino donde se tritura el género hasta que de él no queda más que el sexo. Los sufrimientos que esta molienda del género ocasiona tanto en los hombres como en las mujeres casi nunca se han registrado. Puedo dar dos razones para explicar tal carencia. Por una parte, la experiencia _nueva_ del sufrimiento económico se convirtió en el cemento de la unión del proletariado. Todos los “trabajadores” padecieron la misma desorientación, soledad, dependencia. Tales sentimientos propiciaron la aparición de intérpretes políticos y de la élite de una nueva clase. El diagnóstico de la aflicción universal se convirtió en el campo exclusivo de los nuevos profesionales: educadores, médicos y demás ingenieros sociales, quienes prosperan produciendo programas, terapias y guías. Los obvios intereses del jefe revolucionario como del comerciante de remedios sociales excluían toda tentativa de _comprender_ el dolor de la pérdida. Por otra parte, la obliteración del género, al tiempo que empobrecía a las personas, las hacía sufrir, pero de modo diferente de un lugar a otro. Pocos habrían podido traducir verbalmente las sutilezas del dolor vernáculo en todas sus formas. + +Mientras se montaba el escenario del trabajo en la fábrica y se construía un decorado económico moderno, pero antes de que se reescribiera el guión de los nuevos e inusitados roles sexuales, se improvisaron teorías críticas para este teatro de vanguardia. El genio de Marx y de Freud sólo puede apreciarse cuando se considera cuán tempranamente definieron las reglas del desarrollo del drama moderno. Ambos forjaron los conceptos definitivos que habrían de usarse para describir _y_ poner en escena al nuevo tipo de actor, el “hombre” industrial. Siete siglos antes, la Iglesia había imputado un pecado carente de género a almas carentes de género. Ahora, el poder sin género de humanos sin género en un cosmos sin género se convertía en la característica trascendental de las categorías utilizadas en un nuevo tipo de metafísica. Hacia mediados del siglo XIX, de manera simultánea pero cada cual por su parte, diversos sabios redefinieron la _vis viva universi_ (la fuerza viva del universo) como energía, algunas veces cautiva, otras libre. Se atribuye a Helmholtz la proeza de haber imaginado la idea pensable. Durante el mismo decenio, la mano de obra, que los anglosajones denominan _labor force_, se convirtió en una palabra clave. En fin, una generación más tarde, Freud, quien retoma textualmente ciertas frases de Helmholtz, atribuiría al ser humano una energía psíquica en la forma de la _libido_—a veces cautiva, a veces libre—. Los nuevos canonistas fabricaron su teoría del hombre laico y de su salvación a partir de postulados derivados de la química y la mecánica de fluidos. Según ellos, hay una energía sin género que circula, en calidad de capital, por los conductos sociales y, en calidad de libido, por los canales psicológicos. Así, desde hace tres cuartos de siglo las palabras clave que condicionan nuestra existencia son “energía”, “trabajo” y “sexualidad”. Pero ahora que otra palabra, “crisis”, les está haciendo sombra, acaso ha llegado el tiempo de cuestionar públicamente su realidad. + +Toda sociedad necesita un pasado. Para tener el sentido del presente, los vivientes tienen que poseer un pasado propio. No existe un “nosotros”, una primera persona del plural, al margen de su mito de la creación. En todas las épocas las sociedades mantuvieron vivo su “nosotros” de doble género mediante los rituales, las fiestas, los tabúes. Tampoco la sociedad industrial sería capaz de existir sin su mito de la creación. + +La máquina que teje el pasado de la sociedad industrial es la historia. Desde hace un siglo la historia ha venido fabricando una continuidad entre el presente sin género y el pasado intragenérico, legitimando el sexo como descendiente del género. Mediante una metodología que constantemente afina, la nueva ciencia ha interpretado la historia a partir de categorías sexistas, a fin de dar un pasado a nuestro mundo económico. Sin esta reconstrucción económica de un pasado intragenérico, el mundo contemporáneo de la economía sexista no habría podido ser presentado como una realidad seductora, especialmente para aquellas que jamás han dejado de practicar la discriminación. Mediante miles de sintéticos lazos sentimentales, la historia ata el mundo contemporáneo a un reino del género que de hecho había abandonado al emprender su frenético viaje. Los historiadores han tejido un tapiz que debe hacernos sentir cómodos en nuestro medio ambiente sexista, pero lo han tejido con fibras industriales. Sesudas obras pretenden mostrar el pasado como la simiente, una forma primitiva del presente, y demostrar que sus lenguas, costumbres, instituciones son seguramente las formas ancestrales, embrionarias de las nuestras. En nuestras bibliotecas abundan los volúmenes que atribuyen una estructura de clase a la ciudad-Estado griega, que veía en el sofista que pregona sus artificios el precursor del educador moderno, que describen la vida sexual _(¡sic!)_ en Mesopotamia. El presente ensayo busca contrarrestar esta perspectiva _centralista_ de la historia. Aunque de manera voluntaria no me incluyo entre los historiadores “científicos”, pues no aplico al pasado palabras clave, ni conceptos forjados por la utopía, creo que honro a los muertos mediante una investigación razonada, documentada y crítica. + +He intentado hacer comprensible la ruptura entre el género y el sexo, hacer perceptible el abismo que separa el presente del pasado. He querido poner al descubierto la falsa genealogía del sexo que subyace en la historia económica. Esta ficción es indispensable para una sociedad sexista que no puede admitir que carece de una legítima ascendencia. Sin embargo, es falso que el sexo proceda del género. Los orígenes de ambos son sociales, pero sus matrices no tienen ningún parentesco. La matriz del sexo es el _alma mater;_ la matriz del género solamente se puede hallar más allá de “la gruta de los siete durmientes”, “alojada en las hendiduras de las rocas y en las ramas de inmensos tejos huecos” (Robert Graves, _La diosa blanca_). + +Ya sean hijas de la matriz del género o pupilas de la matriz del sexo, las mujeres tienen que enfrentarse a los hombres. Pero cada matriz las dota de un poder relativo diferente. En el reino del género, hombres y mujeres dependen colectivamente unos de otros. Su mutua dependencia fija límites al conflicto, a la explotación, a la derrota. La cultura vernácula representa una tregua entre ambos géneros —y a veces una cruel tregua—. Allá donde los hombres mutilan el cuerpo de las mujeres, el gineceo sabe cómo vengarse cruelmente de ellos y de sus sentimientos. Contrastando con esta tregua, el régimen de la escasez impone una guerra sin fin, donde las mujeres pierden constantemente, siempre de manera nueva. Mientras que en el régimen del género las mujeres podían estar a veces subordinadas, en _todo_ régimen económico siempre son el segundo sexo, _y nada más que eso_. Las mujeres siempre están en desventaja en los juegos donde las apuestas ignoran el género y donde el _ex aequo_ no existe. Allí donde se despoja a los géneros, donde los neutros se enfrentan, el hombre siempre prevalece. No es por lo tanto sorprendente que hoy en día sea la mujer quien “descubra” la transformación del género producida por la economía. Típicamente, la mujer se queja de ser “invisible”, tanto para los demás como para sí misma. En el régimen de la economía, no es capaz de percibirse como una compañera en igualdad, ni tampoco reconocerse en el género. Los pomposos argumentos de las ciencias políticas, fundados en un conjunto de nociones que postulan la igualdad entre todos los hombres, no la toman en cuenta. La utopía feminosexista de la “tierra de las mujeres” ni siquiera supone la pobre camaradería que impera en los vestidores deportivos masculinos, y las tentativas de reconstitución del pasado de las mujeres con la ayuda de nociones clave son caricaturas de las investigaciones históricas científicas. Pero al menos, al tratar de escapar en vano de este doble callejón sin salida, los estudios feministas tuvieron el mérito de proporcionar un punto de apoyo para la palanca capaz de derribar el “tinglado” científico. + +En este ensayo no he pretendido explicar por qué la sociedad pone al hombre en la cima e impone un _handicap_ a la mujer. Puse límites a mi curiosidad a fin de tener la libertad de escuchar con mayor atención lo que cuentan las perdedoras, no para aprender más sobre ellas sino para aprender más sobre el campo de batalla que es la economía. La sociedad industrial crea dos mitos, uno sobre su origen sexuado, otro sobre su progresión hacia más igualdad. Ambos mitos son engañifas, como lo revela la experiencia personal del neutro del segundo sexo. + +He querido mostrar que la lucha contra el sexismo converge con la lucha contra la destrucción del medio ambiente y con la oposición al monopolio radical de los bienes y los servicios sobre las “necesidades”; que estos tres movimientos convergen porque proceden de la misma causa: la recesión; que la constatación que cada quien haga, por razones propias, de que la reducción de la economía no es una simple necesidad negativa sino condición positiva para una mejor existencia, puede conducir de una convergencia teórica a una acción publica concertada. Yo pienso que estas tres acciones representan tres aspectos de una tentativa para recobrar los ámbitos de comunidad, que significan exactamente lo contrario que los recursos económicos. Es por esto que he querido esbozar una teoría que permita clarificar los conceptos necesarios para una historia de la escasez. + +La transición histórica de la subsistencia intragenérica a la sujeción a productos escasos justifica mi tesis. La escasez es histórica, tan histórica como el género o el sexo. El régimen de la escasez no podía surgir más que con base en el postulado de que el “hombre” es individualista, posesivo y, en el ámbito de su supervivencia económica, un _neutrum œconomicum_ rapaz. Tal postulado, encarnado en las instituciones, desde el matrimonio hasta la escuela, transforma al sujeto de la historia. Este sujeto no es ya la _gens_ o los lares que designan la complementariedad ambigua y asimétrica de un conjunto de mujeres y hombres que se fijan, ellos mismos, sus límites. El sujeto deviene una construcción ideológica que se fabrica mediante una falsificación del “nosotros”, una construcción como las clases sociales, la nación, la sociedad o la pareja unida. Pienso que para elaborar una teoría sobre la acción necesaria para la recuperación de los ámbitos de comunidad, un historiador tendría que explorar la etiología de esta metamorfosis del sujeto de la historia. + +No tengo ninguna estrategia que ofrecer. Rehúso especular sobre las probabilidades de algún tratamiento curativo. No quiero que la sombra del porvenir oscurezca los conceptos con los cuales yo intento captar lo que es y lo que ha sido. Tal como el asceta y el poeta que al meditar sobre la muerte celebran con gratitud el exquisito regalo de la vida, todos debemos afrontar la triste pérdida del género. Creo que entonces será posible que nazca un arte de vivir contemporáneo, siempre que nuestra aceptación austera y lúcida del doble gueto de los neutros económicos nos incite a renunciar a las comodidades del sexo económico. + + + +[^f0]: Las notas al pie, destinadas a los estudiantes del curso que impartí en Berkeley y durante el otoño de 1982, y a los lectores que desean continuar la reflexión más allá de mi texto, son más bien anotaciones. Proponen orientaciones de lectura, de investigación, iluminación y prolongan los temas. + +[^f1]: _Valores vernáculos_. De los cinco ensayos que componen _El trabajo fantasma_, el segundo y el tercero tratan de la diferencia entre el habla vernácula y la lengua materna inculcada. Fueron producto de las prolongadas conversaciones que mantuve con el padre Devi P. Pattanayak, cuando yo estudiaba bajo su tutela en el Central Institute of Indian Languages Manacagangotei de Mysore. Respecto a los fundamentos de esta distinción, véase su obra _Aspects of Applied Linguistics_, Asia Publishing House, Nueva York, 1981. Se encuentra una prolongación de esta discusión en las actas del seminario internacional “In Search of Terminology”, enero de 1982, Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore 570006, India. Mis dos participaciones se convirtieron en capítulos de la obra que actualmente preparo sobre los valores vernáculos, con la perspectiva de una historia de la escasez. (Respecto al término “vernáculo”, véase la nota 51.) + +[^f2]: _Palabras clave_. La obra de Raymond Williams, _Keywords_: _A Vocabulary of Culture and Society_, Oxford University Paperback, Nueva York, 1976, me parece única en su género, y me dio la pista de las palabras clave. El autor nos hace compartir su sorpresa y pesar ante la precariedad de las palabras en las cuales había fundado el rigor de su pensamiento. Guiado por él, me esfuerzo en: _1)_ explorar los nuevos tipos de palabras clave; _2)_ discernir las condiciones bajo las cuales una red de palabras clave puede implantarse en el habla cotidiana. Al respecto me he inspirado eficazmente en _The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness_, Vintage Books, Nueva York, 1974, de Peter Berger, Brigitte Berger y Hansfried Keliner. Para una introducción a un tipo de semántica histórica específicamente alemán, véase Irmline Veit-Brause, “A note on _Begriffsgeschichte_” en _History and Theory_, 20, núm. 1, 1981, pp. 61-67. Respecto a las redes específicamente modernas de ciertos términos, estoy en deuda con Michel Foucault, _Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings_, _1972-1977_, Pantheon, Nueva York, 1981, y su obra anterior: _L’archéologie du savoir_, Gallimard, París, 1969. Respecto a la semántica comparativa de las palabras clave en las principales lenguas de Europa oriental, véase Johann Knobloch _et al_., eds., _Europäische Schlüsselwörter_, 3 vols., Max Hüber, Munich, 1963-1967. + +[^f3]: _Campos semánticos_. Para una bibliografía crítica internacional de las monografías y los diccionarios que exploran los campos semánticos, véase H. Gipper y J. Schwartz, _Bibliographisches Handbuch zur Sprachinhaltsforschung. Schrifttum zur Sprachinhaltsforschung in alpahabetischer Folge nach Verfassem, mit Besprechungen und Inhaltshinweisen_, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, Colonia, 1961. La obra sólo se completó hasta la letra L, pero dos índices temáticos de esta primera mitad existen ya. Como las palabras clave en el siglo XX revisten la apariencia de un sentido comúnmente admitido que trasciende cada lengua, su estudio requiere con frecuencia realizar comparaciones. Para el inglés, el instrumento principal es _A Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary_, R. W. Burchfield, ed., 3 vols., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1972, que contiene las palabras que “entraron en el lenguaje durante el periodo de las entregas de la obra” (el _Oxford English Dictionary_, o OED), es decir, de 1884 (primer fascículo de la letra A) a 1928 (último fascículo del diccionario), así como aquellos que entraron en la lengua inglesa en Gran Bretaña y el extranjero desde 1928 hasta la fecha. _The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles_, revisado y editado por C. T. Onions, tercera edición totalmente revisada, con etimologías corregidas por G. W. S. Friedrichsen y anexos revisados y corregidos, 2 vols., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1973, presenta en forma abreviada todos los elementos del OED, incluyendo los términos (y sus acepciones) arcaicos, obsoletos, dialectales o de la lengua vulgar del pasado. Es siempre útil H. L. Mencken, _The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States_, cuarta edición y los dos suplementos actualizados y anotados por Raven I. McDavid, Jr., asistido por David W. Maurer Knopf, Nueva York, 1980; de esta obra existe una edición de bolsillo abreviada que consta de un solo volumen. Para el francés, Paul Robert, _Dictionnaire alpha-bétique et analogique de la langue française_, Société du Nouveau Littré, París, segunda edición revisada y aumentada, 1977. El _Petit Robert 1_ es una excelente edición abreviada del _Grand Robert_ de seis volúmenes. Un intento de crear un equivalente francés histórico y exhaustivo del OED y de sus suplementos es el _Trésor de la langue française. Dictionnaire de la langue du XIXe et du XXe siècle (1789-1960)_ de Paul Imbs, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, París, obra iniciada en 1971 y que está por aparecer. Desgraciadamente, a partir del tomo tres el campo de esta obra ha sido severamente reducido. Para el español, yo prefiero a J. Corominas, _Diccionario crítico etimológico_, Gredos, Madrid, 1954-1957. Las adiciones, rectificaciones e índices se encuentran en el 4° tomo de la reimpresión Francke, Berna, 1979. La mayoría de los artículos contiene una bibliografía. En alemán, el _Deutsches Wörterbuch_ de Jakob y Wilhelm Grimm (en 1854 empezaron a aparecer los 16 volúmenes, que actualmente se encuentran en proceso de revisión) es apenas accesible. Es una obra práctica la de Hermann Paul, _Deutsches Wörterbuch_, quinta edición enteramente revisada y aumentada por N. Werner Betz Niemeyer, Tubinga, 1966. Puesto que el pensamiento alemán se interesa particularmente en la historia de las ideas y en la historia de los conceptos, en el idioma alemán existen dos grandes obras de referencia que no tienen igual en otras lenguas y que con frecuencia resultan útiles en la investigación de las palabras clave en las lenguas europeas: Joachim Ritter, ed., _Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie_, Schwabe, Basilea, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, comenzado en 1971, obra que contendrá 10 volúmenes (seis ya han aparecido); Otto Brunner, Werner Conze, Reinhart Koselleck, ed., _Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexicon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland_, E. Klett, Stuttgart, comenzado en 1972 y en proceso de publicación, obra que estará integrada por 130 monografías en torno a temas y conceptos sociopolíticos. Para el italiano, Salvatore Battaglia, _Grande Dizionario della lingua italiana_ (director de redacción Giorgio Barberi Squarotti), Unione Tipografico Turín, comenzado en 1961 y en proceso de publicación, ya han aparecido los volúmenes uno al ocho; éste es un diccionario histórico de la lengua italiana, y sus índices permiten la consulta práctica de numerosas citas, antiguas y modernas. Para contraponer los sinónimos vernáculos con el “sentido único” de las palabras clave, hube de recurrir a Carl Darling Buck, _A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages: A Contribution to the History of Ideas_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1949. + +[^f4]: _Lo humano_. Hasta el siglo XVIII, humano era todo lo que estaba relacionado con la especie humana, pero todo _humano_ era un hombre, una mujer o un niño. El término “humanidad” había tenido una evolución diferente, aunque relacionada. A partir del siglo XIV, tuvo el significado de cortesía, civilidad (como el italiano _umanità_). A partir el siglo XVI adoptó también el sentido de bondad, generosidad. El empleo del término “humanidad” para designar al género humano, su acepción más común en nuestros días, sólo comienza en el siglo XVIII. Lo “humano” hoy en día posee este sentido abstracto. Además, califica a la _falibilidad excusable_, el error humano. Véase al respecto Williams, _op. cit_., en la nota 2, pp. 121 ss. Para una bibliografía sobre el concepto y el término, véase Michael Landmann, _Philosophical Anthropology_, Westminster Press, Filadelfia, 1974. + +[^f5]: _Individualismo fuera de género_. Los historiadores, incluyendo los que estudian las ideas económicas, no se han dado cuenta de que la desaparición del género crea el tema de la ciencia económica. Marcel Mauss fue el primero en ver que “nuestras sociedades occidentales sólo recientemente han hecho del hombre un _animal económico_” (1909). El hombre occidental es el _homo œconomicus_. Decimos que una sociedad se ha “occidentalizado” cuando sus instituciones son restructuradas en previsión del mercado, es decir, de la producción de mercancías para satisfacer las necesidades básicas. Véase al respecto Karl Polanyi, _The Great Transformation_, Beacon Press, Boston, 1944; traducción francesa, Gallimard, París, 1983. Respecto a la influencia de Polanyi, véase S. C. Humphreys, “History, Economics and Anthropology: The Work of Karl Polanyi”, _History and Theory_, 9, núm. 2, 1968, pp. 165-212. La definición nueva del hombre en cuanto sujeto y cliente de una economía _disembedded_ (“desincrustada”, separada de las relaciones sociales) tiene su historia. Para una iniciación a esta historia, recomiendo Louis Dumont, _Homo æqualis_, Gallimard, París, 1977. La percepción que de sí mismo tiene el ser como individuo _humano_ y la exigencia de una satisfacción institucional igualitaria de las necesidades, constituyen una ruptura respecto a todas las demás formas premodernas de la aprehensión de sí. Pero tanto los motivos como la forma de esta discontinuidad radical de la conciencia de sí siguen siendo muy controvertidos. Para una orientación en torno a esta discusión, véase Marshall Sahlins, _Culture and Practical Reason_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1976; traducción francesa: _Au cœur des sociétés. Raison utilitaire et raison culturelle_, Gallimard, París, 1980. Sahlins define la diferencia entre el ayer y el hoy como un “modo distintivo de producción simbólica” que es propio de la civilización occidental. No he de discutir este punto. Pero sostengo que existe una profunda discontinuidad entre todas las formas antiguas de la existencia y el individualismo occidental, y que este cambio constituye una ruptura fundamental. Reside principalmente en la _pérdida del género_. Esta pérdida del género social no ha sido tomada en consideración por la historia del individualismo. Una historia del individualismo económico debe comenzar con Élie Halévy, _La Formation du radicalisme philosophique_, 3 vols., Félix Alcan, París, 1900-1903; está agotada la edición francesa, que jamás ha sido reeditada; existe una reedición reciente en inglés, _The Growth of Philosophical Radicalism_, Faber & Faber, Londres, 1972. Halévy describe detalladamente las vías muy contradictorias que siguieron los diversos discípulos de Bentham. Califica a Bentham y a sus discípulos de “radicales” por haber roto deliberadamente con las corrientes filosóficas anteriores. Sobre la profunda transformación de la estructura de la personalidad que dio origen a la clase obrera inglesa entre 1790 y 1830, véase E. P. Thompson, _The Making of the English Working Class_, Random Press House, Nueva York, 1966. El utilitarismo podía conducir a la defensa de un paternalismo burocrático fundado en la intervención legislativa, o a la preconización del individualismo anárquico y de la doctrina del _laissez-faire_. Halévy muestra que los discípulos de Bentham se dividieron entre ambas orientaciones. Véase también Leszek Kolakowski, _Main Currents in Marxism: Its Rise, Growth and Dissolution_, 3 vols., Oxford University Press, Londres, 1978. La historia social de nuestros tiempos que ha sido interpretada por el marxismo es la historia del conflicto entre grupos que se adhieren a estas corrientes opuestas surgidas de los principios utilitaristas. Dumont ( _op. cit_) estudia los rasgos fundamentales comunes a las corrientes utilitaristas. Procede con un sólido análisis de los textos de Mandeville, Locke, Smith y Marx. Todos estos ven en el “humano” un “individuo” determinado por necesidades fundamentales basadas en el postulado de la escasez universal. La significación del “individuo” es expuesta en C. B. MacPherson, _The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke_, Oxford University Press, Londres, 1962; traducción francesa: _La Théorie politique de l’individualisme possessif de Hobbes à Locke_, Gallimard, París, 1971, _The Real World of Democracy (idem_, 1966) y _Democratic Theory: Essays on Retrieval (idem_, 1972). El autor funda firmemente su intuición en el rasgo común fundamental de los individuos que subyace en todo el pensamiento democrático moderno, a saber, su carácter _posesivo_. Muestra que todos los humanismos del siglo XIX y del XX se basan en el valor supremo del individuo posesivo, que evoluciona personalmente, con libertad —en la medida en que la libertad se ve como una posesión, donde el individuo se libera de todos los lazos no económicos que lo ligan con sus semejantes—. Por mi parte, estimo que una característica adicional constituye con igual derecho el sujeto de la teoría y la práctica sociales modernas: _el individuo posesivo no tiene género_, antropológicamente es un simple neutro sexuado. Lógicamente, como he de mostrarlo, sólo el individuo que es a la vez posesivo y sexuado responde al postulado de la escasez en que está fundada toda economía política. La “identidad” institucional del _homo œconomicus_ excluye el género. Es un _neutrum œconomicum_. La desaparición del género es por ende un dato primordial de la historia de la escasez y de las instituciones que la estructuran. + +[^f6]: _Individualismo envidioso_. El individuo contemporáneo, sin género y posesivo, que es el sujeto de la economía, gobierna su vida en función de consideraciones de utilidad marginal. Toda decisión económica está relacionada con una percepción de la escasez y en consecuencia tiende hacia una forma de envidia que era desconocida en el pasado. Las instituciones _productivas_ modernas nutren el individualismo envidioso al mismo tiempo que lo ocultan —las instituciones del pasado, orientadas hacia la subsistencia, buscaban reducirlo y denunciarlo—. Ésta es la tesis de Paul Dumouchel y Jean-Pierre Dupuy en sus respectivos ensayos en _L’enfer des choses: René Girard et la logique de l’économie_, Seuil, París, 1979. Los autores ponen al descubierto el contraste tipológico entre las instituciones modernas que engendran y luego disfrazan la envidia, y aquellas que tenían la función inversa —a las que han remplazado—. Cada cual, en su exposición, aplica en la economía los resultados del análisis literario que René Girard desarrolla en _Mensonge romantique et vérité romanesque_, Grasset, París, 1961. Véase también, del mismo autor, _La violence et le sacré_, 1972\. Girard busca en la novela del siglo XIX las pruebas de la transformación histórica del deseo: la evolución de las “necesidades” que se basa en una comparación envidiosa con lo que otro desea. En lugar de aplicar las categorías freudianas a los personajes de Dostoievski, analiza a Freud a través de los ojos de los hermanos Karamazov. Con esta perspectiva, el llamado progreso económico muestra ser la propagación del deseo triangular o “mimético”. La historia del individualismo económico coincide con la modernización de la envidia. En el presente ensayo, pretendo investigar la aparición de un tipo de envidia que es característica de las relaciones entre los sexos y que nace en la sociedad cuando el género desaparece. Respecto al tema de la envidia, cuya historia aún no ha sido escrita, véase el texto fundamental de la antropología de la envidia: George M. Foster, “Peasant Society and the Image of Limited Goods”, _American Anthropologist_, 67, núm. 2, abril de 1965, pp. 293-315, y “The Anatomy of Envy: A Study in Symbolic Behavior”, _Current Anthropology_, 13, núm. 2, abril, 1972, pp. 165-202. “Cuando experimenta la amenaza constante que la envidia representa para él mismo y para la sociedad, el hombre siente temor: teme las consecuencias de su envidia y las consecuencias de la envidia de los demás. De ahí resulta que en toda sociedad la gente recurre a ciertas formas culturales, simbólicas o no, a fin de neutralizar, reducir o dominar los peligros que ven surgir de la envidia, particularmente su temor de la envidia.” Respecto a la percepción de la envidia en la Antigüedad clásica, véase Svend Ranulf, _The Jealousy of the Gods and Criminal Law in Athens: A Contribution to the Sociology of Moral Indignation_, 2 vols., Williams & Norgate, Londres, 1933-1934. Respecto a la _hybris_ que suscita la Némesis: David Greene, _Greek Political Theory: The Image of Man in Thucydides and Plato_, University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Books, Chicago, 1965, y E. R. Dodds, _The Greeks and the Irrational_, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1968, especialmente el capítulo 2. Respecto a la actitud relacionada con la envidia al final de la Antigüedad clásica, es interesante un estudio sobre el aspecto contrario: R. A. Gauthier, _Magnanimité: l’idéal de la grandeur dans la philosophie païenne et dans la théologie chrétienne_, Vrin, París, 1951. Sobre la visión cristiana del “vicio” de la envidia, véase el artículo “Envidia” de Édouard Ranwez en _Dictionnaire de spiritualité_, Beauchesne, París, comenzado en 1932, en proceso de edición, pp. 744-785; también, Lester K. Little, “Pride Goes Before Avarice: Social Changes and the Vices in Latin Christendom”, _The American Historical Review_, 76, febrero, 1971, pp. 16-49. En torno a la iconografía medieval de la envidia, Mireille Vincent-Cassy, “L’envie au Moyen Âge”, _Annales ESC_, 35, núm. 2, marzo-abril de 1980, pp. 253-271, y “Quelques réflexions sur l’envie et la jalousie en France au XIVe siècle”, en Michel Mollat, _Études sur l’histoire de la pauvreté (moyen âge-XVIe siècle)_, publicaciones de la Sorbonne, París, 1974, serie Études, tomo 8, pp. 487-503. Una “historia de la envidia” no podría tener nada en común con las investigaciones realizadas por los psicólogos o los sociólogos modernos que imputan a la gente de otros tiempos lo que consideran ser la “envidia”. He aquí dos ejemplos de esta especie de estudios: Melanie Klein, _Envy and Gratitude_, Delacorte Press, Nueva York, 1957, especialmente pp. 176-235 (traducción francesa: _Envie et gratitude et autres essais_, Gallimard, París, 1968, que parte del postulado freudiano de la envidia innata que las mujeres tienen respecto al pene; y Helmut Schoeck, _Envy: A Theory of Social Behaviour_, Harcourt, Brace and World, Nueva York, 1970 (traducción alemana: _Der Neid und die Gesellschaft_, Herder, Friburgo, 4a edición, 1974), que pasa totalmente por alto el hecho de que la emoción y la percepción de la envidia poseen una historia. Entre los hombres y las mujeres, la denigración y la maledicencia no son fenómenos nuevos, pero la institucionalización de la inagotable comparación envidiosa entre individuos desprovistos de género es históricamente inédita. + +[^f7]: _Sexo y sexismo_. La palabra _sexo_ viene del latín _sexus_, que pertenece a la familia _secare_ (cortar) cuya raíz _sec_\- indica división: sec-ción, seg-mento. Gramaticalmente, la palabra _sexus_ siempre debe acompañarse del calificativo _virilis_ (masculino) o _muliebris_ (femenino). Durante la Ilustración, cuando lo “humano” asumió la forma de un ideal, la lengua francesa restringe el término a las mujeres. La _Enciclopédie_ de Diderot le da 10 líneas: _“El sexo_ en sentido absoluto, o más bien _el bello sexo_, es el epíteto que se da a las mujeres … las más caras delicias del ciudadano apacible… cuya feliz fecundidad perpetua los amores y las gracias …” Será solamente durante el último cuarto del siglo XIX cuando el término tomará un sentido común para hombres y mujeres, aunque sin dejar de implicar diferencias morfológicas y psicológicas. Pero designa en ellos y ellas una especie de sistema de canalización de una energía agenérica que Freud habría de llamar “libido”. El sexo moderno desconoce el género, tal como lo muestra claramente el término “sexualidad”. Paradójicamente, en su función de palabra clave, el sexo es agenérico. Y la formación de la sexualidad agenérica es una de las condiciones necesarias para la aparición del _homo œconomicus_. Ésta es la razón por la que contrapongo el _sexo económico_ al _género vernáculo_. Pienso que el primero muestra la polaridad de caracteres comunes, el segundo, una dualidad complementaria. Tanto el género como el sexo son realidades sociales que no tienen más que una tenue relación con la anatomía. El sexo económico individualizado es todo lo que queda del género social en el seudo género del humano contemporáneo _sexuado_. El género no puede florecer en un medio ambiente estructurado por la economía. Y, sin embargo, la expoliación del medio ambiente social apropiado para el género vernáculo sigue siendo ignorada por los ecologistas. Es evidente que aquí empleo los términos _género_ y _sexo_ en calidad de “tipos ideales”, en el sentido weberiano. Véase Max Weber, _Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre_, Mohr, Tubinga, 1922 (traducción francesa: _Essais sur la théorie de la science_, Plon, París, 1965). Un tipo ideal ( _Idealtypus_) es una construcción conceptual ( _ein Gedankenbild_) que no es una realidad histórica y ni siquiera una “verdadera” realidad. No puede servir como medida de una situación o de una acción real. Es un concepto _limitante_ ideal al que se le _compara_ la situación o la acción real para explicar algunos de los componentes importantes de éstas. Tal como yo los empleo, “género” y “sexo” son conceptos limitantes ideales que designan una polaridad: la transformación industrial de la sociedad que se convierte en un sistema “sexualizante” y ya no más “generizante”. Tanto para el género como para el sexo, la anatomía no es más que la materia prima, pues ambos transforman los órganos genitales en realidades sociales. El género transforma al pene en incontables tipos de _phalloi_; el sexo no produce más que el internacional, el amenazador, el envidiado “pene”. (Respecto a la homogenización análoga de la matriz y la vagina, véanse notas 87 y 90). Gayle Rubin (véanse notas 22 y 76) subraya el hecho de que en los grupos _humanos_ la existencia de sistemas genéricos es universal, sea cual fuere la muy amplia diversidad estructural de tales sistemas. Y no obstante, independientemente de su configuración única, cada sociedad posee una ideología que expone la inmutabilidad de las categorías del género. Estoy de acuerdo con ello, pero he de añadir que la sociedad _sexuada_ posee una ideología que expone la irrevocable decadencia del género (respecto al patriarcado como oposición del sexismo, véase la nota 21). En torno a la gama de sutiles variaciones de los símbolos del género, véanse las notas 116 y 117, así como L. Kriss-Rettenbeck, _“Feige”; Wort, Gebärde, Amulett_, Munich, 1955, y M. L. Wagner, “Phallus, Horn und Fisch. Lebendige und verschüttete Vorstellungen und Symbole, vornehmlich im Bereich des Mittelmeerbeckens”, en _Domum Natalicium_, Carol Jaberg, Zurich, 1973, pp. 77-130. + +[^f8]: _Degradación del medio ambiente_. Cada vez son más evidentes los límites que modifican los postulados fundamentales de la economía política. Aunque la ecología, en cuanto ciencia y sistema de ideas, tiene una historia todavía reciente, va ganando en madurez. Hace referencia cada vez más a su propia historia, signo de una disciplina que se hace “adulta”. El término _Ökologie_ (que en francés se adoptó al principio con la ortografía _Œcologie_) fue creado en 1866 por E. Haeckel en una investigación sobre la morfología general de los organismos que realizó con base en una perspectiva evolucionista darwiniana. Robert P. McIntosh, “The Background and Some Current Problems of Theoretical Ecology”, _Synthese_, 43, 1980, pp. 195-255, proporciona una historiografía crítica y analítica de la ecología en las ciencias biológicas. La ecología como ciencia política tiene un origen mucho más reciente. En torno a la discusión sobre el tema, véase William Ophuls, _Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity: Prologue to a Political Theory of Steady State_, W. H. Freeman, New York, 1977. En mi concepto, la ecología no habrá de madurar si no incorpora dos distinciones que actualmente descuida: la distinción jurídica entre los _ámbitos de comunidad_ y los _recursos productivos_ (véase nota 10) y la distinción entre los ámbitos complementarios y el espacio agenérico. + +[^f9]: _Contraproductividad_. La _contraproductividad_ es un indicador social que mide la frustración particular que produce el consumo obligatorio de una mercancía o de un servicio en un grupo o una clase. Algunos ejemplos: las frustraciones causadas por los transportes, que en la medida que se multiplican y se hacen más rápidos producen mayor pérdida de tiempo; por el tratamiento médico, más nefasto que la enfermedad; por la educación pública o los medios de información que más que nada embrutecen; por la tutela política o social que engendra a drogadictos de la “asistencia institucional”. Es posible ver en este fenómeno una medida de la _intensidad_ de las privaciones que las instituciones modernas infligen — _por necesidad técnica_— a la mayoría de sus clientes, por no cumplir con los objetivos para las que fueron creadas y financiadas por el erario —por ejemplo, la rapidez de los transportes—. La contraproductividad no es el congestionamiento, que también genera insatisfacción, sino la gran cantidad de cosas que estorban su funcionamiento, ya sean los vehículos, las materias que se imparten en las escuelas o las terapias. Yo veo en la contraproductividad el resultado de un _monopolio radical de las mercancías sobre los valores vernáculos_, que yo aún llamaba “valores de uso” en _La convivencialidad_, véase vol. I, 2006, particularmente el apartado _El equilibrio múltiple_, y en _Energía y equidad_. En último análisis, este monopolio radical procede de la transformación de los ámbitos de comunidad —por ejemplo, aquellos donde el derecho tradicional reconocía el “derecho del paso” peatonal— en utilidades públicas necesarias para la producción o la circulación de las mercancías. Escribí _Némésis médica_, véase vol. I, 2006, para ilustrar cómo la contraproductividad opera claramente en los niveles de la técnica, de la estructura social y del símbolo cultural. Como lo demuestran JeanPierre Dupuy, _Valeur sociale et encombrement du temps. Monographie du séminaire d’économétrie_, CNRS, París, 1975, y Jean-Pierre Dupuy y Jean Robert, _La trahison de l’opulence_, PUF, París, 1976, la contraproductividad no es la medida de las molestias individuales que las iniciativas políticas o técnicas podrían suprimir, sino un indicador social que refleja las particularidades tecnológicas. Wolfgang Sachs ha esclarecido el problema para su previsible discusión pública en _Are Energy-Intensive Life-Images Fading? The Cultural Meaning of the Automobile in Transition_, Technische Universität, Berlín, manuscrito, octubre de 1981. Véanse también las notas 60 y 112. + +[^f10]: _Reapropiación de los bienes de los ámbitos de comunidad_. El término _communaux_ es antiguo en el francés, y lo es también en otras lenguas: _commons_ en inglés, _Almende_ o _Gemeinheit_ en alemán. Véase Iván Illich, _Das Recht auf Gemeinheit_, Rowohlt, Hamburgo, 1981, especialmente la introducción, y _gli usi civici_ en italiano. Los ámbitos de comunidad eran las tierras a las que todos los habitantes de una comunidad tenían derechos de uso adquiridos, no para extraer una ganancia monetaria sino para asegurar la subsistencia familiar. Los ámbitos de comunidad son esa parte del medio ambiente cuyo usufructo está garantizado por la ley de la costumbre, respecto a las cuales ésta impone formas específicas de respeto comunitario. Pienso exponer en una obra mía sobre los _Valores vernáculos_ (véase nota 1) en la que estoy trabajando, la degradación de los ámbitos de comunidad con el propósito de transformarlos en recursos productivos. Aquellos que luchan por la preservación de la biosfera y aquellos que rechazando un estilo de vida caracterizado por el monopolio de las mercancías sobre las actividades intentan recuperar poco a poco la capacidad de vivir fuera del régimen mercantil de la escasez, convergen actualmente en una alianza nueva en el seno de la cual todas las corrientes tienden a la recuperación y aumento de los _ámbitos de comunidad_. Esta realidad social que está en vías de surgir y converger es llamada por André Gorz el “archipiélago de la convivencialidad”. El instrumento principal para la cartografía de este nuevo mundo es la obra de Valentina Borremans, _Guide to Convivial Tools_, Special Report núm. 13, _Library Journal_, 1180 Sixth Avenue, Nueva York, 1980, guía razonada que registra más de 1 000 bibliografías, catálogos, periódicos, etc. Se pueden encontrar informes periódicos sobre la lucha por los nuevos ámbitos de comunidad en publicaciones como _Trans-National Network for Appropriate Technology_ (Tranet), P. O. Box 567, Rangeley, Maine 04980, Estados Unidos de América, y el _CoEvolution Quarterly_ (director: Stuart Brand, P. O. Box 428, Sausalito, California 94965, Estados Unidos de América). + +[^f11]: _Escasez_. Empleo aquí este término en el sentido estricto que le dan los economistas desde que L. Walras lo empleó por vez primera con esta precisa significación en 1874. La escasez define el campo en el que las leyes de la economía relacionan a: _1) sujetos_ (individuos posesivos, envidiosos, agenéricos, bien se trate de personas o de compañías); _2) instituciones_ (que nutren simbólicamente a la _mimesis_); y _3) mercancías_, en el seno de un medio ambiente donde los ámbitos de comunidad han sido transformados en _recursos_, privados o públicos. No hay que confundir la escasez en este sentido y lo escaso en su sentido usual de “raro”, cuando se habla de: _1)_ aves _raras_ que interesan a los ornitólogos; _2)_ un régimen alimenticio _frugal_, como el de los camelleros del desierto desde hace siglos; _3)_ una alimentación _deficiente_, según el trabajador social que visita a una familia pobre; _4)_ las _últimas reservas_ de trigo en la aldea francesa del siglo XI (allí la costumbre o la violencia se encargaban de que todos pudieran obtener su parte, por pequeña que fuera). Aunque aún no es realmente una historia de la escasez, una fuente útil de referencias y bibliografías se halla en Bálint Balla, _Soziologie der Knappheit. Zum Verständnis individueller und gesellschaftlicher Mängelzustände_, Enke, Stuttgart, 1978. Niklas Luhman, “Knappheit, Geld und die Bürgerliche Gesellschaft”, _Jahrbuch für Sozialwissenschaft_, 23, 1972, pp. 186-210, identifica cinco características de la “contingencia social” en relación con la creencia contemporánea (que no ha sido impugnada) del régimen de la escasez. Históricamente, el régimen de la escasez llegó a instalarse gracias a la proliferación del dinero como medio (poco abundante) de intercambio; véase Karl Polanyi, “Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies”, en _Essays of Karl Polanyi_, Beacon Press, Boston, 1971, pp. 175-203. El autor diferencia las utilizaciones del dinero: como medio de conservación de los valores, como patrón del valor y como medio de intercambio. Respecto a las teorías psicoanalíticas que pretenden explicar los orígenes de la escasez, véase Ernest Borneman, _Psychoanalyse des Geldes_, Suhrkamp, Francfort de Meno, 1975, compilación de ensayos de 24 autores. Si no se establece filosófica y legalmente la distinción entre los recursos productivos escasos y los ámbitos de comunidad compartidos, la _sociedad rígidamente estatal_ en un futuro cercano habrá de ser un expertocracia oligárquica, no democrática, autoritaria, gobernada por los ecologistas. Al respecto véase la demostración sólidamente argumentada de William Ophuls, _Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity_, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1979. La desaparición del género y la intensidad y variedad crecientes de las escaseces son dos caras del mismo proceso de _occidentalización_ (véase nota 5). Por esta razón, yo considero que estos capítulos sobre el género son los estudios preliminares de una historia de la escasez. + +[^f12]: _Dualidad_. Un método clásico del análisis sociológico consiste en emplear alguna forma de dualidad. La dualidad que propongo no está relacionada con ninguna de las que conozco. En ésta, la complementariedad asimétrica del género se contrapone a la polarización de las características homogéneas que distinguen al sexo social. Si me estuviera dirigiendo a matemáticos, hablaría de pares homomórficos de ámbitos extraídos de espacios heterogéneos. Es posible medir la complejidad del asunto en Lynda Glennon, _Women and Dualism. A Sociology of Knowledge Analysis_, Longman, Nueva York, 1979. Mediante un análisis del contenido de textos feministas, la autora expone las recientes discusiones en torno a la lógica de la dualidad que las feministas han llevado a cabo, y con base en éstas la impugnación de las “leyes” clásicas de la sociología con sus numerosas dualidades analíticas. Centra esencialmente su estudio en las tipologías dicotómicas que han aparecido desde Ferdinand Tönnies, limitándose a citar las anteriores. Según la autora, con la oposición que estableció entre _Gemeinschaft_ y _Gesellschaft_ (1887), Tönnies irrigó el terreno donde se cultivarían las demás dualidades modernas: sociedad de estatus y sociedad de contrato en Maine; forma militar (de lucha) y forma industrial (de cooperación), en Spencer; Estado de conquista y Estado de cultura en Ratzenhofer; polaridad natural y polaridad cultural en Wundt; solidaridad mecánica y orgánica en Durkheim; grupos primarios y grupos secundarios (implícitos) en Cooley; relación comunitaria y relación societaria en MacIver; comunidades locales y cosmopolitas en Zimmerman; régimen de Estado (civilización) y _folk society_ (cultura popular) en Odum; el continuo urbano de la _folk society_ en Redfield; las relaciones familiares y las relaciones contractuales en Sorokin; las sociedades sagradas y las sociedades seculares en Becker… Gracias a Tönnies también se crean otras dualidades más “generales”: primitivo/civilizado; lector/analfabeta; rural/urbano; primacía de lo público o de lo privado, del matriarcado o del patriarcado (véase nota 54). Aquí contrapongo otras dos dualidades, la del género y la del sexo. Sostengo que aparte del hecho de que son dos dualidades sociales relacionadas con una distinción genital, poca cosa tienen en común. + +[^f13]: _Trabajo y sexo_. “Trabajo” y “empleo” son vocablos claves de nuestro tiempo; véase J. Knobloch, ed ., _op. cit_. en la nota 2, II, pp. 258-354, y O. Brunner, W. Konze y R. Koselleck, eds., _op. cit_. en la nota 3, volumen I, pp. 154-243. El vocabulario relacionado con el trabajo es recien-te y más que nada técnico: Arthur E. Bestor, Jr., “The Evolution of the Socialist Vocabulary”, _Journal of the History of Ideas_, 9, núm. 3, junio, 1948, pp. 259-302. En la mayoría de las lenguas no europeas la traducción del término ha presentado grandes dificultades; existe una bibliografía sobre el tema en Iván Illich, “El derecho al desempleo creador”, _Tecno-Política_, doc. 78/11, apdo. 479, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. En la época medieval, la relación entre trabajo y retribución es tenue: véase Helmut Stahleder, _Arbeit in der mittelalterlichen Geselschaft_, Neue Schriftenreihe des Stadtarchivs München, Munich, 1972. Las actitudes relacionadas con esta relación han cambiado lentamente con la mecanización: Lynn White, Jr., “Medieval Engineering and the Sociology of Knowledge”, _Pacific Historical Review_, 44, 1975, pp. 1-21. Martín Lutero fue el único que le dio al trabajo un sentido contemporáneo: véase Hildburg Geist, “Arbeit: die Entscheidung eines Wortwertes durch Luther”, _Luther Jahrbuch_ (1931), pp. 83-113. Descubrió que el trabajo en cierto sentido era loable en sí mismo. “Fue el auténtico inventor de la doctrina moderna que afirma que en el trabajo hay algo intrínsecamente digno y meritorio, y que el hombre que labora a pleno sol es más agradable a Dios que el que descansa a la sombra.” (H. L. Mencken, _op. cit_. en la nota 3). La historia de la discriminación sexista en el trabajo coincide con la lenta promoción del empleo salariado al rango de prototipo del trabajo que es digno, gratificante, significativo y accesible para todos. Todavía durante gran parte del siglo XVIII, la fracción relativamente pequeña de los salariados podía subsistir principalmente porque vivía en casa de los patrones: Bronislav Geremek, _Le salariat dans l’artisanat parisien aux XIIIe–XVe siècles_, Mouton, París, 1968. La necesidad de sobrevivir gracias a un salario no es simplemente un signo de pobreza, sino de miseria. Éste es uno de los grandes temas de Michel Mollat, _Études sur l’histoire de la pauvreté, op. cit_. en la nota 6. En la Edad Media, a los pobres se les reconoció un conjunto de derechos legales que no tenía relación alguna con el trabajo: G. Couvrier, _Les pauvres ont ils des droits_? _Recherches sur le vol en cas d’extrême nécessité depuis la Concordia de Gratien (1140) jusqu’a Guillaume d’Auxerre, mort en 1231_, Univ. Gregoriana, Roma/París, 1961. Véase también B. Tierney, _Medieval Poor Law: A Sketch of Canonical Theory and Its Applications in England_, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1959. Respecto a las actitudes hacia el trabajo salariado en la Florencia de los Medicis, véase Judit C. Brown y Jordan Goodman, “Women and Industry in Florence”, _Journal of Economic History_, 40, núm. 1, marzo, 1980, pp. 73-80. Este estudio se dirige a dos talleres florentinos, uno edificado en 1561, el otro en 1642. Cuando el sector artesanal creció a partir de fines del siglo XVI, los hombres dejaron la producción textil por los oficios de lujo, más lucrativos. Las mujeres fueron empleadas casi exclusivamente en las industrias de la lana, de la seda y de la tela, que, respondiendo a la nueva demanda, abandonaron la producción de vestidos de lujo y adoptaron la de prendas menos elaboradas cuya confección era más fácil rutinariamente. Así, cierta forma de división de los sexos se instalaba en el trabajo salariado, pero no una división entre actividades destinadas al mercado y las que no lo estaban. Los hombres proporcionaban la fuerza de trabajo artesanal, muy especializada, y las mujeres la mano de obra ordinaria, poco especializada, relacionada con el hilado, el tejido y la costura. A partir de entonces, con la expansión y la generalización del trabajo salariado, la discriminación económica de las mujeres no ha dejado de aumentar. Cada vez más, las mujeres ven en sus ganancias inferiores la prueba constantemente administrada de su inferior valor económico. Por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos las posibilidades que las mujeres tenían de entrar en diversos sectores eran mucho mayores durante el periodo colonial que a mediados del siglo XIX: véase Elizabeth Anthony Dexter, _Career Women of America_, _1776-1840_, Clifton, N. J., Augustus Kelley, 1972. Para la comparación entre las ganancias y la duración del trabajo es imprescindible la obra de Edith Abbott, _Women in Industry: A Study in American Economic History_, Appleton, Nueva York, 1916. Para obtener materiales más recientes: tablas, estadísticas y bibliografía, véase Valerie Kincade Oppenheimer, _The Female Labor Force in the United States: Demographic and Economic Factors Governing Its Growth and Changing Composition_, Population Monograph núm. 5, University of California, Institute of International Studies, Berkeley, 1970, y Alice Kessler-Harris, “Women’s Wage Work as Myth and History “, _Labor History_, 19, 1978, pp. 287-307. + +[^f14]: _La creciente diferencia entre los salarios_. En los Estados Unidos, la diferencia entre los salarios de los hombres y los de las mujeres continúa aumentando, al mismo tiempo que aumentan la legislación antidiscriminatoria y el movimiento de reivindicación feminista organizado. Con la actual _stagflation_ (estancamiento e inflación combinados) podría alcanzar un récord todavía no superado: 55%. Es mayor que hace 20 años, aunque desde 1963 una ley federal supuestamente la combate. En 1956, la ganancia o la remuneración salarial anual media de una mujer empleada tiempo completo era de 2 827 dólares, es decir, 63% de la de un hombre (4 466 dólares); en 1973, la cifra equivalente para una mujer fue de 6 488 dólares, pero la de un hombre aumentó aún más rápido: 11 468 dólares. De esta manera, durante el mandato de Kennedy y la Guerra de Vietnam, la ganancia anual media de las mujeres decreció, no alcanzando más que 57% de la de los hombres. En otros países se puede constatar una diferencia comparable: Austria 64,4% (1975); Canadá 59% (1971); Francia 66.6% (1972); Suecia 86% (1974). Obtuve estas cifras de Ronnie Steinberg Ratner, _Equal Employment Policy for Women: Strategies for Implementation in the USA, Canada and Western Europe_, Temple University Press, Filadelfia, 1978, pp. 20-23. Esta es una compilación de estudios originales relacionados con diversos recursos institucionales, gracias a los cuales las posibilidades de igualdad en el empleo para las mujeres se hicieron “efectivas” durante los años de la posguerra: pero todas estas posibilidades “efectivas” en nada cambiaron la diferencia de los salarios (véase nota 15). Entre las naciones industriales, la única excepción fue Japón. En 1960, el salario medio de una mujer equivalía a 43% del de un hombre; en 1974 a 54%. Pero, simultáneamente, la discriminación _social_ de las mujeres se intensificó. Respecto al fondo de esta evolución, váse Kazuko Tsurumi, _Women in Japan: A Paradox of Modernization_, Sophia University, Institute of International Relations, Tokio, 1977. Para una bibliografía reciente, véase _Women at Work: An ILO News Bulletin_, núm. 2, Ginebra, International Labor Office for Women Worker’s Questions, 1979. Jeanne Mager Stellman, _Women’s Work, Women’s Health: Myths and Realities_, Pantheon, New York, 1977, proporciona útiles datos sobre los salarios de las mujeres, tanto monetarios como no monetarios (asistencia médica, por ejemplo), según los niveles de instrucción. Bibliografía sobre este tema: Mei Liang Bickner, _Women at Work: An Annotated Bibliography_, Manpower Research Center, Institute of Industrial Relations, University of California, Los Angeles, 2 vols., 1974 y 1977. Una forma de empleo particularmente femenina es el “servicio”, es decir, _las tareas domésticas retribuidas_; de todas las actividades modernas, es a la vez aquella que está más específicamente reservada a las mujeres, y aquella donde la diferencia entre los salarios masculinos y los salarios femeninos es más marcada. La primera gran historia de esta actividad económica —que también nació en el siglo XIX— acompañada de una orientación bibliográfica, se encuentra en la obra de David Katzman, _Seven Days a Week: Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing America_, Oxford University Press, Nueva York, 1978. Compárese con I. Davidoff y R. Hawthorn, _A Day in the Life of a Victorian Domestic Servant_, Allen & Unwin, Londres, 1976, y Pierre Guiral y Guy Thuillier, _La Vie quotidienne des domestiques en France au XIXe siècle_, Hachette, París, 1976. Mundialmente, la cifra de las mujeres que “sirven” es hoy muy superior a lo que era en el siglo XIX, pero la mayor parte está en el Tercer Mundo. Véase, por ejemplo, Elisabeth Jelin, “Migration and Labor Force Participation of Latin American Women: The Domestic Servant in the Cities”, _Signs_, 3, núm. 1, 1977, pp. 129-141. Las mujeres emigran más que los hombres hacia las ciudades. La demanda de sirvientas es literalmente ilimitada. En gran parte de América Latina es posible encontrar sirvientas en hogares ubicados en un nivel social tan bajo que, para hacer una comparación, habría que considerar las condiciones europeas en el siglo pasado. + +[^f15]: _Estadísticas sobre la discriminación_. Para extraer de los censos norteamericanos todo lo que este tipo de datos puede expresar, consúltese Robert Tsuchigane y Norton Dodge, _Economic Discrimination Against Women at Work_, Heath, Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., D. C., 1974. Representa un sobrio análisis estadístico y técnico de la discriminación salarial relacionada con las mujeres en los Estados Unidos. Los autores reconocen la complejidad de traducir los datos cuantitativos al concepto normativo de _discriminación total_. Cuando se trata de la diferencia, en la economía, de las ganancias totales de los hombres y las ganancias totales de las mujeres, la discriminación total se considera como la suma de tres tipos de discriminación: en el salario, en el oficio y en la participación. “… en la medida que, en el mismo empleo, las mujeres ganan menos que los hombres, existe discriminación salarial. Si la proporción de mujeres es mayor en los empleos con bajos salarios que en los empleos con altos salarios, existe discriminación en el oficio. Si la tasa de participación de las mujeres en la fuerza de trabajo es menor que la de los hombres, existe discriminación en la participación” (p. 6). Al comparar las cifras de los censos, particularmente los de 1960 y 1970, los autores constatan una ligera disminución de la discriminación total. ¿Pero de dónde procede? De una ligera disminución de la discriminación en el oficio (un poco más de mujeres tienen empleos mejor pagados), combinada con una disminución notable de la discriminación en la participación (un mayor porcentaje de las mujeres acudió todos los días al trabajo en 1970). En virtud del método de los autores, estas dos modificaciones de los datos hacen que se reduzca significativamente la discriminación total, a pesar de “un aumento considerable y sorprendente de la discriminación en los salarios durante el mismo periodo” (p. 16). Dicho de otra manera: si bien con la expansión de la economía un número creciente de mujeres “trabaja”, y si gracias a la presión de las feministas la diferencia de las ganancias entre la mayoría mal remunerada y la minoría bien retribuida se volvía casi la misma que existe entre los hombres, las mujeres en conjunto reciben actualmente, en relación con un empleo igual, una fracción todavía menor del salario que obtienen los hombres. Moshe Semyonov, “The Social Context of Women’s Labor Force Participation: A Comparative Analysis”, _American Journal of Sociology_, 86, núm. 3, 1980, pp. 534-550, confirma esta tendencia en el mundo entero, partiendo de datos relacionados con 61 sociedades y de amplias fuentes bibliográficas. La integración de un número creciente de mujeres en la mano de obra siempre ha dado por resultado la discriminación profesional. Por doquier, más mujeres “trabajan” y menos de ellas tienen la posibilidad de alcanzar una buena posición y un salario alto. Cuando se escrutan con atención las fuentes especializadas y las publicaciones poco conocidas, se puede ver que lo mismo sucede en la URSS: véase Alastair McAuley, _Women’s Work and Wages in the Soviet Union_, Allen & Unwin, Londres, 1979. La doble carga (tareas domésticas _más_ empleo) es al parecer más pesada allí. Los datos positivos respecto al trabajo de las mujeres soviéticas no conciernen a los salarios: el porcentaje de institutrices y de profesoras es mayor (en la URSS, éstas son profesiones mal remuneradas) y casi un tercio de los diputados son mujeres (desprovistas de poder y generalmente mudas). + +[^f16]: _Ritos institucionales_. Las instituciones modernas son contraproductivas. En el mejor de los casos, las buenas intenciones de ciertos individuos, ya sean médicos, maestros de escuela o cuadros feministas, hacen que la contraproductividad sea menos amarga. Un ejemplo entre muchos es el del sistema médico, que de hecho no puede más que amenazar la salud. Era éste el argumento de mi _Némesis médica_, que John Bradshaw reformuló de forma todavía más clara en _Doctors on Trial_, Wildwood House, Londres, 1979. De manera general, los servicios institucionales son rituales que ocultan tanto a los proveedores como a los clientes la distancia constantemente creciente entre el mito al _que aspiran y la realidad material que estructuran social-mente;_ véase Iván Illich, _La sociedad desescolarizada_, vol. I, capítulo II: “El ritual del progreso”. Hoy la reivindicación organizada de la igualdad económica para las mujeres, la “empresa feminista”, sigue el mismo esquema. Para apreciar la magnitud de esta empresa informal en el periodo 1960-1975, véase Marija Matich Hughes, _The Sexual Barrier: Legal, Medical, Economic and Social Aspects of Sex Discrimination_, Hughes Press, Washington, 1977. Hasta hoy la acción compensatoria en favor de la igualdad económica de las mujeres ha significado un vano intento de reducir la diferencia de los salarios para la mayoría. Su resultado ha sido la creación de empleos para las mujeres que defienden los derechos de las mujeres, y una considerable mejora del estatus, del salario y de las posibilidades de empleo para aquellas que se encontraban en puestos muy altos de la sociedad, sobre todo profesionales. Esto atestigua, por ejemplo, la creciente participación internacional de las mujeres en el ámbito médico, que ha sido bien documentada por Sandra L. Chaff en _Women in Medicine: A Bibliography of the Literature on Women Physicians_, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, N. J. ,1977. La asistencia técnica a las mujeres ha tenido el mismo efecto contraproductivo —la relativa indigencia de la mayoría— que la asistencia técnica internacional en el desarrollo económico de los países pobres. Para poder realizar la autocrítica necesaria, autocrítica que ha sido incapaz de emprender el sistema médico —como también los sindicatos, las fuerzas armadas y los partidos comunistas—, el feminismo tendría que impugnar seriamente el postulado según el cual sus metas fundamentales pueden lograrse efectivamente (y no sólo ritualmente) en un régimen de escasez. Con frecuencia se cita al sistema médico y al sistema educativo para ilustrar el desarrollo común de todas las instituciones de la era industrial _durante su expansión:_ se les obliga a producir de manera exponencial los símbolos que ocultan el hecho de que sus efectos son contrarios a sus objetivos. Sobre el apoyo sociopolítico paradójico a causas que inevitablemente son contraproductivas, véase la investigación teórica de Jean-Pierre Dupuy, “Épistémologie de l’économie et analyse de systèmes”, en Jacques Lesourne, ed., _la Notion de système dans les sciences contemporaines_, tomo II: _Epistémologie_, Aquisgrán, Librairie de l’Université, Aix-en-Provence, 1981. El crecimiento exponencial necesario para ocultar la contraproductividad no se limita a la medicina, la enseñanza y el transporte. Ya hace más de un siglo que la igualdad económica de las mujeres está en la agenda de cientos de organizaciones: Albert Krichmar, _The Women’s Rights Movement in the United States_, _1848-1970_. _A Bibliography and Sourcebook_, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, N. J., 1972. Decenas de miles de mujeres dedicaron su vida profesional a la lucha por alcanzar esta meta y constantemente registraron progresos en la tarea. Un número mucho mayor todavía invirtió su tiempo, su esfuerzo y su entusiasmo en esta causa. Los tres grandes sistemas modernos del derecho: el derecho romano, el derecho inglés y el derecho islámico, afirman la igualdad económica de las mujeres: Kathleen Newland, _The Sisterhood of Man: The Impact of Women’s Changing Roles on Social and Economic Life around the World_, Norton, Nueva York, 1979. La batalla legal contra la discriminación económica también continúa, y constantemente da a la luz boletines de “victorias”: _Women’s Rights Law Reporter_, Newark, N. J., Rutger’s Law School. Todo esto permanece sin producir efectos mensurables respecto a la única cuestión que cuenta y que cada vez más queda sumergida en las olas de la retórica y las satisfacciones ilusorias: la diferencia entre las ganancias de los hombres y las de las mujeres, que muestra la inferioridad económica de estas últimas. + +[^f17]: _Las mujeres y el derecho_. Todo derecho consuetudinario, no escrito, es intragenérico (véanse notas 80 a 83). El derecho escrito europeo es patriarcal (véanse nota 21) y el derecho del Estado-nación moderno es infaliblemente sexista. No se han estudiado suficientemente las repercusiones que en el estatus legal de la mujer ha tenido el pasaje del patriarcado al sexismo. _Sexual Divisions and Society: Process and Change_, Tavistock Publications, Londres, 1976, por Diana Leonard Barker y Sheila Allen, eds., reúne diversos estudios interesantes en este sentido, particularmente el de Yves Dézalay, “French Judicial Ideology in Working Class Divorce”, donde el autor comenta: “Las formulaciones jurídicas modernas, en su ambigüedad, confunden las obligaciones profesionales de los hombres y las obligaciones conyugales de las mujeres, definiendo como iguales las obligaciones recíprocas de ambas partes. De hecho, muchos hombres consideran que es por causa de su mujer que deben “matarse” en el trabajo, lo cual para ellos compensa todos los sacrificios que su mujer está obligada a realizar en el matrimonio”. Haría falta un estudio histórico que distinguiera: _1)_ el derecho intragenérico (que destaca la complementariedad ambigua y equilibrada entre los géneros); _2)_ el derecho patriarcal (que desprecia al género femenino), y _3)_ el derecho sexista (que deroga el género en favor de una quimérica igualdad entre los sexos). + +[^f18]: _Las mujeres en los países socialistas_. En un país industrializado la degradación relativa del valor económico de las mujeres no parece fundamentalmente afectada por la ideología política dominante. Se pueden citar dos estudios recientes: M. P. Sacks, “Unchanging Times: A Comparison of the Everyday Life of Soviet Working Men and Women between 1923 and 1966”, en D. Atkinson, A. Dallin y G. W. Lapidus, eds., _Women in Russia_, Harvester Press, Sussex, 1978, y A. Heitlinger, _Women and State Socialism: Sex Inequality in the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia_, Macmillan, Londres, 1979. Aunque son mecanismos diferentes, el plano económico y el mercado financiero son bastante precisos en su desvalorización de las mujeres; véase también A. McAuley, _op. cit_. en la nota 15. + +[^f19]: _Las mujeres y la recesión estructural_. El deterioro mundial de la actividad económica en los años setenta, y las tímidas recuperaciones que le siguieron, coincidieron con el final de un periodo que había visto un crecimiento neto de la participación de las mujeres en la mano de obra. Sin embargo, este auge de la fuerza de trabajo femenina se vio acompañado del desempleo femenino que se advirtió en todos los países del norte de América y de Europa occidental, con excepción de Gran Bretaña (donde al parecer las cifras oficiales sobre las trabajadoras desempleadas se subestiman en alrededor de 50%). Tal era la situación cuando la reducción general del empleo por todos conocida empezó a hacerse sentir. En la época las mujeres estaban más concentradas que los hombres en un pequeño número de industrias y una gama restringida de actividades, sobre todo el servicio doméstico. Al principio, las mujeres fueron en cierta medida protegidas de la recesión que inicialmente afectó a las industrias de la producción y a los oficios manuales donde ellas eran comparativamente pocas. Pero a medida que la caída se hizo general, las mujeres fueron más vulnerables a los recortes de personal y tuvieron mayores dificultades para volver a encontrar empleo, particularmente en los ámbitos tradicionalmente “masculinos”, donde los hombres ya competían entre sí. Véase Diane Werneke, “The Economic Slowdown and Women’s Employment Opportunities”, _International Labor Review_, 117, núm. 1, enero-febrero, 1978, pp. 37-52. Puede resultar útil la lectura de Marjorie Galenson, _Women and Work: An International Comparison_, Ithaca, Cornell University, 1973, en relación con las comparaciones internacionales sobre los empleos y sus salarios correspondientes. En las estadísticas sobre el desempleo, el número de mujeres actualmente se subestima, porque ellas abandonan más rápidamente que los hombres la búsqueda de empleo, el cual de todos modos tienen menos oportunidades de obtener. Véase Naciones Unidas, _The Economic Role of Women in the ECE Region_, U. N. Publications, Nueva York, 1980. + +[^f20]: _Violación sexista_. No existe todavía una historia social de la violación, en parte porque aún no se ha establecido una distinción clara entre la _violación moderna, sexista, que se ubica en las condiciones generales de la escasez, consideradas axiomáticamente_, y las formas milenarias de la posesión sexual de una mujer mediante la violencia. Lo que actualmente temen más las mujeres norteamericanas es la violación como expresión física suprema del sexismo moderno —y en el sexismo les asusta su hedor de violación moderna—. Según yo, la violación moderna es el producto implícito de la obliteración del género. No encuentro huella alguna de esta distinción en Susan Brownmiller, _Against Our Will_, Bantam, Nueva York, 1976, aunque implícitamente la reconoce Pamela Foa y Susan Roe Petersen en su contribución a la antología de Mary Vetterlin-Braggin _et al_., _Feminism and Philosophy_, Littlefield, Totowa, N. J., 1971; ambas afirman que la violación, como hecho social, refleja las actitudes de la sociedad respecto a las relaciones heterosexuales (más de esto en la nota 110). E. Shorter sostiene que es necesaria una historia de la violación en “On Writing the History of Rape”, _Signs_, 3, núm. 2, 1977, pp. 471-482, artículo que desató una controversia en la misma publicación. La dificultad de fundamentar estadísticamente lo que anteriormente declaro aparece en la lectura de Allan G. Johnson, “On the Prevalence of Rape in the United States”, _Signs_, 6, núm. 1, 1980, pp. 136-146. El autor protesta vigorosamente contra la afirmación de Shorter de que “los riesgos que corre una mujer normal de ser realmente violada (es decir, de estimar que ha experimentado una violación) son todavía mínimos” en los Estados Unidos. Johnson proporciona las cifras que muestran que una habitante urbana de 12 años corre el peligro de ser violada al menos una vez en su vida por alguien que no es ni su padre ni su marido, con una probabilidad que se puede situar entre uno sobre tres y uno sobre dos. El hecho de que es difícil que se admitan las declaraciones de violación muestra lo ardua que es la empresa de escribir una historia de la violación con base en las estadísticas. Precisamente esto es lo que debiera alentar la reflexión sobre la realidad social actual del miedo a la violación. Es más temida hoy que en el pasado. Las nuevas formas de ultraje sexista unidas a la brutalidad han creado algo diferente. Sucede lo mismo con la prostitución bajo el postulado de la escasez: el sexismo agrava con sus insultos una realidad que existe desde siempre. Para hacerse una idea de esta evolución de un “estado” a una “profesión”, comparárense los dos artículos de Jacques Rossiaud, “Prostitution, jeunesse et société dans les villes du Sud-Est au XVe siècle”, _Annales ESC_, 31, núm. 2, marzo-abril, 1976, pp. 289-325, y “Fraternités de jeunes et niveaux de culture dans les villes du Sud-Est à la fin du Moyen Âge”, _Cahiers d’histoire_, 21, 1967, pp. 67-102. Con la incorporación del “ama de casa” en la economía, mediante su transformación en trabajadora fantasma (mientras que anteriormente contribuía a la subsistencia), la realidad social de la prostituta también cambió radicalmente. La prostituta pertenecía a la minoría de las mujeres que ejercían una actividad que no estaba insertada en el mercado —sus servicios escapaban a la economía, al contrario de los de una señora “legítima” o de una sirvienta que participaban en la subsistencia del hogar. Pero cuando en el siglo XIX las mujeres hubieron de entrar en la economía oficial, sobre todo como trabajadoras fantasmas, la mujer honesta y la prostituta se vieron compitiendo entre sí: una rivalidad enteramente nueva, económica y por ende violenta, que hubo de conducir a la exclusión brutal e institucional de la prostitución, así como a su regulación. Para una introducción a los muy numerosos textos sobre tal proceso, véase Alain Corbin, _Les filles de noce_: _misère sexuelle et prostitution, XIXe et XXe siècles_, Aubier-Montaigne, París, 1978. + +[^f21]: _Patriarcado y sexismo_. La explicación más común del sexismo es el patriarcado, y muchos autores emplean indiferentemente uno y otro término. Por mi parte me preocupo por distinguir entre ambos (véase también la nota 7). Por “patriarcado” entiendo un esquema de dominación masculina en una sociedad bajo la égida (es decir, en griego, el escudo) del género. Más específicamente, en la historia europea el patriarcado representa la desigualdad del poder en las condiciones de complementariedad asimétrica del género, desigualdad que adquirió su estilo particular en la sociedad mediterránea de tiempos antiguos. Para Julian Pitt-Rivers, _The Fate of Shechem, or the Politics of Sex: Essays in the Anthropology of the Mediterranean_, Cambridge University Press, Nueva York y Londres, 1977, especialmente el capítulo 7, la política del sexo (que en las sociedades occidentales parece “natural”) se enturbió con la formación del Estado prehomérico. Los sistemas elementales de unión matrimonial, conforme a los cuales las mujeres eran cambiadas por otras mujeres, fueron a la sazón remplazados por un nuevo sistema, donde las mujeres eran cambiadas por una posición política. Jane Schneider, “Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies”, _Ethnology_, 10, 1971, pp. 1-24, identifica un conjunto singular de fuerzas ecológicas que fragmentaron a las sociedades pastoriles en pequeñas unidades económicas, las cuales no podían poseer la dimensión y la estratificación interna que eran típicas de las sociedades asiáticas, y que por lo tanto limitaban la capacidad de violencia organizada. En estas condiciones, las mujeres —en cuanto recursos— podían convertirse en causas de disputas, del mismo modo que el agua o los pastizales. Y lo que es más importante, la común preocupación que tenían por el “honor” de sus mujeres, de quienes eran los amos, era lo que frenaba la amenaza constante del conflicto mortal entre padres e hijos. Sherry B. Ortner, “The Virgin and the State”, _Michigan Discussions in Anthropology_, 2, otoño, 1976, pp. 1-16, va más lejos aún: tales condiciones propiciaron la formación de un dominio privado de los hombres que englobaba a las mujeres cuya pureza protegían, dominio que no coincidía simplemente con la esfera doméstica (en contraposición con la esfera pública). Según Jane Schneider, este tipo de dominio masculino y privado sobre la “pureza” de las mujeres es lo que distingue la hegemonía de un género en las sociedades de la cuenca mediterránea, de los sistemas homólogos en otras sociedades. Es por esta razón que yo no excluyo la posibilidad de cernir diferentes estilos de patriarcado, especialmente en el caso del “genero dislocado” (véanse las notas 77, 120 y 121). Entiendo por “patriarcado” una dominación asimétrica en el contexto del género (véase nota 83). Es evidente que el sexismo no es la prolongación, en las sociedades modernas, de aquellas relaciones de fuerza del patriarcado. El sexismo es una degradación individual de la mitad de la humanidad, con base en criterios sociobiológicos (notas 58 y 60) que anteriormente eran inconcebibles. Por esta razón es necesario apreciar la diferencia entre la atribución de un prestigio menor a las mujeres (en los países mediterráneos o en otros lugares) y la degradación individual de la mujer, quien en el régimen del sexo se ve forzada a competir con el hombre. Se encuentra una guía de los textos relacionados con las causas del sexismo en el empleo, en Natalie J. Sokoloff, “Bibliography of Women and Work: The 1970’s”, _Resources for Feminist Research/Documentation sur la recherche feministe_, Toronto, 1981, pp. 57-61. La autora propone interesantes categorías para clasificar las teorías que explican la posición de desventaja de las mujeres en el mercado del trabajo, pero utilizando conceptos que ignoran el género. El artículo no clasifica más que las publicaciones posteriores a 1970 relacionadas con eso que los sociólogos tienden a llamar “el trabajo”, es decir, principalmente el trabajo salariado, y la autora las ordena de acuerdo con las rúbricas siguientes: datos de base; crítica feminista de estos datos; teoría de la adquisición de estatus; teoría del doble mercado de trabajo; teoría de la estratificación de los sexos; sociología radical (marxista); modelos masculinos del mercado de trabajo de los teóricos del capitalismo monopolista contemporáneo; aplicación de estos modelos a las mujeres; feminismo marxista antiguo; mentoras feministas radicales del feminismo marxista de nuevo cuño. El hecho de ignorar la distinción entre género social y sexo social condujo a estos sociólogos a un análisis del conflicto actual igual al que se hacía en el pasado, viéndolo como un conflicto que oponía a dos clases de individuos: las mujeres y los hombres. Esta ignorancia conduce a una brillante mitóloga en dirección opuesta: Mary Daly, _Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism_, Beacon Press, Boston, 1978. Con mayor lucidez que muchos autores, reconoce en eso que yo denomino el sexismo la “religión predominante en todo el planeta” —pero, ahistóricamente, no lo contrapone al patriarcado—. + +[^f22]: _Reproducción_. El termino “reproducción” forma con el de “producción” una pareja célebre. Actualmente estos conceptos marxistas básicos se han empleado tan extensamente que ya perdieron su sentido preciso. Como dice Agnes Heller, “Paradigm of Production: Paradigm of Work”, _Dialectical Anthropology_, 6, 1981, pp. 71-79: “Los intérpretes de Marx que emplean el concepto de producción en relación con todas las esferas de la interacción humana (‘producción artística’, ‘producción de ideas’) amalgaman dos paradigmas en uno solo … sin tener conciencia del cambio de sentido”. Gayle Rubin ha intentado emplear el concepto de reproducción para el análisis del estatus y de las funciones de las mujeres, en su ensayo “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex”, en Rayna Reiter, ed., _Toward an Anthropology of Women_, Monthly Review Press, Nueva York, 1976, pp. 157-210. A pesar de la crítica que hago en la nota 76, yo saqué provecho de la lectura de este artículo. Véase también Felicity Edholm, Olivia Harris y Kate Young, “Conceptualizing Women”, _Critique of Anthropology_, 9/10, núm. 10, 1977, pp. 101-130. Sin embargo, buena parte de la pretendida “historia de las mujeres” en los Estados Unidos se ha convertido en un vivero de mitos que no podrían sobrevivir al aire libre. Las universitarias feministas buscan un semblante de legitimidad aferrándose a residuos de legitimidad recogidos en teorías marxistoides de segunda mano que han sido desechadas por los especialistas de la historia social. Las feministas norteamericanas intentan construir una historia de los “modos de reproducción”, y las “teorías de la reproducción” (física, social, económica, ideológica) proliferan en todo discurso susceptible de distinguir el género del sexo. Representativa de esta tendencia, con una calidad muy por encima de la media, Heidi I. Hartmann, “The Family as the Locus of Gender, Class and Political Struggle: The Example of Housework”, _Signs_, 6, núm. 3, primavera, 1981, pp. 366-394. Yo empleo el término “reproducción” en relación con la fotografía, la división celular o el vaciado de estatuas. Sólo empleo el término “reproducción social” para hablar del sistema escolar, el cual funciona como una máquina de fotocopias. + +[^f23]: _La economía inaparente_. Son raras las entidades nuevas que hayan recibido tantas designaciones. Este conjunto de actividades que estorban, falsean o desacreditan las estadísticas económicas oficiales, todavía no han podido ser circunscritas o denominadas de una forma unánimemente aceptada. Los siguientes textos atestiguan la búsqueda de la terminología: Scott Burns, _The Household Economy: Its Shape, Origins and Future_, Beacon Press, Bostón, 1975; Peter M. Gutmann, “The Subterranean Economy”, _Financial Analysts Journal_, noviembrediciembre, 1977, pp. 26-28; Yona Friedman, “Le ‘secteur D’ de l’économie”, _Futuribles_, núm. 15, mayo-junio, 1978, pp. 331-338; Jean-Marie Delatour, “Une forme de dissidence passive: le travail noir”, _Cadres CFDT_, núm. 289, junio-julio-agosto, 1979, pp. 26-29; Rosine Klatzman, “Le travail noir”, _Futuribles_, núm. 26, septiembre, 1979, pp. 26-29; Alessandra Nannei, “La resurrección de la economía subterránea”, _Le Monde Diplomatique_ en español, núm. 19, julio, 1980, pp. 4-5. Este último artículo es un comentario sobre Giorgio Fua, 1976, quien atribuía el auge económico de Italia a su inmensa economía subterránea. Nannei expone las diversas razones que causan que el trabajador de la economía subterránea sea relativamente más explotado. Véase también Dieter Piel, “Das dunkel Gewerbe, Schwarzarbeiter und illegale Verleihfirmen prellen den Staat um Milliarden”, en _Die Zeit_, archivo núm. 38, Hamburgo, 1981, pp. 9-11, y “Schwarzarbeit: Unglaublich was da läuft”, _Spiegel_, 46, Hamburgo, 1981, pp. 62-81. Como carezco del término adecuado, paradójicamente llamo economía “inaparente” a esta masa innominada de actividades. Digo “paradójicamente” porque no existe ningún otro hecho que más se haya intentado explicar en el curso de los años ochenta. Para una bibliografía de los estudios económicos, particularmente en los países del Tercer Mundo, véase Stuart Sinclair, _Bibliography on the “Informal” Sectors_ McGill University, Center of Developing Area Studies, Montreal, 1978. El término “sector informal” es cada vez más utilizado por los economistas, quienes hacen de él una especie de notación estenográfica para designar las actividades cuya productividad económica han logrado formalizar: bazares, pequeños comercios instalados en la vía pública, changarros familiares, mordidas… En otro lugar he sostenido que la formalización económica del sector informal y su control burocrático por los organismos dedicados a promover la iniciativa individual y la ayuda mutua revestirán una función análoga al colonialismo del pasado durante el último cuarto del siglo xx. + +[^f24]: _Remuneraciones fuera de control e inflación_. Después de 1978, empezó a inquietar crecientemente al fisco de Norteamérica la proporción de las remuneraciones que escapaban a su control, ya sea porque fueran ganancias no declaradas, ya sea porque se trataran de transacciones ocultas. Al respecto citaré a Richard Porter, _Some Notes on Estimating the Underground Economy_, agosto 10, 1979, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, y M. Higgings, _Measuring the Hidden Economy_, Second Report from OCPU, University of Bath, Center for Fiscal Studies, julio de 1980. Edgar L. Feige realizó un intento por construir herramientas de evaluación macroeconómicas: _A New Perspective on Macroeconomic Phenomena. The Theory and Measurement of the Unobserved Sector of the United States Economy: Causes, Consequences and Implications_, agosto, 1980, 63 páginas, manuscrito: “Sostengo que el sector que escapa a la observación es tan vasto que rivaliza con el sector conocido, y tan variable en relación con la remuneración observada, que nos podría proporcionar la clave que nos permitiera comprender el malestar económico contemporáneo”. + +[^f26]: _Subestimación: lo económico contra lo político_. Las estimaciones del volumen absoluto y relativo de la economía inaparente en el PNB dependen de las actividades que el autor incorpora en sus cálculos. En un polo se sitúan ciertos autores, de los que son representativos Gary S. Becker, _A Treatise on the Family_, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1981, y, en Francia, H. Lepage, _Autogestion et capitalisme_, Masson, París, 1978. Estos autores intentan evaluar idealmente los diversos factores que constituyen la economía inaparente, mediante unidades derivadas de las referencias utilizadas para evaluar la economía inaparente. “El valor imputado al trabajo escolar (hecho por los estudiantes) ha aumentado regularmente, yendo de 5% del PNB en 1929, a más de 11% en 1973 … El valor calculado del trabajo voluntario ha aumentado proporcionalmente todavía más, de 0.6% del PNB en 1929 a 2% en 1973 … Pero las notas de consumo del personal mostraron una relativa disminución de casi la mitad, yendo de 2.5% del PNB en 1929, a 1.3% en 1973 … reflejando una reglamentación fiscal más rigurosa.” Estas afirmaciones se encuentran en John W. Kendrick, “Expanding Imputed Values in the National Income and Product Accounts”, _The Review of Incarne and Wealth_, 25, núm. 4, diciembre, 1979, pp. 349-363. En el polo opuesto de estos procedimientos contables, yo propongo un enfoque que es más político que técnico, el del movimiento inglés Power of Women Collective, que existe desde principios de los años setenta. Tal enfoque ha sido definido por Mariarrosa Dalla Costa, _Women and the Subversion of the Community_, y Selma James, _A Women’s Place_, dos panfletos que se publicaron conjuntamente en 1972, Falling Wall Press, Bristol. Ambas autoras se proponen esencialmente la evaluación de la economía no percibida no en términos propios, sino en términos del tiempo perdido, de la labor y las molestias que impone a los desempleados, es decir, por razones obvias, sobre todo a las mujeres. Respecto a su posición, véase la nota 49. Las formulaciones respectivas de Becker y James son tan diferentes que a primera vista parece absurdo confrontarlas. Pero hacerlo cobra sentido cuando se considera que representan dos intentos similarmente infructuosos de evaluar dos ámbitos heterogéneos, empleando términos que entresacan recíprocamente una de la otra: la labor medida en términos de la producción de mercancías, y la labor que desempeñan a fin de satisfacer necesidades básicas utilizando las mercancías (véase nota 30). + +[^f27]: _“Nueva economía doméstica.”_ La obra de Scott Burns ( _op. cit_. en la nota 23) constituye una buena introducción al tema. Para una bibliografía, véase Richard Berk, “The New Home Economics: An Agenda for Sociological Research”, en Sarah Fenstermaker Berk, ed., _Women and Household Labor_ Beverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1980. Este ensayo posee el doble interés de relatar la historia de la nueva disciplina y de insertar estrictamente la cuestión en el contexto de las labores domésticas de la mujer contemporánea. Un enfoque paralelo en voga pretende calcular las contribuciones económicas al PNB que representan las actividades “del hogar” en los países subdesarrollados. Los textos se sitúan en la frontera entre la antropología económica y la nueva economía doméstica. Véase por ejemplo Moni Nag, Benjamin White y Creighton Peet, “An Anthropological Approach to the Study of the Economic Value of Children in Java and Nepal”, _Current Anthropology_, 19, núm. 2, 1978, pp. 293-306. En el contexto de los estudios sobre el género, la nueva economía doméstica plantea una cuestión fundamental: permite una polarización sexual de los métodos empleados para evaluar el valor económico de las personas. Cuando los textos asignan a las mujeres un valor económico, casi siempre es un valor _imputado_. Al respecto, Harvey S. Rosen, “The Monetary Value of a Housewife: A Replacement Cost Approach”, _The American Journal of Economics and Sociology_, 33, núm. 1, enero, 1974, pp. 65-73, proporciona una iniciación a los métodos vigentes. El ama de casa produce ingresos monetarios o bienes hogareños. El valor de los ingresos perdidos puede calcularse fácilmente porque hay pérdida de ingresos mensurables. El valor de la producción doméstica, en cambio, debe ser imputado. Tal imputación es imperfecta, pero —según el autor— resulta mejor que la suposición de un valor nulo allí donde no hay una transacción monetaria. “La mayoría de los métodos … dividen las horas durante las cuales el ama de casa trabaja en diversas categorías de empleos y luego las calculan según los _salarios corrientes_ y las suman … Otro método calcula los costos de sustitución; se va al mercado para ver cuánto costaría emplear a alguien para remplazar a la madre de familia … Según un tercer método, el valor de un ama de casa es igual _al costo de sus posibilidades de empleo_ en el mercado de trabajo.” En otro texto he propuesto un _cuarto método_ para este juego de imputación de un valor. He sugerido que se calcule el capital que se invierte en cierto tipo de “industria doméstica” y que se establezca qué salario se paga en un periodo de 24 horas en las industrias vecinas que han invertido el mismo capital por cada puesto de trabajo. Los cuatro métodos permiten determinar el “valor” de un ama de casa de manera derivada. Su estatus como miembro del segundo sexo económico se evalúa, establece y confirma mediante la referencia al trabajo asalariado y al capital. Hay que señalar que a las amas de casa se les ha imputado un valor monetario en relación con su trabajo fantasma en el mismo decenio, el de los años setenta, cuando el trabajo asalariado en gran parte se transformó en una ocupación artificial: una seudo producción de dudoso valor mercantil. + +[^f28]: _Desempleo ilícito_. En 1982, estar desempleado legalmente entre un relativo privilegio. Durante un decenio, el desempleo ilícito en los Estados Unidos había sido privativo de los negros, las mujeres, los que habían tenido que abandonar los estudios, los que no poseían diplomas de estudios; en la actualidad se empieza a extender a los varones blancos. Las fuentes de ingresos ilícitos se agotan crecientemente: los pequeños oficios o comercios informales, las prestaciones de servicios o necesidades “clandestinas”, incluso las actividades delictivas —fuentes de ingresos que impugnan los profesionistas, los sindicatos, la justicia—. La correlación entre la situación del desempleado ilegítimo y el legítimo forzosamente tiene que plantear un problema político mayor. En una sociedad que pretende ofrecer pleno empleo, muchos de los que realizan tareas no remuneradas no son incluidos entre los desempleados, mientras que muchos de los que trabajan en el sector inaparente están inscritos en el desempleo legal y, con frecuencia, reciben la ayuda correspondiente. No resulta fácil desentrañar si “el concepto de desempleo (_unemployment_) rebasaba la panoplia de las ideas de los primeros reformadores victorianos, sobre todo porque carecían de un término para él (G. M. Young, _Victorian England_), o si … (evitando ese término como victorianos que eran) simplemente demostraban así su incomprensión de los sentimientos populares, tesis que sostendría E. P. Thompson ( _Making of the English Working Class_)”; véase al respecto R. Williams, _Keywords, op. cit_. en la nota 2, pp. 273-275. Sea cual fuere la razón precisa, la división de los ciudadanos entre aquellos que tienen un empleo (los trabajadores), aquellos que no tienen empleo (desempleados) y aquellos que no están en ninguno de los dos casos, no es característica sino hasta mediados del siglo XX. La percepción social de las “personas sin trabajo”, en cuanto categoría derivada, posee una historia, ciertamente breve, que no se toma en consideración. John A. Garraty, _Unemployment in History: Economic Thought and Public Policy_, Harper and Row, (Nueva York, 1978, comenta en su introducción: “ … no se ha escrito todavía una historia general del desempleo … titulo este libro _Unemployment in History_, y no _A History of Unemployment_ … Mi propósito no es describir por qué existía el desempleo, sino cómo se percibía la condición del desempleado y qué actitudes había al respecto, en diversas sociedades desde el principio de la historia”. Por lo tanto, para Garraty el “trabajo” existe desde el momento que la “historia” existe. Y es en este sentido que la obra cojea, a pesar de su interés: ignora el hecho de que el “trabajo” en cuanto categoría dentro de la clasificación de las actividades humanas, y el “trabajador” en cuanto designación de un estatus especial, son ambos términos de reciente origen (véase la nota 13). Tras haber predominado durante un siglo, estas dos nociones actualmente se desvanecen. Los microprocesadores reducen la importancia de la mano de obra en la producción. Por añadidura, las actitudes respecto al _desempleo considerado como una forma de desviación_ tienen que modificarse: mientras más crece el número de personas que obtienen sus ingresos del sector inaparente, más son las medidas implementadas para favorecer el “empleo” que amenaza _sus medios de existencia no observables_. La correlación entre estas fuentes inaparentes y el volumen de los empleos comprobables se convierte en una cuestión política importante. Veamos un buen ejemplo: la conservación de la energía y la transición de las fuentes de energía clásica hacia las fuentes renovables, tienen repercusiones imprevisibles en los niveles y las características del empleo y el desempleo, tal como se miden tradicionalmente. Es verdad que la transición crea empleos. Pero lo importante es saber cuáles son las consecuencias en el volumen y en las características de las fuentes inaparentes de los medios de existencia. Las “tecnologías blandas” a la larga pueden prescindir de la mano de obra organizada. Para una guía autorizada sobre esta cuestión, consúltese Skip Laitner, Center for Renewable Resources, Suite 510, 1001, Connecticut Avenue N. W., Washington, DC 20036. La pérdida de las fuentes inaparentes de sus medios de existencia a muchas personas pronto les podría atemorizar más que el “desempleo”. Es difícil obtener estadísticas sobre estas dos formas fundamentales de privación de actividad. Ciertos autores, todos colaboradores de la _Review of Income and Wealth_, distinguen simplemente entre las actividades económicas y las no económicas. Para ellos, un servicio no mercantil es económico si también puede pagarse. Aun con este criterio restrictivo, llegan a las generalizaciones siguientes: en los Estados Unidos, el sector inaparente casi alcanzó el volumen de todo el sector privado, con más de 1.2 billones de dólares en 1976. Comparado con el sector inaparente (observado), se ha incrementado notablemente en 20 años. En este sector inaparente de la economía, los autores distinguen dos componentes: el monetario y el no monetario. “Descubren” que en relación con el segundo, el primero no es estable sino que fluctúa. De ahí deduzco que la exclusión del mercado ilícito de trabajo (el _desempleo ilícito_) fluctúa de la misma manera que el “desempleo”, pero de acuerdo con un ciclo diferente. Una razón fundamental que me impide estar de acuerdo con estos autores es la siguiente: incluyen en sus cálculos parte de lo que yo llamo el “trabajo fantasma”, y de esta suerte subestiman la economía de mercado inaparente. De manera implícita, estos autores falsifican la naturaleza del trabajo fantasma y subestiman su volumen. Ellos lo ven como no trabajo no económico: consideran que se trata de actividades agradables o deseables ligadas al consumo. Para un enfoque diferente que emplea utensilios conceptuales similares en relación con la economía francesa, particularmente a la economía doméstica, véase Pierre Kende, _Consommation_, 2, 1975, pp. 7-44. Es necesario hacer hincapié en el hecho de que no existen datos sobre el desempleo ilícito que distingan entre hombres y mujeres. Esta ausencia de estudios sólidos sobre la discriminación en la economía inaparente, sobre sus formas y sobre su magnitud, es una laguna en los estudios feministas + +[^f29]: _Desintermediación_. Éste es un término técnico que originalmente se empleó para designar la actitud de los inversionistas que en vez de pasar por los bancos y las cajas de ahorro, se agrupaban para invertir directamente a fin de obtener mayores ganancias. Paul Hawken, “Disintermediation: An Economics Buzzword that Neatly Explains a Lot of the Good that is Going on”, _CoEvolution Quarterly_, núm. 29, primavera, 1981, pp. 6-13, propone el uso de este término para designar las consecuencias de una extensa gama de actividades donde las personas prescinden cada vez más de las instituciones a fin de obtener lo que realmente quieren, y a mejor precio. Prescinden del especialista, el sindicato, el fisco. Se sustraen al diagnóstico y al tratamiento de los médicos y se las arreglan para morir de cáncer en su propio lecho. Sobre todo “evitan” a los profesionales que controlan y coordinan estos servicios múltiples. La distinción que yo hago entre economía aparente y economía inaparente de hecho corresponde a una distinción entre el polo muy intermediado y el polo muy desintermediado de la economía oficial. Pero las tareas del hogar femeninas no se insertan en ninguno de estos dos polos. Puede existir la “intermediación” en los cuidados a un niño enfermo (por el hospital), pero no de la cocina o del alumbramiento; estos son efectivamente paradigmas del trabajo fantasma. Como tipo ideal, como categoría de las actividades económicas, el trabajo fantasma es diferente del “trabajo” (declarado o no, pagado con dinero o con especies) porque no puede ser desintermediado en virtud de razones culturales. + +[^f30]: _Trabajo fantasma_. Concebí este término en mis conversaciones con Claudia von Werlhof, (véase nota 49), quien no lo comparte totalmente. Yo designo así el trabajo no remunerado del consumidor que proporciona a una mercancía un valor agregado necesario para hacerla útil a la unidad consumidora misma. Llamo a esta actividad “trabajo” para subrayar que constituye una pesada pérdida de tiempo, y lo califico de “fantasma” para indicar que dicha labor está asociada (y es anterior) al acto del consumo. Llamo _economía fantasma_ al sector de una economía industrial donde prevalece ese trabajo fantasma. Si he tenido que crear estos neologismos es con el fin de evitar la confusión entre este trabajo no retribuido asociado con el consumo y otros dos tipos ideales de actividad —el primero, como el trabajo fantasma, es parte integral de toda economía industrial; el segundo está inscrito en la cultura y el género y por lo tanto es no económico en sentido estricto—. Resultaba imprescindible diferenciar estos tres ámbitos, todos “inaparentes”. Para dar con esta imagen del “trabajo fantasma”, hube de pensar en un iceberg. Sólo su cima emerge y sólo puede observarse de un lado (su otra cara es análoga al sector _inaparente_ de la economía). La mayor parte del iceberg permanece sumergida, sin que pueda observarse su forma, aunque es posible inferir su talla. El iceberg en su totalidad es la economía: flota porque la mayor parte está sumergida; porque en la economía fantasma se lleva a cabo una labor. Todo el iceberg se cristalizó a partir del agua, a partir de la subsistencia intragenérica; salvo marginalmente, no se encuentra ninguno de sus tres ámbitos en las sociedades preindustriales. El iceberg representa la existencia de la humanidad según el postulado de la escasez. Para una crítica al respecto, véase Claudia von Werlhof, “Schattenarbeit oder Hausarbeit? Zur Gegenwart and Zukunft der Arbeit. Eine feministische Kritik an Ivan Illich”, en Th.Olk y H.-U.Olk, _Soziale Dienste im Wandel 2 Professionnelle Dienstleistung und Selbsthilfebewegung, 1982_, Bielefeld, Fakultät für Soziologie, noviembre, 1981. + +[^f31]: _Labores del hogar_. La lectura de Gisela Bock y Barbara Duden, “Zur Entstehung der Hausarbeit im Kapitalismus”, _Frauen und Wissenschaft_, Courage Verlag, julio, 1977, pp. 118-199, me llevó a constatar que no existía una categoría donde me fuera posible ubicar “naturalmente” las labores del hogar de la mujer moderna. Ambas historiadoras me permitieron ver la diferencia funcional típica entre las actividades domésticas no remuneradas (históricamente nuevas) de las mujeres en todas las sociedades tradicionales, y las actividades domésticas de las mujeres que “se ocupan de la casa” mientras su marido “mantiene” a la familia con su salario. En el primer caso, tenía que hablar de la atribución concreta de tareas, definidas culturalmente, a un género, el de las mujeres; en el segundo caso, me encontraba ante la polaridad sexual de la mano de obra no retribuida, ante la división sexuada de las actividades económicas. A fin de encontrar un término económico (consecuentemente “agenérico”) para designar las actividades económicas no retribuidas que se impusieron de manera desproporcionada a las mujeres a lo largo del siglo XIX, tuve que ubicar las labores del hogar en la categoría del trabajo fantasma. Esto significaba convertirlas en paradigmas del trabajo fantasma, destacando una característica esencial: la discriminación sexual que confina a las mujeres en el trabajo fantasma. En el siglo XIX se pasó de la repartición de las tareas concretas entre los géneros, a la polaridad sexual de la mano de obra. Este paso está implícito en los recientes estudios sobre las mujeres, ya sean históricos o relacionados con las mujeres de las sociedades industriales. Dos obras muestran el nivel de la investigación en lengua inglesa sobre el tema: Sarah Fenstermaker Berk, ed., _Women and Household Labor, op. cit_. en la nota 27, y Nona Glazer-Malbin, “Housework”, _Signs_, 1, núm. 4, 1976, pp. 905-922. Ambas examinan los textos aparecidos de 1950 a 1975 que ven las labores del hogar como una variedad del trabajo, así como aquellos, posteriores a 1970, que estudian la estimación económica de su valor. Véase también Louise A. Tilly y Joan W. Scott, eds., _Women, Work and Family_, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, Nueva York, 1978, y Sandra M. Burman, _Fit Work for Women_, Croom Heim, Londres, 1979. Respecto a la modernización y las labores del hogar, véase C. E. Clark, “Domestic Architecture as an Index to Social History: The Romantic Revival and the Cult of Domesticity in America, 1840-1870”, en _Journal of Interdisciplinary History_, 7, 1976, y Susan J. Kleinberg, “Technology and Women’s Work. The Lives of Working-Class Women in Pittsburgh, 1870-1900”, _Labor History_, 17, 1976, pp. 58-72. Véanse también las notas 36, 37 y 85. Estas notas estaban ya en proceso de editarse cuando recibí las galeras de la obra de Susan Strasser, _Never Done: A History of American Housework_, Pantheon, Nueva York, 1982. Se trata del primer estudio acerca de la realidad histórica de las labores del hogar en los Estados Unidos; el autor nos muestra lo que _hacían_ las mujeres en su hogar, _no_ lo que _supuestamente hacían_; no nos habla de la _función_ sociológica que asumían ni de la _significación_ de su trabajo. La obra abunda en datos y notas precisos, es muy ágil y algunas de sus afirmaciones son particularmente notables. + +[^f32]: _La mujer en el hogar_. El término “dueña” o “señora” ha sido poco a poco suplantado por la expresión “ama de casa”, pero está se refiere exactamente a la misma realidad. Es posible preguntarse cómo perciben esta realidad las interesadas mismas cuando se escucha, cosa frecuente, a una mujer responder a quien la interroga sobre su profesión: “No trabajo, soy ama de casa”. Al respecto, se puede leer con provecho el excelente y divertido capítulo 7 de la obra de Ann Oakley, _Woman’s Work the Housewife, Past and Present_, Vintage, Nueva York, 1974. + +[^f33]: _Antropología económica_. Desde 1957, año de la publicación, por Karl Polanyi, C. Arensberg y M. Pearson, eds., de _Trade and Markets in Early Empires_, Glencoe, Nueva York, 1957, muchos textos han intentado responder esta pregunta: “¿De todos los conjuntos de conceptos analíticos posibles, cuál conviene más para la interpretación del comportamiento fuera de los sistemas mercantiles?” El texto de Geroge Dalton, “Theoretical Issues in Economic Anthropology”, _Current Anthropology_, 10, núm. 1, febrero, 1969, pp. 63-102, constituye una excelente introducción a la materia. Desde su aparición, es evidente que eso que los economistas denominan las decisiones económicas en el seno de los sistemas económicos no define el comportamiento de los “primitivos”, de los campesinos o de los habitantes urbanos del pasado que nos describen los antropólogos y los historiadores. Una de las razones fundamentales de que los conceptos económicos sean _inaplicables_ en el análisis de sociedades diferentes a la sociedad híperconsumidora de mercancías, es que estos conceptos suponen condiciones de escasez (véase la nota 11) y de sujetos sin género (véanse las notas 4 y 5). + +[^f34]: _La ocultación del trabajo fantasma_. Una prohibición se cierne sobre el reconocimiento de la existencia del trabajo fantasma (el cual no representa una actividad de subsistencia, ni tampoco su sustitución empírica). Para no tener que analizarla, se disfraza a la economía fantasma. Hay cuatro tipos de disfraces. El de la antropología, que generalmente ve las labores del hogar como una supervivencia de las actividades de subsistencia. El de los economistas (véase la nota 26), quienes la amalgaman con el sector informal: la consideran ya sea como una labor gratuita cuya retribución consiste en la satisfacción que procura; ya sea como una actividad en el seno del sector inaparente que percibe una compensación no monetaria. El de los marxistas, que utilizan el concepto comodín de la reproducción para “evacuar” el trabajo fantasma (véase la nota 22). Por último, el de ciertas feministas, que matizan la óptica marxista y se esfuerzan sin descanso en identificar el trabajo fantasma y el trabajo femenino. Al hacerlo, impiden apreciar el hecho de que hay una categoría de la actividad humana: _1)_ exclusivamente característica de los tiempos modernos; _2)_ estructuralmente distinta del trabajo salariado, y todavía más fundamental. + +[^f35]: _La economía del valium_. La sociología médica describe un “consumo de cuidados médicos” que difiere respecto a los hombres y las mujeres. En la población activa, las mujeres son las mayores consumidoras de las prestaciones médicas costosas y del tiempo necesario para sanar. La medicina se maneja de manera impúdica como una técnica de control de las mujeres. Mientras que los hombres pueden recurrir eficazmente a la “incapacidad” para adjudicarse un descanso, las mujeres intentan, aunque rara vez lo logran, esquivar el trabajo fantasma por motivos de salud. Véase Constance Nathanson, “Illness and the Feminine Role: A Theoretical Survey”, en _Social Science and Medicine_, 9, 1975, pp. 57-62, y M. Barrett y H. Roberts, “Doctors and their Patients: The Social Control of Women in General Practice”, en C. y B. Smart, eds., _Women, Sexuality and Social Control_, Routledge and Paul Kegan, Londres, 1978; véanse también las notas 86 y 87. + +[^f36]: _Aparatos domésticos_. Ruth Schwarz Cowan, “A Case Study of Technological and Social Change: The Washing Machine and the Working Wife”, en Mary S. Hartman y Lois Banner, eds., _Clio’s Consciousness Raised_, Harper Colophon Books, Nueva York, 1974, pp. 245-253, estudia el hecho de que dos generaciones de norteamericanas gracias a sus aparatos eléctricos pudieron tener una mejor vida hogareña. La tercera generación ha comenzado a sospechar que esta “mejor vida” es engañosa: “El efecto primordial de la difusión de los electrodomésticos ha sido que la burguesía se preocupa más del ámbito doméstico, obligando a las mujeres del hogar a asumir diversas funciones que anteriormente estaban a cargo del personal doméstico pagado, o que se realizaban fuera de casa. Al mismo tiempo, las prioridades temporales han cambiado para ellas; el tiempo que ganan —por ejemplo, en el desempeño de las tareas culinarias— se piensa que lo deben invertir en otras labores, sobre todo en el cuidado de los niños. Si esta hipótesis es correcta, sus implicaciones son inquietantes … porque las ideas que gobiernan los programas de asistencia, entre nosotros y en el extranjero, están basadas en el postulado que supone que para reducir la pobreza en la India es necesario introducir allí la agricultura moderna y el control de los nacimientos. Pero no está claro cómo el empleo de contraceptivos masculinos o de una aspiradora perfeccionada puede ser suficiente para mejorar las relaciones entre los sexos”. Yo mismo había llegado a conclusiones análogas respecto a los efectos de la modernización en la vida cotidiana en _Energía y equidad, Obras reunidas_, vol. I, en la nota 9. Las conclusiones de Ruth Cowan en relación con las labores del hogar son válidas para el trabajo fantasma en general: _1)_ la maquinaria ligada al hogar (tanto el automóvil como la lavadora) constituye principalmente una inversión financiera que lo transforma en una fábrica donde se realiza un trabajo fantasma altamente capitalizado; _2)_ la proliferación de esta maquinaria obliga a dedicar _más_ tiempo, no menos, al trabajo fantasma; _3)_ al hacer las labores del hogar más neutras, menos específicas del género, da al sexismo doméstico bases todavía más sólidas. + +[^f37]: _Trabajo no remunerado_. Para un estudio de las repercusiones de las labores hogareñas femeninas en el estatuto económico, la mano de obra, los roles de la pareja, la discordia familiar, el tratamiento brutal de las mujeres en el empleo, véase particularmente Susan M. Strasser, “An Enlarged Human Existence? Technology and Household Work in Nineteenth-Century America”, en Sarah Fenstermaker Berk, ed., _op. cit_. en la nota 27, pp. 25-51 (contiene una buena bibliografía). Respecto al tiempo invertido en las actividades domésticas no pagadas, véase Kathryn E. Walker y Margaret E. Woods, _Time Use: A Measure of Household Production of Family Goods and Services_, Center for the Family of the American Home Economics Association, Washington, 1976. El tema de esta investigación es el tiempo que se gasta en ejecutar diversos tipos de labores hogareñas; pretende medir el _output_ de las tareas domésticas en términos del empleo del tiempo. La investigación se limita a una comunidad suburbana al norte de Nueva York, y a parejas, con y sin hijos. No proporciona evaluaciones utilizables en relación con el trabajo fantasma, sino que muestra precisamente cuán difícil es obtenerlas. Respecto a Francia, véase B. Riandey, “L’Emploi du temps des mères de famille en France”, en L. Michel, _Les Femmes dans la société marchande_, PUF, París, 1978. + +[^f38]: _Trabajo no remunerado_. En _Les trois mondes. Pour une théorie de l’après-crise_, Fayard, París, 1981, Jacques Attali afinó considerablemente sus reflexiones en torno a este aspecto onanista de las economías postindustriales. Sus argumentos favorecen la distinción que yo hago aquí entre la economía fantasma y el sector de producción inaparente (poco importa si este trabajo _productivo_ es remunerado o es compensado con otras ventajas). Pero el autor no insiste por su parte en esta distinción. Para comparar nuestras respectivas posiciones, véase Louis Puiseux, “Les visionnaires de l’après-crise”, _Politique Hebdo_, abril 12, 1981, pp. 8 y ss. + +[^f39]: _Trabajo no remunerado_. A. Leibowitz, “Home Investment in Children”, en T. W. Schultz, ed., _Economics of the Family: Marriage, Children, Human Capital_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974, pp. 432-451 (la cita que doy está en la p. 451). Frank Stafford ( _ibid_., pp. 453-456) afirma: “Es limitada la eficacia de las medidas de interés público susceptibles de promover un cambio en la repartición de los ingresos. En efecto, si como se afirma, la influencia del medio familiar juega un papel considerable en el nivel de los ingresos, el hecho de mejorar las posibilidades de instrucción no habrá de tener consecuencias apreciables en los ingresos de aquellos que nacen en el seno de familias modestas. Con esta perspectiva, las formas diferentes de garantía de ingresos que podrían otorgar a las madres más tiempo para dedicarse a su hogar, ¿las harían dedicar más tiempo a sus hijos?” (Véanse obras citadas en las notas 26 y 27.) Un modelo probable de lo que sucederá al Estado-benefactor será una sociedad de benevolencia bajo la égida del Estado, basada en la estructuración social de las condiciones que promueven e incitan la iniciativa individual y la ayuda mutua. Suecia, modelo precoz del Estado-benefactor, ha asumido abiertamente esta transformación. + +[^f40]: _Trabajo no remunerado_. Yo pienso que la distinción entre las políticas que engendran la _ayuda mutua totalitaria_ y las que engendran la _convivencialidad personal_ será una cuestión de moral social prioritaria en los años noventa. Actualmente disponemos de una bibliografía anotada, vivaz y exhaustiva, sobre la oposición entre los medios y los fines en los Estados Unidos: S. H. Cutliff _et al_., _Technology and Values in American Civilization: A Guide to Information Sources_, Gale Research, Detroit, 1980. Para una fenomenología de las diversas vías que puede asumir el cuidado y la protección totales de los seres, véase Valentina Borremans, “L’envers de la santé médicalisée “, en _Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Sozial und Preventivmedizin_, núm. 2-3, 1979. + +[^f41]: _Trabajo no remunerado_. Al respecto véase la demostración argumentada de Jean Robert, _Le temps qu’on nous vole. Contre la société chronophage_, Seuil, París, 1980. Muchas conversaciones con el autor, desde hace un decenio, me han ayudado a precisar mis ideas sobre el trabajo fantasma. + +[^f42]: _Trabajo no remunerado_. En el sector militar de una economía moderna, relativamente pocas actividades escapan al escrutinio. Es verdad que el comercio internacional de armas se mantiene en secreto, pero al menos aparece en las cuentas de los gobiernos. Al parecer, sólo en Italia las grandes fábricas de armamentos tienen subcontratantes en el mercado “negro”. También hay que interpretar la tendencia actual a la militarización de las economías postindustriales como un intento de proteger a la economía “aparente” de la economía “inaparente”. + +[^f43]: _La economía de los autoservicios_. Las consecuencias para las mujeres de la actual transición a la economía de los autoservicios apenas se ha tocado en los estudios sobre el trabajo femenino. En la economía inaparente, las mujeres tienen un _handicap_ todavía mayor que en la economía aparente cuando intentan competir con los hombres por los _jobs_ generadores de ingresos, de estatus y de otras satisfacciones sociales. En la economía fantasma, a la que también los hombres se hallan condenados, éstos contienden con las mujeres por las formas menos fatigantes y las más gratificantes de eso que se denomina el _self help_ (la “autoasistencia”). Attali ( _op. cit_. en la nota 38) define la última fase del sistema industrial como la industrialización de los servicios que cada consumidor se proporciona a sí mismo. La organización de esta producción gratuita absorbe un porcentaje creciente de las actividades retribuidas. Las actividades retribuidas se adjudican el propósito de incitar la demanda de servicios auto-producidos. Yo veo esta tendencia reflejada en un nuevo ideal familiar: la redefinición de la familia como estructura económica “intermediaria”. El hogar se convierte en un lugar de autoservicios. Antes de la industrialización, la familia en gran medida era autosubsistente. Con la industrialización, se convirtió en el sitio donde un valor se añadía a los productos del trabajo asalariado gracias al trabajo fantasma femenino. Actualmente tiende a convertirse en un sitio donde la sociedad inyecta la más pequeña cantidad posible de productos industriales, a fin de que estos sean transformados por el trabajo fantasma de la familia en una variedad de bienes que satisfagan a los miembros del hogar, los mantengan ocupados, dependientes los unos de los otros y disciplinados. Este modelo no es solamente válido para la pareja conyugal tradicional, sino también para las nuevas formas de uniones y de comunidades; puede combinarse con ideales ecológicos, libertarios y descentralizadores. Esta nueva familia postindustrial ya no está organizada alrededor del trabajo asalariado de uno o varios de sus miembros; es una asociación de personas sin género que se entregan en común al trabajo fantasma sexista. + +[^f44]: _La discriminación en el_ self-help. Gerda R. Wekerie, “Women House Themselves”, _Heresies_, 11, volumen 3, núm. 3, 1981, pp. 14-16, examina los programas de autoconstrucción de viviendas que han sido implementados con patrocinio oficial, y subraya la necesidad de una legislación antidiscriminatoria en este ámbito. Muestra la discriminación constante hacia las mujeres por parte de los organismos encargados de promover los programas de _self-help_. Le Werkgroep Kollektivering, en _Kollektivering van Huishoudelijke Arbeid_, Amsterdam, 1981, señala que en todos los lugares donde en el curso de tres generaciones las labores hogareñas se han vuelto colectivas, las mujeres han resultado perjudicadas. + +[^f45]: _Estudios feministas_. Ann Oakley proporciona un excelente panorama en _Subject Women: Where Women Stand Today – Politically_, _Economically, Socially, Emotionally_, Pantheon, Nueva York, 1981, estudio histórico y sociológico de la sociedad industrial de finales del siglo XX, centrado en las mujeres, su mundo y su experiencia. La autora intenta una clasificación de las tendencias en el seno de los estudios feministas y de los movimientos de liberación (pp. 317-341). “Si la antropología de las mujeres no ha alcanzado la madurez en el mundo anglófono, por lo menos ha alcanzado una vigorosa adolescencia”, observa Rayna Rapp, “Review Essay: Anthropology”, _Signs_, 4, núm. 3, primavera, 1979, pp. 497-513. Éste es un ensayo que completa la obra de Ann Oakley. La perspectiva crítica alcanza un nuevo nivel, como lo muestra Margrit Eichler, _The Double Standard: A Feminist Critique of Feminist Social Science_, St. Martin’s Press, Nueva York, 1980. Finalmente, tres obras de consulta: Jane Williamson, _New Feminist Scholarship. A Guide to Bibliographies_, Feminist Press, Old Westbury, Connecticut, 1979, estudio selectivo, erudito y crítico; Mary Anne Warren, _The Nature of Woman: An Encyclopedia and Guide to the Literature_, Edgepress, Nueva York, 1980, estudio inteligente y vivaz; Cynthia E. Harrison, _Women in American History: A Bibliography_, Clio American Bibliographie Center, Santa Barbara, California, 1979: 3400 “notas de lectura” que abarcan 550 publicaciones periódicas de 1963 a 1976. Para las bibliografías sobre temas precisos, véase, en la presente obra, la nota correspondiente. + +[^f46]: _Ciencia estereoscópica_. Respecto a la investigación sobre las mujeres en América Latina, véase June Nash y Helen I. Safa, eds., _Sex and Class in Latin America: Women’s Perspective on Politics, Economics and the Family in the Third World_, Bergin, Nueva York, 1980. En la introducción, June Nash afirma: “Hemos llegado a un estado liminal en las ciencias sociales. Los valores en los que se fundaban nuestros criterios selectivos están siendo cuestionados por personas que, hasta ahora, no habían contado para nada en la _profesión_. Son principalmente las mujeres y los indígenas de las culturas investigadas” (p. 15). Los 16 estudios reunidos en esta antología ilustran tres intentos típicos de combinar una visión nueva basada en las mujeres, con la perspectiva central clásica de las ciencias constituidas. De ahí surge algo que la autora llama _ciencia estereoscópica_, de la cual propongo desprender tres corrientes: _1)_ la investigación _complementaria_, en la que los conceptos y los métodos clásicos se aplican a sujetos hasta entonces selectivamente descartados (por ejemplo, el hecho de que las bachilleres mestizas son obreras); _2)_ la investigación _compensatoria_, en la que el prejuicio teórico (blanco/varón/capitalista/nórdico/etc.) se reconoce y compensa. Característicamente, la investigación compensatoria utiliza categorías gastadas de la historia o de las ciencias sociales clásicas (producción, productividad, explotación…) pero con la perspectiva de “los de abajo”; _3)_ la investigación sobrecompensatoria o _contrastante_, que colorea los conceptos analizados: por ejemplo, las actividades no remuneradas no se consideran formas de explotación más que cuando son femeninas. Estas tres formas de la ciencia estereoscópica ilustran el hecho de que la perspectiva central característica de las ciencias puede ser tanto estereoscópica como monocular. El resultado de este tipo de investigación es un sexismo epistemológico complementario, compensatorio o contrastante (véase la nota 54). He mostrado en otro lugar (“La investigación convivencial”, en _El trabajo fantasma_, en este volumen, en la nota 1), que el investigador que pretende evitar el prejuicio teórico implícito en una perspectiva central, tiene que estar muy consciente de que es necesario emprender una investigación disciplinada, crítica, documentada, pública, y sin embargo no científica. Sólo la investigación no científica, que emplea la analogía, la metáfora, la poesía, puede captar la realidad del género. + +[^f47]: _Modernización de la pobreza_. Del mismo modo que el “trabajo” (véase nota 13, particularmente Mollat), la “pobreza” ha experimentado una discontinuidad semántica al convertirse en palabra clave moderna. La pobreza moderna es una realidad social diferente de la pobreza del pasado; implica condiciones de escasez. Cuando se dice “pobre mujer” al hablar de la esposa enferma de un millonario, es porque se usa “pobre” en sentido figurado. Hoy, ser “pobre” es lo contrario de ser “rico”, lo cual no era para nada el caso en la Edad Media, donde ser pobre era lo contrario de ser poderoso. Véase Karl Bosl, “Potens und Pauper: Begriffsgeschichtliche Studien zur gesellschaftlichen Differenzierung im frühen Mittelalter und zum Pauperismus des Hochmittelalters”, en _Festschrift O. Brunner_, Gotinga, 1963, pp. 601-687. La pobreza —no solamente en la India, sino también en Europa— fue en ciertas épocas un ideal, un signo de prestigio, una virtud. G. Ladner, “ _Homo viator_: Mediaeval Ideas on Alienation and Order”, _Speculum_, 42, núm 2, abril, 1967, pp. 233-259, describe magistralmente al peregrino, _Homo viator_, situado entre _ordo_ y _abalienatio_. Los “Convegni del Centro di Studi sulla Spiritualità Medievale”, volumen III, _Povertà e Richezza nella Spiritualità del secolo XI a XII_, Todi, 1969, reúnen una docena de ensayos sobre la espiritualidad de la pobreza. Estas actitudes medievales no parecen absurdas más que a quienes olvidan que las sociedades modernas se enorgullecen de su capacidad de empobrecer al mayor número posible de ciudadanos, definiéndolos como beneficiarios de servicios que ya no pueden proporcionarse por ellos mismos. Éste es un mecanismo que se ha descrito con frecuencia; véase principalmente Robert A. Scott, _The Making of Blind Men: A Study of Adult Socialization_, Russell, Sage Foundation, Nueva York, 1969. El autor observa que “ser aceptado entre los ciegos y conducirse como un ciego son cosas que en gran medida son independientes del grado de impedimento visual. Actualmente en los Estados Unidos el estatus de muchos _ciegos_ está relacionado con las buenas relaciones que puedan mantener con cierto organismo que se ocupa de la gente que padece ceguera”. + +[^f48]: _Las mujeres y el desarrollo económico_. Esther Boserup, _Women’s Role in Economic Development_, St. Martin’s Press, Nueva York, 1974, especialmente el capítulo “Male and Female Farming Systems”, pp. 15-35, expone lo que experimentan las mujeres durante la transición de una cultura rural tradicional a una economía urbana y moderna. Lejos de incorporar a las mujeres en el proceso de producción, el auge de la economía monetaria resulta un obstáculo para su participación como iguales en la creación de la cultura material. La autora compara la degradación económica de las mujeres de América Latina, de Asia y de África. Véase también al respecto Laurel Bossen, “Women in Modernizing Societies”, _American Ethnologist_, 2, núm. 4, noviembre, 1975, pp. 587-591. Para el caso de África, véase Denise Paulme, _Women in Tropical Africa_, University of California, Berkeley, 1971; la autora demuestra que el colonialismo ha destruido la complementariedad entre las ocupaciones de los hombres y las ocupaciones de las mujeres, en las cuatro comunidades que investigó. En todas, el tránsito a una economía monetaria ha conducido a diferencias de estatus hasta entonces desconocidas por los sexos. Jane I. Guyer, “Food, Cocoa, and the Division of Labour by Sex in Two West African Societies”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 22, núm. 3, 1980, pp. 355-373, da en las primeras notas un resumen de la discusión en torno a la división sexuada de la mano de obra durante los años setenta. Aunque prácticamente no cita más que textos que conciernen al África, las cuestiones teóricas en juego quedan claramente al descubierto. En las dos sociedades que estudia, constata el hecho de que la incorporación de las mujeres en la relación monetaria ha confirmado y agravado, respecto a los ingresos, su segregación anterior relacionada con la definición cultural. Se puede encontrar una buena orientación sobre los textos franceses más antiguos en el estudio de Gabriel Gosselin, “Pour une anthropologie du travail rural en Afrique noire”, _Cahiers d’études africaines_, III, núm. 12, 1963, pp. 512-549. Al contrario de lo que pasa con los hombres, la modernización disminuye el número de empleos para las mujeres. En los países socialistas, la modernización hace más pesada la doble carga del empleo/tareas hogareñas. En los países capitalistas, conduce a las mujeres a competir entre sí para obtener las plazas de trabajadoras domésticas. Para la situación en Lima, Perú, véase Elsa M. Chaney, _Domestic Service and Its Implications for Development_, Agency of International Development, Washington, D. C., 1977. Por añadidura, más y más mujeres trabajan para otras mujeres pobres, pues en los 78 países subdesarrollados que fueron estudiados, es creciente el número de hogares que dependen principalmente de las ganancias de una mujer adulta; véase Mary Buvinic y Nadia Youssef, _Women-Headed Households. The Ignored Factor in Development Planning_, International Center for Research on Women, Washington, D. C., 1978. Guía bibliográfica: Mary Buvinic, _Women and World Development. An Annotated Bibliography_, Overseas Development Council, Washington, 1976. En Mona Etienne y Eleanor Leacock, eds. _Women and Colonization. Anthropological Perspectives_, Praeger, Nueva York, 1980, los antropólogos, situándose en una perspectiva histórica, intentan reconstituir la posición de las mujeres en una docena de sociedades antes del surgimiento del sistema capitalista. Finalmente, Valentina Borremans, “La Technique et le fardeau des femmes”, _Les Temps Modernes_, núm. 437, diciembre, 1982 (“Técnica y agobio de las mujeres”, _Ixtus_, núm. 60, noviembre-diciembre, 2006), demuestra que la “investigación _para_ las mujeres”, que intenta proporcionarles tecnologías nuevas, es parte integrante de todas las políticas de desarrollo, resultando siempre, para las mujeres, en el aumento y no en la disminución de sus tareas. Sólo la “investigación _por_ las mujeres”, es decir, conducida por aquellas que emplean las nuevas herramientas o las nuevas técnicas, podrá aliviar la dependencia de las mujeres respecto a los vínculos monetarios y, al mismo tiempo, reducir el sexismo. + +[^f49]: _“Domesticación” internacional_. Según Claudia von Werlhof, _Las Mujeres y la periferia_, Universität Bielefeld, Fakultät der Soziologie, 1981, se puede explicar el desarrollo económico como el resultado de la sumisión de las mujeres y otros trabajadores marginales al tipo de actividad respecto a la cual son paradigmas las tareas domésticas en los países ricos. La autora señala la tendencia a dividir el trabajo entre los que producen los bienes mercantiles y aquellos que los utilizan (p. 21), y a ubicar a los primeros en la esfera comercial, monetaria, pero no a los segundos (p. 17). La actual restructuración de la economía mundial, con su adaptación a la energía costosa, a los microprocesadores, conjuntamente con la dominación social creciente que ejerce, parecen representar un intento por infundir e imponer mundialmente a los hombres una aptitud para labores que hasta ahora se consideraban características y naturales de las mujeres solamente. A partir de esto, el desarrollo significa la creación de un inmenso sector donde, para poder sobrevivir, los seres marginados deben volverse aptos para reciclar eso que el sector industrial califica de desecho (es decir, las mercancías de calidad inferior o descartadas). En al ámbito internacional, las sociedades “subdesarrolladas” tienden a convertirse en los sectores marginados del mundo industrializado, semejantes a las “amas de casa” de los “asalariados”. Por lo tanto se puede decir que este proceso que se desenvuelve en la periferia de la sociedad industrial es una _Verhausfraulichung_ (literalmente, “domesticación” del trabajo) internacional. André Gorz, en su obra _Adieux au prolétariat. Audelà du socialisme_,Éditions Galilée, París, 1980, pp. 127-146, propone un argumento paralelo, sorprendente a pesar de pasar por alto casi enteramente la cuestión de la discriminación de las mujeres en esta nueva “domesticación” internacional. + +[^f50]: _Desamparo de los solteros_. Véase Micheline Baulant, “La Famille en miettes: sur un aspect de la démographie du XVIIe siècle”, _Annales ESC_, 27, núms. 4-5, julio-octubre, 1972, pp. 959-968. + +[^f51]: _Vernáculo_. Éste es un término técnico que ha sido tomado del derecho romano, donde se encuentra desde las primeras estipulaciones hasta su codificación por Teodosio (el Código Teodosiano.) Designa lo contrario de una mercancía: “ _Vernaculum, quidquid domi nascitur, domestici fructus; res quae alicui nota est et quam non emit_” (Du Cange, _Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis_, volumen VIII, p. 283). Era vernáculo todo lo que se confeccionaba, tejía y criaba en casa, no destinado a la venta sino al uso doméstico. Tanto en inglés como en francés se emplea principalmente para designar la lengua “natal”. Pretendo reanimar este término porque no conozco uno mejor. Hablaré de su historia en la obra que estoy preparando sobre los _Valores vernáculos_. Califico de “vernáculo” todo conjunto constituido por dos subconjuntos genéricos. Hablo del _lenguaje vernáculo_, en el que existe una complementariedad entre el modo de hablar de las mujeres y el de los hombres (nota 101); de un _universo vernáculo_ (nota 89), donde los hombres y las mujeres aprehenden complementariamente la realidad social; o de _herramientas vernáculas_, cuando quiero designar el herramental de un grupo que está más o menos nítidamene dividido por el género (nota 70). + +[^f52]: _Complementariedad y ciencias sociales_. En la física moderna, se ha aprendido a considerar la complementariedad de dos perspectivas. No se puede explicar el fenómeno de la luz únicamente como un fenómeno ondulatorio ni tampoco como un fenómeno corpuscular. En un caso como en el otro, eso significaría excluir un aspecto demasiado importante. Decir que consiste en ambos parece una paradoja. La complementariedad sólo es significativa en virtud de la forma matemática de la teoría en la que aparece. La idea subyacente de complementariedad epistemológica no es nueva. A partir de Euclides, para quien el ojo emitía rayos cuyas extremidades sondeaban el objeto, Tolomeo y luego los grandes escolásticos distinguían _lumen_ de _lux_. _Lux_ es la luz que se percibe subjetivamente; _lumen_ es una corriente que emana del ojo y que ilumina el objeto. Es posible imaginar la realidad vernácula como un inmenso mosaico cuyas piezas poseen cada una su propio color iridiscente, su _lux_. En la _lumen_ del análisis del género, cada “cultura” aparece como una metáfora, una complementariedad metafórica (notas 55 a 57) que vincula dos conjuntos de herramientas distintos (nota 70), dos tipos de espacio-tiempo (notas 78 y 79), dos dominios (notas 85 y 86). Éstos encuentran su expresión en las maneras, distintas pero afines, de ver y comprender el mundo (nota 89) y del que hablan (notas 94 a 101). La ciencia, tanto mono como estereoscópica (nota 46) es un filtro, una pantalla entre la ambigüedad de la luz generada y el ojo del observador. Pero tal filtro es permeable en ambos sentidos a la _lumen_ agenérica que el observador proyecta sobre el objeto, y en el que él (o ella) lo observa. La perspectiva central de la antropología cultural borra la asimetría simbólica que constituye la realidad social de toda realidad vernácula. La _lumen_ monocromática, neutra, de conceptos tales como el _rol_ (notas 63 y 64), el _intercambio_ (nota 33), la _estructura_ (notas 76 y 77), apaga el _Eigenvalue_ de toda realidad vernácula. Lo que el observador científico no capta a través de sus anteojos de diagnosticador no son hombres y mujeres que actúan realmente en una sociedad de subsistencia intragenérica, sino a seres sexuados que una norma cultural abstracta y agenérica desvía y a quienes hay que poner en funcionamiento, evaluar, clasificar y estructurar mediante jerarquías. Puesto que opera partiendo de conceptos que desconocen el género, la antropología cultural es inevitablemente sexista (véase mi comentario sobre Rubin en la nota 7). Y este sexismo es bastante más ofuscador que la antigua arrogancia etnocéntrica. + +[^f53]: _Derecha e izquierda_. Desde hace algún tiempo, _derecha_ e _izquierda_ son términos que se han vuelto etiquetas en la investigación biológica y neurológica, así como en la mitología popular. (Respecto a la bibliografía de este tema, véase Hubbard y Friend, en la nota 58.) Los textos que citaré hablan del empleo de “derecha” e “izquierda” como términos taquigráficos que designan un dualismo que no es biológico sino _simbólico_. Para una historia y una apreciación del material etnográfico sobre el dualismo simbólico, véase Rodney Needham, ed., _Right and Left: Essays on Symbolic Classification_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1973, que reúne 17 artículos escritos por 17 autores entre 1909 y 1971, precedidos por una importante introducción de Needham. Entre las muchas interpretaciones posibles del simbolismo derecha/izquierda, en la tradición intelectual occidental se ha introducido una visión singular de esta complementariedad. Al respecto véase Otto Nussbaum, “Die Bewertung von Rechts und Links in der Römischen Liturgi”, _Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum_, 5, 1962, pp. 158-171, y Ursula Deitmaringen, “Die Bedeutung von Rechts und Links in theologischen und literarischen Texten bis um 1200”, _Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur_, 98, núm. 4, noviembre, 1969, pp. 265-292. + +[^f54]: _Sexismo moral/sexismo epistemológico_. La ciencia es sexista en dos sentidos: está dominada por los hombres y se basa en categorías y procedimientos agenéricos —objetivos— (véase la nota 52). Cuando el género surge entre los temas académicos, suele ser en las humanidades, por ejemplo, los estudios sobre las religiones como los de Mircea Eliade, _Le sacré et le profane_, 1965, _La nostalgie des origines_, 1971 (ambas obras: Gallimard, París), y en la crítica literaria: Carolyn G. Heilbrun, _Toward a Recognition of Androgyny_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1973. Califico de “moral” a la primera forma de sexismo, la cual resulta de la personalidad de los académicos, individual o colectivamente. Las feministas estigmatizan el _sexismo moral_, en virtud de lo que hace y también de lo que desprecia: los hombres predominan en el campo científico, los hombres deciden lo que debe considerarse como ciencia, la mayoría de las mujeres científicas son discípulas de estos hombres, y las categorías científicas están totalmente impregnadas de prejuicios masculinos. De tales críticas resulta un feminosexismo a la moda, al que cada vez más también se afilian hombres. La segunda forma de sexismo es más fundamental. Lo llamo _sexismo epistemológico_. Éste expurga del género (femenino y masculino) los conceptos y los métodos de las ciencias (véanse las notas 46 y 52). Se halla implícito en todo discurso científico que confunde género y sexo, y también en el lenguaje corriente, cuando la trama de la conversación está configurada por palabras clave (nota 2). El sexismo moral ha sido seriamente impugnado durante los años setenta. Pero los que lo denunciaron en las ciencias, luego con demasiada frecuencia convinieron más firmemente con el sexismo epistemológico. Un ejemplo flagrante de sexismo moral es el interpretar como algo innato toda diferencia entre los sexos (la derecha/la izquierda, por ejemplo) que puede tener una correlación en biología. En este sentido existe una tendencia tan extendida que ya se había vuelto trivial a finales de los años setenta, cuando el vocabulario científico expresaba el cumplimiento de las expectativas de los hombres de ciencia: derecha = dominación masculina; izquierda = adaptación femenina. Las dos formas de respuesta a esta interpretación (véase bibliografía en la nota 58) eran ambas sexistas epistemológicamente: _1)_ una crítica en el plano moral, abiertamente feminosexista, según la cual, por ejemplo, el título de la nota 53 tendría que ser “Izquierda y derecha”; _2)_ una crítica más sólida, que hacía notar que derecha/izquierda efectivamente indica una dualidad, pero en forma abstracta, haciendo así de la dualidad masculino/femenino una dualidad entre otras y confirmando, por vía del estructuralismo, la inexistencia del género como dualidad _sui generis_ (sobre el estructuralismo, véase la nota 76). Respecto a las tendencias muy recientes en los estudios feministas que auguran el reconocimiento del sexismo epistemológico en la ciencia, véase Lynda Glennon, _op. cit_. en la nota 12. Ella distingue cuatro tipos (parcialmente traslapados) de intentos feministas de lidiar con el sexismo implícito en las dualidades que comúnmente se utilizan como conceptos analíticos en las ciencias sociales. + +[^f55]: _Yin y yang_. El sinólogo Marcel Granet, de quien Rodney Needham reproduce un ensayo en _Right and Left, op. cit_. en la nota 53, pp. 43-58, hacía notar que en China jamás se encuentran al respecto oposiciones absolutas: el zurdo no es más “siniestro” que el diestro. Innumerables reglas atestiguan el predominio alternado de la derecha y de la izquierda. La diversidad de las épocas y los lugares impone en cada ocasión una elección delicada entre la izquierda y la derecha, pero ésta elección se basa en un sistema muy coherente de representaciones. Ciertamente, es la mano derecha la que se usa más frecuentemente, pero es sin duda por esto que la mano izquierda es preponderante, hecho que atestiguan muchas reglas importantes de la etiqueta. En relación con África, Marcel Griaule ha dado de esta ambigüedad una clásica y sutil descripción en _Dieu d’eau. Entretiens avec 0gotemmêli_, Éditions du Chêne, París, 1948, y posteriormente Fayard, 1966. En la India, R. Panikkar ha dedicado varios textos a esta cuestión. Interpreta la “búsqueda de Cristo” occidental como un _equivalente homomórfico_ (un término no idéntico que realiza una función similar) de la búsqueda brahmánica de los polos que se funden sin mezclarse; véase R. Panikkar, _The Unknown Christ of Hinduism_, Orbis, Nueva York, 1981. En la crítica literaria reciente, la palabra clave con la que se aborda esta cuestión es “androginia”; véase N. T. Bazin, “The Concept of Androgyny: A Working Bibliography”, _Women’s Studies_, 2, 1974, pp. 217-235. + +[^f56]: _Metáforas mutuas_. Cuando hablo metafóricamente, cuando me desvío del discurso directo para emplear mis propias combinaciones bizarras y sorprendentes de palabras, bien sé que mi interlocutor no me entenderá a menos que perciba claramente el empleo intencional de un término portador de un sentido distinto del literal. Todo lenguaje vernáculo es el resultado de dos formas de hablar diferentes, que corresponden a dos dominios del género, dentro de los cuales el mundo se percibe de manera propia al género en cuestión (véae la nota 101). Aquel (o aquella) que emplea palabras vernáculas corrientes para hablar del ámbito opuesto recurre instintivamente a la metáfora. Sobre la metáfora, véase Warren A. Shibles, _Metaphor: An Annotated Bibliography and History_, Whitewater, Wisconsin, 1971, pp.10-17. El texto que para mí expone la casi imposibilidad de emplear la lengua del siglo XX para hablar del género (o de lo que de éste sobrevive) es de Luce Irigaray, _Speculum de l’autre femme_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1974, principalmente las pp. 9-161: “La tache aveugle d’un vieux rêve de symétrie”. Para una magistral introducción al tema, véase William Empson, _Seven Types of Ambiguity_, New Directions, Nueva York, 1947. La relación metafórica misma se puede expresar mediante la metáfora: esto pasa frecuentemente con los símbolos religiosos. Ludwig Wittgenstein, “Bemerkungen über Frazers _The Golden Bough_”, _Synthese_, 17, 1967, pp. 233-253, decía lo siguiente: “… en la especie poner la magia entre paréntesis es magia”, y “la metafísica se convierte en una suerte de magia”. La _gorgona_ es una metáfora de esta especie. Como dice Jean-Pierre Vernant, “L’autre de l’homme: la face de _gorgô_”, en Maurice Olender, ed., _Le Racisme. pour Léon Poliakov_, Éditions Complexe, París / Bruselas, 1981, pp. 141-154. “O, para expresar en otros términos esta reciprocidad, esta simetría tan extrañamente desigual del hombre y del dios, lo que revela la máscara de _gorgo_, cuando te fascina, eres tú mismo, tú mismo en el más allá, cabeza vestida de noche, rostro con la máscara de la invisibilidad que, en la mirada de _gorgo_, se revela como la verdad de tu propia figura”, pp. 153-154. Para el mismo autor, “Figuration de l’invisible et catégorie psychologique du double: le Colossos”, _Mythe et Pensée chez les Grecs_, Maspero, Petite Collection, 2 vols., París, 1971-1974, pp. 251-264, los gemelos son igualmente aterradores, véase por ejemplo Aidan Southall, “Twinship and Symbolic Structure”, en J. S. La Fontaine, ed., _The Interpretation of Ritual_, Tavistock, Londres, 1972, pp. 73-114. En la presente obra, cuando empleo el término “género”, le confiero sentido en tres niveles diferentes: _1)_ en el sentido descriptivo, designo así uno de los dos sólidos subconjuntos de toda realidad vernácula (“maneras de hablar”, tareas, espacios, símbolos) que están más o menos vinculados con las características genitales masculinas o femeninas; _2)_ hablo de un “todo” vernáculo, en la medida en que está constituido por la complementariedad de estos dos subconjuntos; _3)_ epistemológicamente sé que el “género” en este segundo sentido es una metáfora relacionada con la complementariedad simbólica ambigua que constituye a cada uno de los dos “géneros” (en el primero de los sentidos) como metáforas mutuas. En este punto, mi pensamiento procede del concepto escolástico de _relatio subsistens_. + +[^f57]: _Complementariedad ambigua_. La complementariedad de los géneros es a la vez asimétrica y ambigua. La asimetría implica una desproporción de magnitud, de valor, de poder o de peso —lo cual no crea ambigüedad—. La asimetría indica una posición relativa; la ambigüedad indica el hecho de que los dos géneros no se corresponden exactamente. Respecto a la asimetría de los géneros, véanse las notas 21 y 83. Aquí me refiero a la ambigüedad. La ambigüedad que caracteriza a los géneros es única. Tiene dos caras: los hombres no simbolizan la relación mutua de la misma manera que las mujeres (véase la nota 56). Robert Hertz, autor del primer ensayo de la compilación realizada por Rodney Needham, _op. cit_ en la nota 53, “The Pre-eminence of the Right Hand: A Study in Religions Polarity”, pp. 3-31, intentó incorporar en las ciencias sociales esta noción de complementariedad, en una época en que el concepto comenzaba a dar frutos en las ciencias físicas. Este investigador genial se había dado cuenta de que en las ciencias sociales la polaridad fundamental implicaba a la vez asimetría y ambigüedad. Murió en el frente durante la primera Guerra Mundial y desde entonces su pensamiento ha sido tergiversado. Primero, su “editor”, Marcel Mauss, domesticó las desconcertantes nociones de asimetría y de ambigüedad contenidas en la idea de la complementariedad que Hertz había propuesto, haciendo de esta dualidad nueva, anómala, el fundamento de todo “intercambio”; véase Marcel Mauss, _Essai sur le don. Forme et raison de l’échange dans les sociétés archaïques_, París, 1925, reeditado en la segunda antología de sus artículos: _Sociologie et anthropologie_, PUF, París, 1950. Luego, Lévi-Strauss vino a decir que Mauss había sido el primero en haber tratado la totalidad del hecho social como un sistema simbólico de intercambios entre individuos y entre grupos, convirtiendo así a Hertz en el maestro de Mauss. La complementariedad _nebulosa, parcialmente incongruente_, que únicamente era posible captar mediante la metáfora y que Hertz sospechaba era el sustrato de la cultura, fue desterrada de las ciencias sociales por conceptos operativos como el rol, la clase, el intercambio y, finalmente, el “sistema” (véase la nota 76). Aquí quiero oponer la complementariedad que constituye la relación entre los géneros a los procesos de intercambio entre parejas formales. La primera tiende idealmente hacia la _relatio subsistens_: significaciones vinculadas metafóricamente y no antitéticamente. Inversamente, el intercambio implica tanto el entendimiento entre actores sociales, como una obligación común que es independiente del objeto mismo del intercambio. El intercambio conduce a las parejas a _ubicarse claramente_ unos respecto a otros, por lo tanto a tender hacia la _jerarquía_ y la _dependencia_. Allí donde el intercambio estructura las relaciones, un denominador común define las posiciones respectivas. Allí donde la ambigüedad constituye dos entidades y al mismo tiempo las relaciona, constantemente engendra nuevas discordancias parciales entre hombres y mujeres, al mismo tiempo que pone en entredicho toda tendencia a la jerarquía y la dependencia. + +[^f58]: _Mitología sociobiológica_. Al menos parcialmente, la ciencia es una empresa intelectual apegada a sus épocas, a las ideas en boga, y los hombres de ciencia centran sus investigaciones en las cuestiones que les preocupan emocional o políticamente. Esto aparece muy claro en los intentos científicos de establecer un vínculo entre las diferencias humanas, intraespecíficas y orgánicas, y los comportamientos. Stephen Jay Gould, _The Mismeasure of Man_, Norton, Nueva York, 1981, hace la reseña histórica de estos intentos de abstraer la inteligencia, convirtiéndola en una entidad cuantificable que está ubicada en el cerebro y que permite clasificar a los seres. Pero la obra también es una buena introducción a las peripecias de la ideología del determinismo biológico, desde la craneoscopía hasta Peter J. Wilson. Ya en 1944, Gunnar Myrdal hablaba de “la tendencia a admitir sin discusión la causalidad biológica, y a no considerar una explicación social más que a la fuerza”, como de una ideología que se permitía considerar la situación vigente de un grupo como medida del estado que sus miembros _deberían tener_ normalmente. Gould centra su estudio en tal biodeterminismo, cuya popularidad actualmente resurge, como suele suceder en los periodos de retroceso político. Desde mediados de los setenta, millones de personas han aprendido a aceptar la idea de que su intolerancia o su inferioridad social son, al fin y al cabo, hechos científicos; que están insertadas políticamente en los lugares y categorías donde han sido colocadas por la especialización intraespecífica. Respecto a las críticas de estos intentos de volver a elevar las ciencias humanas y sociales a subdisciplinas de la sociobiología, mediante la exageración de los efectos de la herencia en el comportamiento humano, véase William M. Dugger, “Sociobiology for Social Scientists: A Critical Introduction to E. O. Wilson’s Evolutionary Paradigm”, _Social Science Quarterly_, 62, núm. 2, junio, 1981, pp. 221-246, así como la crítica de D. Symons, _The Evolution of Human Sexuality_, Oxford University Press, Nueva York, 1980, que Clifford Geertz publicó en _The New York Review of Books_ del 24 de enero de 1980, pp. 3-4. Sobre el tema de esta nota, véase Helen H. Lambert, “Biology and Equality: A Perspective on Sex Differences”, _Signs_, 4, núm. 1, otoño, 1978, pp. 97-117, y sobre todo el análisis exhaustivo y múltiple de la perspectiva sexista en los estudios de biología humana que se encuentran en la importante antología de M. S. H. Hubbard y Barbara Friend, eds., _Women Look at Biology Looking at Women_, Schenkman, Cambridge, Mass., 1979. Sin embargo, hay que señalar que actualmente hay feministas que piensan que los hombres y las mujeres son subespecies separadas de la especie humana y se comportan de manera intrínsecamente diferente, sin importar la cultura a la que pertenezcan; véase Alice Rossi, “A Biosocial Perspective on Parenting”, _Dedalus_,106, núm. 2, primavera, 1977, pp. 1-31. La exigencia igualitaria del feminismo es capaz de camuflar el matiz racista implícito en el determinismo biosocial —a pesar de que pretenda poseer las mejores intenciones—. + +[^f59]: _Sociología animal_. La sociología animal es una especie de ciencia ficción a la inversa. Mientras que ésta atribuye un comportamiento reflexivo y significativo a seres que son invenciones de la imaginación, la sociobiología animal atribuye la construcción social a seres subhumanos. Lo que ambas tienen en común con las ciencias sociales es que operan en términos que ignoran el género. El valor ocasionalmente profético de la ciencia ficción, o la confirmación de ciertas teorías del comportamiento mediante la experimentación con animales, simplemente demuestran que las categorías de las ciencias sociales ignoran lo que es característico y exclusivamente humano: la cultura genérica. Al respecto véase Donna Haraway, “Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic”, _Signs_, 4, núm. 1, 1978, pp. 21-60, así como los otros artículos en el mismo número. + +[^f60]: _El racista y el profesional_. Es deliberada mi comparación entre el racista y el profesional de los servicios, aunque bien sé que muchos de mis lectores se consideran profesionales, y pocos se sienten racistas. Pero es una comparación que me siento obligado a hacer. Recomiendo a los que se interesan en estas ideas mi _Desempleo creador_, véase _Obras reunidas_, vol. I, en especial la segunda mitad de la obra. Más y más estudios sobre el siglo XIX muestran que los profesionales de los servicios inventaron su diagnóstico de las “necesidades” a fin de crear la demanda de las terapias que monopolizaban. Véase al respecto Burton S. Bledstein, _The Culture of Professionalism_, Norton, Nueva York, 1976. En el marco del Estado-nación, que tendía a monopolizar la producción de servicios, incluso antes de que la producción y comercialización de las mercancías se ubicaran en el sector privado, los profesionales “jugaban con los temores del público relacionados con el desorden y la enfermedad, adoptaban con deliberación una oscura jerga, ridiculizaban las tradiciones populares del _self-help_ calificándolas de retrasadas y no científicas, y de tal forma creaban … o intensificaban la demanda de sus servicios” (Christopher Lasch, _The New York Review of Books_, noviembre 24, 1977, pp. 15-18). En este contexto, los profesionales se arrogan el mandato de definir “científicamente” las “deficiencias”; de conducir las investigaciones de acuerdo con esta “misión”; de imputar concretamente estas deficiencias a ciertos individuos con base en un “diagnóstico”; de someter a grupos enteros de la población a pruebas obligatorias; de imponer terapias a aquellos que según ellos requerían ser sanados, corregidos, reciclados. La lógica de este proceso ha sido desmontada con inimitable penetración por John L. McKnight, _The Mask of Love: Professional Care in the Service Economy_, Londres y Boston, Marion Boyars, 1982. El _ethos_ profesional y el _ethos_ racista convergen. Ambos se basan, aunque de forma sutilmente distinta, en el mismo postulado: el diagnóstico biológico permite a la biocracia clasificar socialmente a los seres. Esta convergencia del _ethos_ profesional y de la discriminación biológica, en ninguna parte aparece con tanta claridad como en la historia de la ginecología (véanse las notas 86 y 87). Diversos textos de la antología de Maurice Olender, ed., _Pour Léon Poiakov, op. cit_. en la nota 56, señalan un vínculo entre los prejuicios relacionados con las mujeres y los relacionados con los judíos en la tradición de la Ilustración. + +[^f61]: _Rol_. El “rol” es un concepto mediante el cual, desde Ralph Linton, _The Study of Man: An Introduction_, Appleton-Century Crofts, Nueva York, 1936, la sociología vincula el orden de una sociedad con el comportamiento característico de los individuos que la integran. Gracias al “rol”, la gente forma parte de una pluralidad que luego es posible analizar mediante conceptos que ignoran el género. Por añadidura, el empleo del “rol” en calidad de categoría de las ciencias sociales excluye la posibilidad de introducir el género en la discusión. El género establece la relación mutua entre dos términos que poseen más _otredad_ que la que jamás podrían tener los simples individuos. La sociología tomó prestado del teatro el concepto de rol. Allí, el rol aparecía como concepto y término técnico desde el momento en que los actores europeos comenzaron a desplazarse en un entarimado, donde las escenas seguían una secuencia de “entrada”, “actuación” y “salida”. El concepto de rol fue tan novedoso para el teatro del siglo XVI como lo ha sido para la sociología del siglo XX. Al respecto, véase Richard Southern, “Fourth Phase: The Organized Stage”, _The Seven Ages of the Theatre_, Hill and Wang, Nueva York, 1963, pp. 155-215. En torno a la influencia que ha tenido en la metodología el concepto de rol, véase W. H. Dray, “Holism and Individualism in History and Social Science”, _Encyclopedia of Philosophy_, bajo la dirección de Paul Edwards, Macmillan, Nueva York, 1967, tomo 4, pp. 53-58. + +[^f62]: _Morfología social_. En cualquier medio vernáculo, el género es la fuente de una forma social que no puede existir más que dentro de parámetros limitados. En este sentido, el género es la fuente de la autolimitación de las formas sociales. Esta tesis jamás se ha propuesto, y aquí sólo la menciono. En biología, una forma no puede existir más que en el seno de una gama restricta de tamaños. La forma de los congéneres del ratón abarca desde los 25 milímetros hasta el tamaño de una rata; no puede existir un elefante con patas tan pequeñas como las de un ratón. Sobre este tema existe un texto admirable de J. B. S. Haldane, “On Being the Right Size”, en James R. Newman, ed., _The World of Mathematics. A Small Library of the Literature of Mathematics from A’h-mose the Scribe to Albert Einstein_, Simon and Schuster, Nueva York, 1956, volumen 2, pp. 952-957. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson, en _Growth and Form_, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, edición abreviada de J. T. Bonner, 1971, centra su investigación en las relaciones morfológicas de la forma y el tamaño. Leopold Kohr, _The Breakdown of Nations_, Londres, 1941, inauguró la morfología social buscando las relaciones entre la forma y el tamaño de una sociedad. Discípulo de Kohr, E. F. Schumacher retomó el axioma de su mentor en _Small Is Beautiful_, 1973; traducción francesa con el mismo título, Seuil, París, 1978, con el subtítulo “Una sociedad a la medida del hombre”. Para mí, la _belleza social_ existe allí donde los elementos materiales de una cultura son de un tamaño adecuado para la complementariedad concreta basada en el género. El medio debe permanecer dentro de los parámetros de tamaño que corresponden a su forma (en griego, _morphè_) —condición necesaria para que exista y se mantenga una relación intragenérica entre el dominio de las mujeres y el de los hombres en un medio vernáculo—. Si el medio se deforma más allá de un umbral crítico, la complementariedad genérica se disuelve: entran en escena individuos que desempeñan un rol sexuado en un escenario que ya no está hecho a su medida. + +[^f63]: _Rol de los sexos_. Respecto al término “sexo”, véase la nota 7; respecto al “rol”, la nota 61. La expresión “rol de los sexos” no entró en el lenguaje corriente sino después de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A los victorianos les fascinaban las _diferencias entre los sexos_ (véase la nota 65). Durante los primeros años del siglo XX, los hombres de ciencia se interesaron particularmente en la diferencia entre hombres y mujeres en términos de inteligencia mensurable (véase Gould, nota 58). Al final de los años veinte, la creación de escalas que permitían medir el cociente de feminidad o de masculinidad que se manifestaba en los rasgos característicos no intelectuales se convirtió en un buen negocio. Para una orientación de lecturas, véase Julia Ann Sherman, _On the Psychology of Women: A Survey of Empirical Studies_, C. Thomas, Springfield, Mass., 1971, y como complemento crítico de esta obra, Joyce J. Walstedt, _The Psychology of Women: A Partially Annotated Bibliography_, KNOW, Pittsburgh, 1972, que también incluye estudios que no son de especialistas. Durante los años treinta, bajo la influencia del psicoanálisis, fueron las diferencias entre las necesidades emocionales las que se identificaron científicamente y se pusieron en operación a fin de que les pudieran servir a los terapeutas, a los trabajadores sociales y a los educadores. Durante los años cincuenta, los investigadores se interesaron más en las diferencias entre las tendencias a la homosexualidad. Para la historiografía de las diferencias entre los sexos, véase Eleanor E. Maccoby y Carol N. Jacklin, _The Psychology of Sex Différences_, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, California, 1974. Sobre la importancia que ha adquirido en las ciencias sociales el rol de los sexos, véase H. A. D. Astin, _Sex Roles: A Research Bibliography_, National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, Maryland, 1975. + +[^f64]: _Rol de los sexos_. Melville J. Herskovits, _Economic Anthropology_, Norton, Nueva York, 1965; 1a edición, 1935, con el título _Economic Life of Primitive Peoples_. Durante 30 años, la mayoría de las citas sobre la repartición sexual del trabajo que se encontraban en los manuales de sociología, tanto en inglés como en otras lenguas, consistían en pasajes enteros del séptimo capítulo de esta obra. + +[^f65]: _Feminismo victoriano_. El feminismo victoriano logró hacer de las relaciones entre los hombres y las mujeres en las sociedades primitivas un tema fascinante en las conversaciones. Pero la evidencia de esa gran variedad de comportamientos entre los “salvajes” fue interpretada por los antropólogos victorianos como la prueba de un esquema evolucionista que conducía finalmente a la norma universal de la familia burguesa; véase Elizabeth Fee, “The Sexual Politics of Victorian Sexual Anthropology”, _Feminist Studies_, 1, 1973, p. 23 ss. Véanse otros estudios recientes sobre el sexismo victoriano en Jill Roe, “Modernization and Sexism: Recent Writings on Victorian Women”, _Victorian Studies_, 20, invierno, 1977, pp. 179-192; Marlene LeGates, “The Cult of Womanhood in Eighteenth-Century Thought”, _Eighteenth-Century Studies_, 10, núm. 1, 1976, pp. 21-39; B. Didier, “L’exotisme et la mise en question du système familial et moral dans le roman, à la fin du XVIIIe siècle: Beckford, Sade, Potocki”, _Studies on Voltaire_, 152, 1976, pp. 571-586. La polarización sexual representa un nuevo tipo de clasificación social que no emplea como principal parámetro el estatus, sino la personalidad (clasificación que habría sido impensable antes de la Ilustración). Es esto lo que me permitió comprender a Karin Hausen, “Family and Role Division. The Polarisation of Sexual Stereotypes in the Nineteenth Century. An Aspect of the Dissociation of Work and Family Life”, en Richard J. Evans y W. R. Lee, eds., _The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Families in Nineteenth-and Twentieth- Century Germany_, Croom Helm, Londres, Totowa, N. J., Barnes and Noble Books, 1981, pp. 51-83, y también Barbara Welter, “The Cult of True Womanhood 1820-1860”, _American Quarterly_, 18, 1966, pp. 151-174. La polarización sexual ha conducido tanto a una nueva percepción social del cuerpo femenino (notas 86 y 87) como a una nueva percepción del ámbito de la ciudadana: la esfera doméstica. En torno a las etapas de la propagación en los Estados Unidos del valor ideológico de la vida doméstica, y a la colusión de las mujeres y los sacerdotes al respecto —que en virtud de la Independencia se encontraban “desestablecidas”— y sobre la necesidad absoluta de tener una _vida doméstica redentora_ en una sociedad en vías de industrialización, véase la brillante y compleja interpretación de Ann Douglas, _The Feminization of American Culture_, Discus Books/Avon, Nueva York, 1977. Los escritos de las feministas de la época victoriana muestran que éstas no adoptaron las ideas de sus tiempos relacionadas con los logros de las mujeres y con el trabajo femenino; además del ensayo de Jill Roe citado aquí anteriormente, véase Elaine Rose Ognibene, _Women to Women: The Rhetoric of Success for Women, 1860-1920_, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Dissertation, Nueva York, 1979. + +[^f66]: _Sexo y temperamento_. Margaret Mead, _Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies_, 1935 (publicado en francés con otro ensayo más bajo el título de _Mœurs et Sexualité en Océanie_, Plon, París), 1963, y Erich Fromm y Michael Macoby, _Social Character in a Mexican Village_, Prentice Hall, Nueva Jersey, 1970, marcan respectivamente el principio y probablemente el fin del empleo de las categorías agenéricas del psicoanálisis (Fromm en conjunción con Marx) para explicar cómo el _temperamento o la personalidad social_ modelan las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres en condiciones sociales muy diferentes. + +[^f67]: _Complementariedad de los roles_. Los victorianos centraron su investigación en las esferas opuestas que la naturaleza había destinado para los humanos masculinos y femeninos (nota 65). Durante la Gran Depresión, los norteamericanos se preocuparon particularmente por la división del trabajo productivo entre los sexos. Como era de esperar, miles de rasgos sociales que se recogieron en cientos de sociedades se clasificaron sistemáticamente; se buscaron constantes, se erigieron conjeturas con base en cuantificaciones significativas, todo lo cual condujo a hipótesis no válidas, aun cuando los datos originales pudieron ser significativos estadísticamente; al respecto véase A. D. Coult y R. Haberstein, _Cross-Tabulations on Murdock’s Ethnographic Sample_, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, 1965. Para una introducción sencilla a los datos compilados, véase George P. Murdock, “Comparative Data on the Division of Labor by Sex”, _Social Forces_, 15, 1937, pp. 551-553, y para un condensado de esta obra, “Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary”, _Ethnology_, 6, núm. 2, 1967, pp. 109-236. Aunque algo árida y fragmentaria, se puede encontrar información que a veces resulta útil en sus epígonos, en Joel Aronoff y William D. Crano, “A Re-examination of the Cross-Cultural Principles of Task Segregation and Sex Role Differentiation in the Family”, _American Sociological Review_, 40, febrero, 1975, pp. 12-20; Alain Lomax y Conrad M. Arensberg, “A Worldwide Evolutionary Classification of Cultures by Subsistence Systems”, _Current Anthropology_, 18, núm. 4, diciembre, 1977, pp. 659-708; William D. Crano y Joel Aronoff, “A Cross-Cultural Study of Expressive and Instrumental Role Complementarity in the Family”, _American Sociological Review_, 43, núm. 4, agosto, 1978, pp. 463-471. Siempre que se ha querido identificar tendencias universales para justificar la asociación de ciertos tipos de tareas con uno u otro sexo, los resultados han sido banales o incluso nulos. Estadísticamente, las mujeres han sido asociadas con trabajos que según los antropólogos “son repetitivos y pueden ser interrumpidos, no son peligrosos y están basados en técnicas simples”; con tareas “que implican pocos riesgos y se realizan en la proximidad del hogar” y “tienen poco valor social”; tareas “cuyos valores relativos son más resistentes al cambio que las técnicas que se utilizan para realizarlas”. Finalmente, este análisis cultural comparativo ha conducido a “descubrir” ciertas excepciones. Si Murdock calculaba una “tasa _mundial_ de intercambio de tareas” entre hombres y mujeres de 16%, esta tasa alcanza 81% en dos subgrupos de los bontoc igorot occidentales, indígenas de la isla de Luçon, en las Filipinas: Albert S. Bacdayan, “Mechanistic Cooperation and Sexual Equality among the Western Bontoc”, en Alice Schlegel, ed., _Sexual Stratification_, Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1977, pp. 270-291. Respecto a los mitos que engendran estas hipótesis, la obra crítica más legible y más ágil sigue siendo la de Ann Oakley, _Woman’s Work: The Housewife, Past and Present, op. cit_. en la nota 32. + +[^f68]: _Subordinación femenina_. Muchos de los estudios de la primera mitad de los años setenta relacionados con las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres, interpretan como un signo de la subordinación de las mujeres el hecho de que fuera de la sociedad industrial no se otorga públicamente el poder y la autoridad a las mujeres. Para los textos sobre este tema, véase Susan Carol Rogers, “Woman’s Place: A Critical Review of Anthropological Theory”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 20, núm. 1, 1978, pp. 123-162, guía muy útil sobre la forma en que la antropología trata las diferencias entre los sexos, así como los estatus relativos de los hombres y las mujeres en los Estados Unidos y Gran Bretaña; véase también Naomi Quinn, “Anthropological Studies on Women’s Status”, _Annual Review of Anthropology_, 6, 1977, pp. 181-225. Evalyn Jacobson Michaelson y Walter Goldschmidt proporcionan en “Female Roles and Male Dominance among Peasants”, _Southwestern Journal of Anthropology_, 27, 1971, pp. 330-352, un útil índice de 46 monografías, publicadas entre 1940 y 1965, que analizan las sociedades campesinas y también tratan de los roles y los estatus relacionados con los sexos. Ruby Rohrlich-Leavitt, ed., _Women, Cross-Culturally: Chance and Challenge_, Mouton, La Haya, 1975, y un número enteramente dedicado a “Sex Roles in Cross-Cultural Perspective”, _American Ethnologist_, 2, núm. 4, noviembre, 1975, ofrecen una muestra representativa de los enfoques dentro de la investigación cultural comparativa de las mujeres; para una perspectiva feminomarxista, véase _Critique of Anthropology_, 3, núm. 9/10, 1977, número dedicado a las mujeres. Todos estos estudios casi no emplean más que categorías analíticas que rechazan implícitamente la distinción entre género y sexo, patriarcado y sexismo (nota 21), dominación asimétrica, y repartición jerárquica del poder (nota 83). Además, este rechazo los lleva a dar la primacía a la esfera pública, a admitir la definición “masculina” de la importancia cultural, y a no decir nada de la asimetría del poder que caracteriza la existencia en el seno del género. Esto es lo que efectivamente demuestra Louise A. Tilly, “The Social Sciences and the Study of Woman: A Review Article”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 20, núm. 1, 1978, pp. 163-173, quien comenta la obra de Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo y Louise Lamphere, eds., _Women, Culture and Society_, California, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, 1974. No obstante, y acaso de manera significativa, los dos únicos estudios importantes sobre las mujeres “primitivas” que fueron publicados durante un periodo de menor interés en la investigación sociológica y antropológica sobre las mujeres (aproximadamente entre 1945 y 1970) se ocupan de la asimetría del poder entre los géneros: P. M. Karberry, _Women of the Grassfields_, HMSO, Londres, 1952; reimpresión: Gregg International, 1970, y Audrey I. Richards, _Chisungu, a Girl’s Initiation Ceremony Among the Bemba of Northern Rhodesia_, Faber & Faber, Londres, 1951. En el ensayo de Ernestine Friedl, “The Position of Women: Appearance and Reality”, _Anthropological Quarterly_, 40, 1967, pp. 97-105, la cuestión de la asimetría del poder se retoma de manera encantadora: dentro de un estilo de vida en que la existencia está centrada en el hogar, el poder que cuenta parece ser el que se ejerce en casa. Mi distinción entre género y sexo, y su dominación relativa en diversas sociedades, podría disipar en gran parte la confusión que hasta ahora ha presidido inevitablemente toda discusión sobre la “subordinación de las mujeres”. Véase particularmente la bibliografía citada en las notas 21 y 83. + +[^f69]: _La división del género_. Véase Pierre Clastres, _La Société contre l’État_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1974, pp. 88-111, “L’Arc et le panier”. Existen culturas en la cuales la distancia entre los seres es todavía mayor. Entre los siriono (grupo indígena de Bolivia), los hombres y las mujeres creen que no tienen vínculos recíprocos sino por intermediación de la luna. Véase John Ingham, “Are the Siriono Raw or Cooked?”, _American Anthropologist_, 73, 1971, pp. 1092-1099. + +[^f70]: _Herramientas y género_. La asociación del género con las herramientas simples ocupa un lugar preferencial en la investigación sobre el género, porque tal asociación se puede observar directamente. No pasa lo mismo, por ejemplo, con la asociación entre el género y las tareas. La lista, o taxonomía, de todas las tareas “asignadas” en una cultura dada, es siempre, al menos parcialmente, creación del observador. Las herramientas son objetos concretos, y el observador siempre puede comprobar directamente si son manejadas por los hombres o por las mujeres. Por esto resulta una laguna sorprendente la ausencia de estudios tocantes a la asociación del género y las herramientas. Aunque hay observaciones al respecto, se dan en el marco de los estudios dedicados a otras materias. Es una buena introducción a este tema Michael Roberts, “Sickles and Scythes: Women’s Work and Men’s Work at Harvest Time”, _History Workshop_, 7, 1979, pp. 3-28. Son ricos y detallados (buena bibliografía) los textos de Günther Wiegelmann, “Zum Problem der Bäuerlichen Arbeitsteilung in Mitteleuropa”, _Geschichte und Landeskunde, Franz Steinbach zum 65. Geburtstag_, Bonn, 1960, pp. 637-671, y “Erste Ergebnisse der ADV-Umfragen zur alten bäuerlichen Arbeit”, _Rheinische Vierteljahresblätter_, 33, 1969, pp. 208-262. Es un útil complemento de los textos anteriores: Maria Bidling-maier, _Die Bäuerin in zwei Gemeinden Württembergs_, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, 1918, un estudio excepcional para su época, donde la autora compara minuciosamente el trabajo cotidiano de los campesinos antes de la primera Guerra Mundial en una aldea tradicional, y en otra en vías de modernización; véase también Ingeborg Man, _Erntegebrauch in der ländlichen Arbeitswelt des 19. Jahrhunderts. Auf Grund der Mannhardtbefragung in Deutschland von 1865_, Marburg, 1965. Para Hungría, véase Edit Fél y Tamás Hofer, _Proper Peasants: Traditional Life in a Hungarian Village_, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, volumen 46, Aldine, Chicago, 1969, pp. 101-137, y _Bäuerliche Denkweise in Wirtschaft und Haushalt: eine ethnographische Untersuchung über das ungarische Dorf Atány_, Otto Schwartz, Gotinga, 1972, particularmente la p. 149 y ss. referente a los dichos, gracejos y sarcasmos que censuran los traspasos de la división de los géneros. Allí donde las reglas son estrictas, las excepciones son claras: todavía tras la segunda Guerra Mundial, una viuda que se veía obligada a realizar el trabajo de su difunto esposo recibía ayuda —por ejemplo, la del herrero, que afilaba gratuitamente sus herramientas—. Un bello y rico estudio al respecto, aunque sólo enfoca indirectamente las herramientas: O. Loefgren, “Arbeitsteilung und Geschlechtsrollen in Schweden”, _Ethnologia Scandinavia_, 1975, pp. 49-72. B. Huppertz, _Räume und Schichten bäuerlicher Kulturformen in Deutschland_, Bonn, 1939, esp. pp. 191 y ss. y 281 y ss., quien observa que en ciertas regiones de Alemania los vínculos entre las herramientas y el género, y todavía más entre animales o plantas y el género, han permanecido intactos desde el Neolítico. Sobre los santos católicos que son los guardianes de la asignación correcta de las guadañas y las hoces a un género o al otro, véase Leopold Schmidt, _Gestaltheiligkeit im bäuerlichen Arbeitsmythos: Studien zu den Ernteschnittgeräten und ihre Stellung im europläischen Volksglauben und Volksbrauch_, Verlag des Österreichischen Museums für Volskund, Viena, 1952, sobre todo las pp. 108-177. + +[^f71]: _División del trabajo_. Una expresión también puede constituir una “palabra clave”. Es el caso de _división del trabajo_. A primera vista, su empleo en la conversación común no parece crear confusión. Y sin embargo, al consultar los manuales y los diccionarios, se observa que tres _categorías distintas_ de actividades humanas se incluyen y confunden en esta locución: _1)_ la división funcional de las tareas productivas (ciudad/campo; zapatero/carpintero; o especialización: los 17 pasos para fabricar una aguja); _2)_ la repartición de las tareas según los géneros en las sociedades tradicionales; _3)_ los roles diferentes y opuestos que se asignan al trabajador salariado y a los que éste mantiene. Por lo tanto no es posible hablar de “división” del trabajo en una descripción histórica o antropológica sin crear un equívoco respecto al sentido de la expresión. Véase Barbara Duden y Karin Hausen, “Gesellschaftliche Arbeit-Geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung”, en Annette Kuhn y Gerhard Schneider, eds., _Frauen in der Geschichte_, Pädagogischer Verlag Schwann, Düsseldorf, 1979, pp. 11-13. Por esta razón yo evito hablar de la “división del trabajo”. + +[^f72]: _Élites y género_. La producción, es decir, la creación de excedentes para los demás, se mantuvo en al ámbito del género hasta el siglo XIX. Y el consumo de los excedentes también permaneció en gran medida bajo el signo del género. Vivir de los propios productos del campo no significaba llevar una existencia basada en la satisfacción de necesidades neutras —como sucede con el consumidor moderno—. El hecho de tener un estatus superior no borraba la barrera del género. Incluso el “rango” la hacía más visible, pues los señores y sus damas podían permitirse el ocio de “exhibir” su género. Las incursiones en el otro género a veces eran obligadas (nota 106), a veces deliberadas: Loefgren (nota 70) evoca a las mujeres nobles que montaban a caballo en una sociedad donde por lo general sólo los hombres cabalgaban. + +[^f73]: _Tributo feudal y género_. La prueba de que durante la alta Edad Media los hombres y las mujeres de una misma familia pagaban el tributo al señor con productos agrícolas distintos la aporta Ludolf Kuchenbuch, “Bäuerliche Gesellschaft und Klosterherrschaft im 9. Jh. Studien zur Sozialstruktur der Familie der Abtei Prum”, en _Vierteljahresschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, 2 volúmenes, fascículo 66, Wiesbaden, 1978. También ha sido bien demostrado que en el siglo IX algunos individuos, sin importar el sexo, recibieron tierras a cambio de tributos específicos que su familia tenía que aportar. No se ha escrito aún la historia del tributo genérico y su desaparición durante la Edad Media. En torno a la historia del trabajo servil que se imponía el día del Señor, véase Otto Neurath, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der Opera Servilia”, _Archiv für Sozialwissenschaften und Sozialpolitik_, volumen XLI, núm. 2, 1915, pp. 438-465. Respecto a los días estrictamente feriados, véase Pierre Braun, “Les tabous des ‘Feriae’”, _l’Année Sociologique_, 3a serie, 1959, pp. 49-125. Para comprender las dificultades ideológicas que se presentan en el estudio de la división del trabajo según los sexos en el pasado, véase Christopher Middleton, “The Sexual Division of Labour in Feudal England”, _New Left Review_, 113/114, enero-abril, 1979, pp. 147-168. Respecto a la mujer en la aldea medieval, véase Rodney H. Hilton, _The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages_, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975, pp. 95-110. + +[^f74]: _Comercio y género_. Sobre esta cuestión véase Sidney W. Mintz, “Men, Women and Trade”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 13, 1971, pp. 247-269. Un marido jamás podía inmiscuirse en los asuntos comerciales de su mujer, aun cuando podía beneficiarse de las ganancias. Mintz examina los estudios de ciencias sociales relacionados con las mujeres que se dedican al comercio, asegurando que sus colegas no aciertan a describirlos más que peyorativamente, pues los asocian con las nociones del abandono de los deberes maternales y con la prostitución. El estudio de Gloria Marshall (seudónimo, N. Sudarksa), “Where Women Work: A Study of Yoruba Women in the Marketplace and the Home”, _Anthropological Papers_, _Museum of Anthropology_, núm. 53, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1973, es rico y detallado. Describe un “mundo al revés”, donde los hombres dependen de las mujeres pero en el hogar mandan sobre ellas. Hay una descripción vivaz de las mujeres comerciantes de San Juan Evangelista (México) en B. Chinas, _The Isthmus Zapotecs (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology)_, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Nueva York, 1973, que registra la estricta repartición de las tareas y un alto nivel de complementariedad. + +[^f75]: _Artesanado y género_. Véase Michael Mitterauer, “Zur familienbetrieblichen Struktur im zünftischen Handwerk”, _Wirtschafts- und Sozialhistorische Beiträge. Festschrift für Alfred Hoffmann zum 75. Geburtstag_, 1979, Munich, pp. 190-219, y “Geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung in vorindustrieller Zeit”, _Beiträge zur historischen Sozialkunde_, 3, 1981, pp. 77-78. El estatus legal de las mujeres en los gremios y los talleres ha sido estudiado recientemente, pero existe poco sobre la especificidad de las herramientas artesanales según los géneros. Pueden sacarse algunos datos en la bibliografía incluida en el ensayo de Edith Ennen, _Die Frau in der mittelalterlichen Stadtgesellschaft Mitteleuropas_, manuscrito, 1980; en Luise Hess, _Die deutschen Frauenberufe des Mittelalters_, Neuer Filser Verlag, Munich, 1940 y en Werner Danckert, _Unehrliche Leute: die verfemten Berufe_, Francke, Berna/Munich, 1963, particularmente sobre los oficios “semiproscritos”. + +[^f76]: _Estructuralismo_. La materia inmediata de los estudios sobre el género es la correspondencia entre dos conjuntos de lugares, herramientas, necesidades, gestos y símbolos, y entre los que en toda sociedad son llamados los hombres y las mujeres. El estructuralismo se esfuerza justamente en eludir o minimizar el estudio de esta correspondencia y esta complementariedad únicas, clasificándolas en la misma categoría que otras dualidades —caliente/frío, derecha/izquierda, sagrado/profano— en las que se apoyan las leyes de las relaciones internas de un sistema. Para el estructuralismo, el sistema de signos y de símbolos que forma una cultura ha sido engendrado por un núcleo central que no está relacionado con el marco institucional del poder y de la subsistencia de una sociedad. Gracias al análisis de los mitos y los rituales, el antropólogo estructuralista intenta la exploración de este núcleo, que no se puede percibir mediante el análisis sociológico del marco institucional de la sociedad. Para una iniciación al estructuralismo, véase la antología editada por Roger Bastide, _Sens et usage du terme “structure” dans les sciences humaines et sociales_, Mouton, La Haya y París, 1962, y la serie _Qu’est-ce que le structuralisme?_, Seuil, colección Points, París, 1973, especialmente Dan Sperber, _Qu’estce que le structuralisme en anthropologie?_ De forma sutil aunque lógica, el análisis estructuralista refuerza las categorías agenéricas del _rol_ (nota 61) y del _intercambio_ (nota 57) hasta el grado de que para Lévi-Strauss “las mujeres, como las palabras, están destinadas al intercambio”. Una de las razones de la incapacidad del estructuralismo para relacionar el género y el parentesco está implícita en la crítica que le hace Edmund R. Leach en _Political System of Highland Burma_, Londres, 1954 (traducción francesa: _Les systèmes politiques des hautes terres de Birmanie_, Maspero, París, 1972), quien subraya que el sistema de parentesco que es central en el análisis estructuralista no responde ni a la cultura ni al marco institucional, tal como los conciben aquellos que realizan el análisis. En mi concepto, esto es consecuencia de la obstinación estructuralista en ver en la polaridad femenino/masculino una “pareja de términos opuestos” como muchas otras, perpetuando de esta manera la confusión entre la complementariedad analógica y el intercambio. Es difícil criticar el estructuralismo con una perspectiva a la vez marxista y feminista, como lo muestra el brillante ensayo de Gayle Rubin, “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex”, en Rayna Reiter, ed., _Toward an Anthropology of Women, op. cit_. en la nota 22, pp. 157-210, y Felicity Edholm, Olivia Harris y Kate Young, “Conceptualizing Women”, _op. cit_. en la nota 22. + +[^f77]: _Matrimonio económicamente productivo_. Creo que es posible distinguir tres fases en el tránsito al paradigma de la asociación llamada “matrimonio”: _1)_ la constitución del hogar que paga individualmente un tributo; _2)_ el creciente predominio de la pareja en el seno de este hogar sujeto al tributo, durante el Renacimiento y los inicios del mercantilismo; _3)_ la polarización económica de los sexos en el siglo XIX. La evolución hacia la asociación sexual que en el siglo XX se ha observado, presupone esas etapas por las que pasaron, en periodos diferentes, clases diferentes en regiones diferentes de “Occidente”. Es ésta la conclusión a que llegué tras mis encuentros en Berlín con Barbara Duden y Ludolf Kuchenbuch, con la participación posterior de Uwe Pörsken. Nuestro punto de partida fue la crítica que Kuchenbuch hace de las teorías actuales sobre el feudalismo: Ludolf Kuchenbuch, “Bäuerliche Ökonomie und feudale Produktionsweise. Ein Beitrag zur Weltsystem Debatte aus mediaevistischer Sicht”, en _Perspektiven des Weltsystems. Materialen zu E. Wallerstein “Das moderne Weltsystem”_, publicación del Berliner Institut für vergleichende Sozialforschung, bajo la dirección de J. Blaschke, Francfort del Meno, 1982. La idea de que durante la Edad Media el parentesco empezó a declinar, siendo remplazado por una nueva realidad social, a saber, la pareja conyugal económica, me fue sugerida por Jack Goody, J. Thirsk y E. P. Thomson, eds., _Family and Inheritance, Rural Society in Western Europe, 1200-1900_, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976. También saqué diversas ideas del estudio de Hans Medick y David Sabean, “Call for Papers: Family and Kinship: Material Interest and Emotion”, _Peasant Studies_, 8, núm. 2, primavera, 1979, pp. 139-160. La etimología puede servir como punto de partida para reflexionar sobre esta cuestión. Émile Benveniste, _Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-européennes_,Éditions de Minuit, París, 1969, explica en el volumen I, capítulo 4, que en los más antiguos estratos de las lenguas indogermánicas no existen términos comunes para designar la relación conyugal. Además, los términos del parentesco que describen la relación recíproca se derivan de raíces diferentes. Aristóteles, en la _Política_, I, 2, 3-1253b, afirma que “la unión del hombre y la mujer no tiene nombre”: es _a-nonymós_. Los términos relacionados con el varón son generalmente verbos, y los relacionados con la mujer sustantivos. El verbo _maritare_ no significa otra cosa que _unir_; _mariage_ (francés) es una derivación. El término _matrimonium_ no proviene de _maritare_. Está compuesto a partir del vocablo “madre”, _mater_, y del sufijo - _monium_, que siempre indica un estado jurídico —en este caso, el estado legal de la maternidad—. El término que designa la unidad social y económica constituida por la pareja tuvo una evolución posterior. Una reforma jurídica promulgada por Nerón probablemente contribuyó de manera decisiva a la doctrina que elaboraron los Padres de la Iglesia respecto al paso “de una bisexualidad de acicalamiento a una heterosexualidad de reproducción”. Véase al respecto Paul Veyne, “La famille et l’amour sous le haut Empire Romain”, _Annales ESC_, 33, núm. 1, enero-febrero, 1978, pp. 35-63. En torno a la contribución de la Iglesia a la orientación de la sociedad medieval hacia el casamiento, véase Georges Duby, _Le chevalier, la femme et le prêtre: le mariage dans la France féodale_, Hachette, París, 1981. La sorpresa, perplejidad y confusión que esta nueva forma social engendró las relata Marie-Odile Métral, _Le mariage: les hésitations de l’Occident_, prefacio de P. Ariès, Aubier, París, 1977. Lo que despertó mi interés en el lento proceso de la fusión de los géneros en la productividad conyugal fue el estudio de David Herlihy, “Land, Family and Women in Continental Europe, 701-1200”, en _Traditio, Studies in Ancient and Medieval History_, 18, Fordham University Press, Nueva York, 1962, pp. 89-113. En torno a la adaptación del lenguaje a la nueva unidad reproductiva, véase Giovan-Battista Pellegrini, “Terminologia Matrimoniale”, _Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’ Alto Medioevo_, _Il matrimonio nella società alto medioevale_, Espoleto, 1971, pp. 43-102. Respecto a la evolución del casamiento, véase Jean-Baptiste Molin y Protais Mutembe, _Le rituel du mariage en France du XIIe au XVIe siècle_, Beauchesne, París, 1974. Respecto a las nuevas formas de registrar la existencia de las parejas, véase Diane Owen Hughes, “Toward Historical Ethnography: Notarial Records and Family History in the Middle Ages”, _Historical Methods Newsletter_, 7, 1973-1974, pp. 61-71. Una buena iniciación a la bibliografía reciente sobre la historia del casamiento en Occidente desde la época romana es la antología de 15 estudios realizada por Jean Gaudemet, _Sociétés et mariage_, CERDIC -Publication, Estrasburgo, 1980. Una notable guía bibliográfica sobre el tema se encuentra en Derek Baker, ed., _Medieval Women_, publicado por la Ecclesiastical History Society, Oxford, Blackwell, 1978. Véase también la notas 110-113 y 120. + +[^f78]: _Medio y ámbito_. En _Le geste et la parole: technique et langage_, Albin Michel, París, 1964, André Leroi-Gourhan dice en la p. 214 que, “… a diferencia del territorio, no tiene paralelo -la estrecha complementariedad del hombre y la mujer- en el mundo animal superior”. Pero en una sociedad el espacio de los hombres y de las mujeres no es el mismo. Véase Pierre Bourdieu, _Esquisse d’une théorie de la pratique, précédée de trois études d’ethnologie kabyle_, Droz, Ginebra, 1972. Es sólo en el _haram_, al fondo de la vivienda berebere, que la pareja puede compartir el mismo espacio (p. 67). Todos los demás lugares de la habitación se encuentran marcados por el signo del género. Los sitios que los hombres ocupan se perciben como espacios diferentes de los de las mujeres. Cada tipo de lugar requiere el movimiento y el ritmo temporal correspondiente. El espacio y el tiempo están relacionados con el género, como las herramientas y las tareas. Es un grave error confundir este ambiente formado por dos ámbitos separados, que pertenecen respectivamente a uno de los géneros, con el territorio de los animales. Diferentes culturas se reparten el paisaje de manera diferente. Y como el espacio vernáculo es poroso, varias culturas pueden compartir el mismo paisaje. En el corazón de ese medio se encuentra la casa, la dualidad espacial que transmite la cultura: Clark E. Cunningham, “Order in the Antoni House”, en Rodney Needham, ed., _Right and Left, op. cit_. en la nota 53, pp. 204-238. Por lo tanto el _medio vernáculo_ contrasta a la vez con el _territorio animal_ y el espacio homogéneo de la economía. Respecto a la evolución de las teorías que procuran la definición de este espacio económico, véase Pierre Dockes, _L’espace dans la pensée économique du XVIe au XVIIe siècle_, Flammarion, París, 1969. El medio vernáculo es un espacio intragenérico: la realidad cultural que resulta de la complementariedad asimétrica y ambigua de los _dos ámbitos espaciales del género_. Es un fenómeno que parece haber escapado totalmente a la atención de los filósofos occidentales, como se puede comprobar en la monumental exposición de sus doctrinas relacionadas con el espacio: Alexander Gosztonyi, _Der Raum: Geschichte seiner Probleme in Philosophie and Wissenschaft_, 2 volúmenes, Alber, Friburgo, 1976. El espacio vernáculo está compuesto por una jerarquía de lugares, cada uno de los cuales corresponde a un género. C. Karnoch, “L’étranger, ou le faux inconnu. Essai sur la définition spatiale d’autrui dans un village lorrain”, _Ethnologie française_, I, núm. 2, 1972, pp. 107-122, muestra que hasta 1950 los habitantes de una aldea francesa distinguían el espacio en torno a ellos de acuerdo con tres círculos concéntricos: la aldea, el valle circundante, con un diámetro de travesía de tres horas, y el “país”, constituido por varias aldeas habitadas por “fuereños” que realizaban gran cantidad de matrimonios entre sí. Bajo esta tripartición se encuentra el hogar; más allá, el mundo exterior. Dependiendo del aumento o la disminución periódicos del número de los miembros del hogar, esta manera de percibir el mundo estaba más o menos presente en los diversos medios: Alain Collomp, “Maison, manières d’habiter et famille en haute Provence aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles”, _Ethnologie française_, VIII, núm. 4, 1978, pp. 321-328. + +[^f79]: _Espacio y tiempo_. Cada ámbito del género tiene su paisaje y ritmo propios. Se extiende en el espacio y el tiempo. Dos notables estudios pretenden describir la realidad espacio-temporal de las mujeres. El de Yvonne Verdier, _Façons de dire et façons de faire. La laveuse, la couturière, la cuisinière_, Gallimard, París, 1979, es el resultado de una encuesta etnográfica que realizó durante siete años la autora con tres discípulos en Minot, aldea de 360 habitantes en la Costa de Oro, al norte de Dijon. A través de la actual manera de hablar de las mujeres de Minot, así como del estudio de los archivos locales, de las pinturas, de las viejas fotografías, de los dichos y refranes, la autora reconstituye la historia de las mujeres que dirigían a las demás: la mujer que lava (los recién nacidos, la ropa, los muertos); la costurera que inicia a las muchachas; la cocinera que preside ceremonias tales como las bodas y los entierros, impartiéndoles su ritmo. Aparte de la obra de Sidney Mintz, _Worker in the Cane_, Norton, Nueva York, 1958, que me reveló esta variedad de la investigación de campo, no había conocido libro más atractivo de este tipo, con excepción del estudio de Audrey Richards (cita en la nota 68). El de Martine Segalen, _Mari et femme dans la société paysanne_, Flammarion, París, 1980, puede leerse como complemento de la obra de Yvonne Verdier. En éste se hace mayor hincapié en los ritmos complementarios del hombre y la mujer en una granja francesa de hoy en día. Actualmente vivimos el tiempo mecánico y agenérico de los relojes que ritman la existencia, y este tiempo es por lo tanto escaso; los ritmos del género desaparecen. En virtud de los ritmos unisex, con frecuencia las mujeres se ven más _presionadas_ por el tiempo que los hombres, cosa que observó H. Bidlingmaier, _op. cit_. en la nota 70, en la aldea de Lauffen en 1915. Respecto a las consecuencias de ritmos más amplios, véase Evatar Zerubavel, “The French Republican Calendar: A Case Study in the Sociology of Time”, _American Sociological Review_, 42, 1977, pp. 868-877. En torno a la introducción en una región rural del tiempo medido por el reloj, véase Guy Thuillier, “Pour une histoire du temps en Nivernais au XIXe siècle”, _Ethnologie française_, VI, núm. 2, 1976, pp. 149-162. Sobre la relación entre la cultura y el tiempo, véanse los ensayos filosóficos en Paul Ricoeur, ed., _Les cultures et le temps_, Payot, París, 1975. La sociología, la antropología y la etnología del tiempo han dado origen a una vasta literatura moderna, pero debo señalar que hasta ahora se ha descuidado la investigación sobre el género y el tiempo, o sobre el género y el ritmo. Se encuentra una descripción esmerada del espacio de los hombres en una comunidad rural del sur de Francia en Lucienne A. Roubin, “Espace masculin, espace féminin en communauté provençale”, _Annales ESC_, 25, núm. 2, 1970, pp. 537-560; Maurice Agulhon ha comentado con amplitud el tema en “Les chambrées en basse-Provence: histoire et ethnologie”, _Revue historique_, abril-junio 1971, pp. 337-368. Su estudio trata sobre una “sociedad”, una asociación local de hombres, que da testimonio del abismo que existe entre el espacio de los hombres y el espacio de las mujeres. Los cafés, los grupos que preparan el carnaval, los bancos al sol en la plaza de la iglesia se encuentran claramente dentro del ámbito de los hombres. El hombre de mayor edad de la familia es únicamente quien con una hoz especial marcará los límites del campo que será cosechado al día siguiente. Los habitantes de la Provenza del sur de Francia no consideran que el espacio público y el ámbito masculino son una misma cosa, pero de hecho ambos tienden a coincidir. Un importante ensayo de reconstitución del medio ambiente del pasado que, por eso mismo, evoca el género, es el de Ina-Maria Greverus, _Der territoriale Mensch: ein literatur-anthropologischer Versuch zum Heimatphänomen_, Athenaeum, Francfort del Meno, 1972. + +[^f80]: _Charivari (cencerrada)_. Para una buena iniciación a los textos que tratan de los métodos de justicia popular, en cuanto guardiana de las costumbres locales, véase Roger Pinon, “Qu’est-ce qu’un charivari? Essai en vue d’une définition opératoire”, _Kontakte und Grenzen. Probleme der Volks-Kultur und Sozialforschung. Festschrift für G. Heilfurt zum 60. Geburtstag_, Otto Schwartz, Gotinga, 1979, pp. 393-405. Los métodos citados incluían verdaderos castigos: la gente arrancaba el techo de una vivienda, derribaba árboles, salaba los pozos, ponía a los culpables en la picota, los boicoteaba, los embadurnaba de chapopote y los hacía rodar sobre montones de plumas. Françoise Zonabend, _La mémoire longue. Temps et histoires au village_, PUF, París, 1980, describe la “emboscada”, visita ritual a los vecinos, la cual indicaba, según fuera más o menos tumultuosa, el concepto que se tenía de la “honestidad” de los anfitriones. Se puede encontrar un repertorio de cantos populares que expresan variados grados de aprobación social en Ilka Peter, _Gasselbrauch und Gasselspruch in Österreich_, Alfred Winter, Salz-burgo, 1981. E. P. Thompson, “ _Rough music_: le charivari anglais”, _Annales ESC_, 27, núm. 2, marzo-abril, 1972, pp. 285-312, describe y analiza los rituales mediante los cuales la sociedadvernácula expresa, con frecuencia cruelmente, su desaprobación de los individuos que habían transgredido no tanto la ley sino los usos y costumbres locales. Estos rituales estaban estructurados por el parentesco y generalmente castigaban una transgresión de la división de los géneros o un comportamiento que estaba en contradicción con el género al que se pertenecía. Véase Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, “The Medieval Italian Mattinata”, _Journal of Family History_, 5, núm. 1, primavera, 1980, pp. 2-27. Sobre el conflicto entre las formas tradicionales de control que se dan entre las parejas y la nueva tentativa de hacer respetar las buenas costumbres durante los encuentros entre muchachos y muchachas, véase Hans Medick, “Spinnstuben auf dem Dorf. Jugendliche Sexualkultur und Feierabendbrauch in der ländlichen Gesellschaft der frühen Neuzeit”, en J. Reulecke y Wolfhard Weber, _Fabrik, Familie, Feierabend: Beiträge zur Sozialgeschichte im Industriezeitalter_, Wuppertal, Hamer, 1978. + +[^f81]: _La probidad_. En la Francia del siglo XVI, era ésta la cualidad del “ _honnête homme_”, el hombre probo; la rectitud moral, la integridad, la probidad, la dignidad. Propongo usar el término para designar la percepción que un hombre o una mujer tenían de la división de los géneros, como norma que personalmente les concernía. La elección del término me permite hablar de este límite específico sin implicar un motivo particular, cosa que sucedería si empleara términos tales como “vergüenza”, “pecado”, “culpa”, “honor”, etc. Respecto a estos vocablos, véase Carl Darling Buck, _A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal IndoEuropean Languages, op. cit_. en la nota 3. Sobre el proceso mediante el cual _l’honneur_ (el honor), se hizo preeminente en el sentido que típicamente se daba a la _honnêteté_ en Europa, véase Julian Pitt-Rivers, “The Anthropology of Honour” y “Honour and Social Status in Andalucía”, pp. 1-47 de su obra _Fate of Shechem, op. cit_. en la nota 21, y P. Schneider, “Honor and Conflict in a Sicilian Town”, _Anthropological Quarterly_, 42, núm. 3, julio, 1969, pp. 130-155; véase también Pierre Bourdieu, “Le sens de l’honneur. La dialectique du défi et de la riposte. Point d’honneur et honneur. L’éthos de l’honneur”, en _Esquisse d’une théorie de la pratique, op. cit_. en la nota 78, capítulo I, pp. 13-44, que expone observaciones sobre el África del Norte. Para un estudio clásico, Max Weber, “Rechtsordnung, Konvention und Sitte”, en _Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft_, Mohr, Tubinga, 4a edición revisada, 1956, (traducción francesa: _Économie et société_, Plon, París, tomo 1, 1971). Para la transformación de la _honnêteté_ y del _honneur_ causada por el proceso de la civilización, véase Yves Castan, “La famille: masculin et féminin”, _Honnêteté et relations sociales en Languedoc, 1715-1780_, Plon, París, 1974, pp. 162-207. En el siglo XVIII la ley aún no reglamentaba la vida familiar de la pequeña gente, simplemente la protegía. Pasaría todavía algo de tiempo (tres a cinco generaciones) antes de que el Estado impusiera el casamiento civil y reglamentara la vida familiar (véase la nota 120). El ámbito físico de cada género y el comportamiento conveniente era salvaguardado por el sentido de la honestidad y el honor. Este sentido desaparecería hacia 1780; véase Yves Castan, “Pères et fils en Languedoc à l’époque classique”, _Le XVIIe siècle_, núm. 102-103: “Le XVIIe siècle et la famille”, 1974, pp. 31-43. Nicole Castan, “La criminalité familiale dans le ressort du parlement de Toulouse (1690-1730)”, _Cahiers des Annales_, 33, Armand Colin, París, 1971, pp. 91-107, estudia el honor femenino ( _honnêteté_) contrastándolo con el masculino. La mujer actúa con solidaridad hacia el hogar y puede decir y hacer cosas sin menoscabo de su honor que a los hombres jamás se les perdonarían. El honor exige que oculte los bienes robados; que ahuyente al cobrador de impuestos; que amenace de muerte a quien haya rendido testimonio contra algún miembro de la familia; que se encuentre sola en casa cuando ésta sirva a la prostitución. En la medida en que se codificaba el derecho y que la proliferación de las acciones judiciales remplazaron el control del género por el control civil, las mujeres perdieron su honor a cambio de un nuevo estatus como ciudadanas del segundo sexo. Sobre la cuestión es posible encontrar útiles señalamientos en A. Pointrineau, “Aspects de la crise des justices seigneuriales dans l’Auvergne du XVIIIe siècle”, _Revue d’histoire du droit français et étranger_, 1961, pp. 552-570. Para una orientación general, véase M. Alliot, “L’acculturation juridique”, _Ethnologie générale_,“Encyclopédie de la Pléiade”, 1968, pp. 1180-1247. + +[^f82]: _Comadreo_. El _charivari_ (nota 80) y las burlas del carnaval (nota 108), sustentan la honestidad de la comunidad, pero solamente son episódicos. La honestidad es salvaguardada de manera sutil y continua por el “caudal oral” tradicional de la comunidad: máximas, adivinanzas, cuentos, y más que nada, por el comadreo. Su función es salvaguardar el honor de la comunidad. John B. Haviland, _Gossip, Reputation and Knowledge in Zinacantan_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1977, muestra cómo, en una aldea mexicana, este caudal oral le permite a la gente reflexionar sobre las reglas vigentes y manipularlas para fines personales. Los comadreos relacionados con los tiempos pasados son para la comunidad una manera de afirmar su arraigo, de crear para sus miembros una historia común. Vinculan a los amigos. Crean una especie de insignia de pertenencia al grupo, puesto que todos deben comprender porque algo resulta escandaloso para éste, así como las reglas tácitas del cuchicheo legítimo; véase Max Gluckman, “Gossip and Scandal”, _Current Anthropology_, 4, núm. 3, junio, 1963, pp. 307-316. Mientras más exclusivo es un grupo, más intenso es el comadreo. Éste mantiene la cohesión y la distinción de los géneros. Fue necesario que el género se dislocara para que el comadreo se volviera “femenino”: Alexander Rysman, “How the ‘Gossip’ Became a Woman”, _Journal of Communication_, 27, núm. 1, 1977, pp. 176-180. El vocablo inglés _gossip_ viene de _god sib_, que antiguamente designaba la relación entre el hombre y la mujer que conjuntamente habían acercado a un recién nacido a la pila bautismal, es decir, en francés, el _compère_ y la _commère_ (el compadre y la comadre). Hacia el siglo XVI, en inglés como en francés, el significado de los vocablos se modificó: el _gossip_ y el compadre se vuelven amigotes, compañeros de juerga. En el siglo XIX, ya sólo las mujeres son _gossips_ que se entregan al _gossip_ (comadres que se entregan al comadreo). Tocante a los chistes, bromas y trucos dirigidos contra los hombres, véase E. Moser-Rath, “Männerfeindliche Tendenzen in Witz und Schwank”, _Zeitschrift für Volkskunde_, 75, núm. 1, 1979, pp. 57-67. Sobre las mujeres españolas que se burlaban de los hombres, véase Yolando Pino-Saavedra, “Wette der Frauen, wer den Mann am besten narrt”, _Fabula_, 15, 1974, pp. 177-191. + +[^f83]: _Dominación asimétrica_. Susan Carol Rogers, “Female Form of Power and the Myth of Male Dominance. A Model of Female-Male Interaction in Peasant Society”, _American Ethnologist_, 2, núm. 4, noviembre, 1975, pp. 727-756, estudia la transformación del mito de la dominación masculina, que se convierte en realidad durante la época de la industrialización. Según ese autor, la generalización universal del dominio masculino está fundada en definiciones masculinas y es por lo tanto un mito. En conjunto, los textos sobre la modernización de la vida campesina están basados en postulados erróneos respecto al rol de las mujeres. La autoridad habría estado _expresamente_ en manos de los hombres; la autoridad de las mujeres habría sido _relativa_. Pero si se deja de considerar los roles de los hombres y sus formas de autoridad como la norma, si se observa los procedimientos de las mujeres y se advierte que no son menos válidos y significativos que los de los hombres —pero que asumen formas diferentes— sólo entonces se puede percibir que los roles masculinos y femeninos están entremezclados, y se comienza a comprender cómo funcionan las sociedades humanas. En un ensayo de 1942, reeditado en _Steps to an Ecology of Mind_ (traducción francesa: _Vers une écologie de l’esprit_, Seuil, París, 1977), Gregory Bateson insistía en el profundo contraste entre las sociedades donde hay rivalidades y aquellas donde “los individuos reaccionan a lo que los otros hacen, haciendo ellos mismos algo similar” (p.111). En el ámbito de los estudios feministas, al parecer la corriente está siendo revertida: véase Alice Schlegel, ed., _Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View_, Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1977. Esta es una compilación de 12 estudios relacionados con otras tantas sociedades, desde las Filipinas a Israel; la discusión sobre la igualdad e inequidad del estatus sexual intenta desenmarañar, mediante la comparación de diversos rasgos, tres dimensiones del rango sexual: recompensas, prestigio y poder. Para la editora, en condiciones de subsistencia, _equilibrio_ es la palabra clave que resume la interdependencia de los ámbitos distintos de los hombres y las mujeres, al menos en el marco de la cultura hopi descrita en las pp.245-269. La igualdad tradicional de las mujeres se ve amenazada por la creciente similitud entre los roles masculinos y femeninos en el hogar y en los empleos, similitud que resulta inevitable en virtud de la integración de los hopi en la economía norteamericana. J. Harris, “The Position of Women in a Nigerian Society”, _Transaction of the New York Academy of Sciences_, serie II, volumen. 2, núm. 5, 1940, observó algo análogo entre los ibo” el equilibrio entre los derechos nominales de los esposos y los derechos colectivos _de facto_ de las esposas ha sido trastornado por la integración económica. Rayna R. Reiter, “Men and Women in the South of France: Public and Private Domains”, _Toward an Anthropology of Women, op. cit_. en la nota 22, pp. 252-282, estudia una aldea de 185 habitantes al pie de los Alpes provenzales. Las mujeres, que trabajan y viven en su esfera doméstica, parecen considerar ésta como más importante que la esfera pública de los hombres (véase la nota 79). No obstante, en la medida que la familia se integra en el Estado moderno, a las mujeres se les define por su rol en la familia, y su “esfera” separada no puede ser ya interpretada como una esfera igual. Según Ernestine Friedl, “The Position of Women: Appearance and Reality”, _Anthropological Quarterly_, 40, 1967, pp. 97-105, el prestigio aparente del hombre puede ocultar el poder de la mujer. Su investigación de la vida de una familia en una aldea griega contemporánea la lleva a esta conclusión: “Puede ser que las actividades masculinas tengan mayor prestigio que las actividades femeninas en todas las sociedades; si esto es verdad, el descubrimiento del poder social relativo de los hombres y de las mujeres podría requerir una investigación al respecto más cuidadosa … Allí donde la familia es la unidad primordial de la estructura social y económica de la comunidad entera, el poder en su seno forzosamente ha de tener importantes consecuencias en la repartición del poder en el seno de toda la sociedad”. En el hogar, las mujeres continuamente les recuerdan a los hombres las penas y angustias que ellas sufren para poder realizar las tareas domésticas que les permiten, a ellos, mostrarse en público con la cabeza en alto. De esa manera les hacen sentir que dependen de ellas. Pero esta dominación asimétrica desaparece forzosamente cuando el predominio de la economía mercantil transforma el hogar en una “unidad de consumo” (véase la nota 122). Bajo el regimen del sexo, la jerarquización de un poder homogéneo remplaza a la dominación asimétrica de los géneros. Dominación, aquí, es un término ambiguo que significa algo diferente según se trate de hombres o de mujeres. El poder, en cambio, es una fuerza homogénea agenérica que cualquiera de los sexos puede ejercer —la diferencia sólo reside en las modalidades y la intensidad—. La asimetría es fundamental en la complementariedad ambigua de los géneros (nota 57). Constituye su existencia y determina el carácter concreto de su relación. En contraste, el poder que puede circular sin consideración del género, al igual que la moneda, tiende a fin de cuentas a la simetría. Y mientras que la asimetría entre los géneros siempre ha inspirado un respetuoso temor, la repartición jerárquica del poder entre iguales teóricos inspira la envidia (notas 5 y 6). Por esta razón, yo considero que el término _poder_, palabra clave que ignora el género, es inapropiada para expresar: _1)_ la exclusión recíproca de sus respectivos ámbitos propios, implícita en el concepto de género (notas 78 y 79); _2)_ la dominación relativa de los ámbitos masculinos sobre los ámbitos de las mujeres, situación cuyas diversas formas el patriarcado autoriza. + +[^f84]: _El sujeto de la historia_. El ejemplo fue tomado de Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, _Montaillou, village occitan, de 1294 à 1324_, Gallimard, París, 1975. Sin embargo la _domus_ de los Pirineos no es más que una de las formas que ha adoptado el sujeto de la historia. En Francia también puede revestir muchas otras formas. Jean-Louis Flandrin, “La structure des ménages”, _Familles: Parenté, maison, sexualité dans l’ancienne société_, Hachette, París, 1976, pp. 68-91, distingue tres formas típicas en la Francia rural. La primera es la _domus_ del suroeste. En los tiempos feudales, la _domus_ era quien recibía el título de nobleza. El heredero llevaba el título de la casa; era relativamente secundario que fuera hombre o mujer. El principal deber del heredero consistía en dar otro heredero a la casa. La _domus_ era la propiedad de la tierra; anclaba en el pasado de la casa a aquellos que a la sazón la habitaban. Según Flandrin, la granja en la zona central de Francia es casi lo opuesto de la _domus_. Allí, los herederos son quienes trabajan en comunidad la tierra. Flandrin confirma lo que propone Martine Segalen (nota 79): el sujeto de la historia de una propiedad no es la _pareja_ sino el _hogar_. Finalmente, la tercera forma es típica de Normandía, donde los géneros la tejen. Probablemente fue introducida e impuesta por los conquistadores escandinavos. Aquí, la casa está fundada en los vínculos de parentesco de los linajes, y éstos están arraigados en sus respectivos suelos. La “sangre” reivindica la tierra. Al dejar la casa de su difunto marido, la viuda vuelve a recuperar las tierras que había aportado como dote. En estos tres tipos de “casa”, los géneros se entremezclan para tejer la trama social. En Francia, durante mucho tiempo el sujeto final de la historia fue alguna de estas formas de “casa”. El feudalismo tardío y posteriormente el gobierno estatal fueron construidos en Francia a partir del postulado de la unión conyugal económica (véanse las notas 77 y 124) como también en Inglaterra y Alemania, aunque de forma diferente; véase Michael Mitterauer, _Grundtypen alteuropäischer Sozialformen: Haus und Gemeinde in vorindustriellen Gesellschaften_, Forman-Holzboog, Stuttgart, 1979. Hasta una época reciente, este sujeto de la historia tenía una estructura diferente en la mayoría de los demás países y periodos, por ejemplo, el _mir_ ruso. Sobre el sistema de las castas en la India, véase Louis Dumont, _Homo hierarchicus_, Gallimard, París, 1967. Sobre la comunidad aldeana indonesa, véase Clifford Geertz, _The Religion of Java_, University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Books, Chicago, 1976. Es necesario encontrar un término que permita distinguir el sujeto de la historia intragenérica, del sujeto de la historia en la tradición hegeliana. Propongo _lares_, porque este término no tiene utilización hoy en día, al menos en su sentido exacto. La lectura de G. Radke, _Die Götter Altitaliens_, Münster, 1965, especialmente las pp. 166 ss., me ha sugerido que en sentido estricto debería hablar de _lares compitales_ —aquellos que se veneraban en una capilla que tenía tantas ventanas como hogares (fogones) dentro de los límites (mojones) de la comunidad—. + +[^f85]: _La vivienda_. John Turner, en _Housing by People_, Marion Boyars, Londres,1976 (traducción francesa: _Le logement est votre affaire_, Seuil, París, 1979), introdujo la diferencia, hoy clásica, entre los dos sentidos principales del vocablo _alojamiento:_ “acción y efecto de alojar o alojarse” y “lugar donde una persona o un grupo de personas se aloja”. Prefiero, para el segundo sentido hablar de “hacerse su casa”. Tocante a este tema debo mucho a las conversaciones que mantuve con Sigmar Groeneveldt (Gotinga) sobre el espacio que modela al hogar y el espacio que se halla más allá de éste; con Franco la Cecla (Bolonia), sobre la oposición entre el umbral que divide y orienta, y los límites que circunscriben el contorno; con Jean Robert (Cuernavaca), cuando él estaba escribiendo _Le temps qu’on nous vole, op.cit_. en la nota 41. Los tres actualmente trabajan, cada quien por su lado, en estudios sobre las condiciones que permitirían engendrar un espacio “viviente” en una sociedad moderna. La oposición entre el espacio-tiempo del género y el espacio-tiempo del sexo (nota 79) ilumina y acrecienta la diferencia entre la arquitectura vernácula y la construcción profesional, que George Gilbert Scott fue el primero en evocar explícitamente en _Secular and Domestic Architecture_, Londres, 1857; más recientemente, Bernard Rudofsky ha llamado la atención sobre la arquitectura “espontánea” en _Architecture without Architects_, Museum of Modern Art, Nueva York, 1964 (traducción francesa: _Architecture sans architectes_, Éditions du Chéne, París, 1977), y _The Prodigious Builders_, Secker and Warburg, Londres, 1977. Dondequiera que las herramientas están asociadas con el género (nota 70), las habitaciones son a la vez el resultado del empleo de esas herramientas y del lugar donde se emplean. Como dice Sibyl Moholy-Nagy en su bella obra _Native Genius in Anonymous Architecture_, Horizon Press, Nueva York, 1957, la historia privada de una cultura se lee en la economía, la diversidad y la permanencia de sus construcciones. Un tercer autor que insiste en la oposición entre el abrigo vernáculo y el hábitat planificado es Paul Oliver, ed., _Shelter and Society_, Barrie and Rockcliff, Londres, 1969. En la introducción del libro yo encuentro aún otro elemento susceptible de aclarar la oposición que señalo entre el abrigo intergéneros, donde los dos ámbitos del género tejen su medio, y el abrigo intersexos, donde cohabitan humanos de uno y otro sexo. Para Oliver, todo abrigo es un _signo_, que al ser interpretado se convierte en _símbolo_. Yo diría que el abrigo vernáculo es el signo ambiguo de una cultura, que al ser interpretado expresa los dos ámbitos del género que la conforman. Sugiero dos bibliografías sobre el tema, una que abarca el mundo entero: Lawrence Wodehouse, _Indigenous Architecture, Worldwide_, Gale Research, Detroit, 1979, y otra relacionada con Inglaterra: Robert de Zouche Hall, _A Bibliography on Vernacular Architecture_, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1972. Sobre la vivienda en Italia, principalmente rural: Tina de Rocchi Storai, _Bibliografia degli studi sulla Casa Rurale Italiana_, Olschik, Florencia, 1968, vigésimo quinto volumen de una colección de estudios regionales. Tocante a las medidas tomadas para obstaculizar la arquitectura vernácula en los Estados Unidos, véase David Handlin, _The American Home: Architecture and Society, 1815-1915_, Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 1979, y Howard J. Boughey, _Blueprints for Behavior. The Intentions of Architects to Influence Social Action through Design_, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1968. Un estudio francés enfoca el pasaje de la arquitectura vernácula al acondicionamiento estatal del espacio; J. M. Alliaume _et al., Politique de l’habitat (1800-1850)_, Corda, París, 1977; contiene un artículo de Anne Thalamy que está relacionado particularmente con nuestro tema: “Réflexions sur la notion d’habitat aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles”. Las diferentes culturas emplean términos que denotan campos semánticos distintos para hablar de las relaciones entre los individuos y las comunidades y su hábitat, y también designan de manera diferente el espacio que se encuentra al traspasar el umbral, ese espacio que la habitación como tal integra. Sobre la variedad de campos semánticos que con este fin existen en diversas lenguas europeas, sobre sus contrastes y sus modificaciones entre el siglo XIX y XX, véase Paul Osswald, _Französisch “campagne” und seine Nachbarwörter im Vergleich mit dem Deutschen, Englischen, Italienischen und Spanischen: ein Beitrag zur Wordfeldtheorie_, Tübingen Beiträge zur Linguistik, Tubinga, 1970. + +[^f86]: _El cuerpo bajo el régimen del sexo_. El cuerpo como entidad clínica no es lo mismo que la carne viva de los hombres y las mujeres que constituyen una realidad social y vernácula. Ciertas lenguas, el alemán, el inglés y el francés, por ejemplo, designan estos dos aspectos con términos diferentes: _Körper/Leib, body/flesh, corps/chair_. Desde 1972, la nueva serie de la _Ethnologie française_ ha publicado una colección de ensayos que resaltan la historia del cuerpo vernáculo en cuanto realidad social; por ejemplo: J.-P. Desaive, “Le nu hurluberlu”, VI, núm. 3-4, 1976, pp. 219-226; Françoise Piponnier y Richard Bucaille, “La bête ou la belle? Remarques sur l’apparence corporelle de la paysannerie médiévale”, VI, núm. 3-4, 1976, pp. 227-232; Françoise Loux y Philippe Richard, “Alimentation et maladie dans les proverbes français: un exemple d’analyse de contenu”, II, núm. 3-4, 1972, pp. 267-286; véase también F. Loux, _Le jeune enfant et son corps dans la médecine traditionnelle_, Flammarion, París, 1978. Véase también los textos mencionados por John Blacking, _The Anthropology of the Body_, Association of Social Anthropology, Monograph núm. 15, Londres, 1977. Michel Foucault, en _Naissance de la clinique. Une archéologie du regard médical_, PUF, París, 1972, e _Histoire de la sexualité_, tomo I: _la Volonté de savoir_, Gallimard, París, 1976, ha inaugurado la investigación histórica sobre el proceso mediante el cual el nuevo sujeto del Estado tutelar se constituyó a través del discurso del profesionista en torno al cuerpo. La justicia se apresuró a constatar y sancionar el funcionamiento de los órganos sexuales del hombre un siglo antes de que la clínica llegara a ejercer su control sobre los órganos genitales de la mujer; véase Pierre Darmon, _Le Tribunal de l’impuissance: Virilité et défaillances conjugales dans l’ancienne France_, Seuil, París, 1979. El autor describe la colaboración entre la policía y los tribunales especiales a fin de verificar la capacidad de un hombre para realizar el acto sexual. Sobre la medicación del “vientre” femenino, véase la nota 87. El proceso de normalización médica descrito por G. Canguilhem, _Le normal et le pathologique_, PUF, París, 1972, ha conducido al estudio clínico de la normalidad sexual, del cuerpo en calidad de “sexo”. G. J. Barker-Benfield, _The Horrors of the Half-Known Life. Male Attitudes Towards Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America_, Harper and Row, Nueva York, 1976, relata una etapa estremecedora de esta conquista epistemológica del interior del cuerpo. Cuenta la historia del doctor Sim, que mantenía con sus propios fondos un grupo de esclavas negras a fin de practicar intervenciones experimentales en sus conductos uterinos. En 1845 tuvo la idea de poner a la señora Merril en cuatro patas —la “posición de Sim”, como se le llamó desde entonces— y de mantenerle la vagina abierta mediante un mango de cuchara curvo. En su diario anotó: “Al introducir el mango curvo, vi lo que ningún hombre jamás había visto … el espéculo revelaba todo con perfecta claridad … Me sentí como un explorador en el país de la medicina que contempla por vez primera un territorio nuevo e importante”. Uno de sus colegas, el doctor Baldwin, hablaba en los siguientes términos: “El espéculo de Sim ha sido para las afecciones uterinas … lo que el compás para el navegante”. La vagina se convirtió en la entrada de un territorio nuevo para la exploración de la naturaleza. Veinte años más tarde sobrevino “el gran descubrimiento de que la mujer no solamente lo es en virtud de un lugar, sino en virtud de todos los aspectos mediante los cuales puede ser percibida”, que ha descrito Yvonne Knibiehler, “Les médecins et la ‘nature féminine’ au temps du Code civil”, _Annales ESC_, 31, núm. 4, julio-agosto, 1976, pp. 824-845. Véanse también las notas 60 y 87. + +[^f87]: _Del alumbramiento de la mujer al alumbramiento del niño_. En _Némesis médica_ (véase _Obras reunidas_, vol. I), dediqué todo un capítulo a la medicación de la muerte, el cual ha aniquilado el _arte de morir_ vernáculo. Ya Norma Swenson, del Boston Women’s Health Collective, me había hecho notar que el control médico amenaza por igual al arte de dar la vida. Un manuscrito de Barbara Duden (Berlín) reforzó mi convicción de que con la inversión del nacimiento, el género (engendrado por las mujeres) es transformado en el sexo reproducido por una nueva biocracia, para la cual el vientre materno es un recurso natural. _La vida_ se convierte en el nuevo concepto guía para la ciencia y la administración; véase K. Figlio, “The Metaphor of Organization: A Historiographical Perspective on the Biomedical Sciences of the Early Nineteenth Century”, _History of Science_, 14, 1976, pp. 17-53, especialmente las pp. 25-28. La ciencia de la Ilustración ve en la naturaleza a una mujer cuyos velos han de ser arrancados, que ha de ser desnudada y penetrada por la luz de la razón. Penetrada por esta luminosa razón, la mujer, imagen de la naturaleza, cuando está encinta se convierte en el mecanismo mediante el cual se transmite _la vida_. El _establishment_ pluriprofesional, de donde el Estado saca su legitimidad, depende del control médico de la vida desde su origen. Para un estudio de la expansión del profesionalismo, al menos en los Estados Unidos, véase Burton L. Bledstein, _The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development of Higher Education in America_, Norton, Nueva York, 1978. Obtuve indicaciones útiles respecto a la procreación tradicional en Jacques Gélis, Mireille Laget y Marie Morel, _Entrer dans la vie: Naissance et enfance dans la France traditionnelle_, Gallimard, París, 1978, y Jean-Louis Flandrin, “Contraception, mariage et relations amoureuses dans l’Occident chrétien”, _Annales ESC_, 24, núm. 12, noviembre-diciembre, 1969, pp. 1370-1390; véase también Alessandra Alimenti y Paola Falteri, “Donna a salute nella cultura traditionale delle classi subalterne: Appunti di una ricerca sulla medicina populare nell’Italia Centrale”, _Donnawomanfemme_, 5, 1977, pp. 75-104, que contiene una bibliografía. Sobre los medios de contracepción tradicionales, véase Jean-Marie Gouesse, “En Basse Normandie aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. Le refus de l’enfant au tribunal de la pénitence”, _Annales de démographie historique_, 1973, donde se describe la sorpresa y el escándalo de los confesores ante los hábiles métodos contraceptivos de los campesinos. Sobre el aborto, véase Agnès Fine-Souriac, “La limitation des naissances dans le sud-ouest de la France”, _Annales du Midi_, 40, 1978, pp. 155-188. Sobre las formas tradicionales de infanticidio, véase Regina Schulte, “Kindsmörderinnen auf dem Lande”, en H. Medick y D. Sabean, eds., _Materielles Interesse und Emotion_, Gotinga, 1982, y Patricia Crawford, “Attitudes to Menstruation in Seventeenth-Century England”, _Past and Present_, 91, mayo, 1981, pp. 46-73. Sobre la ampliación del control ginecológico, Barbara Ehrenreich y Deirdre English, _For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Expert’s Advice to Women_, Anchor, Nueva York, 1978. Sobre la creación de parteras profesionales (mujeres y hombres) y la medicación del alumbramiento, véase Ann Oakley, “Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth”, en Juliet Mitchell y Ann Oakley, _The Rights and Wrongs of Women_, Penguin, Londres, 1976, pp. 17-58; Frances E. Kobrin, “The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization”, _Bulletin of the History of Medicine_, 40, 1966, pp. 350-363; J. Gélis, “Sages-femmes et accoucheurs: l’obstétrique populaire aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles”, _Annales ESC_, 32, núm. 5, septiembre-octubre, 1977, pp. 927-957; Giana Pomata, “Madri illegittime tra Ottocento e Novecento: storie cliniche e storie di vita”, _Quaderni Storici_, 44, 1980, pp. 497-552, número enteramente dedicado a “Parto e maternità, momento della biografia femminile”. Respecto a la ginecología preventiva por la medicación de la contracepción, véase Linda Gordon, _Woman’s Body, Woman’s Rights: A Social History of Birth Control in America_, Grossman, Nueva York, 1976, pp. 159-185. Al mismo tiempo que se “hospitaliza” el nacimiento, se inicia el monopolio de la moralidad sexual. Bien que la tendencia de la época sea a favor o en contra de la contracepción, a los profesionistas les incumbe el decidir cómo y cuándo las mujeres deben tener relaciones sexuales, para su propio bien. Un estudio particularmente fino sobre el control médico en relación con las mujeres, paralelamente con el nuevo lenguaje que comienza a modelar la nueva realidad del cuerpo femenino, ha sido realizado por Jean-Pierre Péter, “Entre femmes et médecins: violence et singularités dans le discours du corps et sur le corps d’après les manuscrits médicaux de la fin du XVIIIe siècle”, _Ethnologie française_, VI, núm. 3-4, 1976, pp. 341-348. Para los Estados Unidos, véase un estudio análogo de Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, “Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Feminity in Nineteenth-Century America”, _Clio’s Consciousness Raised, op. cit_. en la nota 36, pp. 25-37. + +[^f88]: _Asimetría del universo simbólico_. Tomo este ejemplo de A. I. Richards, _Chisungu: A Girl’s Initiation Ceremony among the Bemba of Northern Rhodesia, op. cit_. en la nota 68, estudio encantador y apasionante. + +[^f89]: _Asimetría del universo simbólico_. En la nota 52 (“complementariedad y ciencias sociales”), hice hincapié en la necesidad de abandonar los conceptos que imponen una perspectiva central cuando el objeto que se ha de describir es una realidad genérica. En la nota 46 mostré que no había que confundir las diversas formas de “ciencia estereoscópica”, que actualmente se proponen, con el enfoque necesario para captar el género; en efecto, ya sea que el estudio sea realizado con una perspectiva complementaria, compensatoria o contrastante, siempre se basa en una apreciación agenérica de la realidad. Solamente la investigación que no es explícitamente científica, que emplea la metáfora (nota 56) de forma epistemológica, puede explicar la complementariedad ambigua y asimétrica (nota 57) que constituye el género. He mostrado que en un mundo genérico, no solamente la cultura material —las herramientas (nota 70), el tiempo y el espacio (notas 78 y 79)— sino también la dominación es genérica (nota 83). Indiqué los límites que la terminología de las ciencias políticas impone al análisis del desequilibrio entre los dos ámbitos del género. Pero todavía debo hacer resaltar que en un mundo genérico no solamente los componentes materiales de la cultura sino también las percepciones y las inferencias simbólicas de la cultura son genéricos. La extensión, la perspectiva, los colores, los objetos que las mujeres ven y las cautiva, son captados por los hombres de manera distinta. Un primer artículo de Edwin Ardener, “Belief and the Problem of Women”, que posteriormente se reeditó en Shirley Ardener, ed., _Perceiving Women_, Halsted Press, Nueva York, 1975, pp. 1-17, fue criticado por Nicole-Claude Mathieu, “Notes pour une définition sociologique des catégories du sexe”, _Epistémologie sociologique_, 11-16, 1971-1973, pp. 21-39. En respuesta, Edwin Ardener escribió “The ‘Problem’ Revisited”, que también fue reeditado en Shirley Ardener, ed., _op. cit_. En este segundo artículo, Ardener expone un marco conceptual según el cual los hombres se ven “reducidos al silencio” en ciertos espacios del dominio de las mujeres: son incapaces de captarlos directamente, y también de hablar de ellos conceptualmente. Ardener estima que, en sentido inverso, las mujeres “no tienen voz” en ciertas partes del dominio de los hombres. Actualmente preparo un ensayo sobre el concepto de que este mutismo asimétrico es parte constitutiva de la complementariedad simbólica de los géneros; al respecto véase Rodney Needham, _Reconnaissances_, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1980, pp. 17-40 (“Unilatéral Figures”). Charlotte Hardmann, “Can There Be an Anthropology of Children ?”, _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford_, 4, 1973, pp. 85-99, considera a los niños como el paradigma de la existencia de grupos que son “reducidos al silencio”, que no son “percibidos”, que son “inasibles” —como las mujeres—, que viven en un segmento autónomo aunque no enteramente incomprensible de la sociedad, y que poseen ciertos valores y formas de interacción exclusivos. Estudia las estratagemas mediante las cuales los antropólogos prescinden en sus textos de la necesidad de reconocer esta existencia “reducida al silencio”. Ciertas nociones que en el artículo se exponen son aplicables al enmudecimiento mutuo de los ámbitos del género. + +[^f90]: _Naturaleza/cultura_. Para hacer del _género_ un paradigma analítico, resulta esencial distinguir las diversas dualidades corrientes e incluso normativas en la investigación de las ciencias sociales (véanse las notas 12 y 76). Al oponer _naturaleza_ y _cultura_, decía Condorcet, “hemos hecho a la naturaleza cómplice del crimen de desigualdad política”. Respecto a la _naturaleza_ así redefinida, véase Jean Erhard, _L’Idée de nature en France à l’aube des Lumières_, Flammarion, París, 1970. Acaso la dualidad más difícil de desenmarañar de todas, es la del género en relación con la de naturaleza/cultura, porque después de la Ilustración la ciencia busca _naturalizar_ a la vez la experiencia y la ideología, a fin de que la lengua pueda expresarlas (argumento sacado de Figlio, _op. cit_, en la nota 87). Por lo tanto la ciencia debe analizarse de la misma manera que Roland Barthes lo hacía con el mito, como un _collage_ “convincente”, puesto que expresa lo que es “natural”. Parafraseando a Barthes, es posible decir que eso que el mundo (o el conjunto de datos empíricos) da al mito (o a la ciencia) es una realidad histórica definida por la manera en que los hombres la han creado o utilizado; y lo que el mito (o la ciencia) da en cambio es una imagen natural de tal realidad. De ahí resulta que la “naturaleza” investigada se vuelve tan mítica (científicamente desprovista de género) como las categorías agenéricas mediante las cuales se estudia. La antropología debería tomar esto en cuenta cuando se ocupa de las “mujeres”, como lo observa Sherry B. Ortner, “Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?”, en Rosaldo y Lamphere, _op. cit_. en la nota 68, pp. 67-87, quien por otra parte se preocupa menos que Ardener de la asimetría del universo conceptual. Sobre todo le interesa encontrar una teoría que explique la subordinación de las mujeres a los hombres, cosa que parece casi universal. No obstante, insiste en el hecho de que toda relación entre la naturaleza y las mujeres proviene de la cultura y no de la naturaleza. Su ensayo ha suscitado un simposio muy animado: Carol P. MacCormack y Marilyn Strathern, eds., _Nature, Culture and Gender_, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980. Esta antología contiene varias comunicaciones fecundas que permiten tomar algo de distancia respecto al paradigma naturaleza/cultura, que tan profundamente se halla inscrito en las ciencias y que tanto se ha popularizado mediante las palabras clave del lenguaje corriente (nota 2). Ciertas sociedades son incapaces de contraponer naturaleza y cultura. Un ejemplo extremo de esto lo presenta M. Strathern, “No Nature, no Culture: The Hagen Case”, _ibid_., pp. 174-222. Entre los hagen (Papuasia-Nueva Guinea) no existe la cultura en el sentido de conjunto de obras del hombre, ni tampoco una naturaleza que haya que domar y hacer productiva. Cuando el género se utiliza de manera diferenciadora, dialéctica, la distinción entre lo masculino y lo femenino siempre crea la noción de humanidad como el “telón de fondo de la similitud común”. Ni el hombre ni la mujer son capaces de representar a la “humanidad” como algo opuesto a la naturaleza, porque la distinción entre ambas se emplea para evaluar zonas donde la acción humana es creadora e individualizante. Para los hagen, todas las representaciones de dominación y de influencia entre los sexos están relacionadas con formas precisas de interacción humana y no con un proyecto de la humanidad respecto a un mundo inferior a lo humano. + +[^f91]: _Antropología_. La historia de esta palabra es curiosa. Cuando Aristóteles la emplea ( _Ética nicomaquea_, 1225 _a_ 5) significa “chisme”. Para los teólogos, desde Philo a Leibniz, significa otra cosa: la atribución de sentimientos o de motivos humanos a Dios, particularmente cuando se hace con toda humildad y con la conciencia de que el lenguaje metafórico es el único que puede traducir —si bien de forma ambigua— aquello que se quiere decir. En el siglo XVII, el término fue empleado para denominar una nueva ciencia _natural_ cuyo objeto era el _hombre_. En el siglo XIX, accede al rango de ciencia social; respecto a la evolución de la palabra, véase O. Marquard, “Anthropologie (philosophische)”, en J. Ritter, ed., _Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie, op. cit_. en la nota 3, pp. 362-374. Me inclino a pensar, como Jürgen Habermas, que la antropología como ciencia filosófica distinta sólo aparece después de la primera Guerra Mundial. Desde entonces, siempre ha empleado una terminología unisex, aun cuando la antropología enfoca su investigación en la distinción entre los hombres y las mujeres. Es imprescindible elaborar una epistemología moderna del género. + +[^f93]:_Diferenciación sexual del lenguaje_. Desde hace más de 10 años, en el sur de Alemania se ha estado realizando una gran investigación a fin de registrar la lengua que allí se utiliza actualmente; un informe preliminar apareció: Arno Ruoff, _Grundlagen und Methoden der Untersuchung gesprochener Sprache. Einführung in die Reihe Idiomalica_, Niemeyer, Tubinga, 1973. Fue una gran sorpresa para los investigadores descubrir que la principal variable es el género de la persona que habla (p. 247). “Die offenkundige Tatsache, dass sich zwischen Mann und Frau der in allen Bestimmungen gleichen Gruppen die stärksten sprachlichen Unterschiede zeigen, war für uns die _unerwarteste_ Feststellung.” Como lo indica el título, la obra de Barrie Thome y Nancy Henley, eds., _Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance_, Rowley, Mass., Newbury House, 1975, trata sobre la diferencia y la dominación. Respecto a algunos textos sobre el tema, véase Nancy Faires Conklin, “Toward a Feminist Analysis of Linguistic Behavior”, _The University of Michigan Papers in Women’s Studies_, I, núm. 1, 1974, pp. 51-73; respecto a la bibliografía reciente, consúltese Susan Philips, “Sex Differences and Language”, _Annual Review of Anthropology_, 9, 1980, pp. 523-544. Existe una antología de buenos textos en J. Orasanu, M. K. Slater y L. L. Adler, “Language, Sex and Gender”, _The Annual of the New York Academy of Sciences_, 327, 1970, así como en B. L. Dubois y I. Crouch, eds., _The Sociology of the Language of American Women: Proceedings of a Conference at San Antonio_, Trinity University Press, San Antonio, Texas, 1979. Mi primera introducción al tema se la debo a un joven amigo fallecido, Larry M. Grimes: _El tabú lingüístico: su naturaleza y función en el español popular de México_, CIDOC, Cuaderno núm. 64, Cuernavaca, CIDOC, 1971. Su obra es una mina de los vocablos tabú relacionados con el género en el español de México. La mayoría de los sociolingüistas ven la diferencia entre el habla masculina y el habla femenina “como un lingüista trata cualquier variedad de lenguaje”. Yo hago lo contrario. Parto del postulado de que esta diferencia es única, comparada con otras diferencias que los lingüistas exploran. Por experiencia sé que el habla vernácula está compuesta por dos formas distintas de expresión oral, y esto es verdad en todos los aspectos: entonación, gramática, vocabulario; temas principales de conversación y manera de tratarlos; ritmo de los silencios, sonidos no articulados, y miradas. Claro está que cito principalmente los textos que concuerdan con mi hipótesis, que por lo demás está fundada en mis propias observaciones. + +[^f94]: _Complementariedad de la palabra_. Hablo del “lenguaje de las mujeres” de la misma forma en que hablé ya del “trabajo de las mujeres”, pues no existe un término lingüístico que designe el habla del género. Respecto a la nomenclatura disponible, véase Joshua A. Fishman, “Some Basic Sociolinguistic Concepts”, _Sociology of Language_, Newbury House, Rowley, Mass., 1972, pp. 15-19. El habla respectiva de los géneros no es una variedad de “la” lengua, sino eso que la constituye fundamentalmente de modo complementario. Tratarla como una variedad de la lengua significa introducir automáticamente una norma agenérica, “unisex” y, al mismo tiempo, la idea de una desviación. También implica que existe de manera independiente, al igual que un dialecto; que cualquiera de las dos formas lingüísticas podría existir incluso en la ausencia de su complemento. Las mujeres comprenden el habla de los hombres, pues el habla femenina es su complemento, pero los hombres y las mujeres comprenden de manera distinta el habla de los primeros (notas 89 y 97) y viceversa. Nadie ha podido escuchar jamás una _lengua vernácula_ como tal; ésta es una elaboración del lingüista que describe el comportamiento de _humanos_ estáticos. La _lumen intellectualis_ del lingüista es la del _neutro científico_ (nota 52). Su proyector conceptual y su perspectiva centralizadora amortiguan la diferencia entre los géneros. La codificación y la ortografía jamás han cesado de imponer la forma masculina y de esta manera han categorizado como una desviación la forma de hablar que las mujeres siguen utilizando. Aun cuando la estandardización ha creado una forma de hablar única, mediante la cual hombres y mujeres se vuelven iguales, en la práctica las mujeres tienen un poco menos de igualdad. En las culturas vernáculas son raras las ocasiones en que los hombres y las mujeres hablan entre sí, por lo que no experimentan la desigualdad del habla. Una de las razones de la estandardización de una forma de habla, es la voluntad de crear un lenguaje mediante el cual los hombres y las mujeres puedan conversar como _humanos_. En la práctica, toda conversación mixta conducida en un lenguaje unisex está dominada por los hombres. Véase Don H. Zimmermann y Candace West, “Sex Roles, Interruption and Silence in Conversation”, en M. A. Lowrie y N. F. Conklin, eds., _A Pluralistic Nation: The Language Issue in the United States_, Newbury House, Rowley, Mass., 1978; consúltese también C. West, “Against Our Will: Male Interruptions of Females in Cross-Sex Conversation”, en Orasanu, Slater y Adler, _op. cit_. en la nota 92, pp. 81-100; M. Swacker, “Women’s Verbal Behavior at Learned and Professional Conferences”, en Dubois y Crouch, eds., _op. cit_. en la nota 92, pp. 155-160; B. Eakins y G. Eakins, “Verbal Turn Taking and Exchanges in Faculty Dialogue”, _ibid_., pp. 53-62. + +[^f95]: _El lenguaje de las mujeres_. La obra capital es: Otto Jespersen, _Language, It’s Nature, Development and Origin_, 1922 (traducción francesa, _Nature, évolution et origines du langage_, Payot, París, 1976, especialmente el capítulo 13: “Femmes”; véase también, de Jespersen, _The Philosophy of Grammar_, 1924 (traducción francesa: _La philosophie de la grammaire_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1971). Ensayos representativos de la investigación: Antoine M. Badia Margarit, “Note sur le langage des femmes et la méthode d’enquête dialectologique (domaine aragonais)”, _Orbis_, 1, 1952, pp. 15-18; Karl Bouda, “Die tschuktschische Frauensprache”, _Orbis_, 2, 1953, pp. 33-34; Jacobus van Ginneken, “Mannen-en vrouwentaal”, _Onze Taaltuin_, 1934-1935, pp. 289-292 (sobre el empleo de los títulos o rangos en el dialecto de Drente, Holanda). + +[^f96]: _Subordinación del habla femenina_. El estudio de la dominación ha producido algunas observaciones fundamentales sobre el género. Nancy Faires Conklin, “The Language of the Majority: Women and American English”, en Lowrie y Conklin, eds., _A Pluralistic Nation, op. cit_. en la nota 94, pp. 222-237, afirma que “en toda comunidad existen normas distintas para el comportamiento de los hombres y el de las mujeres, sin exceptuar el comportamiento lingüístico. Hasta hace poco, la visión clásica de las comunidades lingüísticas en cuanto grupos uniformes de hablantes ha encubierto el rol del género en las variaciones de la lengua. En ciertas culturas, los hombres y las mujeres poseen lenguajes sensiblemente distintos: palabras diferentes para nombrar las cosas, una sintaxis diferente. A primera vista el inglés parece diferenciarse poco en relación con el sexo, pero las diferencias, aunque más sutiles, también podrían calificarse de sistemáticas”. Paradójicamente, estas diferencias, que son obvias incluso para los niños, actualmente constituyen un campo de descubrimiento lingüístico. Pero la cuestión primordial está en cuáles son, en la lengua inglesa contemporánea, las diferencias que representan _restos sobrevivientes de formas de expresión relacionadas con el género_, y cuáles son _reflejos del sexismo en el lenguaje_ (nota 101). El género parece subsistir _sistemáticamente_ en el lenguaje, aunque se le impongan cada vez más las formas unisex —en las cuales es siempre el habla masculina la que tiene primacía—. + +[^f97]: _El rol en el habla y el rol en la lengua_. En _Language and Sex, op. cit_. en la nota 92, Barrie Thorne hace hincapié en la influencia que en los estudios del lenguaje tiene la noción del _rol_. “Eufemísticamente, el término de ‘rol’ tiende a minimizar las diferencias de poder entre hombres y mujeres. Es significativo que la terminología de los roles, que tiende a implicar que se es ‘diferente pero igual’, no se emplea en relación con otras diferencias de poder: no hablamos de los roles raciales, o de los roles de clase … Es evidente que nos hace falta un vocabulario más exacto y más flexible para hablar de las diferencias sociales y culturales entre los sexos.” Este vocabulario técnico más exacto tendría que distinguir entre dos situaciones diferentes: el empleo del habla vernácula y el empleo de la lengua materna enseñada. En el primer caso, cada palabra tienen una resonancia diferente según cuál sea el género que habla. En el segundo caso, se emplea el mismo código del lenguaje inculcado; de manera característica, según el sexo social del género, masculino o femenino, que maneja el lenguaje. Y en el foro sin género de la lengua materna enseñada el habla del hombre siempre predomina. + +[^f98]: _El habla del género_. J. J. Ottenheimer, “Culture and Contact and Musical Style: Ethno-musicology in the Comore Islands”, _Ethnomusicology_, 14, 1970, pp. 458-462, explora el hecho de que las mujeres cantan canciones distintas de las de los hombres, y Karl Haiding, “Das Erzählen bei der Arbeit and die Arbeitsgruppe als Ort des Erzählens”, en G. Heilfurth y I. Weber-Kellerman, eds., _Arbeit und Volksleben. Deutscher Volkskundekongress 1965 in Marburg_, Otto Schwartz, Gotinga, 1967, pp. 292-302, observa que tradicionalmente los hombres y las mujeres no cuentan las mismas cosas, los mismos chistes. Tienen sus temas de conversación respectivos. Véase Roy Miller, _Japanese Language_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1967, p. 289. Tal como lo muestra el mismo autor en “Levels of Speech _(keigo)_ and the Japanese Linguistic Response to Modernization”, en Donald H. Shively, ed., _Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture_, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1971, pp. 661-667, ambos poseen modos de expresión orales diferentes. Una compleja línea de demarcación separa el habla masculina del habla femenina, que se distinguen claramente por partículas pospuestas diferentes (femenino: _wa_; masculino: _za, ya_). Las mujeres emplean el prefijo honorífico _o-_ delante de palabras que los hombres pronuncian directamente; por ejemplo, las mujeres dicen _o-mizu_ para referirse al agua. Ciertas palabras que designan la misma cosa no tienen ninguna relación etimológica: para decir “delicioso” las mujeres usan _oishi_ y los hombres _umaï_. Véase Richard Bauman y Joel Sherzer, eds., _Exploration in the Ethnography of Speaking_, Cambridge University Press, Nueva York, 1975. + +[^f99]: _El habla del género_. S. Harding, “Women and Words in a Spanish Village”, en R. Reiter, ed., _Toward an Anthropology of Women, op. cit_. en la nota 22, describe las estrategias que emplean las mujeres de una aldea española para participar en las conversaciones de los hombres, que habitualmente no las incluyen. + +[^f100]: _El habla del género_. Elinor Keenan, “Norm Makers, Norm Breakers: Use of Speech by Men and Women in a Malagasy Community”, en Bauman y Sherzer, _op. cit_. en la nota 98, pp. 125-143. + +[^f101]: _El habla del género_. La obra de Yvonne Verdier, _Façons de dire, façons de faire, op. cit_. en la nota 79 es un admirable modelo del enfoque adecuado para estudiar la complementariedad entre los modos de hablar de los géneros. + +[^f102]: _El habla del género_. Mary R. Haas, “Men’s and Women’s Speech in Koasati”, Language, 20, núm. 3, 1944, pp. 141-149. + +[^f103]: _Anastomosis_. Cuando hablo de la evolución, evito relacionarla con una teoría: darwiniana, lamarckiana, mendeliana, calificativos todos que al igual que “protestante” o “marxista” han perdido todo sentido. Aquí expongo la transformación que experimenta la cultura vernácula cuando se modifica la configuración del umbral entre los géneros, así como la del espacio-tiempo que ocupan sus ámbitos complementarios. Respecto a las dificultades de relacionar las modificaciones biológicas y las modificaciones culturales, véase Stephen Jay Gould, “‘The Ghost of Protagoras’: A Review of _The Evolution of Culture in Animals_, by John Tyler Bonner, and _Man, the Promising Primate_, by Peter J. Wilson”, _New York Review of Books_, enero 22, 1981, pp. 42-44. Sobre la historia del término “anastomosis” y la legitimidad de su empleo, véase el artículo correspondiente en _Trésor de la langue française, op. cit_. en la nota 3. Sobre la historiografía del “lamarckismo”, resulta útil la consulta de H. Graham Cannon, _Lamarck and Modern Genetics_, Greenwood, Manchester, 1975. + +[^f104]: _Anastosomosis_. Una organización análoga de formas de la plástica mexicanas (en este caso, estatuillas de barro cocido), con sus vueltas y atajos, sus serpenteos y desdoblamientos, se encuentra en Eduardo Noguera, _La cerámica arqueológica de Mesoamérica_, UNAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropólogicas, México, 1975. + +[^f105]: _Abandono del género: signo de plagas_. Muchas crónicas medievales señalan que uno de los principales signos de la llegada de una calamidad era el hecho de que se veía a los hombres realizar tareas de mujeres, y viceversa. La gravedad de tal cosa equivalía a lo que en los relatos de las hambrunas se contaba sobre los sobrevivientes que habían tenido que alimentarse con gatos, perros, ratas y raíces, cuando el hombre se había vuelto lobo del hombre. La desaparición de la línea divisoria de los géneros, la transformación de lo incomible en alimento y el surgimiento del individualismo económico son, tomados en conjunto, los signos del hundimiento de la sociedad y la aparición del régimen de la escasez. Es esto lo que describe, por haberlo observado en nuestros tiempos, Raymond Firth en _Social Change in Tikopia_, Macmillan, Nueva York, 1959. En una isla del Pacífico, la hambruna al principio refuerza la solidaridad entre las familias. Las reglas generales que gobiernan las culturas primitivas que Chayanov observó, y más recientemente, Marshall Sahlins en _Stone Age Economics_, Aldine, Chicago, 1972 (traducción francesa: _Âge de pierre, âge d’abondance_, Gallimard, París, 1976), permanecen intactas: al contrario de la escasez (nota 11), la _penuria_ estrecha los lazos sociales y refuerza la regla de que los alimentos solamente se pueden compartir, jamás intercambiar. En la primera etapa de la hambruna, las familias rivalizan más que nunca antes en su generosidad. En la segunda etapa aparecen los primeros signos de la hipocresía: la gente comienza a acumular los víveres en secreto, éstos no se comparten más que con los miembros de la familia. Y cuando inclusive esta repartición cesa, el tejido vernáculo se rompe: nace el _homo œconomicus_, el individuo envidioso. Hasta esta tercera etapa, el abandono del género es pasajero; más allá, el sexo triunfa sobre el género. + +[^f106]: _Intrusión en el otro ámbito del género_. Véanse por ejemplo las obras citadas en la nota 70. Estas transgresiones individuales causadas por necesidades materiales deben distinguirse del descuido de los deberes del género que el _charivari_ (nota 80) castiga, y del traspaso deliberado de la frontera del género por motivos de “rango”. En ciertos lugares y ciertas épocas, cabalgar con los hombres hacía de una mujer una “dama”. Esta transgresión ocasional era más fácil para las élites (nota 72). + +[^f107]: _Violación política de la frontera del género_. La violación es siempre un acto “político”. El caso aquí es muy diferente de la _pérdida_ individual del género; por ejemplo, el castigo que despoja a los guayaki de su género, registrado por Pierre Clastres (nota 69); del _abandono_ del género por causa de la guerra, de la hambruna, de la peste; del _derrumbamiento_ del género, que coincide con la desaparición de una cultura (nota 105); de la _intrusión_ ocasional en el ámbito opuesto (nota 106). Llamo “políticas” a aquellas infracciones que constituyen un asalto simbólico contra el orden establecido. Se pueden dividir en tres categorías: _1)_ la provocación: la de las mujeres bemba que abandonan colectivamente las chozas y los hijos, dejándolo todo al cuidado de los hombres a fin de escarmentarlos (véase Richards, nota 68); o incluso, en las estructuras patriarcales, las muchas maneras que las mujeres tienen de imitar, de mofarse y de humillar a los hombres a fin de volver a equilibrar el poder; al respecto se pueden encontrar buenos ejemplos en Natalie Zemon Davis, _Society and Culture in Early Modern France_, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, California, 1975, especialmente el capítulo 5: “Women on Top”, pp. 124-150. _2)_ El acto de ridiculizar la invasión de la cultura local por la civilización burguesa. En esto se ve una utilización política del travestismo que ocurre en los comienzos del desarrollo capitalista: hombres y mujeres, que recientemente han entrado a formar parte de la mano de obra industrial, intentan preservar su economía genérica mediante diversas formas de protesta simbólicas. _3)_ El tercer tipo de transgresión política no viola la frontera entre los géneros sino la división de los sexos. La pornografía, al menos desde Sade, y gran parte de las manifestaciones de los movimientos homosexuales y feministas parece entrar en esta categoría del travestismo. Hasta hace poco tiempo, el carnaval y sus travestismos duales servían para rememorar periódicamente la cesura entre la economía moral del pueblo y la invasión de la economía comercial. Para un ejemplo de nuestros tiempos, véase Gerald Sider, “Christmas Mumming and the New Year in Outport New-foundland”, _Past and Present_, 71, mayo, 1976, pp. 102-125. + +[^f108]: _Función de la burla_. El estudio del travestismo en el carnaval muestra perfectamente que la burla ritual conserva _intacta_ la línea de separación de los géneros. Los chistes, los dichos, los proverbios y los acertijos tienen la misma función. + +[^f109]: _El lenguaje del travestismo_. El lenguaje moderno amalgama el género y el sexo (véase la nota 7), creando así la imagen de individuos desprovistos de género que poseen una libido desprovista de género, y que durante su existencia escogen entre diversas formas características. En este lenguaje nuevo se habla del _transexual_, el individuo que cree ser del sexo opuesto al propio, y del _travestido_, quien obtiene satisfacción sexual al adoptar el vestido y/o el comportamiento del otro sexo. También se habla de las tendencias a adoptar formas de comportamiento unisex que disimulan frecuentemente un imaginario sexista o feminosexista inconsciente. Una historia de la transgresión, que debe describir los tipos mencionados en las notas 105 a 108, por lo general se ubica en la perspectiva del sexólogo social; su lenguaje, que ignora el género, parece por ende “natural”. Pero tal óptica necesariamente deforma la realidad y el sentido de los documentos que pretende interpretar. Respecto a la bibliografía, tan extensa como confusa, sobre el tema, véase Vern L. Bullough _et al., An Annotated Bibliography of Homosexuality_, 2 volúmenes, Garland, Nueva York, 1976, particularmente el volumen 1, pp. 37-67 (sobre la historia), y el volumen 2, pp. 351-384 (sobre el travestismo y el transexualismo); del mismo autor, “Transvestites in the Middle Ages”, _The American Journal of Sociology_, 79, núm. 6, 1974, pp. 1381-1394. Sobre la mujer travesti en la tradición cristiana, véase John Anson, “The Female Transvestite in Early Monasticism: The Origin and Development of a Motive”, _Viator_, 5, 1974, pp. 1-32; Marie Delcourt, “Le complexe de Diane dans l’hagiographie chrétienne”, _Revue de l’histoire des religions_, 153, 1958, pp. 1-33; Marina Warner, _Joan of Arc_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1981. + +[^f110]: _La historia del heterosexual_. El término _homosexual_ figura en el _Oxford English Dictionary_; el término _heterosexual_ únicamente se encuentra en su suplemento. En inglés, los dos vocablos aparecen en 1890. En francés, la fecha de su aparición varía según las fuentes, pero también se puede ubicar a finales de ese siglo. Sin embargo hay que observar que el suplemento del _Nouveau Larousse illustré_, París, 1907, registra al homosexual pero no al heterosexual. En 1957, el _Wolfenden Report_, destinado al Parlamento Británico, claramente distinguía entre la propensión a la homosexualidad y el comportamiento homosexual. Ambos aspectos tienen su historia en las sociedades occidentales, y por primera vez fueron cuidadosamente distinguidos por D. S. Baily, _Homosexuality and the Christian Western Tradition_, Longman, Londres, 1955. Intentó diferenciarlos con claridad y precisión, hablando de “homosexualismo” para designar la conducta y de “homosexualidad” para el temperamento desviado. El descubrimiento histórico del homosexual como un tipo particular de ser humano fue expuesto en una obra reciente de John Boswell, _Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1979. Para una respuesta crítica a su tesis, véase J. D. Adams, _Speculum_, 56, núm. 2, 1981, pp. 350-355; Peter Linehan, _The Times Literary Supplement_, enero 23, 1981, p. 73; Keith Thomas, _The New York Review of Books_, diciembre 4, 1980, pp. 26-29. Sobre la historia de la percepción de algunas mujeres como _lesbianas_, véase Lillian Faderman, _Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present_, Morrow, Nueva York, 1981, especialmente la bibliografía, pp. 417-480. Carrol Smith-Rosenberg, “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America”, en N. Cott y E. Pleck, eds., _A Heritage of Her Own_, Simon and Schuster, Nueva York, 1979, piensa que entre las mujeres norteamericanas el contacto físico no se cristalizó como una forma aberrante de actividad sexual hasta finales del siglo XIX. Véase también _Frontiers: A Journal of Women’s Studies_, 4, núm. 3, 1979, número especial sobre la historia del lesbianismo. Paralelamente a esta historia del _desviado_, marcada por la exclusión, actualmente se tendría que escribir una historia del _humano normal_, del heterosexual. Mientras no se conozca mejor la ortopedia conceptual que antecede la construcción social del heterosexual, masculino o femenino, no se podrá comprender el carácter _económico_ de la pareja conyugal y de nuestra sociedad sujeta a la producción mercantil. + +[^f111]: _Sodomía y herejía. Pecado_ contra Dios o _crimen_ entre los hombres, la sodomía sucesivamente se convierte en _herejía_ (separación del cuerpo de la Iglesia): una nueva actitud respecto a la desviación se hace patente. Hasta entonces, la herejía se relacionaba con la negación pública de una doctrina formulada por la Iglesia, o con el rechazo a cumplir con actos rituales prescritos por ésta. Con bastante frecuencia herejía y cisma (separación administrativa respecto a Roma) se confundían. La herejía era contraria a la ortodoxia católica, a la fe, a las creencias. Después el término progresivamente vino a designar una conducta contraria a los preceptos religiosos, al comportamiento estandardizado por la Iglesia. A partir de entonces, todo cristiano que observara sus usos y costumbres vernáculas, tradicionales, podía ser acusado de herejía si contradecía las normas de comportamiento de la Iglesia. Respecto a esta transformación de la herejía, véanse las actas de una conferencia: “Sénéfiance 5”, _Exclus et systèmes d’exclusion dans la littérature et la civilisation médiévales_, CUERMA; Aix-en-Provence, Champion, París, 1978, y V. Branca, _Studi sulle eresie del secolo XII, Studi Storici_, Roma, 5, 2a edición aumentada, 1975, pp. 293-327. Respecto al estado actual de la investigación sobre la participación de las mujeres en la herejía cátara del siglo XII, véase Richard Abels y Ellen Harrison, “The Participation of Women in Languedocian Catharism”, _Medieval Studies_, 41, 1979, pp. 215-251. + +[^f112]: _Asistencia institucional_. John McKnight dice que la asistencia institucional es la “máscara del amor”. Para mí, la transformación de la solicitud cristiana de la “caridad” en asistencia pública es un caso histórico único. Una sociedad hiperproductora de mercancías necesariamente tiene que ser hiperproductora de asistencias. El ciudadano es necesario sobre todo como objeto de la asistencia que prodigan aquellos que se han adjudicado el monopolio radical de ésta (nota 9). En una sociedad así, la necesidad de la asistencia institucional es la base misma de las profesiones mutilantes (nota 60) y de la ayuda mutua “dirigida”. Bajo el régimen del sexo, la asistencia institucional sustituye al amor y al odio. Tal solicitud equivale al “amor” desprovisto de género. En la alta Edad Media, el cura es quien cuida a las almas (del latín _curare_, cuidar). El término aparece en la Iglesia de Occidente durante la reforma carolingia, para designar aquel a quien el obispo confía una parroquia; véase Maria Bidlingmaier, “Alkuin zwischen Antike und Mittelalter”, _Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie_, 81, 1959, pp. 306-350 y 405-453. En el Oriente cristiano, el sacerdote jamás se convirtió en cura: allí su tarea primordial seguía siendo la celebración de la Eucaristía, no la administración de los sacramentos. Al principio de la Edad Media, la impartición de bendiciones todavía dan mucho quehacer al cura occidental: A. Franz, _Die Kirchlichen Benediktionen im Mittelalter_, 2 volúmenes, Friburgo, 1909; H. Reifenberg, _Sakramente, Sakramentalien und Ritualien im Bistum Mainz seit dem Spätmittelalter: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Diöizesen Würzburg und Bamberg_, Münster, 1971-1972. La evolución de la teología sacramental (una teología técnica), que se inicia en el siglo XI, corre paralelamente con la evolución de una actitud de apertura a otras técnicas nuevas; la Iglesia oriental ha resistido ambas tendencias. Por ejemplo, novedades mecánicas increíblemente complejas —el órgano y, en el campanario, el reloj— en Occidente se convirtieron en símbolos del nuevo rostro de la “iglesia del cura”; el Oriente por su lado las rechaza; véase Lynn White, Jr., “Cultural Climates and Technological Advances in the Middle Ages”, _Viator_, 2, 1971, pp. 171-201, y Ernst Benz, “I fondamenti cristiani della tecnica occidentale”, _Tecnica, Escatologia e Casistica_, Roma, 1964, pp. 47-88. A partir de entonces, el cura cuidará a sus ovejas bajo la égida de la técnica —prefiguración de múltiples asistencias institucionales modernas—. Sobre la transformación de las actitudes en relación con la técnica durante el segundo cuarto del siglo XII, en este volumen, _El trabajo fantasma_, en la nota 1, “La investigación convivencial”. + +[^f113]: _Alma Mater_. El monopolio de la asistencia médica por los profesionales (nota 112) se da junto con la redefinición de la institución “tutelar”: la Madre Iglesia (el _Alma Mater_, la madre cuyos pechos prodigan leche). La noción de una institución universal en cuyo seno han de beber todos los que buscan la salvación se remonta a los primeros tiempos del cristianismo. Aparece por vez primera en los escritos de Marción el gnóstico, hacia el año 155. No obstante, ni la imaginería gnóstica ni el panteón pagano entran en la formación de esta idea; al respecto véase Joseph C. Plumpe, _Mater Ecclesia: An Inquiry into the Concept of the Church as Mother in Early Christianity_, Catholic University of America Press, Washington, 1943. Tampoco se puede vincular la noción al culto de la “diosa madre” de la Roma imperial, _ibid_., pp. 9-14, 28-32. En un principio, la Iglesia romana rechazó la identificación con esta imagen. No era la Iglesia, sino el amor cristiano lo que se definía como maternal, como un amor que engendraba una nueva vida. Pero al final del siglo III y en el siglo IV aparecen muchas referencias a la Iglesia “madre” en los textos de los Padres de la Iglesia: ésta es _fecunda, concipit, generat, parturit_, puede abortar, amamantar a quienes recoge en su seno; experimentar placer, exaltación, tristeza; llora y suspira. Los cristianos beben la leche de la fe de sus pechos. En el siglo v, los obispos tenían a su cargo la _educatio prolis_, la educación de los cristianos —el término _educatio_, en el latín clásico, es una función femenina únicamente—. Véase también Sebastian Tromp, “Ecclesia sponsa, virgo, mater”, en _Gregorianum_, 18, 1937, pp. 3-29. Respecto a la evolución posterior de la imagen, véase Karl Delahaye, _Ecclesia Mater chez les Pères des trois premiers siècles_, Cerf, París, 1964; en la introducción de esta obra, Yves Congar habla del cambio en la utilización de esta imagen de la madre durante la alta Edad Media. El término ya no se empleará para designar las características vivificadoras del amor mutuo entre los cristianos, sino que servirá para justificar jurídicamente la autoridad de la Iglesia institucional cuando ejerce el control sobre las fuentes de la vida. El cura es el guardián de los pechos de la Iglesia: así, la Iglesia se convierte en el modelo de una institución social descrita como una mujer cuyos favores sólo pueden obtenerse por mediación clerical. Ciertamente, en muchas culturas las diosas madres se simbolizan mediante estatuas, grutas, montañas y pozos. Ciertamente, la definición del hombre como niño abandonado es típicamente griega: E. Pöhlmann, “Der Mensch-das Mängelwesen? Zum Nachwirken antiker Anthropologie bei Arnold Gehlen”, _Archiv für Kulturgeschichte_, 52, 1970, pp. 297-312. La Antigüedad clásica describía a la naturaleza como una madrastra forzada por su mezquindad a adoptar la cultura. Pero la correlación en términos de lactación entre el profesionista dispensador de cuidados y la asistencia institucionalizada corresponde a la occidentalización de la cultura europea (nota 5). + +[^f114]: _El pecado_. El sacramento de la penitencia que se administra en forma de una confesión secreta obligatoria y anual es una de las manifestaciones claras de la transición a una _sociedad de la asistencia institucional_. De la penitencia pública relacionada con los crímenes notorios se pasa a la confesión de los pecados secretos, y de esta manera la Iglesia se otorga el poder de reglamentar los comportamientos privados: Jean-Charles Payen, “La pénitence dans le contexte culturel des XIIe et XIIIe siècles”, _Revue des sciences philosophiques et théologiques_, 61, 1977, pp. 300 y ss. Dicta oficialmente leyes que gobiernan las relaciones sexuales: dónde, en qué momento, con qué frecuencia y en cuáles circunstancias deben tener lugar; cosas todas que hasta entonces habían sido determinadas por la honestidad local y circunscritas por el _pané_ o el _tabú_ heredados. Este conflicto entre la honestidad vernácula y la ley de la Iglesia fue particularmente bien registrado en diversos textos durante la cristianización de Islandia. Los misioneros llegaron allí con relativa tardanza, cuando las reglas de la Iglesia respecto a la cuestión ya habían cristalizado. Sobre la sustitución de la penitencia pública por la confesión privada, el estudio más sólido es el de Herbert Vorgrimmler, “Busse und Krankensalbung”, 4, fasc. 3, en _Handbuch der Dogmengeschichte_, Friburgo,1978, esp. pp. 89-112. Sobre los libros penitenciales de la época, la mejor obra sigue siendo la de J. Wasserschleben, _Die Bussordnung in der abendländischen Kirche_, 1851; reimpreso por Graz, ed., Akademische Verlagsanstalt, 1958. Las plegarias litúrgicas se decían en latín, pero la confesión se hacía obligatoriamente en lengua vernácula; véase H. Eggers, “Die altdeutschen Beichten”, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, 77, Niemeyer, Halle,1955, pp. 81, 89-123 y 1959, pp. 78-122. Véase también Jenny M. Jochens, “The Church and Sexuality in Medieval Iceland”, _Journal of Medieval History_, 6, 1980, pp. 377-392, y Elizabeth M. Makowski, “The Conjugal Debat and Medieval Canon Law”, _Journal of Medieval History_, 3, 1977, pp. 99-114. Los esfuerzos desplegados por la Iglesia para enseñar a los fieles a realizar su confesión anual pueden verse como un primer intento de inaugurar una educación individual, aunque universal, y un primer intento de proporcionar al fiel una prestación medica anual, absolutamente indispensable para la salvación de su alma. Los documentos de la época subrayan _medicina_. Esta asistencia “médica” que la Iglesia inauguraba transformó el lenguaje de los médicos; véase J. Agrimi y C. Crisciani, _Medicina del corpore, medicina dell’anima: Note sul sapere del medico fino all’inizio del secolo XIII_, Episteme, Milán, 1978. + +[^f115]: _La conciencia_. Aquí, la conciencia es la interiorización por parte del ser humano de aquello que lo guía y juzga en la época en la que el tipo ideal es lo inverso del sentido de la honestidad vernácula que impone el género (nota 81). El llamado “proceso de civilización” se pone en marcha gracias a otro desarrollo, que se puede denominar de la “concientización”. Este término fue acuñado en Brasil para designar una especie de formación política de los adultos que buscaba que se responsabilizaran de sus propios asuntos, instrucción organizada principalmente por sacerdotes que popularizaron las categorías marxistas con el propósito de ayudar a los pobres a descubrir que son “humanos” (nota 4). Históricamente, el término sería apropiado para definir una empresa que la Iglesia configuró mediante la institucionalización del sacramento de la penitencia, una empresa que ha tenido una posteridad técnica variada. Yo denomino concientización a todos los rituales elaborados e impuestos con el fin de hacer interiorizar una idea religiosa o profana. La concientización consiste en la colonización y la estandardización de la honestidad y el honor vernáculos, mediante un conjunto de reglas institucionales “católicas” (es decir, universalmente humanas). Me atrevo a decir que en la alta Edad Media constituyó una perversión de la idea cristiana original de reforma. Los primeros cristianos veían en la reforma, en cuanto intento de renovación del mundo mediante la conversión personal, la vocación que los colocaba en un lugar aparte; véase al respecto Gerhart Ladner, _The Idea of Reform_, Gannon, Santa Fe, Nuevo México, 1970. Los cristianos daban al término _reforma_ un contenido enteramente nuevo; no era ni _1)_ la nostalgia de un paraíso perdido, ni _2)_ una utopía milenarista, ni _3)_ un “renacimiento” periódico que concordaba con el de la naturaleza. Estos tres sentidos eran conocidos en la Antigüedad, así como la salvación personal mediante la participación en los “misterios”, pero no se corresponden en absoluto con la idea cristiana de “reforma”. Ésta encontró una de sus expresiones concretas en las primeras prácticas penitenciales. Tales prácticas se reservaban para los hombres, conversos o hijos de conversos, que habían reincidido en formas de violencia que las conveniencias paganas podían haber exigido de ellos, pero que eran parte del mundo que habían prometido abandonar cuando recibieron el bautismo. Al aceptar públicamente un ritual penitencial, daban testimonio público de su reforma interior. En el confesonario la contrición íntima, secreta, y el compromiso de enmienda que la solicitud pastoral había comenzado a inculcar, remplazó a la declaración pública y precisa de las faltas. El “tribunal interno” requería una evaluación cuantitativa en el más allá. Sobre esta mutación cultural de la vida futura, véase Gilbert Chiffoleau, _La comptabilité de l’au-delà: Les hommes, la mort et la religion dans la région d’Avignon à la fin du Moyen Âge_, École Française de Rome, Roma, 1980; difusión en Francia: De Boc-card. Jacques Le Goff, _La Naissance du Purgatoire_, Gallimard, París, 1981, rememora el descubrimiento de un tercer criterio apropiado para este fin, situado entre el Paraíso y el Infierno, que visitaron en sueños ciertos individuos excepcionales (hacia 1220). Sobre la evolución de las representaciones pictóricas de los “tres pisos” del mundo medieval cristiano, véase J. Baltrusaitis, _Cosmographie chrétienne dans l’art du Moyen Âge_, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, París, 1939. La práctica de la confesión introdujo la distinción entre el pecado ( _culpa_, la falta) que conduciría al Infierno si no recibía el perdón sacramental del sacerdote, y el castigo de este pecado, que el perdón no modificaba. Este castigo mensurable de un pecado que ya se ha perdonado puede ser infligido por Dios en la forma de una enfermedad o de un desastre, o ser conmutado eclesiásticamente por la Iglesia mediante la participación en una cruzada, una peregrinación y, posteriormente, por donativos en efectivo. Desde finales del siglo XII, este castigo será experimentado en un nuevo lugar, el Purgatorio, en el caso de que no lo haya sido en el mundo. Así, la gente podía tener la conciencia purificada por la confesión y, al mismo tiempo, torturada por el temor perpetuo del castigo que aún habría de experimentar. Esta evolución separó un poco más todavía a la Iglesia occidental de la Iglesia griega ortodoxa, que rechazó la invención del purgatorio; véase Gilbert Dagron, “La perception d’une différence: les débuts de la querelle du Purgatoire”, _Actes du xe Congrès International d’Études Byzantines_, Atenas, 1979. + +[^f116]: _La Madona_. La transformación de la Madre Iglesia, que pasa de ser símbolo del amor fértil a ser el símbolo del monopolio de la lactancia (nota 113), se duplica con la modificación de la imagen representativa de la devoción mariana: se pasa del icono de la _Theotokos_ (en griego: “quien engendra a Dios”) al ídolo de la Madona; de la inmensa mujer sobre un fondo de oro en el mosaico de la ábside, a la dama pintada “en perspectiva”. Esta transición simboliza la distancia que comienza a separar a Europa occidental del Oriente cristiano (véanse las notas 112 y 115). Al igual que los caminos recorridos por la “asistencia” (nota 112), la herejía (nota 111) y la conciencia (nota 115), esta transición a otra imagen de María nos permite seguir la pista de la “occidentalización” de Europa (nota 5). Sería un error asignar una fecha a estas transformaciones; no se producen en todas partes en el mismo momento. Son menos visible en los países protestantes que en los países católicos. Y sería ridículo decir que cualquiera de estas transformaciones representó dejar atrás un paraíso perdido, o que el siglo XII marca el fin de un periodo edénico; si centro mi interés en esta época es porque la conozco bien. Finalmente, hay que cuidarse de ver en la “dama” de los trovadores una versión renacentista de la Madona, o en la “feminidad victoriana” una versión profana. No hago estas advertencias sino para subrayar el interés de la obra de Marina Warner, _Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1976, que intenta leer la evolución de las actitudes relacionadas con el género en las representaciones de la Virgen. Marina Warner estudia principalmente las obras maestras del arte religioso. Un enfoque paralelo consistiría en estudiar las imágenes de María que provienen de la piedad popular (nota 117). + +[^f117]: _La piedad popular_. El estudio de la piedad popular es distinto del estudio de la religión al que se dedican las ciencias religiosas. En esto se puede encontrar la misma diferencia que existe entre el estudio del habla genérica y el del lenguaje sexuado (nota 101). La piedad popular consiste en todas las oraciones y devociones, todos los rituales, todas las bendiciones y las canciones que expresan los sentimientos vernáculos y las actitudes vernáculas, y en todos y todas el género aparece. Mi guía en el estudio de la piedad popular, principalmente en Europa, ha sido Lenz Kriss-Rettenbeck, _Bilder und Zeichen religiösen Volksglaubens_, Callwey, Munich, 1977, y del mismo autor, en colaboración con Liselotte Hansmann, _Amulett und Talisman: Erscheinungsformen und Geschichte_, Callwey, Munich, 1976. El autor investiga la forma, el contenido y el significado de la piedad _(Frömmigkeit)_ interpretando los exvotos, los objetos piadosos _(Andachtsbilder)_, los gestos, los amuletos y los talismanes. Distingue cuidadosamente entre _piedad_ y _magia_ o _superstición_. La magia no es ni una forma antigua ni una parte de la religión o de la ciencia, y tampoco es importante en la devoción popular. Es un acto de dominación simbólico. La “superstición”, en el sentido medieval, no reside en las “estúpidas creencias de las viejas”, sino en el rechazo a servir a Dios y en el ingreso al campo de su enemigo, el Diablo. Sobre la transformación de la _realidad social de la superstición_, que de ser una perversión medieval de la religión se convierte en el siglo XVIII en una perversión del sentido común, véase Dieter Harmening, _Superstitio: Überlieferungs und theoriegeschichtliche Untersuchungen zur kirchlich-theologischen Aberglaubensliteratur des Mittelalters_, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlín, 1979. La gran limpia gótica que vació las catedrales suscitó una extraña unión entre la superstición y la magia. Al teólogo y al filósofo del Renacimiento les fascinan la caza de las brujas. Esto por dos razones: _1)_ el fenómeno era de por sí nuevo; _2)_ la brujería y la nueva ciencia que la persigue tienen en común la conjugación de dos aspiraciones: poseer poderes e independizarse de Dios. En el contexto de mi argumento, la historia de la brujería y la de la ciencia contribuyen al estudio del sexo, mientras que al intentar comprender la piedad popular, es posible obtener una visión privilegiada del género. Para un estudio de la piedad popular, véase Raoul Manselli, “Simbolismo magia nell’Alto Medioevo”, en su obra _Simboli e simbologia nell’Alto Medioevo_, Sede del Centro, Espoleto, 1976, pp. 293-329, y _La religion populaire au Moyen Âge: Problèmes de méthode et d’histoire_, Vrin, París, 1975, así como J. Toussaert, _Le Sentiment religieux en Flandre à la fin du Moyen Âge_, Plon, París, 1963. Hay útiles referencias (especialmente sobre la penitencia y la contrición) en Jean-Charles Payen, _Le motif du repentir dans la littérature française médiévale, des origines à 1230_, Droz, Ginebra, 1968. Una obra monumental, con frecuencia irremplazable en el estudio de la devoción en el marco de la fe católica, es el _Dictionnaire de spiritualité, ascétique et mystique, doctrine et histoire_, Beauchesne, París, al que se dio inicio en 1932 gracias a la iniciativa de Marcel Viller y cuya publicación prosigue (ha llegado al volumen X, fasc. 67, 3, letra M, y acaso se terminará al final del siglo). Los vínculos entre el cura y la piedad de sus fieles se exponen con claridad en Etienne Delaruelle, _La piété populaire au Moyen Âge_, Bottega d’Erasmo, Turín, 1975. No pude utilizar dos obras muy recientes: M. Ménard, _Une histoire des mentalités religieuses aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Mille retables de l’ancien diocèse du Mans_, Beauchesne, París, 1981, y Marie-Hélène Froeschlé-Chopard, _La religion populaire en Provence orientale au XVIIIe siècle_, Beauchesne, París, 1980. Si estimo que es muy importante la investigación en torno a la piedad popular en el siglo XIX, es porque en este periodo los símbolos religiosos fueron utilizados por la Iglesia para bendecir una nueva visión del mundo, una visión sexuada. Esto es lo que muestra, por ejemplo, Gottfried Korff, en “Heiligenverehrung und soziale Frage: zur Ideologisierung der populären Frömmigkeit im spaten 19. Jh”, en G. Wiegelmann ed., _Kultureller Wandel im 19. Jh_., Van den Hoeck and Ruprecht, Gotinga, 1973, pp. 102-111, y también en, “Bemerkungen zum politischen Heiligenkult im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert”, en Günther Stephenson, ed., _Der Religionswandel unserer Zeit im Spiegel der Religionswissenschaft_, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 1976, pp. 217-230. Puesto que la penetración de la ideología impuesta por la Iglesia en la religiosidad popular es un tema que me interesa, presidí la constitución de una colección de documentos sobre la piedad popular en América Latina desde 1820; esta colección, dirigida por Valentina Borremans, se encuentra actualmente en la biblioteca de El Colegio de México, Carretera Picacho-Ajusco, Bosques del Pedregal, México, D. F. Ha sido parcialmente registrada en microfilms por Inter Documentation Company, de Leiden (Holanda). + +[^f118]: _El Diablo_. El estudio iconográfico del Diablo, de los demonios y de los zoomorfos es una manera de reconstituir la imagen de la mujer en la época: “Sénéfiance 6”, _Le Diable au Moyen Âge (doctrine, problèmes moraux, représentations_), coloquio, marzo de 1978, Aix-en-Provence; Champion, París, 1979. Sobre los animales sagrados y diabólicos, sigue siendo útil la obra de W. von Blankenburg, _Heilige und dämonische Tiere_, Koehler, Leipzig, 1942; véase también Dietrich Schmidtke, _Geistliche Tierinterpretationen in der deutschsprachigen Literatur des Mittelalters 1100-1500_, tesis, Berlín, 1968, especialmente pp. 208 y ss. Para la correlación entre las representaciones animales y la imaginería del periodo, véase J. Baltrusaitis, _Le Moyen Âge fantastique: Antiquités et exotismes dans l’art gothique_, Flammarion, París, 1981, nueva edición aumentada; 1a édition: 1955. Sobre la supervivencia de los dioses antiguos en la forma de demonios, véase M. Th. d’Alverny, “Survivance de la magie antique”, _Antike und Orient im Mittelalter_, Miscellanea Mediaevalia I, 1962, pp. 155-178 y, para la bibliografía sobre el tema, J. Seznec, _La survivance des dieux antiques_, Warburg Institute, Londres, 1940; véase también A. A. Barb, “The Survival of Magic Arts”, en Arnaldo Momigliano, ed., _The Conflict between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century_, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1964, pp. 100-125. Sobre el “estatus social” de los animales, véase J. Vartier, _Les procès d’animaux du Moyen Âge à nos jours_, Hachette, París, 1970. En torno a la imagen medieval de la mujer, véase el número especial de _Cahiers de civilisation médiévale_, 20, 1977, especialmente Jean Verdon, “Les sources de l’histoire de la femme en Occident aux Xe et XIIIe siècles”, y Chiara Frugoni, “L’iconographie de la femme au cours des Xe-XIIe siècles”, pp. 177-187, cuya conclusión es de notar: “… la iconografía de la mujer es la iconografía de una ausencia”. Respecto a Eva, véase E. Guldan, _Eva und Maria: eine Antithese als Bildmotiv_, Böhlau, Colonia, 1966. + +[^f119]: _La bruja_. La bruja, personaje histórico, aparece cuando las gárgolas abandonan las torres de las catedrales, y desaparece hacia el fin de la Ilustración; es típica del periodo del género dislocado (nota 120). La bruja conoce las hierbas, realiza abortos, puede ser maga o exorcista o adivina, o incluso, lo cual suele ser lo más frecuente, ser sólo una pobre anciana; pero ante todo su figura es el resumen de la mujer que protesta contra la pérdida del género vernáculo. No es la sacerdotisa de una divinidad local, ni la devota de un ídolo: está asociada al Diablo cristiano, que es tan católico como el Dios al que combate. Los compañeros de la bruja no son espíritus vernáculos que el agua bendita pasó por alto, sino los zoomorfos y los demonios asociados desde ese momento con Satanás. En todos los lugares donde el proceso civilizador se esfuerza en imponer una frontera sintética entre los géneros, aparece la bruja (y también el brujo). Robert Muchembled, _Culture populaire et culture des élites dans la France moderne, XVe-XVIIIe siècles_, Flammarion, París, 1978, muestra la relación entre la brujería y la represión de la subsistencia local por el Estado-nación que se está constituyendo. Jean Delumeau, _La peur en Occident, XIVe-XVIIIe siècles_, Fayard, París, 1968, estudia _quién_ temía _qué_ y _cuándo_, y las expresiones que asumía el temor en las comunidades. Es una nueva forma de temor que se generaliza conforme desaparecen las referencias de la experiencia constituidas por las fronteras del género y que exige símbolos abstractos, siendo _la_ mujer el más importante. La bruja es una reacción característica del género ante la desaparición de la subsistencia local; esto lo pude entrever por vez primera en la obra de Julio Caro Baroja, _Las brujas y su mundo_, Madrid, 1961, traducción francesa: _Les Sorcières et leur monde_, Gallimard, París, 1972. + +[^f120]: _La civilización del género dislocado_. Ludolf Kuchenbuch (véanse las notas 73 y 77) es mi guía en la cuestión de la civilización del género dislocado que dominó Occidente entre los siglos XI y XVIII. Designo así la segunda de las cuatro etapas de la formación de la pareja “sexuada” de nuestros tiempos, y la función económica de la pareja en el hogar. _1)_ Durante gran parte del periodo medieval, la unión conyugal no tiene como finalidad la creación de la pareja. El matrimonio con frecuencia tejía lazos complejos entre los miembros de ambas parentelas; entre sus posesiones, su estatus, su descendencia. Asumía una sorprendente variedad de formas; estimulaba la subsistencia y reforzaba la capacidad del campesino para resistir a las exigencias del rey o del señor. _2)_ En el siglo XI apareció un nuevo tipo de casamiento cuya finalidad inmediata era la creación de un vínculo entre los dos coproductores del tributo, cada cual de acuerdo con su género (nota 77). Pero el tributo pierde su género inclusive antes de que se pague en efectivo (nota 73). La Iglesia eleva el consentimiento mutuo al rango de sacramento, y la pareja se convierte en una institución sagrada. El proceso de la civilización (Norbert Elias, _Über den Prozess der Zivilisation_, Francfort, 1939, 2a ed., 1969; traducción francesa en dos volúmenes: _La civilisation des mœurs_, 1974; _La dynamique de l’Occident_, 1975, Calmann-Lévy, París), impuso progresivamente la unión conyugal a las capas sociales inferiores, remplazando las conveniencias sociales, como criterios del comportamiento del género, con las que el catolicismo impone. El _estado conyugal en el seno del género_ permitió al hogar europeo funcionar como una empresa económica única en la historia: _a)_ el género dislocado hacía a los hombres y a las mujeres más capaces de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas, y por lo tanto de producir bienes eminentemente vendibles; _b)_ sin embargo la familia permanecía relativamente independiente del consumo de los productos mercantiles, puesto que su existencia seguía basada en la subsistencia intragenérica; _c)_ el hogar solo, sin el sólido apoyo de la aldea y de la parentela, no tenía la fuerza suficiente para resistir la expropiación de sus excedentes; la civilización del género dislocado termina en el intervalo protoindustrial (nota 125), que transforma a la pareja en: _3)_ una asociación económica desprovista de género entre un trabajador salariado y una trabajadora fantasma; por lo tanto, yo llamo a este tercer periodo la civilización del sexo económico. _4)_ No me atrevería a acuñar una denominación para el surgimiento actual de los pseudogéneros castrados, quienes tienen sus partidarios teóricos y sus detractores prácticos. Sobre la transición del género vernáculo al género dislocado, véanse las obras citadas en la nota 77; sobre la historia de la familia, véase la nota 121. Sobre la historia legal de la pareja en la civilización del género dislocado, véase sobre todo Gaudemet, _op. cit_ en la nota 77. Velma Bourgeois Richmond, “Pacience in Adversitee: Chaucer’s Presentation of Marriage”, _Viator_, 10, 1979, pp. 323-354, da una lista de los textos relacionados con las dificultades que encuentra el crítico o el escritor modernos cuando trata de decir cuáles eran, en la baja Edad Media, las actitudes ante el sexo, el amor, la reciprocidad de los sentimientos. John K. Yost, “The Traditional Western Concept of Marriage and the Family: Rediscovering Its Renaissance-Reformation Roots”, _Andover Newton Quarterly_, 20, 1980, pp. 169-180, y Alberto Tenenti, “Famille bourgeoise et idéologie au bas Moyen Âge”, en G. Duby y J. Le Goff, eds., _Famille et parenté dans l’Occident médiéval_, Actes du Colloque de Paris 1974, École Française de Rome, edición núm. 30, 1977, pp. 431-440, tratan ambos del descubrimiento de que, en la Florencia de Dante († 1321) y de Boccacio († 1375), el matrimonio podía concebirse como una empresa vitalicia iniciada por la pareja, empresa que tanto al noble como al campesino le tocaba en suerte —en cuanto al letrado, éste tenía que buscar un estado más propicio—. En los tiempos de Leonbattista Alberti (1404-1472), el ciudadano de Florencia se veía obligado a vivir en familia para ser respetado. La unidad aparente de un matrimonio era tan importante como lo es hoy en día la unidad aparente de una sociedad comercial, y por las mismas razones, observa Mary Carruthers en “The Wife of Bath and the Painting of Lions”, _Publications of the Modern Language Association_, 94, 1979, p. 212. Una mina de datos sobre las actitudes respecto a la pareja durante la primera mitad del siglo XVI es el _Heptamerón_, antología de relatos de Margarita d’Angoulême, reina de Navarra. Edward Benson la analiza en “Marriage Ancestral and Conjugal in the _Heptameron_”, _Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies_, 9, 2, 1975, pp. 261-275. En el siglo XVI las transformaciones de la vida económica permiten ganar mucho más al comerciante o al artesano que pueda contar con la ayuda directa de su esposa; por vez primera en la historia, las capacidades y los talentos del cónyuge tienen importancia económica para la pareja. Igualmente, el señor puede exigir un tributo mayor a la pareja campesina que colabora para “producir”. En el _Heptaméron_ es patente que de allí nace la discordia entre los sexos, que no podían saber que la pareja estaba en vías de convertirse en una unidad económica de producción. + +[^f121]: _La historia de la familia_. He tomado mucho de esta nueva disciplina para formular la distinción entre el género y el sexo. Para mí resultó fundamental la obra de Philippe Ariès, _L’enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime_, Plon, París, 1960; edición revisada y completada, Seuil, 1973. Ya no es posible hablar de la historia de la familia sin referirse a las ideas de Ariès, sea para criticarlas acremente, sea para deleitarse con ellas, como yo. Respecto a la forma en que fueron recibidas, véase Adrian Wilson, “The Infancy of the History of Childhood: An Appraisal of Philippe Ariès”, _History and Theory_, 19, núm. 1, 1980, pp. 137-153. Yo mismo jamás habría escrito _La sociedad desescolarizada_ (véase vol. I) ni la presente obra, si no hubiera sido por los trabajos de Ariès. Hasta la fecha, la mayoría de los estudios sobre la historia de la familia ignoran el género. Existe una buena orientación respecto a esta nueva disciplina en Michael Anderson, _Approaches to the History of the Western Family, 1500-1914_, Macmillan & Co., Economic History Society, Bristol, 1980. Esta obra esta dividida en tres capítulos, cada uno dedicado a una de las grandes corrientes que se han desarrollado en esta disciplina: _1)_ el estudio demográfico cuantitativo (edad de los esposos y diferencias de edad entre ellos etc.; esquemas de la natalidad y esquemas de la contracepción); _2)_ la evolución de las actitudes relacionadas con la vida doméstica, la vida privada, los sentimientos, el control de la comunidad sobre la familia, así como las diferentes formas de maternidad; _3)_ enfoques nuevos de la historia económica de la familia hasta los tiempos modernos. Como introducción general al tema, al principiante le recomiendo el libro de J.-L. Flandrin, _Familles_, _op. cit_. en la nota 84, donde el autor muy hábilmente correlaciona la demografía, el estudio de las mentalidades y los comportamientos, y la tipología de las estructuras familiares. Una de las mejores iniciaciones es también un número especial de _Annales ESC_, núm. 27, “Famille et société”, París, 1972. Respecto a la relación entre la demografía y las actitudes diferentes, según los niveles sociales, véanse las diversas contribuciones reunidas por C. Tilly, ed., _Historical Studies of Changing Fertility_, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1978. Hay dos notables estudios locales sobre la familia en el siglo XIX, tanto en Inglaterra, D. Levine, _Family Formation in an Age of Nascent Capitalism_, Academy Press, Chatsworth, 1977, como en los Estados Unidos, P. J. Greven, _Four Generations: Population, Land and Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts_, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, Nueva York, 1970. Sobre la diversidad de formas familiares que pueden coexistir en una misma región, véase P. J. Greven, _The Protestant Temperament: Patterns of Childbearing, Religions Experience and the Self in Early America_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1977. El proceso mediante el cual la fábrica protoindustrial y el “mantenimieto del orden” convergen para suprimir la forma genérica de la pareja conyugal y remplazarla con el modelo de la polarización sexual de las funciones, es descrita por Jacques Donzelot, _La Police des famillas_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1977. Sobre las consecuencias del trabajo de las mujeres (asalariado y fantasma), véanse las notas 31 y 48. Una buena bibliografía sobre la historia cultural y social del matrimonio: Natalie Zemon Davis, “La storia delle donne in trasizione: il caso europeo”, _Donnawomanfemme_, 3, 1977, pp. 7-33. También se puede citar al respecto: James Wallace Milden, _The Family in Past Time: A Guide to the Literature_, Garland, Nueva York, 1977, y Gerard Soliday, ed., _History of the Family and Kinship: A Select International Bibliography_, Kraus, Nueva York, 1980. + +[^f122]: _Capitalismo_. Hablo de economías “precapitalistas” y “capitalistas” a falta de mejores términos, pero sobre todo en el segundo caso con cierta reticencia. En torno al empleo de estos términos, véase especialmente Edwin Deschepper, “L’histoire du mot ‘capital’ et dérivés” (tesis sostenida en la Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1964), así como Edgar Salin, “Kapitalbegriff und Kapitallehre von der Antike bis zu den Physiokraten”, _Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial-und Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, 23, 1930; consúltese también Jean Dubois, _Le vocabulaire politique et social en France de 1869 à 1872 à travers les oeuvres des écrivains, les revues et les journaux_, Larousse, París, 1963, así como el artículo mucho más sencillo de Bert Hoselitz, “Zur Begriffsgeschichte des Kapitalismus”, _Saeculum_, 18, 1967, pp. 146-163. La transformación social que recubre la oposición entre las sociedades precapitalistas y las sociedades capitalistas, de hecho coincide con la transición del régimen del género al régimen del sexo. Además, la distinción que en el seno del género establezco entre los modos de vida vernáculos y la era del género dislocado, me permite distinguir dos etapas sucesivas en la Europa precapitalista: la etapa de la subsistencia basada en la complementariedad del género vernáculo, en la que la producción mercantil juega un papel netamente secundario; y la etapa del género dislocado, en la que la mayor productividad, resultado del acoplamiento económico de los esposos, incrementa considerablemente la producción mercantil simple. Así, lo que se ha denominado la producción mercantil simple demuestra ser principalmente el excedente que puede derivarse del matrimonio en el seno del género (nota 77). En contraste, en la tercera etapa, la llamada capitalista, las mercancías son el producto de una sociedad que se apoya en un tipo de familia enteramente diferente; son el producto del trabajo económico, es decir, que ignora el género. Este trabajo se pudo imponer porque en la primera etapa de la industrialización la sujeción de la familia a las mercancías capitalistas la forzó a depender del empleo salariado; a finales del siglo XX, habrá de depender la mayor parte del trabajo fantasma (nota 30). El análisis del género me permite también añadir aún otra categoría, además de las dos que distingue Karl Polanyi en _Trade and Market in the Early Empire, op. cit_. en la nota 33, capítulo V, pp. 64-96, y en el ensayo “The Semantics of Money Use”, _Essays, op. cit_. en la nota 11, pp. 175-203. Polanyi establece una distinción entre el intercambio social (incluso el monetario) de los bienes y la venta de mercancías por los comerciantes. Respecto a la recepción de las categorías de Polanyi, véase Humphreys, _op. cit_. en la nota 5. Yo acepto esa distinción, sin relacionarla aquí con el género. Pero contrapongo la mercancía simple, “descubierta” por Aristóteles, a la mercancía capitalista, los bienes industriales o los servicios, pues la primera se origina en el género y la segunda no. + +[^f123]: _La revolución industrial_. Véase Fernand Braudel, _Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme_, _XVe–XVIIIe siècles_, 3 volúmenes, Armand Colin, París, 1967-1979, y _Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism_, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1977. R. M. Hartwell, ed., _Causes of the Industrial Revolution in England_, Londres, 1967, expone con brevedad las grandes teorías históricas sobre las causas de la industrialización, así como las objeciones a cada una de ellas. Este inventario confirma el desconocimiento de la transformación, antropológicamente decisiva, que significó la desaparición del género vernáculo. + +[^f124]: _La desaparición del género rural_. Véase David Sabean, “Intensivierung der Arbeit und Alltagserfahrung auf dem Lande-ein Beispiel aus Württemberg”, _Sozialwissenschaftliche Informationen_, 6, 1977, pp. 148-152. Para una comparación con el siglo XVIII, pero en Francia: Alain Lottin, “Vie et mort du couple: difficultés conjugales et divorces dans le nord de la France aux XVIIeXVIIIe et siècle”, _Le XVIIe Siècle_, núm. 102-103: “Le XVIIe siècle et la famille”, 1974, pp. 59-78. + +[^f125]: _El intermedio protoindustrial_. Los especialistas de historia social emplean el término “protoindustrial” para designar los esquemas muy particulares de las culturas populares durante la transición de la producción mercantil simple al modo de producción capitalista en la Europa del siglo XIX; véase P. Kriedte, H. Medick, J. Schlumbohm, _Industrialisierung vor der Industrialisierung_, Van den Hoeck und Ruprecht, Gotinga, 1978, y especialmente Medick, pp. 90-154. + +[^t01]: En español en el original. + diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/gender/es.txt b/data/pages/es/book/gender/es.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e929471 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/gender/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1,702 @@ +# El género vernáculo + +## Introducción + +Defino la ruptura con el pasado, descrita por otros, como la transición al modo de producción capitalista, como el paso de la égida del género al régimen del sexo. Considero que la desaparición del género vernáculo es la condición imprescindible del desarrollo del “capitalismo” y de un estilo de vida totalmente sometido a la mercancía industrial. Según el _Diccionario ideológico de la lengua española_, género es el “accidente gramatical que sirve para indicar el sexo de las personas o de los animales y el que se atribuye a las cosas”. Y María Moliner dice por su parte: “Tal división responde a la naturaleza de las cosas solamente cuando esas palabras se aplican a animales, los cuales pueden ser machos (género masculino) y hembras (género femenino)”. Yo he adoptado este término para traducir la diferencia que existe entre los comportamientos humanos masculinos y femeninos —diferencia que es universal en las culturas vernáculas—. Los lugares, los tiempos, las herramientas, las tareas, los modos de hablar, los gestos, las percepciones asociados con los hombres difieren de los que se asocian con las mujeres. Esta asociación constituye el género _social_, propio de una época y de un lugar. El género es vernáculo porque el conjunto de tales asociaciones es tan propio de una población tradicional (la _gens_ latina) como lo puede ser su habla vernácula. + +Por lo tanto empleo el término “género” en un sentido nuevo, a fin de designar una dualidad que anteriormente era tan evidente que no se denominaba, y que en la actualidad nos resulta tan lejana que frecuentemente se confunde con el sexo. El “sexo” es el resultado de la polarización de las características comunes que desde el final del siglo XVIII se atribuyen a todos los seres humanos. A diferencia del género vernáculo —que refleja la asociación cultural de una cultura material dual, concreta y local, con los hombres y mujeres que viven bajo su potestad—, la división sexual de la mano de obra, de la libido, de la personalidad o de la inteligencia procede del diagnóstico (“discriminación”, en griego) de las desviaciones respecto a una norma abstracta que con este propósito ha sido definida. Es posible estudiar el sexo en términos científicos precisos. El género muestra una complementariedad enigmática y asimétrica. Únicamente la metáfora logra expresarla. + +La distinción entre la historia bajo la égida del género y la historia bajo el régimen del sexo se produjo a partir de una controversia entre Barbara Duden y yo. Originalmente nuestra discusión estaba relacionada con el aspecto económico y antropológico de las tareas domésticas en el siglo XIX. Hablo del asunto en _El trabajo fantasma_[^f0] [^f1] —primera tentativa de sentar las bases de una “Historia de la escasez”, de la cual este trabajo representa la segunda etapa. En el debate con Barbara Duden, no sé cuál de los dos, si ella o si yo, condujo al otro hacia una perspectiva nueva sin que hubiéramos de renunciar por eso a nuestras posiciones mutuamente críticas. Con Lee Hoinacki la colaboración fue de otro tipo. Como en numerosas ocasiones a lo largo de 20 años, nos reunimos para comunicarnos recíprocamente lo que habíamos aprendido durante el año anterior. Pasamos dos semanas en su casa, en el campo, y revisó la primera versión de mi texto. Lo discutimos, sopesamos sus enunciados y tomó una forma nueva. No sabría decir quién de los dos es el responsable de tal o cual giro de la frase. Pero de algo estoy seguro: sin su colaboración, este texto no tendría la forma presente. + +En este texto he incorporado la sustancia de muchos de mis cursos sobre la historia de la sociedad en el siglo XII que hube de impartir como profesor invitado en la Universidad de Kassel. Quiero expresar mi agradecimiento a Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker y a los estudiantes por haber tenido el valor y la paciencia para formular provechosas críticas. + +También quiero expresar mi agradecimiento a varias personas por todo lo que contribuyeron durante las conversaciones que sostuvimos. Norma Swenson me hizo reconocer la principal debilidad de mi _Némesis médica:_ su perspectiva unisex. Las reflexiones de Claudia von Werlhof respecto al punto ciego de la percepción económica me llevaron a distinguir los dos aspectos del asunto: la economía fantasma y el dominio vernáculo, ambos paralelamente descuidados, pero indudablemente negados. Debo a Signar Groeneveld la distinción entre topología vernácula y topología industrial, en la que me apoyo. Las conversaciones con Ludolf Kuchenbuch me aportaron una imagen nueva de la pareja conyugal preindustrial. Mis viejos amigos Ruth y Lenz Kriss-Rettenbeck (ambos etnógrafos e historiadores del arte), con quienes comparto diversos “maestros” —del periodo que se extiende entre Hugo de San Víctor y Gustav Künstler— me apoyaron y animaron más de lo que sabría expresar. Susan Hunt se ofreció voluntariamente a dactilografiar mi texto mientras trabajaba en su propia obra sobre el género y el sexo. Este ensayo y su obra estaban destinados a estudiantes de los cursos que impartí en la universidad californiana de Berkeley durante el otoño de 1982, sobre el tema “Constituir historias de género”. Apliqué la mano final a este ensayo junto con el doctor P. Wapneswski, rector del Instituto de Estudios Avanzados de Berlín, y con estudiantes de este establecimiento. + +Finalmente, quiero agradecer muy particularmente a Maud Sissung, cuyas cualidades como traductora siempre he valorado, pero quien en este libro se superó para darme la prueba de que la fuerza de lo vernáculo irriga incesantemente la lengua. A ella le debo un texto que aun siendo distinto del original es el equivalente exacto. + +_Cuernavaca, 1982_ + + +## Sexismo y crecimiento económico + +NO SÉ de ninguna sociedad industrial donde las mujeres estén en igualdad económica con los hombres. A las mujeres siempre les toca la menor parte de todo lo que la economía es capaz de medir. Las obras que exponen este sexismo económico se han multiplicado recientemente. Documentan la explotación sexista, denuncian su injusticia, la describen como una nueva versión de un mal milenario y proponen teorías explicativas que combinan con estrategias reparadoras. Los patrocinios institucionales —las Naciones Unidas, el Consejo Mundial de Iglesias, los gobiernos, las universidades— promueven la proliferación de reformadores profesionales, que forman un sector nuevo del crecimiento. Primero, el proletariado; luego, los subdesarrollados y actualmente las mujeres movilizaron por turno el interés de los “concernidos”. Ya nadie puede hablar de discriminación sexual sin que se le impute de inmediato una toma de posición respecto a la economía política del sexo: o bien se aboga por una “economía no sexista”, o bien se pretende lavar de toda culpa la economía sexista que es la nuestra. Ninguna de esas posiciones es la mía, aunque funde mi tesis en la existencia de esta discriminación. Para mí, la búsqueda de una “economía no sexista” resulta tan absurda como repugnante la economía sexista. Voy a demostrar la naturaleza intrínsecamente sexista de la economía mediante la exposición de la naturaleza sexista del postulado que es la base de la economía, “ciencia de los valores que presupone la escasez”. + +Mostraré que todo crecimiento económico implica la destrucción del _género vernáculo_ (capítulos III-V) y se alimenta de la explotación del _sexo económico_ (capítulo II). Me propongo estudiar el _apartheid_ económico y la subordinación de las mujeres, sin caer en las trampas de la sociobiología ni del estructuralismo, que respectivamente presentan esta discriminación como algo “natural” o “culturalmente” inevitable. En calidad de historiador, quiero remontarme a los orígenes de esta servidumbre _económica_ de las mujeres; en calidad de antropólogo, quiero entender lo que esta nueva sujeción revela sobre el parentesco; en calidad de filósofo, quiero clarificar lo que este esquema reiterativo nos dice sobre los axiomas de las ideas heredadas, es decir, sobre los axiomas que constituyen el fundamento de la universidad contemporánea y sus ciencias sociales. + +No me ha sido fácil dar forma a mis ideas. Más de lo que podía sospechar al inicio, el habla ordinaria de la era industrial _a la vez_ ignora el género y es sexista. Yo sabía que el género es dual, pero la perspectiva sin género que impone necesariamente el lenguaje industrializado distorsionaba constantemente mis ideas. Estaba atrapado en una red deformante de palabras dominantes, de _palabras clave_. Actualmente veo que estos vocablos clave, elementos característicos del lenguaje moderno, son claramente distintos de los términos técnicos, como por ejemplo “automóvil” o “avión supersónico”. Y he aprendido que las palabras de esta especie pueden sumergir el vocabulario de un lenguaje tradicional. Cuando esto sucede hablo de criollización tecnológica. Sin embargo, un vocablo como “transporte”, es una palabra clave. Designa una pretendida necesidad fundamental; significa algo que es diferente del “transporte público”, algo que es un medio técnico o una opción política.[^f2] + +El examen de las lenguas modernas revela que la utilización usual de las palabras clave es poderosa y persuasiva. Algunas son etimológicamente antiguas, pero han adquirido un sentido nuevo, que no tiene relación con el anterior. Tal es el caso de “familia”, “hombre”, “trabajo”. Otras se acuñaron recientemente, aunque al principio sólo para un uso especializado. Se fueron deslizando en el habla cotidiana y asumieron muy vastas connotaciones: “rol”, “sexo”, “energía”, “producción”, “desarrollo”, “consumidor”, para dar ejemplos que todos conocen. Estas palabras clave asumen la apariencia del sentido común en los idiomas de la era industrial. Toda lengua moderna posee las suyas, que dan a cada sociedad su óptica única de la realidad social e ideológica del mundo contemporáneo. Este conjunto de palabras clave es homólogo en todos los idiomas modernos de los países industrializados. La realidad que traducen es básicamente la misma en cualquier parte. Las mismas autopistas llevan a las mismas escuelas y establecimientos comerciales donde se elevan las mismas antenas de televisión que transforman los paisajes y las sociedades disímiles y les dan una monotonía uniforme. Paralelamente, los textos dominados por las palabras clave se traducen fácilmente del inglés al japonés o al malasio. + +Los términos técnicos universales que se han convertido en palabras clave, como “Coca-Cola”, “proletariado” o “medicina”, tienen el mismo significado en todas las lenguas modernas. Pero otros términos que han aparecido en campos lingüísticos distintos se corresponden casi exactamente unos con otros cuando se les emplea como si fueran palabras clave: por ejemplo, “humanidad” y _Menschheit_. Así, el estudio de las palabras clave exige cierta comparación entre las lenguas.[^f3] + +Para explicar el surgimiento y la supremacía de las palabras clave en un idioma, tuve que distinguir entre el habla vernácula, que se adquiere progresivamente por interacción con las personas que expresan lo que piensan, y la _lengua materna inculcada_, que se adquiere a través de las personas contratadas para hablar con nosotros y por nosotros. Las palabras clave son características de la lengua materna inculcada. Logran reprimir el habla vernácula con mayor eficacia que las reglas gramaticales porque su aparente sentido _común_ aplica un barniz seudovernáculo sobre la realidad mecanizada. Por lo tanto, en la formación de un lenguaje industrializado las palabras clave son más importantes que los términos técnicos, porque cada palabra clave denota un punto de vista común al conjunto del que todas proceden. Su característica principal es que efectivamente excluyen al género. Es por esto que para comprender el género y distinguirlo del sexo (que es una palabra clave), es necesario apartarse o desconfiar de todos los términos que pueden ser palabras clave. + +Así pues, cuando emprendí este ensayo me vi en un dilema lingüístico: no podía emplear los vocablos con su “resonancia” tradicional de “género” y no quería aceptarlos con su connotación sexista actual. Percibí esta dificultad cuando quise usar la versión original de este texto para mis cursos del año universitario 1980-1981. Nunca antes tantos colegas o amigos tra taron como entonces de hacerme desistir de un proyecto. Muchos me aconsejaban que me ocupara en un tema menos trivial o menos ambiguo o menos escabroso; otros consideraban que en atención a la actual crisis del feminismo no les correspondía a los hombres hablar sobre las mujeres. Tras oírlos atentamente, me pareció que sus motivos procedían del hecho de que mis razonamientos interferían en sus sueños: el sueño feminista de una economía igualitariamente neutra, exenta de roles obligatoriamente sexuados; el sueño izquierdista de una economía política que sólo supiera de seres “humanos”;[^f4] el sueño futurista de una sociedad moderna donde las personas gozarían de flexibilidad, donde podrían decidir a su antojo si habrían de ser dentistas, machos, protestantes o genetistas; todas las elecciones merecerían el mismo respeto. Lo que perturbaba los sueños de unos y otros era que yo hablara simplemente de la economía a la luz de la discriminación hacia las mujeres, pues todos los deseos que estos sueños expresan se ajustan a un mismo patrón: el de una economía unisexualizada, sin género (capítulo VII). + +Una sociedad industrial sólo puede existir si impone un postulado unisex: ambos sexos están hechos para el mismo trabajo, perciben la misma realidad y tienen las mismas necesidades[^f5] —la vestimenta es sólo una dife rencia desdeñable—. El postulado de la escasez, fundamental en la economía, también está basado en este postulado unisex. Los hombres y las mujeres no serían capaces de competir por el “trabajo” si éste no se hubiera redefinido como una actividad que conviene a los humanos, sin distinción de sexo. La teoría económica está fundada en la existencia de este _humano_ desprovisto de género, “agenérico”. Así, una vez que la escasez es aceptada, el postulado unisex se propaga. Toda institución moderna, desde la escuela a la familia, del sindicato al tribunal, retoma por su cuenta el postulado de la escasez, y por lo tanto disemina en la sociedad el elemento que lo funda: el postulado unisex. De esta manera, los niños y las niñas tienen desde ese momento la necesidad del sistema educativo para crecer. En las sociedades tradicionales, solían llegar a la edad adulta sin que las condiciones de su crecimiento hubieran sufrido escasez alguna. En la actualidad, las instituciones de enseñanza les señalan que el conocimiento y la habilidad son bienes deseables pero escasos, y por ende objeto de competencia entre los hombres y las mujeres. Pero la educación, ejemplo _típico_ de una necesidad moderna, va todavía más lejos: postula la escasez de un valor _unisex;_ enseña que el niño o la niña que de ella “se benefician” son primordialmente seres humanos para quienes es necesaria una educación a-genérica. Las instituciones económicas, desde entonces, se fundan en la suposición de la escasez de valores a-genéricos deseables —o necesarios— para seres económicos neutros que pertenecen a ambos sexos biológicos.[^f6] + +Inexorablemente, las instituciones económicas transforman ambos géneros en algo nuevo: seres neutros económicos que sólo difieren, de manera incidental, por su sexo. Un bulto característico, aunque accesorio, bajo los pantalones de mezclilla, es todo lo que distingue, en adelante, a los dos tipos de trabajadores, y sin embargo privilegia a uno respecto al otro. La discriminación _económica_ de las mujeres no habría podido existir sin la abolición del género y la construcción social del sexo.[^f7] Es esto lo que quiero demostrar. Y si esto es verdad, es decir, si el crecimiento económico destruye el género intrínsecamente, irremisiblemente, si en consecuencia el crecimiento económico es sexista, entonces el sexismo no disminuirá sino “al precio” de una contracción de la economía. La condición necesaria, aunque todavía insuficiente, para producir el declive del sexismo, es la reducción de la relación monetaria y la expansión de las formas de subsistencia fuera del mercado, fuera de la economía. + +Hasta hoy, dos realidades motivaban poderosamente la adopción de medidas de crecimiento negativo: la degradación del medio ambiente[^f8] y la contraproductividad paradójica.[^f9] Una tercera se viene a añadir ahora: es necesario el crecimiento negativo para reducir el sexismo. Esta proposición habrá de chocar a los críticos que, con las mejores intenciones posibles, desde hace un año intentan apartarme de mi actual argumentación, unos porque temen que yo me exponga al ridículo, otros porque temen que su sueño del crecimiento combinado con la igualdad habrá de parecer una fantasía. Sin embargo, pienso que ha llegado el tiempo de trastornar las estrategias sociales, de reconocer que la paz entre los hombres y las mujeres, cualquiera que sea la forma que puede asumir, depende de la contracción de la economía y no de su expansión. Hasta hoy en día, ni la buena voluntad ni la lucha, la legislación o la tecnología, han podido contrarrestar la explotación sexista que es característica de la sociedad industrial. Demostraré que en una sociedad donde impera el mercado es insostenible interpretar esta degradación económica de uno de los sexos como la exacerbación del machismo. Siempre que la igualdad de los derechos ha sido promulgada y puesta en vigor, siempre que la paridad de los sexos se ha puesto de moda, estas innovaciones han dado la impresión de una victoria de las élites que las propusieron y obtuvieron, pero la mayoría de las mujeres nada ganó con ellas e incluso a veces las padeció. + +El ideal de la igualdad económica de los sexos está en vías de morir, como también el ideal del crecimiento que habría de reducir la distancia entre el Norte y el Sur, en términos del producto nacional bruto. En vez de seguir apegados al sueño de un crecimiento no sexista, la razón exige orientarse hacia una contracción de la economía —en cuanto política que permita el surgimiento de una sociedad menos sexista, aunque no pueda dejar de serlo del todo—. Bien sé que una sociedad industrial sin jerarquía sexista no es más concebible que una sociedad preindustrial sin _género_, es decir, sin una división clara entre lo que los hombres y lo que las mujeres hacen, dicen, ven. Estas son quimeras que han sido creadas por uno o por el otro sexo. Pero la reducción de la relación monetaria, es decir, a la vez de la producción mercantil y de la sujeción a tal producción, _no es_ quimérica. Ciertamente implica la renuncia a las expectativas y conductas cotidianas que hoy se consideran “naturales”. Incluso entre aquellos que saben que los dos términos de la alternativa son el retroceso o el horror, muchos ven en ello una elección imposible. No obstante, cada vez son más las personas informadas y los expertos —algunos convencidos, otros oportunistas— que reconocen que esta reducción es necesaria. Se empieza a ver que la condición de la sobrevivencia es el desprendimiento progresivo del nexo monetario. Sin “crecimiento negativo” es imposible mantener el equilibrio ecológico, alcanzar la justicia entre las regiones del mundo y la paz entre los pueblos. Y esta tendencia tendrá que ser mucho más acentuada en los países ricos que en los países pobres. Lo máximo a lo que pueden aspirar es a que haya igual acceso a los recursos escasos del mundo, en un nivel quizá comparable al que existe actualmente en las naciones más pobres. La traducción fáctica de tal proposición, su instalación específica, exigiría una alianza multiforme entre muchos grupos que poseen vocaciones diferentes, a fin de buscar la recuperación de los ámbitos de comunidad que englobo con el término de “ecología política radical”.[^f10] Para incorporar en esta alianza a aquellos que deploran la pérdida del género, tendré que demostrar que existe un vínculo entre el crecimiento negativo y la reducción del sexismo. + +La demostración de la relación entre el sexismo y la economía requiere la construcción de una teoría. Esta teoría es una condición necesaria para la realización de una historia de la escasez.[^f11] Como se verá, yo prefiero esclarecer mi razonamiento teórico mediante ejemplos, antes que cargarlo de datos. Los datos, cuando existen, los proporciono en las notas. En virtud de la novedad del acercamiento teórico y de la pobreza de los estudios empíricos realizados de acuerdo con esta perspectiva, a veces he tenido que emplear un nuevo lenguaje. No obstante, hasta donde me ha sido posible, he elegido vocablos antiguos que he empleado de forma nueva, a fin de expresar con precisión tanto la teoría como los hechos probados. + +La estructura teórica me autoriza a contraponer dos modos de existencia que yo denomino, respectivamente, el _reino del género vernáculo_ y el _régimen del sexo económico_. Estos términos indican por sí mismos que en ellos hay dos formas duales que son de naturaleza _muy_ distinta.[^f12] Por “género” yo entiendo la dualidad que coloca respectivamente a hombres y mujeres en circunstancias y condiciones que les impiden decir, hacer, querer o percibir “la misma cosa”. Por “sexo económico” entiendo la dualidad que propende hacia la meta ilusoria de la igualdad económica de los hombres y las mujeres. En esta última construcción de la realidad, como lo demostraré, la dualidad misma es casi por completo artificial. + +Este ensayo reviste la forma de un epílogo, el epílogo de la era industrial y sus quimeras. Al redactarlo, volví a ver de manera nueva —que sobrepasa mis conjeturas de 1971 en _La convivencialidad_— lo que nuestra era ha destruido irremediablemente. En cuanto al futuro, no sé ni diré nada, lo ignoro. + + +## El sexo económico + +ES UN HECHO evidente que las mujeres sufren discriminación económica. Quince años de investigaciones de las feministas, con base en una masa enorme de pruebas, lo han demostrado sin lugar a dudas. Pero falta realizar todavía dos tareas capitales. La primera consiste en diferenciar tres campos inherentes a toda economía moderna. Al hacer esta diferenciación, aparecerán tres formas de discriminación que se han confundido hasta hoy. La segunda tarea consiste en comprender la diferencia entre estas tres formas de discriminación _económica_ de las mujeres, y la subordinación patriarcal de las mujeres en sociedades donde no existe el nexo monetario. Examinaré aquí los tres distintos tipos de discriminación en relación con las mujeres, a fin de comprender sus respectivas formas. Una vez reconocido el predominio de uno de estos tipos de discriminación económica en una variedad del trabajo femenino, será posible saber en cuál de las tres “economías” fundamentales se inserta este trabajo. En efecto, como un espejo, la estructura de la discriminación sexista refleja la división de la “economía” en las sociedades industriales avanzadas. La economía, que reposa en los intercambios codificados entre productores y consumidores de bienes o de servicios, se divide en el sector estadísticamente aparente y el sector no aparente —dominios señalados y ocultados de la discriminación de las mujeres en el trabajo—. Existe una tercera economía, a la vez invisible y oculta, que es el tercer ámbito de la discriminación de las mujeres: el trabajo fantasma. + +### La economía aparente + +En el curso de los años, la discriminación de las mujeres en los puestos de trabajo remunerados, gravables y estadísticamente registrados, no se ha hecho más severa sino más variada.[^f13] Actualmente, 51% de las norteamericanas forma parte de la población activa. En 1880 solamente lo era 5%. En la actualidad, constituyen 42% de la fuerza de trabajo, en comparación con 15% entonces. Por último, 50% de las mujeres casadas se ganan la vida afuera, contra 5% hace un siglo. Hoy en día, todas las profesiones y las carreras están abiertas legalmente para las mujeres, mientras que en 1880 en la mayoría se las excluía. Hoy en día, las mujeres tienen empleo durante aproximadamente 28 años, en 1880 la cifra era de cinco años como término medio. ¿Se habrá de inferir que hemos progresado considerablemente en la vía de la igualdad económica? Veamos lo que nos dice un parámetro significativo: el de los salarios. El salario medio anual de una mujer que trabaja tiempo completo aún fluctúa en torno a una proporción mágica (3/5) de los ingresos medios de un hombre: 59% ± 3% —el mismo porcentaje que hace un siglo—.[^f14] Ni el acceso a la enseñanza, ni las estipulaciones legales o la retórica revolucionaria —política, tecnológica, sexual—–han modificado la relación de inferioridad entre las ganancias femeninas y las masculinas.[^f15] Lo que a primera vista se podría interpretar como una serie de avances hacia la equidad, en la perspectiva de la mujer media, no es de hecho más que una serie de sucesos por los cuales a un número creciente de mujeres se les ha incorporado silenciosamente en la población que profesionalmente sufre una discriminación en razón de su sexo. Los ingresos medios de la vida de trabajo de una mujer con diploma universitario continúan siendo comparables con los de un hombre que acaso terminó el bachillerato. + +Me ha tomado tiempo asimilar el alcance de estas cifras y datos. Al principio reaccioné como lo había hecho años antes cuando vi los datos respecto a la “eficacia” de la medicalización. En ese momento me negué a creer que desde 1880 la expectativa de vida de un norteamericano de edad madura no había cambiado ostensiblemente. No podía entender cómo un incremento, en dólares contantes, de 25 veces en las sumas aportadas a la medicina, de las cuales una parte desproporcionada se dedicaba al tratamiento y prevención de las enfermedades de las personas que se encontraban en la segunda mitad de vida, no había conducido a un aumento considerable de la esperanza de vida. Es verdad que la tasa de supervivencia infantil se ha elevado notablemente; que muchas más personas alcanzan los 45 años; que los cuerpos maltrechos por los accidentes pueden reconstituirse mediante el plástico y el aluminio; que muchas enfermedades infecciosas han sido aniquiladas. Pero la esperanza de vida de un ciudadano de edad madura no se ha modificado significativamente. La medicina tiene un papel mínimo en el aumento o disminución de la supervivencia en el umbral de la muerte. Nuestras sociedades constantemente soslayan el hecho de que el dinero, la cirugía, la química y la buena voluntad fracasan en la lucha contra la muerte. Esto forma parte de aquellas cosas que al parecer tienen que ser negadas mediante el ritual o el mito.[^f16] + +Aunque totalmente distinta, la discriminación económica contra las mujeres en cuanto grupo constituye una realidad que rehúsan ver muchos de nuestros contemporáneos, a quienes sin embargo animan las mejores intenciones. En la misma medida que la poliomielitis y la difteria han desaparecido, la exclusión de las muchachas en los liceos y las universidades ha desaparecido. Así como los cinturones de seguridad ofrecen protección en los accidentes, los circuitos interiores de televisión protegen contra las violaciones. De igual manera que existen programas destinados a la salud de los pobres, hay becas de estudios destinadas al acceso de las mujeres en los más altos niveles académicos. Y, sin embargo, ni un solo programa ha modificado la expectativa de vida de los adultos ni la diferencia en los ingresos de los sexos.[^f17] He aquí una realidad que es difícil encarar. + +La diferencia invariable entre los ingresos de uno y otro sexo no es más que un aspecto de la discriminación económica en relación con las mujeres en el terreno del trabajo, del mismo modo que el estancamiento de la esperanza de vida de los adultos no es más que un aspecto del fracaso de la medicina moderna en mejorar la “salud”. Se podría objetar que _de hecho_ los colosales esfuerzos del sistema médico moderno han alargado la esperanza de vida de los adultos en la medida en que un mundo de _smog_ y _stress_ habría descendido por debajo de la de muchos países pobres. De igual manera, se podría objetar que las luchas combinadas de legisladores, sindicatos, feministas e idealistas han evitado que aumente la diferencia de ingresos en una sociedad que se ha vuelto cada vez más sexista. Sería posible estimar que tal visión pesimista de la sociedad industrial está absolutamente fundada. Multitud de señales atestiguan que la rápida declinación de la esperanza de vida, para todas las edades, que desde hace 20 años se observa en la URSS,[^f18] no es sino la anticipación de una tendencia similar en los países industrializados; paralelamente, el retroceso en relación con tantos pretendidos progresos relacionados con la igualdad de oportunidades, consecuencia directa de la crisis actual del empleo, es en realidad una tendencia que no se invertirá jamás.[^f19] Pero independientemente de que se adopte la actitud optimista o la pesimista, una cosa parece empíricamente clara: la proporción de los ingresos que se niega a la mitad de la población por motivo de su sexo parece ser un factor tan invariable como la esperanza de vida de los adultos —o incluso, según algunos, como la incidencia total del cáncer, en cuanto fenómeno social de la raza humana—. + +Las investigaciones que las mujeres llevaron a cabo durante los años sesenta abordaban dos grandes temas: la violencia física que contra ellas ejercen violadores, maridos y médicos, y las condiciones de trabajo de las obreras. Los esquemas que estas dos orientaciones académicas revelan son extremadamente uniformes y deprimentes. En todos los países la discriminación y la violencia aumentan al mismo ritmo que el desarrollo: mientras más dinero aporta su trabajo, menos ganan las mujeres y más son víctimas de violaciones.[^f20] Esta configuración social, durante tanto tiempo negada, desde hace 10 años se ha venido aceptando con hipocresía. En relación con el trabajo, la primera ola de las investigaciones que realizaron las mujeres en el seno de las universidades norteamericanas, trataba principalmente sobre la condición obrera de las mujeres: bajos salarios, opciones potenciales limitadas, nivel profesional degradante, poca representación en el aparato sindical y precariedad en el empleo. En 1981, la Organización Internacional del Trabajo indicaba que en el mundo entero la mayoría de las mujeres tienen empleos urbanos no sindicados, y esto en un número reducido de categorías; cuando pertenecen a un sindicato, los contratos colectivos rara vez las toman en cuenta, e incluso cuando un sindicato está principalmente constituido por mujeres, los cuadros que las representan durante las negociaciones son de hombres. Es evidente que los numerosos estudios sobre este hecho son inútiles, que en ningún lugar el progreso económico ha hecho disminuir la diferencia de las remuneraciones. Estas investigaciones sólo llevan a la inútil multiplicación de los datos; benefician a quienes con ellas acumulan distinciones académicas y proporcionan fundamentos cada vez más firmes a esos teóricos que en la redundancia quieren ver la explicación.[^f21] + +En conjunto, la investigación feminista de la posguerra al principio surgió de los movimientos de las mujeres y se orientaba a la acción. Las adeptas de la retórica liberal reclamaban igualdad de oportunidades, junto con programas de ayuda; otras se nutrían en los libros sacrosantos, rumiaban a Marx, Freud y Reich a fin de obtener la aprobación de un _establishment_ alternativo. Se descubría la “reproducción”.[^f22] Los derechos de las mujeres y los derechos de los trabajadores parecían compatibles con el desarrollo y el progreso. A pesar de sus debilidades y monotonías, estas investigaciones siguen siendo fundamentales para nuestra comprensión del funcionamiento de la sociedad industrial. Revelaron la sorprendente homogeneidad de la discriminación de las mujeres en el seno de la esfera del trabajo, sin importar los países o los ámbitos: socialistas o capitalistas, ricos o pobres, latinos o anglosajones, católicos, protestantes o shintos. En los niveles comparables de ingresos, las mujeres sufrían el mismo menoscabo en Francia que en Japón, por ejemplo. El esquema que las excluye de las remuneraciones privilegiadas es más uniforme que el que preside la discriminación hacia los negros o los judíos. Por añadidura, en ninguna parte del mundo las mujeres han podido instaurar un régimen femenino; existe la Tanzania de Nyerere, el Israel de Begin, pero no se ve ninguna Amazonia. + +### La economía inaparente + +Hay muchos tipos de actividades económicas que los gobiernos y sus economistas no revelan —sean o no capaces de hacerlo—. En algunos casos son incapaces de obtener los datos; en otros, no sabrían cómo designarlos o evaluarlos, aun cuando quisieran ponerlos al descubierto. Esta acumulación de actividades que los economistas excluyen de sus estadísticas habituales da lugar a una plétora de designaciones. Algunos lo llaman el sector informal, otros el sector cuaternario, aún otros el “sector D”, que ocupa el cuarto rango de importancia económica, tras el sector primario de la “extracción”, el sector secundario de la “manufactura” y el sector terciario de los “servicios”. Hay quienes hablan de economía doméstica, de economía moderna del trueque, de economía de las “transferencias en especie” o de mercado no monetario. También hay algunos que hablan de zonas de actividades individuales, espontáneas o de ayuda mutua.[^f23] Los marxistas no vacilan en etiquetar este tipo de trabajo: lo llaman “reproducción social” y, con base en esto, se dividen en sectores, cada cual pretendiendo saber mejor que los demás el significado del término. Para terminar de confundirlo todo, hacia mediados de los años setenta se puso de moda entre las feministas denominar “trabajo de mujeres” aquellas actividades, y designar “amos de casa” a los hombres que lo ejercieran —calca inversa del sexismo—. + +No es fácil evaluar el volumen de esta economía no oficial. Representa un montón de actividades que se pagan con dinero contante, pero no mediante un salario legalmente declarado que otorga el derecho a las prestaciones de la seguridad social —y también se retribuyen en especie—. Está constituida en su mayor parte por un comercio fuera del mercado oficial, por intercambios de favores o retribuciones monetarias de servicios que en su totalidad escapan al fisco o a la estadística. En Yugoslavia hay que regalarle un pollo al médico estatal para que se ocupe de uno, y en Polonia huevos de gallina al funcionario del estado civil que expide los permisos de matrimonio. En la URSS, más de tres cuartas partes de los huevos, la leche, el queso y las legumbres que consumen los hogares provienen del mercado paralelo; los libros se adquieren clandestinamente o en forma de _samizdat_. En los Estados Unidos, las transacciones que escapan a todo control son las de los cultivadores californianos de marihuana —cuyas cosechas valen miles de millones de dólares— y las de los importadores clandestinos de heroína afgana, todas las cuales incluyen los sobornos a los policías. Pero todavía existen otras formas: los trabajos agrícolas temporales, la vendimia o la cosecha de cítricos, por ejemplo, que efectúan los inmigrantes mexicanos ilegales, o el intercambio de favores: tú cuidas del jardín de un abogado, por ejemplo, y él a cambio cuida que tu casa, la cual edificaste sin el permiso de construcción, escape a la inspección administrativa; o el mecánico que remplaza el carburador del automóvil del contador a cambio de que, por su lado, le llena su declaración de impuestos. Todas estas transacciones, que son acuerdos particulares entre contratantes de buena fe, participan de la economía inaparente. En algunas el dinero interviene, mientras que otras se realizan a base del trueque. Son todas de carácter económico, pero ninguna estadística las toma en cuenta. Las hay legales y delictivas. Algunas perjudican al cliente más de lo que podrían hacerlo los servicios profesionales, y otras lo perjudican menos. Algunas otras proporcionan ventajas financieras, en contraste con la pesadez de las reglamentaciones oficiales, mientras que otras representan una explotación pura y simple. Pero todas constituyen intercambios evidentes de servicios, de productos o de dinero, y por lo tanto están relacionadas con un modelo mercantil. + +Se ha intentado evaluar el volumen de esta economía clandestina, al menos por comparación con el producto nacional bruto. El gobierno británico estima en 7.5% del PNB (¡y no solamente de los salarios!) la consecuente pérdida fiscal.[^f24] Esta cifra no representa más que una pequeña porción del mercado que escapa a su control. El fisco norteamericano (Internal Revenue Service, Washington, D. C.) evaluaba en 135 billones de dólares el producto de las actividades de los individuos o de las empresas que no fueron gravadas por las agencias federales en el año 1976. Esta cifra se encuentra en un informe sobre el volumen de los ingresos sin gravar, pero no toma en cuenta la evasión fiscal mediante el artificio de los honorarios profesionales, de las pérdidas ficticias y de otras astucias legales, todas las cuales pueden alcanzar en total una cantidad similar. Según evaluaciones recientes, en los Estados Unidos esta economía ignorada crece más rápidamente que la economía oficial, sobrepasando inclusive la tasa de inflación.[^f24] Si a esto se suman las transacciones monetarias (pero que escapan a las estadísticas) y no monetarias en los Estados Unidos, el total iguala indudablemente el volumen de la economía —excluyendo el sector militar— con base en el cual los economistas establecen globalmente sus indicadores, sus previsiones y sus recomendaciones. Y mientras que en la economía oficial, base de las deducciones fiscales y de los estudios estadísticos, la mano de obra en gran medida se emplea en la creación artificial del seudo trabajo que produce artículos inútiles y servicios superfluos, suscitando controles sociales fútiles e intermediarios económicos parásitos, en la economía inaparente la eficacia media es superior, según las estimaciones. Fue gracias al vigor de su “mercado negro” que un país como Italia pudo atravesar 10 años durante los cuales los economistas no cesaban de vaticinarle una bancarrota inminente, y que los países socialistas pudieron sobrevivir a una gestión tan catastrófica que teóricamente debería haber hundido sus economías. + +Una cosa es indudable en todo esto: incluso al eliminar con esmero del mercado inaparente todas las actividades de subsistencia y todas las tareas domésticas típicamente femeninas (las cuales no están incluidas en el modelo mercantil), esta economía que anteriormente no se percibía, que crece proporcionalmente con mayor rapidez que el PNB oficial, contiene una parte de discriminación sexista que sólo ocasionalmente se ha abordado. Sin embargo, en este sector, donde se crean nuevos empleos mientras que el “desempleo” oficial aumenta, las mujeres están en peligro de caer en una situación todavía peor que en el sector oficial. Aquí no tienen curso las estipulaciones legales contra la discriminación o por la igualdad de derechos. En comparación con los “informales”, los obreros agrícolas, los vendedores de drogas y los sobornados, cuyas actividades son ilegales aunque lucrativas, las mujeres deben conformarse con la prostitución, el pequeño chantaje o la guarda de objetos robados. Los recursos típicos de las “informales” honestas son ser sirvienta y mecanógrafa a domicilio.[^f26] + +La corriente de la escuela de Chicago que a sí misma se denomina “nueva economía doméstica”[^f27] y los recientes estudios de orientación política que abordan la economía inaparente, por lo menos tienen algo en común: reconocen que el trabajo del “mercado negro” que no proporciona ingresos fiscales, y los trabajos domésticos, que tampoco lo hacen, aun cuando a veces reciben una compensación monetaria, no dejan de contribuir al PNB, y en una proporción muy importante. Pero esto los lleva a inventar categorías nuevas que de hecho confunden una vasta gama de actividades inaparentes con el trabajo de las mujeres, tanto en el hogar como en la cama. La debilidad teórica de estas nuevas nociones reside en su incapacidad de trazar distinciones nítidas, pero, además, esta corriente de Chicago disimula perniciosamente la situación de las mujeres.[^f28] Ellas saben muy bien que se las excluye más efectivamente de la economía inaparente que del empleo asalariado donde deben pagar impuestos, pero que están _encadenadas_ por la discriminación a los trabajos domésticos. Aunque la perspectiva de los economistas de Chicago resulta molesta, esta distinción formal entre dos actividades económicas es capital para las mujeres. Al considerar los trabajos domésticos como un “tipo ideal” de la actividad económica, revela las dos características que los distinguen del trabajo que depende del sector económico comercial: se imputa su valor y no es posible “desintermediarlos”.[^f29] + +### El trabajo fantasma +[^f30]A mediados de los años setenta, los estudios femeninos relacionados con el análisis económico cambiaron de orientación. Algunos tropezaron con nociones que no entraban en ninguna de las categorías vigentes en historia, economía, etnología o antropología. La cuestión de los salarios se consideraba secundaria respecto a algo muchísimo más importante: ¿cómo explicar que las mujeres en toda sociedad industrial, además de sufrir la discriminación en el empleo, son obligadas, fuera de las horas laborales, a llevar a cabo una variedad nueva de trabajo _económicamente_ necesario, pero sin percibir _remuneración alguna?_ Se hacía patente que las mujeres pierden cuando buscan un empleo, cuando piden una promoción, cuando intentan conservar un empleo “provechoso”. Sucedía que fuera del trabajo asalariado —que durante el siglo XIX se hizo reglamentario— y paralelamente a éste, una nueva forma de actividad había nacido. En ésta, las mujeres tenían que trabajar mucho más que los hombres y de manera diferente. En el empleo se les pagaba —y paga— menos de lo justo; por añadidura, se veían obligadas a desempeñar formas de trabajo que no existían antes del nacimiento del salariado.[^f31] + +Los historiadores del trabajo doméstico han aportado las mejores pruebas de la nueva economía subterránea. Sus investigaciones me hicieron comprender que la diferencia entre los trabajos domésticos de ayer y hoy no puede describirse fielmente mediante el lenguaje tradicional, y tampoco expresarse satisfactoriamente con la jerga de las ciencias sociales. Los trabajos domésticos de la mujer moderna no tienen su origen en los de las mujeres del pasado. Y ésta es incapaz de concebir que su antepasada no hubiera tenido la obligación de trabajar en una economía subterránea. Tal como son descritas por los nuevos historiadores de los trabajos domésticos, las actividades típicas del ama de casa[^f32] en su apartamento moderno no tienen absolutamente nada que ver con lo que hacían las mujeres antes de la sociedad industrial; estas actividades no pueden ser analizadas adecuadamente como si fueran del sector informal, ni tampoco como categorías dogmáticas de la “reproducción social”. + +Al examinar con atención estos fenómenos que los antropólogos y los historiadores del trabajo doméstico han descrito, vi que el mercado contemporáneo del trabajo, tanto el aparente como el inaparente, no es más que la punta del iceberg: la mayor parte del trabajo se realiza en la economía subterránea. Cuando aumenta el empleo, en las diferentes formas de salariado, las penosas tareas informales se extienden también. Y los trabajos domésticos modernos son una parte típica, aunque no exclusiva, de esta realidad subterránea, que no solamente es inaparente, sino también imperceptible para los faros económicos. Como la nomenclatura corriente no permite hacer la distinción, yo contrapondré al trabajo que se realiza en la economía aparente e inaparente, la economía subterránea del “trabajo fantasma”, que es su complemento.[^f33] + +Al contrario de la producción de bienes y servicios, el trabajo doméstico lo realiza el consumidor de la mercancía misma, el hogar consumidor. Llamo “trabajo fantasma” a toda actividad mediante la cual el consumidor transforma la mercancía comprada en un bien utilizable. Con el término “trabajo fantasma” designo el tiempo, la labor y el esfuerzo que hay que gastar para añadir a la mercancía comprada ese valor adicional sin el cual ésta es inutilizable. Este término designa las actividades que la gente tiene que realizar si es que quiere satisfacer sus necesidades mediante mercancías. Al introducir el término “trabajo fantasma”, distingo, por ejemplo, la confección de un plato de huevos hoy en día y en el pasado. Cuando el ama de casa moderna va al mercado, compra los huevos; regresa al hogar en su automóvil, toma el ascensor hasta el séptimo piso, enciende la estufa, toma la mantequilla del refrigerador y cocina los huevos; cada uno de sus gestos añade valor a la mercancía. No sucedía lo mismo con su abuela. Ésta iba a buscar los huevos al gallinero, disponía la manteca que ella misma había fundido, hacía fuego con ramas que los niños recogían en el bosque comunal, y añadía a los huevos un poco de sal que había comprado. Este ejemplo, que puede parecer romántico, muestra claramente la diferencia. Ambas mujeres cocinan huevos, pero sólo una utiliza mercancías y bienes cuya producción depende de una fuerte inversión de capital: automóvil, ascensor, estufa eléctrica con todos sus accesorios. La abuela desempeña las tareas específicas de su género y así crea la subsistencia; la otra debe resignarse a llevar la carga doméstica del trabajo fantasma.[^f34] + +La transformación de las tareas domésticas no es para nada superficial, sino muy profunda. El aumento creciente del nivel medio de vida hace que estos trabajos dependan cada vez más de los bienes de capital porque introduce en el hogar muchas máquinas y novedades. La inversión de una familia canadiense media en sus enseres domésticos —y lo mismo se podría decir de todo hogar moderno— es en nuestros días superior a la inversión material media de una fábrica para un puesto de trabajo manual en las dos terceras partes de las naciones del mundo. De allí resulta que los trabajos domésticos son más sedentarios, y que la incidencia de las várices ha disminuido. Para una minoría de las mujeres, esto ha significado un trabajo interesante, remunerador, así como ratos de ocio “para cultivarse o divertirse”. Pero los nuevos trabajos domésticos también son más solitarios, monótonos, impersonales y bastante más contaminantes. El consumo de valium y el embrutecimiento ante la pantalla de la televisión se encuentran entre los paliativos de este tipo de estrés suave.[^f35] El trabajo doméstico se ha convertido en el paradigma de la nueva actividad _económica_ no retribuida que en la sociedad de la computadora y el microprocesador es económicamente más fundamental que el trabajo productivo —ya sea que esta producción figure o no en los informes de los economistas—. + +El trabajo fantasma sólo se hizo posible cuando el hogar se convirtió en un recinto organizado para la función económica que consiste en dar a las mercancías un “valor agregado”. No podía hacerse típicamente femenino sino desde el momento en que los hombres cambiaron el hogar por la fábrica o la oficina. Desde entonces, el hogar tenía que subsistir con lo que un salario podía comprar —un salario para el ingeniero y, forzosamente, varios para la familia del obrero—. La mujer de éste lavaba ropa ajena en casa, su hija se colocaba como sirvienta. Agregar valor a lo que el salario producía, y esto de forma no retribuida, se convirtió en el trabajo de las mujeres. Sus ocupaciones fueron definidas en términos que correspondían al nuevo empleo que se les asignaba. Las dos variedades de trabajo, el trabajo remunerado y el trabajo fantasma, proliferaron con la industrialización. Las dos funciones nuevas, la del sostén de la familia y la de la persona mantenida, dividieron al conjunto de la sociedad. La ropa de mezclilla y la fábrica definían a la primera, a la segunda el delantal y la cocina. Y cuando la mujer encontraba un trabajo salariado, se le compadecía y se le pagaba menos. + +Aunque en el siglo XIX las novedades tecnológicas revolucionaron las condiciones del trabajo fuera de casa, no influyeron mucho en el quehacer doméstico, aunque sí enclaustraron todavía más a la mujer en el hogar. Puesto que ella sólo tenía que dar vuelta a una llave para obtener agua, ya no se reunía con sus amigas en la fuente. Aunque económicamente el trabajo de las mujeres asumía una forma sin precedente, técnicamente no parecía haber una ruptura con el pasado. A principios del siglo XX, las instalaciones higiénicas interiores y las nuevas energías domésticas, el gas y la electricidad, cuya utilización sería casi universal en las zonas urbanas de los Estados Unidos hacia 1920 y en las pequeñas ciudades hacia 1930, no eran entonces más que posibilidades tecnológicas, en su conjunto. Sólo recientemente, durante el segundo cuarto de ese siglo, la técnica pudo transformar la realidad material de los trabajos domésticos; simultáneamente, la radio y luego la televisión comenzaron a remplazar las conversaciones en el seno de las comunidades. La industria empezó entonces a producir maquinas para el trabajo fantasma. Si bien gracias al progreso industrial el trabajo fabril requería menos mano de obra, los trabajos domésticos, sin que por eso disminuyeran, se hacían tributarios de una inversión de capital que se multiplicó desmesuradamente.[^f36] + +Se suele describir el progreso económico como un proceso creador de puestos de trabajo, creador de _empleos_. Pero también se puede describir con igual legitimidad como un proceso mediante el cual más mercancías se ofrecen en el mercado; cada una ha sido convertida en una necesidad y cada una exige un _input_ creciente de trabajo fantasma antes de poder satisfacer una necesidad.[^f37] El desarrollo, en su sentido usual, es una operación en la que la producción se basa en una fuerte inversión de capital. Pero es posible definirlo como un proceso mediante el cual el trabajo fantasma se vuelve necesario, sobre la base de una inversión creciente de capital, a fin de alcanzar un nivel mínimo de bienestar.[^f38] Muy probablemente, el volumen del trabajo asalariado productivo no aumentará más, en ningún lugar del mundo, y los empleos estériles que se inventan de la nada con el propósito de dar ocupación a la gente —el sector terciario e incluso “cuaternario” de servicios— ya no serán retribuidos de manera tan exorbitante como hasta hoy ha sido. La automatización disminuirá el volumen global del trabajo asalariado y conducirá a la comercialización de mercancías que requerirán todavía más —no menos— labor gratuita del comprador-utilizador. Esta parte oculta del crecimiento económico, el crecimiento previsible del trabajo fantasma, paralelamente con la reducción del volumen del trabajo salariado, acarreará un nuevo tipo de discriminación de las mujeres: la discriminación en el trabajo fantasma. + +El trabajo fantasma no es el dominio exclusivo de las mujeres. Es patentemente tan unisex como el trabajo asalariado. También los hombres agregan, sin retribución alguna, un valor a la producción industrial. El marido que estudia obsesivamente un tema árido y difícil con la intención de prepararse para los exámenes que le permitirán subir en el escalafón, el habitante de los suburbios que pierde horas para transportarse a la fábrica o a la oficina, también hacen su parte de trabajo fantasma. Ciertamente, el “consumidor” por excelencia es el hogar, que la mujer dirige —eufemismo para expresar que allí sufre y trabaja—. Pero hablar de la _discriminación_ de las mujeres en el seno del trabajo fantasma no tendría sentido si sólo ellas cargaran con todo el peso. Sin embargo, esta discriminación existe, y de manera aún más intensa que en el trabajo asalariado. De manera menos mensurable pero mucho más masiva que en el trabajo asalariado, hay en la sujeción al trabajo fantasma una diferencia entre los sexos. Las mujeres están atadas a éste de forma más amplia, están obligadas a consagrarle más tiempo, tienen menos posibilidades para librarse de él, su carga no disminuye cuando consiguen un empleo fuera de casa, y a ellas se las penaliza más cuando se niegan a realizarlo. La parte que se le roba a las mujeres en virtud de la discriminación en el empleo, ya sea declarado o no declarado, no es más que una pequeña fracción de lo que deberían percibir por el trabajo fantasma que realizan sin retribución en su hogar. + +El dominio educativo proporciona un buen ejemplo de esto. En el pasado, los niños crecían sin pasar por un proceso “económico”: lo que el niño o la niña aprendían en casa no era poca cosa. Todos aprendían la lengua vernácula y las habilidades indispensables para la vida vernácula. Con rarísimas excepciones, jamás hubiera sido posible describir el hecho de criar a un niño como un proceso de capitalización de la mano de obra. Todo ha cambiado hoy en día. Los padres se han convertido en educadores auxiliares en el seno del sistema educativo. Son responsables de impartir los básicos _inputs_, o insumos, de capital humano, para utilizar la jerga de la economía, gracias a los cuales su vástago podrá ser calificado de _homo œconomicus_. Lógicamente, al economista del dominio educativo le interesa que la madre inyecte en su hijo la mayor cantidad de _input_ posible, sin costo alguno para el sistema. Como lo expresa un economista: + +… cuando los niños entran en la escuela, entre ellos existen importantes diferencias respecto a la capacidad verbal y matemática. Estas diferencias reflejan, primero, la diversidad de sus aptitudes naturales y, luego, la cantidad de capital humano que el niño adquirió antes de la edad de seis años. Los _stocks_ almacenados de capital humano reflejan, a su vez, diversos _inputs_ de tiempo y otros recursos provenientes de los padres, maestros, hermanos y del niño mismo. El proceso de adquisición de un capital preescolar es análogo a la adquisición posterior de capital humano mediante la enseñanza escolar y la formación laboral.[^f39] + + +Las aportaciones de tiempo y esfuerzos que la madre aporta gratuitamente a la capitalización de su hijo, en este pasaje se describen precisamente como la fuente primera de la formación de un capital humano. Es una afirmación grotesca; sin embargo hay que reconocer la veracidad de su contenido en una sociedad donde se considera que hay escasez de talento y que por lo tanto debe producirse económicamente. El trabajo fantasma de la madre constituye una actividad económica de la que dependen en última instancia la ganancia bruta de autofinanciamiento, los salarios y la plusvalía del capital. Y la “operativización” del trabajo fantasma constituye paulatinamente la nueva estrategia del desarrollo que no puede designarse más adecuadamente que como la _colonización del sector informal_. + +Sin embargo, no es posible medir el trabajo fantasma con unidades monetarias, aunque es posible traducir esta actividad, actualmente impuesta en forma de trabajo fantasma, como trabajo realizado contra salario. Fue esto lo que se intentó en relación con el transporte laboral. Con base en un modelo sueco, ciertos sindicatos austriacos consiguieron de los patrones que se incluyera el transporte en el tiempo de trabajo. Les hicieron ver que esos largos desplazamientos son imposiciones laborales —pues las fábricas no están situadas en lugares de acceso fácil para los trabajadores, sino allí donde el terreno es barato y las autopistas numerosas, y donde las residencias patronales pueden implantarse en las cercanías—.[^f40] El trabajo fantasma del obrero que acude a su lejana fábrica, por ejemplo, consiste en ir a recoger la mano de obra (es decir, a sí mismo) con su auto personal, y en fungir de chofer para conducir hasta el lugar de trabajo a la máquina humana que el patrón alquila, mediante contrato, ocho horas por día. Por añadidura, este trabajo fantasma requiere de una fuerte inversión de capital. Una buena parte de lo que gana cotidianamente el trabajador se dedica a la compra y mantenimiento del vehículo, y a los impuestos que financian las autopistas por donde circula. Estos traslados, ya sea que se efectúen en automóvil, autobús o bicicleta, representan trabajos fantasma. Ciertos pequeños sindicatos han ganado juicios en esta materia. A sus miembros se les consideró como choferes que llevaban hasta el sitio de trabajo la máquina humana que ellos mismos eran. Pero si esta clase de argumentación se generalizara, si por doquier los trabajadores recibieran un salario por la labor, no retribuida hoy en día, que realizan cuando se “capitalizan” para su empleo y aseguran su traslado de ida y vuelta, el sistema industrial dejaría de funcionar.[^f41] + +Al igual que los hombres, las mujeres podrían exigir que su trabajo fantasma se transformara en trabajo retribuido. Pero desde el momento en que se compara el valor del trabajo fantasma y el del trabajo asalariado en términos monetarios, la naturaleza paradójica del primero se vuelve evidente. Es posible decir que en toda economía moderna (excluyendo al sector militar), el _input_ del trabajo fantasma es superior al _input_ del trabajo retribuido.[^f42]Por ejemplo, la cantidad de tiempo que se gasta en producir bienes y servicios, respondan o no al deseo del cliente, es sin duda inferior al tiempo que se invierte en hacerlos consumibles. Con la nueva economía de los autoservicios, la proporción del trabajo fantasma no puede sino aumentar de manera dramática. Ésta es la razón por la que no puede pagarse el trabajo fantasma —no porque no sea un trabajo, sino porque las correspondientes retribuciones rebasarían el volumen global de los salarios—. + +Se equivocan las feministas cuando sostienen que a las mujeres se les debería pagar en proporción a la labor que consagran a preparar, para el consumo, aquello que la familia adquiere con sus ingresos. Lo más que pueden esperar es un premio de consolación, que no una retribución fantasma. La realización gratuita del trabajo fantasma es la condición única, fundamental, de la dependencia de la familia respecto a las mercancías. Aunque éstas fueran producidas por robots, la sociedad industrial no podría prescindir del trabajo fantasma. En relación con el dinero representa lo que el neutrón es al electrón. Difiere tanto del “empleo” productivo que fabrica mercancías para los demás, como de la pequeña explotación agrícola y de otras actividades domésticas tradicionales, cuyo rendimiento es poco pero que requieren de poca inversión monetaria. + +Hoy, el trabajo fantasma se disimula detrás de casi todo lo que se llama _self help_, es decir, el autoservicio. Es un término moderno que todavía ayer podía haber designado, de manera velada, la masturbación. El autoservicio divide en dos al sujeto: una mano lava a la otra. Su utilización por las agencias norteamericanas de ayuda internacional hizo que el término se extendiera en el contexto del desarrollo internacional. Con este término se proyecta en el consumidor la distinción tradicionalmente establecida por los economistas, para quienes todas las actividades son de producción o son de consumo, las “relaciones” son productivas o reproductivas. Se le enseña a producir con la mano derecha aquello que su mano izquierda supuestamente necesita. Se le enseña a realizar lo máximo con lo mínimo, a mejorar las mercancías más indigentes por medio de la mayor cantidad posible de trabajo fantasma. No sólo se conciben incesantemente nuevos productos, concebidos para el trabajo fantasma, para el autoservicio, sino que con la intervención creciente de las computadoras se remplaza a los asalariados, que dejan de ser útiles y son impulsados hacia el trabajo fantasma.[^f43] Como resultado, el trabajo fantasma deja de ser la actividad femenina por excelencia. Con el paso de los años, el trabajo fantasma es más patentemente unisex, y de ser el campo donde se oprime a las mujeres, se transforma en el campo principal donde se las discrimina.[^f44] + +Hoy en día los papás de la clase media reivindican las tareas culinarias o “maternales”. Quieren “asar los bistés” para los invitados, pasar una hora jugando con el bebé. Pero con el pretexto de querer participar en las “tareas domésticas”, abren un nuevo espacio para la competencia y el resentimiento entre los sexos. Anteriormente, las mujeres se sentían obligadas a luchar para obtener la igualdad de oportunidades en el salariado. Actualmente, los hombres comienzan a reivindicar la satisfacción del trabajo fantasma del hogar. En el curso de los últimos 20 años, la discriminación en el empleo se ha extendido más y las mujeres lo han padecido de manera más aguda, al mismo tiempo que han obtenido la garantía legal de la igualdad y de las oportunidades en el empleo. Actualmente, la escasez del empleo relega a cada vez más hombres al trabajo fantasma, por lo que la discriminación contra las mujeres en su propio hogar habrá de ser todavía más grave. + +Los estudios recientes presentan el siguiente panorama.[^f45] La discriminación de las mujeres en el empleo y en el trabajo fantasma es un fenómeno mundial, y seguramente pasa lo mismo en el sector inaparente o subterráneo, aunque se haya estudiado poco. La discriminación en el empleo y fuera del empleo se extiende al mismo tiempo que aumenta el PNB, del mismo modo que se extienden los demás efectos secundarios: estrés, contaminación, frustración. Sea cual fuere la forma que asuma, la discriminación no se ve afectada ostensiblemente por el medio cultural, la política, el clima o la religión. Los estudios sobre la discriminación revelan un cuadro poco diferente del que muestran los estudios sobre el cáncer del seno o del útero: igual que el PNB _per capita_, lo que cambia según el lugar geográfico es la manera como se considera y discute la enfermedad, más que el esquema de su aparición. Las mujeres australianas tienen estadísticas admirables; las italianas cultivan un cinismo apacible. Las barreras que separan a las mujeres de los empleos lucrativos y las trampas que las encierran en las cocinas se explican de manera diferente en Japón y en la URSS pero su importancia y profundidad son comparables por doquier. En este caso también, la formación escolar proporciona un buen ejemplo. Con igual bagaje —mismos años de estudios, mismas disciplinas—, en todas partes las mujeres ganan menos que los hombres. Por añadidura, mientras mayor sea el nivel de instrucción de las mujeres, más se las confina en su puesto, en comparación con los hombres; en todas partes sucede que tienen menos posibilidades de encaminarse por una vía diferente. Las luchas de los años sesenta abrieron la oficina del director para la mujer, o entreabrieron la trampa de la cocina, pero sobre todo en beneficio de las “hermanas” de las clases privilegiadas. Algunas mujeres más en el quirófano o en una cátedra universitaria, algunos maridos domésticos que lavan los platos: estas raras “conquistas” simplemente hacen que resalte todavía más la discriminación de las mujeres en general, y la hacen todavía más dolorosa para la mayoría. Su resentimiento contra los hombres aumenta, incluso fuera de la esfera del trabajo. + +### La feminización de la pobreza + +Aunque la discriminación sexista es mundial, parece ser diferente en los países pobres. Ni los ingresos ni la discriminación económica son iguales en las sociedades del Tercer Mundo. La discriminación sexista se dirige sobre todo a las mujeres que han podido beneficiarse, de un modo u otro, del crecimiento económico. La esposa de un dentista de Oaxaca termina por apreciar su nueva marginación económica. A diferencia de la esposa de un médico neoyorquino, la mexicana, cuyo hogar posee dos automóviles, deja su casa al cuidado de una sirvienta cuando sale a una reunión feminista. Sólo el Tercer Mundo capitalista ofrece un medio ambiente propicio para la mujer parásito, cuyo surgimiento había previsto en 1911 la feminista sudafricana Olive Schreiner. A diferencia de su homóloga neoyorquina, puede florecer como “ama de casa”. Su situación es totalmente incomprensible para la lejana prima que vive con el sacamuelas de una aldea provinciana. Cada martes, esta mujer acude al mercado, caminando detrás de su marido. Allí vende sus jitomates mientras que éste arranca dientes y vende “menjurjes”. Ella está sometida a su marido, pero no depende económicamente de él.[^f46] + +En América Latina, la inmensa mayoría de los hombres y las mujeres no vive ni como la primera ni como la segunda pareja mexicana que acabo de evocar. La existencia para muchos se reduce a la pobreza modernizada de los arrabales. El hogar gasta casi todo lo que gana. Pero sus ganancias han aumentado con mucha mayor lentitud que el ritmo con que el progreso ha destruido el valor de utilización de su medio de vida. En el curso de una generación, se han visto privados de aquellos recursos ambientales que a sus padres les permitían procurarse casi todo lo que necesitaban sin recurrir al mercado, y simultáneamente han olvidado la mayor parte de las habilidades necesarias para la subsistencia. Al contrario de sus primos, que cruzaron la frontera ilegalmente para trabajar en Texas como obreros agrícolas, y que luego lograron llegar a Nueva York para vivir entre los escombros del South Bronx, los habitantes de los arrabales del Tercer Mundo todavía creen que obtendrán su parte del progreso; aún creen en la retórica del _Brandt report_ o de Fidel Castro. No pueden aún comprender por qué, en el South Bronx, los “latinos” se unen contra la modernización de la pobreza[^f47] e intentan evitar que los educadores, trabajadores sociales y las campañas de salud penetren en su barrio. Sin distinción económica de sexo, se han hecho dependientes de las mercancías que hay que comprar en un mundo que es incapaz de ofrecerles empleo: la fuente del dinero. Privados de las posibilidades tradicionales de subsistencia, también se les niegan los puestos de trabajo que el desarrollo crea a cuentagotas—.[^f48] Así, hombres y mujeres se encuentran en el mismo callejón sin salida que el ama de casa neoyorquina: se les excluye de los empleos que permiten vivir y, al mismo tiempo, de la subsistencia. Para estos pobres modernizados de los países más pobres, la discriminación económica todavía no es enteramente sexista. + +La exportación del trabajo fantasma de los países ricos a los países pobres es un hecho que se sigue desconociendo. Los especialistas de la economía no lo reconocen porque la insuficiencia de su terminología los paraliza —sus conceptos no les permiten identificar en el trabajo fantasma una entidad _sui generis—_. No pueden distinguir entre las actividades de una granjera y las de un ama de casa norteamericana que intenta sazonar la comida chatarra, así como tampoco entre las actividades de subsistencia que están dirigidas a la producción de valores de uso, y la economía del arrabal, cuyos habitantes hacen su guarida con las cajas y los desechos de otra gente. Claudia von Werlhof denomina la producción de esta variedad de existencia subterránea el “ángulo muerto” de la economía. Al miembro de la pareja que es mantenido por el salario, la sociedad moderna le obliga a convertirse en una “fuente de acumulación primitiva”. Cuestión que de inmediato suscita la pregunta respecto al tipo ideal de consorte: ¿es igual el ama de casa que está obligada a realizar el trabajo fantasma, al habitante del arrabal sudamericano, o se ha convertido éste, dentro de la economía mundial, en el nuevo “encargado del hogar”, desprovisto de género, de su socio del Norte?[^f49] + +La discriminación económica de las mujeres aparece cuando se instala el desarrollo. Posteriormente, ya no desaparece; nada indica que lo hará jamás. La discusión con Frank Hubby me hizo llegar a la conclusión de que luchar por crear la igualdad económica entre humanos neutros, que no se distinguen más que por el sexo, es similar a querer encontrar la cuadratura del círculo con regla y escuadra. Eudoxio lo intentó, esforzándose por comparar los números irracionales entre sí. Pero el problema frustró los esfuerzos de los matemáticos hasta el siglo XIX, cuando Lindemann probó que no existe una solución. Demostró que π no es un número algebraico, y de esta manera nos permitió entender por qué los números reales son inconmensurables. La ciencia económica podría encontrarse en la misma situación que las matemáticas en el pasado. Ante el fracaso evidente y reiterado por crear la igualdad económica, tendríamos que considerar otra eventualidad —que el paradigma del _homo œconomicus_ no se puede aplicar a lo que en realidad son los hombres y las mujeres, a quienes no es posible reducir a un ser que sería lo “humano”, a un neutro económico de uno u otro sexo—. La existencia económica y el género por lo tanto serían literalmente “incomparables”. + +## El género vernáculo + +FUERA de la sociedad industrial, es raro el trabajo unisex, sí es que existe. Pocas cosas pueden ser hechas indistintamente tanto por las mujeres como por los hombres. Por regla general, éstos no pueden realizar los trabajos femeninos. En París, a principios del siglo XVIII, el soltero desde lejos se anunciaba con su hedor y su aspecto sombrío. Los archivos notariales nos revelan que los hombres solos a su muerte no dejaban ni sábanas ni camisas. Y en tiempos de Luis XIV, al hombre que no tuviera una mujer —esposa hermana, madre o hija— que cuidara de su casa, le era difícil sobrevivir. De él no se podía esperar que confeccionara su ropa, que la lavara y remendara; le era imposible alimentar a las gallinas, ordeñar una cabra; si era pobre, tenía que olvidarse de la mantequilla, la leche, los huevos. No era capaz de preparar sus alimentos, aunque dispusiera de los ingredientes necesarios.[^f50] Y en nuestros días, en el México rural que tan bien conozco, una mujer moriría de vergüenza antes de dejar a un hombre cocer los frijoles. + +El nativo sabe desde lejos, aunque apenas pueda vislumbrarlos, si unas personas que ve trabajando son mujeres u hombres. En cualquier momento del año y a cualquier hora del día, tanto el lugar donde realizan su actividad como sus herramientas revelan su sexo. Según la manera de cargar un bulto: en la cabeza o al hombro, sabrá a qué género pertenecen. Si ve gansos en un campo segado, sabe que una niña los cuida, y si ovejas, que un niño está cerca. Si alguien hace lo que _nosotros_ consideramos un trabajo propio del otro género, muestra ser un extranjero. O entonces un esclavo, privado de toda dignidad. El género está en la manera de caminar, está en el gesto más pequeño, y no solamente entre las piernas. Puerto Rico está a sólo tres horas de vuelo de Nueva York. Dos terceras partes de la población han estado en el continente. Y, sin embargo, todavía hoy en día, en el interior de la isla, las mujeres navegan los caminos como goletas mecidas por los alisios, mientras que los hombres caminan contoneándose al ritmo de los machetes, ellas y ellos con el inconfundible estilo jíbaro. Es obvio que no pueden ser de la cercana isla de Santo Domingo, y menos ^aún _gringos _ de los Estados Unidos. En muchos puertorriqueños sobrevive el género vernáculo durante decenios, no solamente en el barrio de Harlem, sino también cuando habitan entre los blancos sureños o los negros del Bronx.[^f51] + +El género no es el sexo y es más que el sexo. Traduce una polaridad social que es en sí fundamental y distinta entre dos lugares, entre dos momentos. Lo que se hace o lo que no se hace difiere de un valle a otro, igual que las maneras de hacer las cosas y de hablar de ellas. La terminología que emplean los especialistas de antropología social con frecuencia reviste la forma de una máscara unisex que oculta una realidad que tiene dos rostros. En las ciencias sociales aún no existe el equivalente de lo que en el ámbito de la epistemología y la física hicieron Bohr y Heisenberg. Que la luz responde tanto al paradigma de la partícula como al de la onda, que ninguna de estas dos teorías puede explicar por sí sola su realidad compleja y que tampoco una perspectiva más amplia permite entenderla con mayor claridad, estas son ideas hoy en día comunes. En cambio, para muchos todavía resulta novedoso que un acercamiento similar sea necesario en las ciencias sociales.[^f52] + +Se manipulan alegremente los términos de “cultura” y de “comportamiento” en cuanto se empieza a estudiar _al_ puertorriqueño. En Nueva York los especialistas se preparan para entender la “cultura puertorriqueña”. El trabajador social se esfuerza en ocuparse de “ellos”. Se ignoran y se confunden la distinción nítida y los sutiles matices que contienen cada uno de estos términos, en menoscabo de las tradiciones seculares. El educador neoyorquino intenta ayudar al “niño” puertorriqueño. No entiende que la infancia sólo ha podido nacer con la desaparición del género. Y el educador rara vez reflexiona en el hecho de que está a punto de transformar el género en simple sexo —cuando es capaz de reflexionar en ello—. La simbiosis de las ciencias sociales y las instituciones modernas es así un instrumento eficaz para reducir a sexo el género. Mostraré más adelante que esta ruptura constituye la característica antropológica decisiva que distingue a nuestro tiempo de todos los demás. + +Antes de lanzarme en esta primera exploración del género, indicaré tres escollos en los que es fácil encallar antes de haber alcanzado alta mar. Estas observaciones preliminares habrán de proporcionar un útil acercamiento al sexo económico. + +### Una complementariedad ambigua + +Solamente un extranjero puede percibir la cultura de un grupo. Para los del grupo hay hombres, hay mujeres, y luego una tercera realidad: los extranjeros, que pueden ser individuos de otro país, esclavos, animales domésticos, intocables, monstruos. Si al fuereño se le percibe como a un ser sexuado, su sexo, o más exactamente su género, se percibe más o menos por analogía con el de los “nuestros”, hombres y mujeres. El parentesco sólo se forma a partir de las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres; resulta de la correspondencia entre los géneros. Hombres y mujeres se avienen no solamente en virtud sino a pesar del contraste singular entre ambos. Se corresponden como la mano derecha a la izquierda.[^f53] La correspondencia entre varón y hembra y la dualidad entre derecha e izquierda vienen al caso para permitirme disipar ciertos malentendidos. En muchas culturas, la mano izquierda es la menos fuerte, la menos hábil; ha padecido siglos de descrédito. El empleo de la mano derecha no es algo que simplemente se admite, o experimenta, sino una norma inculcada. Se regaña al pequeño zurdo, se castiga la mano culpable, se la sujeta a la espalda —y puede suceder que se la mutile—. La asimetría orgánica se ha convertido en un hecho. La predominancia neurológica que se traduce en sensibilidad táctil, en fuerza o en habilidades mayores, ha sido transformada en un ideal de dominación diestra. La izquierda se ha adaptado a la derecha, se ha convertido necesariamente en su auxiliar. Ésta es la analogía que constantemente se emplea para sostener la idea de que “sociobiológicamente, la hembra se adapta al macho”.[^f54] + +Pero precisamente mi propósito _no es ése_. La correspondencia significa algo muy diferente. Fuera de la sociedad de los botones y enchufes, hombres y mujeres dependen constantemente de la interacción de las dos manos para sobrevivir. En algunas sociedades se insiste particularmente en el uso de la mano derecha. En otras, entre los chinos, por ejemplo, la etiqueta, el buen gusto y la visión del mundo exigen la predominancia alternada de la derecha y la izquierda, mediante una orquestación detallada y sutil.[^f55] En otras sociedades, en el pueblo nyoro de África, por ejemplo, el zurdo está predestinado a formar parte del grupo sagrado de los adivinos. Pero sea cual sea el poder, la habilidad o la dignidad que se atribuyen preferentemente a una de las manos, con más frecuencia a la derecha que a la izquierda, las dos manos se conjugan en las acciones y los gestos. La tradición prescribe rigurosamente qué mano debe usar el chamán zurdo para hacer la ofrenda. Las dos manos siempre actúan juntas de acuerdo con dos programas, ninguno de los cuales es jamás la imagen inversa del otro. Así, este tipo único de dualidad siempre es ambiguo. + +Las tradiciones más antiguas sitúan la propiedad fundamental de nuestra existencia en este tipo singular de bifurcación. Constituye una complementariedad ambigua, tan diferente de un reflejo en el espejo como de una sombra. En cuanto dualidad, es tan distinta de la pareja positivo/negativo de una fotografía, como de la correspondencia determinista de la doble hélice del ADN. Yo veo ahí la base de la metáfora y del discurso poético —única forma adecuada para expresarla—. Los gemelos, el ombligo/cordón umbilical, el _yin/yang_, son algunas de las representaciones mitológicas mediante las cuales esta dualidad busca expresarse.[^f56] + +Hoy en día debería ser menos oscura una de las dificultades de la oposición entre género y sexo. Es posible considerar el género vernáculo como la base de una complementariedad ambigua, y el sexo de los neutros económicos como una tentativa moderna de negar o de trascender esta base. Al reducir toda interacción a intercambio, las ciencias sociales han construido tanto los fundamentos de esta negación como los de la legitimidad de un análisis _económico_ de las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres. _Es por esto que hablo de “sexo económico”_. Efectivamente, se requieren dos tipos distintos de lenguaje para hablar de lo que existía en el pasado y de lo que hoy prevalece.[^f57] + +### El sexismo sociobiológico + +Quise iniciar esta introducción al género y al sexo en la historia mediante la analogía de las dos manos, porque ésta es contundente. Además, tal analogía evoca de inmediato una segunda dificultad, la cual no es fundamental, al contrario de la primera, sino contingente —está ligada a corrientes de pensamiento que están de moda actualmente—. En los Estados Unidos, hoy es prácticamente imposible analizar el género en conjunción con el comportamiento, sin provocar una reacción defensiva en dos campos: el de las feministas marxistas y el de los sociobiólogos. Mi tesis se ubica fuera de este remolino. Sobre todo, no me rebajaré a debatir con aquellos a quienes seduce la retórica de Lionel Tigre, E. O. Wilson o Alain de Benoist y compañía. Con ellos alterna el llamado _establishment_ liberal de los Estados Unidos, grupo al que no le interesa discutir la distinción que yo establezco entre género y sexo. La sociobiología del sexo, que tiene su origen en los bastiones de Harvard y de la Sorbona, remplaza la sociobiología de la raza que seducía al conde de Gobineau. Cuando vemos lo que el sexismo revela, el racismo parece ser su homólogo precoz y titubeante. Las teorías racistas sirvieron de apoyo a los propósitos colonizadores de los europeos, y las ideas sexistas contemporáneas sirven para acreditar la farsa moderna del sujeto unisex en todo el mundo. El nuevo sexismo responde a las expectativas de las pintorescas élites que hoy dirigen las economías poscoloniales. + +Los sociobiólogos no tienen más que un postulado, a pesar de los matices que presentan, así como una sola tesis, cuyo poderoso atractivo consiste en su ingeniosa simplicidad.[^f58] Los lectores de sus obras no logran siempre entrever que más allá de oscuras discusiones tejidas con algoritmos matemáticos y temerarias estadísticas, no hay nada. La argumentación de los sociobiólogos se reduce a esto: entre los primates, la hembra se adapta al macho;[^f59] el hombre primitivo domina a su mujer; la civilización no hace más que institucionalizar esta primacía. De tal forma, se fundamenta científicamente la deducción de que este patrón regular de la dominación masculina y de la sumisión femenina está inscrito en los genes. Los roles de los sexos resultan de la dominación genética del macho. + +Sin embargo, si rechazo la controversia con esta escuela de pensamiento sexista, no es por la debilidad de sus argumentos, sino más bien por el estilo que adoptan estos biócratas para presentar su teoría. Su estilo tiene mucho en común con el estilo del racismo, desde Gobineau a Rosenberg —es un alegato “científico” que únicamente se dirige a los convencidos—. No sólo las tesis y deducciones del racismo y del sexismo son por así decirlo intercambiables, sino que sus respectivas imágenes del hombre y de la mujer son astillas del mismo palo. En ambos casos, los humanos representan “culturas”, es decir, seres sin género cuyas categorías se diagnostican para luego clasificarlas de acuerdo con una jerarquía. En el nivel más bajo de la escala está la piel oscura, el bajo coeficiente intelectual, el sexo femenino y otras deficiencias genéticas. Por lo tanto, dejo la discusión con los nuevos sociobiócratas para aquellos cuya óptica científica los hace imputar “necesidades” en vez de medir “inferioridades”; para los educadores, terapeutas, ginecólogos y trabajadores sociales que se han adiestrado con el propósito de degradar a los otros, convirtiéndolos en consumidores de sus servicios, en virtud del diagnóstico científico que ellos mismos han elaborado. Velando por los propios intereses y por las perspectivas risueñas que destilan, tienen que distanciarse del nuevo sexismo sociobiológico, enemigo de la igualdad de las “necesidades”.[^f60] + +### La trampa del rol de los sexos + +La noción del rol de los sexos se ha extendido sobremanera desde hace 15 años.[^f61] Es el origen de los juegos de sociedad, de los tratados científicos, de los métodos pedagógicos y de los discursos políticos. La preocupación del rol de los sexos parece crecer con el PNB. En los países ricos, la elección, adopción y transmisión del propio rol causan gran inquietud. Ahora bien, todavía más que las novedosas ideas de la sociobiología, la teoría del rol sociológico obstaculiza el análisis del género. Efectivamente, los conceptos respecto al rol impiden percibir lo que recubre el género, tanto en la expresión como en la acción. + +La distinción entre el género vernáculo y el rol de los sexos es comparable a la distinción entre el habla vernácula y la lengua materna inculcada, entre la subsistencia y la existencia económica o monetaria. Si contrapongo estos términos es porque parten de presupuestos distintos. El habla vernácula, el género y la subsistencia son característicos de una finitud morfológica de la vida comunitaria que está basada en el postulado implícito —el cual con frecuencia se expresa ritualmente y se representa mitológicamente— de que la comunidad, al igual que el cuerpo, no puede rebasar su talla. La lengua materna inculcada, el sexo y la sujeción a los bienes de consumo proceden del postulado de un universo abierto donde toda correlación de las necesidades y de los medios supone la escasez. El género implica una complementariedad fundamental en el mundo que “nos” encierra en éste, aunque esta clausura sea ambigua y frágil. Al contrario, el sexo implica una apertura ilimitada, un universo donde siempre hay algo más. + +De hecho, el discurso sobre el género tiene que recurrir al lenguaje metafórico; el género no puede significar inequívocamente lo mismo en distintos ámbitos. Y esa totalidad dual y específica que la complementariedad de los géneros engendra —un “mundo”, una “sociedad”, una “comunidad”— es a la vez modelada y limitada, asimétricamente, por sus componentes. Sólo la morfología permite percibir el género: su existencia depende de la dimensión y de la forma del mundo dual que estructura.[^f62] Para construir la delicada arquitectura de su concha, el caracol añade una tras otra las espirales crecientes, y luego cesa de hacerlo bruscamente y comienza enroscamientos decrecientes. Sucede que una sola espiral más larga le daría a la concha una dimensión 16 veces mayor. En vez de contribuir al bienestar de la criatura, la sobrecargaría. A partir de entonces, cualquier aumento de su productividad tan sólo serviría para paliar las dificultades creadas por el agrandamiento de la concha más allá de los límites de su finalidad. Una vez que el límite del crecimiento de las espirales se rebasa, los problemas por el sobrecrecimiento se multiplican geométricamente, mientras que la capacidad biológica del caracol en el mejor de los casos sólo puede crecer de forma aritmética. Así, el género fija límites a la forma social que estructura, una forma que se expresa en todos los aspectos de la existencia, pero antes que todo en el parentesco. + +Ahora bien, el término “rol sexual” en su acepción usual implica precisamente lo contrario, la noción tácita de un individuo de plástico, cuya existencia sin género es más o menos modelada por el “sexo”. Desde hace un siglo, el estudio de lo que distingue las actividades de los hombres de las actividades de las mujeres proviene de las observaciones en torno al rol de los sexos —incluso en la época en que el término mismo todavía no se conocía—.[^f63] + +Melville J. Herskovits ilustró bien esta confusión cuando en 1947 afirmó: “No hay fase alguna de la vida de los pueblos iletrados que haya atraído más la atención que la división sexual del trabajo, y ha habido muchos intentos de explicarla”.[^f64] He aquí una frase repleta de afirmaciones sin fundamento: la frontera que los separa de nosotros es _nuestra_ alfabetización; todos los pueblos tienen una existencia _económica_—el _homo sapiens_ es siempre el _homo œconomicus_— y por lo tanto todos actúan a partir del postulado de la escasez; el autor sabe lo que el “trabajo” es; en última instancia, la división sexual que prepara para el trabajo es el gran misterio que la antropología moderna debe intentar explicar. La larga lista de obras que Herskovits evoca ha crecido considerablemente desde entonces, pero son apenas unas cuantas las que aclaran la distinción entre sexo y género. + +El estudio de los roles de los sexos ha creado confusión. Resulta evidente al examinar las obras de tres periodos en los que el “trabajo de las mujeres” estaba de moda: la etnografía victoriana, la antropología cultural del _New Deal_ y los estudios feministas recientes. Los victorianos creían en la evolución social y buscaban su confirmación en los escritos de los viajeros y misioneros. Las conductas extrañas, inesperadas, los fascinaban tanto como las extraordinarias especies que Darwin había descubierto en las islas Galápagos. Pero a diferencia de sus predecesores, los victorianos sentían la necesidad de clasificar lo que encontraban. Los comportamientos, al igual que los fósiles, debían ser colocados en categorías que se pudieran ordenar de acuerdo con las etapas evolucionistas, cuya culminación era la burguesía inglesa victoriana, compuesta por los más civilizados, los más aptos para sobrevivir. En los Estados Unidos, las mujeres y los eclesiásticos conjuntamente sacaron de estos relatos la prueba del rol eterno de la mujer como guardiana del hogar, rol eterno de su _naturaleza_ —don que se entrega a los hombres— quienes deben emprender la ardua conquista de la _Naturaleza_ en aras de las mujeres. La antropología del rol de los sexos hizo su aparición en calidad de prueba científica de aquello que Ann Douglas ha llamado la mentira sentimental. En este contexto, el trabajo de las mujeres era la huella del maltrato que el sexo débil había sufrido en las sociedades primitivas. Por lo tanto el progreso significaba el encierro de la mujer dentro de una decorosa domesticidad, acompañado de la especialización gradual de la posición y vocación de ambos: el varón mantendría el hogar mediante su dura labor; su esposa estaría libre de la carga de la producción.[^f65] + +Durante las dos generaciones siguientes, el interés por el trabajo femenino fue muy tibio, pero entre 1935 y 1937 volvió a resurgir con vigor. En menos de dos años se publicaron tres estudios que habrían de convertirse en clásicos. Margaret Mead destacaría el hecho de que el sexo biológico por sí mismo no podía ser el origen de las diferencias socioculturales que se ven por doquier en la estructura de la personalidad de los hombres y las mujeres.[^f66] Buscó elucidar estas diferencias recurriendo a los conceptos psicológicos de su época, los cuales en fin de cuentas estaban fundados en la familia norteamericana. Ese mismo año, Ralph Linton centraría su investigación en el contraste entre los comportamientos femenino y masculino. Describió la plasticidad casi ilimitada de los roles sexuales que una cultura puede otorgar a sus miembros. Le interesaba más el comportamiento que la personalidad. Finalmente, George Murdock[^f67] emprendería la edición de su _Atlas etnográfico_. Ante todo le interesaba el “trabajo” y cómo se distribuye entre los hombres y las mujeres. Gracias a sus tablas y cuadros, es posible ver de inmediato que en Okinawa ambos sexos participaban en la manufactura de la cerámica, pero los hombres en una proporción mucho mayor que las mujeres; entre los drusos, sólo las mujeres hacen cerámica, y entre los coreanos, los hombres. Se muestra la participación hombres/mujeres en 11 tipos de actividad y nueve niveles diferentes, en cientos de culturas diferentes. Pero el acento que Mead pone en la personalidad, Linton en la conducta y Murdock en el trabajo, en vez de clarificar la distinción entre el género y el rol sexual, sólo la oscurece. + +Hacia mediados de siglo, el interés por las actividades distintivas de las mujeres nuevamente decrece. La modernización está a la orden del día. Por primera vez, los responsables políticos acuden a los antropólogos, solicitándoles que identifiquen los obstáculos para el progreso. Y precisamente durante estos decenios —cuando la participación en la vida del grupo investigado se perfeccionó como método para informar con detalle y delicadeza sobre quién hace qué en una aldea o una choza— el comportamiento vinculado con el género se consideró sobre todo como un obstáculo para el desarrollo, un estereotipo del rol sexual, una causa de la baja productividad y un ingrediente esencial de la pobreza. Las investigaciones anglonorteamericanas realizadas por mujeres en torno a la situación de las mujeres cambiaron totalmente la situación: representaron una tercera ola de interés en la materia, esta vez con la perspectiva feminista. De hecho, la perspectiva masculina que coloreaban las investigaciones de las dos grandes etapas anteriores se convirtió en objeto de estudio para aquellas investigaciones. Pronto los trabajos de varias generaciones de antropólogos dieron clara prueba de su incapacidad casi grotesca para siquiera sospechar lo que las mujeres hacen. Sin embargo, es evidente que estos nuevos estudios en su conjunto solamente han reforzado, aunque con la perspectiva femenina, los mismos postulados fundamentales sobre el género como forma primitiva de rol sexual, postulados que, primero de manera implícita y luego explícitamente, habían guiado a los antropólogos anteriores.[^f68] En su conjunto estos estudios también camuflan el género; pretenden ser auténticamente modernos —es decir, paradójicamente contraproductivos. + +## El género y la cultura + +LAS HERRAMIENTAS son intrínsecas a las relaciones sociales. Cada persona, cuando actúa, se relaciona con su sociedad mediante las herramientas que domina eficazmente. En la medida que las domina, la forma de estas herramientas —las de las mujeres o las de los hombres— determina la imagen que se hace cada quien de sí mismo. En todas las sociedades preindustriales, al conjunto de tareas específicas que son propias de uno de los géneros, corresponde un conjunto de herramientas igualmente específicas. Incluso las herramientas que pertenecen a toda la comunidad no pueden ser utilizadas sino por la mitad de sus miembros. Al tomar una herramienta y al servirse de ella, las personas se relacionan esencialmente con el género que manipula esa herramienta preferentemente. La relación entre los géneros es por lo tanto y ante todo social. Las distintas herramientas determinan la complementariedad material de la vida. + +La separación de las herramientas puede conducir a una división extrema de los dominios. Pierre Clastres, quién vivió con los guayaki, en un capítulo conmovedor de su libro habla de un mundo así dividido en la selva amazónica. Allí, el dominio de las mujeres se organiza en torno a la canasta que cada una hubo de tejer tras la primera menstruación, y el de los hombres, en torno a su arco. No existe autoridad personal por encima de ambos dominios.[^f69] La división, constantemente experimentada, engendra la tensión que da cohesión a esta sociedad. Si alguna mujer toca el arco de un cazador éste pierde su virilidad y deviene _pané_. Su arco ya no le servirá, perderá su potencia sexual y será excluido de la caza; o bien habrá de languidecer y morirá, o bien habrá de vivir tras las chozas de las mujeres, recolectando su comida en una canasta desechada. + +### El género y las herramientas + +Pero no es necesario buscar en ámbitos exóticos los vínculos culturales entre el género y la herramienta. Nuestro pasado reciente nos puede proporcionar ejemplos que son a la vez más convincentes y más accesibles: los utensilios de nuestros abuelos, principalmente. Cuando yo me encontraba escribiendo este capítulo, fui huésped de una mujer del Québec nacionalista, una artista en su género: repostera que trabaja con sus instrumentos culinarios tradicionales. En su _boutique_, no lejos de Sherbrooke, además de sus pasteles, a sus clientes les ofrece un espacio que es una versión moderna del _studium_ medieval, un lugar de reflexión y discusión. A mí me invitó a leer estas páginas ante personas interesadas en esta materia. Una docena de viejos instrumentos agrícolas decoraban los muros del comedor. La anfitriona los había coleccionado porque eran de procedencia local y a ella le parecían bellos. Todos examinamos estas reliquias rurales, ninguna de las cuales tenía más de un siglo de antigüedad. Forzosamente tenían que tener algún nombre, pero la mayoría de los nombres habían sido olvidados y nadie supo adivinar la función de algunas de las herramientas. El propósito de otras era evidente: cavar, serrar, aunque todo el mundo ignoraba para qué cultivo o cuál madera habían sido destinadas. Y ni uno solo de los jóvenes franconorteamericanos presentes tenía la menor idea del género al que estaban vinculados los diferentes utensilios; si se habían destinado a la mano del hombre o a la de la mujer. La única persona que pudo decirlo fue una dama de avanzada edad. + +Mientras que en Norteamérica, incluso en Québec, a las herramientas se las ha despojado de género, éste sobrevive todavía en muchos terruños de Europa, aunque de manera desigual. En cierto lugar, los hombres manipulan la guadaña y las mujeres la hoz. En otro, ambos emplean la hoz, pero ésta difiere según el género. En Estiria, por ejemplo, la hoz de los hombres tiene filo, pues sirve para cortar, mientras que la de las mujeres tiene la hoja dentada y su curvatura es mayor, pues sirve para recoger las espigas. El gran inventario del trabajo campesino de Wiegelman[^f70] recoge cientos de ejemplos similares en una extraordinaria diversidad de lugares. En algunos valles de los Alpes, ambos géneros usan la guadaña, pero la mujer siega el forraje, mientras que el hombre, el centeno. Allá, solamente la mujer puede tocar los cuchillos de la cocina; acá, los dos pueden cortar el pan, pero una lo rebana y otro lo taja, con el filo del cuchillo hacia el pecho. Casi por doquier, los hombres son quienes siembran, pero en una región del alto Danubio son las mujeres quienes siembran y trillan —este lugar constituye una excepción, pues los hombres no tocan las semillas—. Aún más que los cultivos, al género se vinculan los animales. En cierto lugar, las mujeres alimentan a las vacas, pero jamás a las bestias de tiro. Más al oriente, las mujeres ordeñan las vacas de su granja, mientras que los hombres ordeñan las del patrón. A pocas horas de camino, sólo las muchachas desempeñan esta tareas. Los vínculos entre el género y la herramienta sobrevivieron durante la época en que las guerras devastaron a Europa, que sus ciudades fueron destruidas, que el crecimiento económico transformó la vida rural. Aunque imperan los pesticidas químicos, las segadoras-trilladoras y la televisión, ciertos utensilios presentan el anacronismo de seguir siendo típicos de uno de los géneros. + +Sin embargo, en su conjunto, el vínculo ha sido destruido, y con mayor ahínco en la Europa oriental que en la occidental. Sólo permanece en la memoria de los ancianos. Hará unos 10 años que un campesino serbio me relataba cómo se preparaba el forraje en la generación anterior. Describía la forma de recolectar, transportar y almacenar el heno como si hubiera sido un ballet, en el cual los hombres y las mujeres tenían sus pasos de danza respectivos. Mientras hablaba, la misma escena se desarrollaba ante nuestra vista, pero al estilo moderno. Toda la tarea se había transformado en una labor unisex que los “trabajadores” llevaban a cabo. El anciano miraba con una mezcla de tristeza y orgullo a la muchacha que conducía el tractor de la aldea. Había desaparecido al volante de la máquina el género que había perdurado a través de los siglos, adaptándose a condiciones siempre nuevas. Ha sido ampliamente demostrado que el vínculo del género masculino y el buey ha sobrevivido desde la prehistoria. Ni una sola de las antepasadas de la joven tractorista jamás hubo de alimentar a los bueyes o de uncirlos a la yunta. Esta característica de su género se remonta a la época en que su raza todavía no poseía la lengua eslava y aún vivía en puntos diferentes de Europa. + +### El género en los tributos feudales en el comercio y en los oficios artesanales + +Toda vida “primitiva” está fundada en esta separación de las herramientas.[^f71] Se puede observar tal división en la vida del cazador-recolector y también en la del agricultor-pastor, desde el periodo neolítico hasta los tiempos modernos. En las sociedades no urbanas, con raras excepciones, la línea divisoria de los géneros es nítida y patente. La economía de subsistencia coincide con la existencia del género. De allí resulta la fuerte propensión a considerar que el género es típico de la vida tribal y campesina. El género social por ende no se estudia —si es que se estudia— más que por los antropólogos. Los historiadores ignoran que el género impera en todas las épocas históricas, que forma parte integral de todas las grandes civilizaciones, y que si su dominio a veces se relajó, esto no sucedió salvo dentro de las élites decadentes, y aún así durante breves periodos.[^f72] La historia de la desaparición del género, durante los siglos XIX y XX, aún está por escribirse. No será posible poner al descubierto la descomposición del género en la sociedad industrial hasta que no se reconozca el capital interés histórico de esta cuestión. Aquí estudio tres ejemplos. + +#### Los tributos feudales + +En la Edad Media, los campesinos, ya fueran aparceros o propietarios, estaban sujetos al pago del tributo señorial. Puesto que por lo general vivían al margen de la economía monetaria, era ése su solo excedente real, el único valor económico que producían. Calificar de “producción” sus demás actividades sería erróneo, pues este término implica hoy en día una transferencia de valor y de consumo que, para el campesino medieval, sólo podía consistir en el tributo. Aparte de esto, no hacía prácticamente nada que “rindiera”. Es esta ausencia de diferenciación entre las funciones de producción y de consumo la que contrapone de manera más nítida la subsistencia a la existencia económica. + +Gracias a cientos de contratos establecidos entre los campesinos y su señor durante los siglos IX al XII sabemos que el tributo se pagaba a la vez con productos y con trabajo. Y este tributo frecuentemente se exigía de manera específica a uno u otro de los géneros. Muchos contratos detallan lo que se debía por parte de cada uno de los géneros. Por ejemplo, Ingmar paga a la abadía con 15 días de trabajo (acompañado de dos bestias de tiro), más una oveja cada dos años; su mujer —o en caso de su muerte, una sirvienta— entregaría cinco pollos cada otoño. Los términos del contrato indican claramente que en el pago participan dos competencias que no son intercambiables, y que entre ambas no existe denominador común. Los “productos de las mujeres” y los “productos de los hombres” son dos cosas inconfundiblemente distintas. En cuanto a la Iglesia, lo que ésta prohíbe durante los días feriados no es el “trabajo servil” indeterminado. Especifica claramente que los _hombres_ no pueden cazar, talar árboles o levantar cercas; las _mujeres_ no pueden desyerbar, trasquilar ovejas o podar árboles. Ambos géneros por lo tanto no pueden producir indistintamente el excedente que se destina al tributo. Tanto el producto como las tareas obligatorias están vinculados a uno u otro género.[^f73] + +#### El comercio + +El comercio también puede tener género. Y el comerciante no siempre es el hombre. Asimismo, la noción de que las mujeres sólo comercian en el mercado de la aldea, mientras los hombres vagabundean mucho más lejos, concuerda poco con la realidad. En Malasia, en el Sahel occidental, y en el Caribe no español, son las mujeres quienes se ocupan de los negocios en el hogar. Los circuitos comerciales de las mujeres están basados en sus contactos con su parentela, y los hombres no pueden en ningún caso insertarse en ellos. Ya sea que el comerció involucre la cerámica o la joyería, es la mujer quien viaja a las lejanas aldeas, y el hombre el que cuida el hogar. Puede suceder que para mantener a su marido en casa, la comerciante le imponga una segunda esposa, bajo la amenaza de abandonarlo si se niega a aceptarla —amenaza que todavía hoy en día se ejerce en el Senegal—. Bien sabe el hombre que lo que ella vende a él nadie se lo compraría si tomara el lugar de su mujer, y que además el hogar necesita esos ingresos. Al igual que el tributo feudal, también las mercancías tienen género. En el norte de Birmania hace falta haber perdido la razón para comprar en el mercado joyas vendidas por un hombre; éstas sólo pueden ser falsificaciones destinadas a los turistas.[^f74] + +#### La artesanía + +También los trabajos manuales tienen género, y con frecuencia de forma compleja. No se trata nada más de aquellos que conciernen a la subsistencia: la cocina o las conservas alimenticias para el hogar, el hilado y el tejido del arnés del camello de la familia; sino las artesanías que se destinan a la venta. Éstas también están marcadas por el género. En los bazares de África septentrional, una costurera no puede remplazar a un sastre; y sin tener que indagar, bien se sabe que allí no puede haber mujer zapatera alguna. La vista aguzada para la percepción del género puede ver en un simple retazo de tela un esquema tan sutil pero tan real como una filigrana. Enfurtir, teñir, cortar, acabar, cada función exige diversas colaboraciones, algunas de las cuales se deben solamente a las mujeres, otras sólo a los hombres —sinfonía a cuatro manos de donde surge el objeto terminado—. + +Dos estudios recientes sobre los oficios en la Edad Media destacan el hecho de que muchos gremios permitían a las mujeres llegar a ser “maestras”. Así, en Colonia, durante el siglo XIV, la corporación de la seda (hilado y tejido) era únicamente femenina. Pero lo más sorprendente es que era posible encontrar mujeres en los gremios de los oficios netamente masculinos: en el siglo XIV hay mujeres a la cabeza de fundiciones que emplean más de una veintena de obreros y poseen herramientas pesadas, martillos accionados por molinos hidráulicos. Sucedía que por ser miembros del gremio, las viudas podían conservar en la familia el taller del difunto esposo. Sin embargo, sería absurdo deducir, con base en el estatus de tales “gerentes”, que las mujeres trabajaban el hierro codo a codo con los aprendices o compitiendo con ellos.[^f75] + +El tributo feudal, el comercio y los oficios artesanales no son más que ejemplos de dominios relacionados con la historia del género en las civilizaciones avanzadas. Pero el género no está limitado únicamente al presente de una época histórica dada, a las herramientas y a las actividades que tejen su vida cotidiana. También la memoria conserva la huella dual. Cuando una cultura celebra su pasado, asigna ciertas tareas a los hombres y otras a las mujeres. En Minot (norte de Borgoña) la misma mujer baña a los recién nacidos y a las personas que mueren. Desde épocas muy remotas, en las ocasiones solemnes siempre se preserva el género. Todavía hoy en día en Tracia, aunque los hombres pueden hablar de los difuntos y sus actos, sólo las mujeres pueden hablar a los muertos. Son ellas únicamente quienes se quejan, quienes lloran el deceso, quienes invocan la protección de los desaparecidos. Este acto, caracterizado por el género, tiene sus raíces en un pasado muy lejano. + +El género no es un rasgo pintoresco de la existencia primitiva que la vida urbana, la “producción” o las complejas operaciones del mercado hacen forzosamente desaparecer del tejido social. En las sociedades de avanzada cultura, el género florece. En la vida urbana medieval, al conjugarse con la especialización de los oficios y los artesanados, forma configuraciones nuevas y complejas mucho más difíciles de dilucidar que la división primitiva a la cual se han apegado los antropólogos. + +Nadie se ha arriesgado todavía a hacer la “historia del género”: al contrario de toda nueva “historia de la mujer”, éste sería un tema difícil de cernir. Resulta demasiado vasto para los historiadores del “sexo” y, en la historia de los “humanos”, desde Tucídides a la fecha, todo lo que de él se conserva es una sonrisa —la del gato de Cheshire—. + +### El género y el parentesco + +Los historiadores eluden la discusión del género al asignarle un reino puramente prehistórico —y por ende perteneciente a la antropología—. Pero también los antropólogos poseen sus mecanismos de evasión. Como los médicos que pierden de vista al enfermo para concentrarse en la enfermedad, descuidan el género al centrar su interés en el parentesco. Tal actitud se remonta al propio Lewis Henry Morgan, padre del estudio de los sistemas de parentesco, elaborados a mediados del siglo XIX. Al describir estos sistemas como estructuras de relaciones complejas entre individuos sexualmente divididos en hombres y mujeres, Morgan y los antropólogos ulteriores tienden a atenuar un hecho evidente: antes que todo, el parentesco estructura los ámbitos del género en su complementariedad. Son parientes aquellos que, en términos netamente definidos, pueden relacionarse a pesar de la línea de separación de los géneros. La esencia del parentesco consiste en fijar quién es quién en relación con quién, lo que es mucho más importante que establecer un marco en el que a ciertos hombres se les otorga el poder sobre ciertas mujeres. Además, el parentesco presupone dos géneros, entre los cuales se establece un vínculo. El género no solamente expresa lo que es un ser, sino lo que es en cierto momento, en qué lugar y con qué herramientas y palabras divide el espacio, el tiempo y las técnicas. La fascinación que ejerce el tabú del incesto en los científicos que han surgido de familias “normales”, les impide ver la división de los géneros que yace bajo el parentesco. Explicar el género a partir del parentesco es bastante similar a reconstituir un cuerpo a partir de sus radiografías. El género no es algo que se puede inferir del parentesco, ni tampoco reducir, según la moda estructuralista, a un aspecto de una dualidad cósmica.[^f76] + +Sin embargo, no puedo dejar de pensar que al hacer así del género una dualidad entre otras, se elude la obligación de buscar sus orígenes. Robert Graves habla de esta búsqueda imprescindible de _sus_ orígenes que debe conducir al poeta a los nidos de la Diosa Blanca, los nidos de la Pesadilla adornada “con el plumaje de aves proféticas y regados de mandíbulas y entrañas de poetas”. La tarea es aventurada y temible, tanto para el poeta como para el humano moderno desprovisto de género. El primero deberá atravesar los extensos yermos sin senderos de los pantanos y montes; el segundo, las ruinas y los desiertos fuera de los caminos trillados y de los lugares comunes. + +### El género y la unión conyugal + +Aunque con frecuencia la disfrazan, cubriéndola con densos velos, los antropólogos hacen de la pareja conyugal el meollo de su investigación. Postulan que como en su propio caso, tras todo ser hay procreadores ligados matrimonialmente. Su percepción sexuada de su origen personal, su etnocentrismo, deforman el objeto estudiado —y esto es lo que no comprenden—. Tanto el historiador como el antropólogo son prisioneros de esta idea preconcebida, que les impide ver lo que hace única y singular a la pareja moderna. Por esta razón el estudio del género y de la actividad genital debe empezar con el reconocimiento de que la palabra “matrimonio” está tan privada de género como los vocablos “rol” o “intercambio”. + +En el siglo XII nace en las sociedades occidentales un tipo único de existencia, una “cosa pública” basada en la apropiación del excedente que se produce en los hogares constituidos por parejas conyugales. Sabemos que tal apropiación puede lograrse de diversas maneras. Karl Polanyi y sus alumnos han propuesto una tipología para estas formas. Pero la pareja conyugal, en cuanto unidad que produce un excedente, crea un tipo particular. El nuevo factor esencial no es el tamaño de la familia que comparte el mismo techo, ni la capacidad de organizar a los parientes, sirvientes, invitados o esclavos en el seno de esta unidad, sino la función _económica_ de la pareja. La etnología no conoce nada comparable a esta especie de familia, condición antropológica _sine qua non_, que es común en todas las formas sucesivas y aparentemente distintas que produjeron en Europa y en el mundo occidental la acumulación de los excedentes y su organización por el Estado. Desde el punto de vista antropológico, la occidentalización puede definirse como la convergencia de numerosas estructuras de parentesco diferentes en el modelo del hogar conyugal. + +A lo largo de este proceso de fusión, los dos sentidos del vocablo “matrimonio” se asimilaron progresivamente entre sí. Por una parte, el matrimonio designa los ritos y las festividades de las nupcias que en casi todas las sociedades existen y, por otra, designa el estado matrimonial, que no se encuentra en muchas sociedades. En la Europa medieval, el matrimonio adquirió una importancia mayor. Aquello que esencialmente había sido una ceremonia destinada a vincular conjuntamente a dos familias emparentadas por un tejido complejo de alianzas, se convirtió en el suceso mediante el cual dos individuos se unen de por vida, dentro de la nueva unidad económica de la pareja, una entidad fiscalizable. Pero tal deslizamiento fue encubierto por el hecho de que el “matrimonio” vino a significar indistintamente las nupcias y la resultante unidad de la pareja conyugal. + +Hay un rasgo que es importante señalar retrospectivamente, y es que en estos primeros tiempos de la producción conyugal, las actividades cotidianas creadoras del excedente estaban estrictamente determinadas por el género. Las prescripciones de la Iglesia con frecuencia interpretaban esta división y la reforzaban. Pero a medida que la pareja conyugal se iba convirtiendo en la unidad fiscalizable fundamental, el excedente creado perdía su género tradicional. La mujer ya no acudía ella misma a entregar al señor los huevos; como representante de la familia, al hombre ahora le tocaba pagar el tributo. Es cierto que las tareas obligatorias durante mucho tiempo diferenciaron todavía a los géneros. Pero cada vez más los tributos asumían una forma monetaria, las monedas locales eran remplazadas por las del Estado moderno, y la pareja conyugal mostraba ser una unidad productiva flexible, superior a cualquier otra forma anterior de organización familiar. Por estar fundada en el género, siguió subsistiendo en gran medida por sí misma, mientras que la capacidad creciente del Estado y de la Iglesia para imponer funciones genéricas nuevas, extrañas o contrarias a las normas tradicionales, hizo a la pareja capaz de adaptarse al rápido cambio tecnológico. El surgimiento de la producción del hogar conyugal es la condición antropológica de la formación inicial, en Europa, de campesinos y ciudadanos urbanos que son diferentes a los agricultores, comerciantes y artesanos del resto del mundo. + +La extensión de la producción intragenérica, pero conyugal, no fue más que la primera etapa del proceso que creó la separación de Europa respecto a todas las demás culturas. En la Europa cristiana la unión conyugal constituía una homogeneidad fundamental, a pesar de que se asumía de diversas maneras en las sociedades. Hubo variaciones según las épocas y los lugares, y muchas comunidades permanecieron fuera de la corriente general —incluso, en algunos casos, hasta después de la segunda Guerra Mundial—. Este matrimonio económicamente productivo fue un _primer_ paso; no implicaba la desaparición del género. Durante 500 años, del siglo XIII hasta principios del siglo XIX, se extendió un tipo de matrimonio donde el hombre y la mujer, socios en la producción matrimonial, conservaban las tareas de su respectivo género. Tanto la estructura feudal como la organización mercantilista de la cosa pública, están fundadas en el excedente producido por la pareja conyugal, todavía con género.[^f77] + +Pero he aquí que en el siglo XIX, y de forma bastante brusca, las tareas intragenéricas del hogar son remplazadas por la división _económica_ del trabajo asalariado y del trabajo fantasma, que se asignan de forma discriminatoria en función de las características sexuales, recién descubiertas, de los cónyuges. Sólo al llegar esta segunda etapa, los socios conyugales, económicamente distintos y privados de su género, se convierten en la base de la producción industrial. Y las parejas de esta especie habrán de proporcionar a los antropólogos que han nacido dentro de su marco, la norma de la “estructura libidinal” y la percepción que de ésta tendrán. Para ellos, que ven en el parentesco el resultado de una preferencia y de una asociación sexuales, el género sólo puede carecer de sentido, cuando no les resulta absolutamente aterrador. + +## Los dominios del género y el medio vernáculo + +EN LA SOCIEDAD del género, ni el espacio ni el tiempo son neutros. Lo que Einstein denominó el “espacio-tiempo” es en la cultura vernácula una función de dos movimientos ambiguos, cada cual en sí único. Cada género se desplaza a su propio ritmo en su camino propio, y el medio vernáculo forma una especie de contrapunto de esta sutil danza. Es por esto que una parte del medio vernáculo siempre permanecerá en el punto ciego de los hombres. Lo que saben de esta parte velada no lo aprenden sino indirectamente. _Aquí_, los hombres no tienen el derecho a la palabra; _allá_, lo tienen las mujeres. Ser hombre significa estar consciente de que las mujeres saben cosas que los hombres ignoran, que poseen vocablos para designarlas y cierto poder sobre ellas. + +### Espacio tiempo y género + +Los lugares y las horas determinan quién hace qué, quién usa qué y en qué momento. El género determina que la mujer berebere se apoye contra la pared oriental de una habitación, mientras que la parte externa de la misma pared está reservada al hombre. El trazado de la línea de separación de los géneros determina en qué territorios, en qué ocasiones y hasta en qué grado los dos géneros pueden entremezclarse. En cierto valle de los Alpes, ambos se reúnen en la era, él con el mayal y ella con la criba. Río abajo, este espacio es dominio exclusivo de los hombres. De la misma manera que se encuentran separados, así los géneros se entremezclan distintamente según la cultura y la época.[^f78] A veces gobiernan territorios totalmente separados, a veces se entrelazan como los arabescos celtas del _Libro de Kells_. Hay lugares donde una canasta no se teje, una hoguera no se enciende, sin la dualidad de las manos masculinas y femeninas. Cada cultura conjuga los géneros a su manera, desde la cuna a la tumba. Existen lugares donde los muchachos y las muchachas viven todos juntos, comunitariamente, durante algunos años, tras lo cual se instalan en sus respectivos territorios. + +A lo largo de su notable obra sobre las “maneras de hacer” en la cocina, el lavado de la ropa y la costura en Minot, una pequeña aldea francesa, Yvonne Verdier describe, desde el punto de vista femenino, esta sutil textura. Así, cuando se mata al cerdo, únicamente a la mujer le toca elegir el animal que será sacrificado, pero es el hombre quien fija el día de la matanza. Como si se tratara de un minueto, ambos ejecutan decenas de pasos bien armonizados. Las mujeres preparan la longaniza y los hombres salan la manteca. Pero, mientras que en Minot solamente las mujeres menopáusicas pueden sacar la carne salada de la despensa, en una aldea próxima no pueden penetrar este espacio masculino. Cada aldea baila al son de su propia música. + +Recientemente, en su obra sobre _El marido y la mujer en la sociedad rural_ francesa,[^f79] Martine Segalen ha desbrozado un campo nuevo describiendo sus ritmos complementarios. Analiza de forma detallada la correspondencia recíproca de las tareas específicas de los géneros, y las distingue de manera explícita de los roles, del estatus y del rango. Examina con óptica femenina la arquitectura de las granjas y los trabajos de los agricultores; recoge proverbios y fotografías e interpreta pinturas antiguas y estudios etnológicos para reconstituir, partiendo de las pautas de comportamiento que sobrevivieron, cómo eran las cosas a mediados del siglo XIX. Descubre relaciones entre hombres y mujeres mucho menos regidas por la familia y el parentesco que por las necesidades de hogares basados en la interdependencia armoniosa de las manos femeninas y masculinas. Describe a hombres y mujeres que realizan sus tareas cotidianas más como miembros de su género que como los elementos constitutivos individuales de una pareja apareada gracias al matrimonio. La pareja no pesa mucho en el hogar rural francés del siglo XIX. Tanto el mito de la brutal dominación masculina como el del romántico idilio campesino tergiversan la realidad. + +Según Martine Segalen, es el hogar lo que media entre el individuo y la comunidad rural, y no ambos cónyuges, la pareja. Si el hogar se desintegra y sus miembros no actúan de conformidad con las exigencias de sus respectivos géneros, será la comunidad quien castigará directamente al individuo ofensor. Por ejemplo, en el norte de Francia la hortaliza debe binarse en el mes de abril; ésta es tarea de la mujer. Si para el primero de mayo la tierra aún no ha sido removida, ante su ventana aparecerá un maniquí de paja con una azada en los brazos. En cuanto al bruto que golpea a su mujer, será objeto de una cencerrada: se le paseará en una carreta por toda la aldea, embarrado de lodo, entre las burlas de las personas y el estrépito de ollas y cacerolas. Si, al contrario, un hombre se deja pegar por su esposa, también tendrá derecho al paseo, pero atado sobre un asno, montado al revés y con la cola de la bestia en las manos.[^f80] + +Mientras la separación de los géneros sea la regla, se mantendrán estas prácticas, que han asegurado eficazmente la supervivencia de esta comunidad específica. Han sido acuñados diversos términos para designar la adhesión normativa a un código que ha sido sancionado por la supervivencia. La antropología rural habla de la “ética de la subsistencia”. E. P. Thompson emplea el concepto de “economía moral”, respecto a las poblaciones que por lo general son más urbanas. Constituyen términos sólidos, pues nos permiten comparar el sentimiento de lo que se considera correcto bajo la égida del género, con una posible norma moderna, norma que corresponde a los postulados de la escasez. Estos dos términos afirman que el derecho de todo aldeano, de todo miembro del pueblo a la supervivencia pura y simple es la regla suprema del comportamiento _común_, y para nada el derecho aislado de un individuo. Expresan una actitud, una orientación que protege a los más débiles del naufragio. Enuncian el derecho a una decorosa existencia consuetudinaria, aunque tal derecho no se formule sino cuando hay que luchar para defenderlo. Pero la “ética de la subsistencia” o la “economía moral” son nociones modernas que hablan de pautas de comportamiento apropiado, que a lo largo de la historia se han dado dentro del género. Por lo tanto, yo mismo prefiero no retomar los términos de “moralidad” o de “ética” en su acepción neutra actual, y buscar otros términos para hablar del imperativo que otorga a los géneros sus normas. + +Para nuestros contemporáneos es difícil reconstituir el sentimiento de haber faltado al propio género, a la vez porque este sentimiento es tan vernáculo y por lo tanto tan “agramático” como el dominio del género mismo, y porque se ha disipado al mismo tiempo que el género. No se trata de sentir vergüenza o culpa, al menos en el sentido actual de estos vocablos. Yves Castan ha investigado lo que la gente de Languedoc llamaba la _honnêteté_ (la probidad) en el periodo de 1715 a 1780.[^f81] Estudió las minutas de los escribanos forenses relacionadas con delitos de alteración de la paz pública. Pudo explorar de esta manera uno de las raros inventarios del habla común de la gente sencilla desprovista de instrucción. Una parte de su trabajo muestra de qué forma la probidad obligaba a actuar conforme al género, hasta en las cosas más insignificantes. Por ejemplo, cuando llegaban visitas a casa, era _ella_ quien tenía que ir por los vasos, preparar la ensalada, servir el vino sin que pareciera que escuchaba la conversación y sin participar en ella. Era ésa la conducta que se esperaba de una mujer, pues en cuanto tal, ella para defender los intereses del hogar tenía medios mucho más eficaces que la discusión directa entre los hombres. Si ella se inmiscuyera en la conversación, cometería una falta en relación con su género, pues perdería el poder real que poseen las murmuraciones y los comadreos.[^f82] En cambio, le tocaba proteger el hogar contra el cobrador de impuestos, gritando que se encontraba sola en casa —en cuyo caso éste no podía traspasar el umbral—. También debía tomar partido por sus hijos en un altercado, aunque ellos fueran totalmente culpables. La probidad le exigía, cuando fuera necesario, atacar al enemigo con uñas y dientes. En cuanto al hombre, la probidad le exigía exactamente lo contrario. De él se esperaba, en el caso en que la mujer hubiera defendido al vástago, que lo castigara, a veces moliéndolo a palos brutalmente.[^f83] + +Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie ha explorado la relación entre el hogar y el género en la misma región del sur de Francia, pero en una época mucho más antigua. Analizó los registros que mantuvo el futuro papa Benedicto XII cuando, siendo un joven obispo e inquisidor, sometió a varias docenas de habitantes de una pequeña aldea de las montañas —Montaillou— de quienes se sospechaba que eran herejes cátaros, a hábiles y rigurosos interrogatorios. De manera extremadamente sutil, los obligó a revelar innumerables detalles sobre su vida cotidiana, registrando palabra tras palabra las respuestas de esos campesinos y pastores de los Pirineos septentrionales. Con base en estas respuestas, de una antigüedad de seis siglos y medio, Le Roy Ladurie realizó su trabajo. Yo no sé de otro documento que proporcione una visión a la vez de primera mano y tan exhaustiva de una comunidad, respecto a lo que la gente sentía sobre sus hogares y su territorio común, sobre lo que esperaban y toleraban unos de los otros. Cada una de las víctimas de esta inquisición vuelve a la vida como persona, no solamente cuando se comporta de una manera que el obispo aceptaría, sino sobre todo cuando obedece los imperativos de su género en formas que el inquisidor desea saber detalladamente. Y, página tras página, la _domus_, la “casa”, en el sentido más poderoso del término, significa el techo bajo el cual, y el territorio en el que dos géneros interactúan: la cocina, los bienes y la tierra, los hijos y la familia en un sentido extendido, incluyendo los esclavos y los huéspedes. + +Más que la gente, la _domus_ parece ser el sujeto de la historia —la unidad social básica—. La casa, a la vez construcción y familia, vincula a hombres y mujeres a sus posesiones, las cuales determinan sus relaciones genéricas recíprocas. Cuando se exploran los interrogatorios judiciales de estos aldeanos occitanos del siglo XIII, resulta evidente que aún no tienen la obsesión de la tierra y su tenencia, cosa que será típica del campesino europeo tras la Edad Media; para ellos, la _domus_ es lo que importa, más todavía que el cónyuge o el hijo. No es la familia, en el sentido restricto del término, la que subsiste en la autarquía, sino la _domus;_ es ésta la que se reproduce en su descendencia. Aquí, en Montaillou, las mujeres de la casa se encargan del fogón, de la cocina, de la hortaliza, de la pastura de los animales y de acarrear el agua. Los hombres cuidan los campos, los bosques y las ovejas, con la ayuda ocasional de una mujer de la _domus_ o de una sirvienta contratada para ello. La vida material es creada por el hogar, el principal sujeto activo, a través de sus hombres y mujeres.[^f84] + +En las tierras etruscas del centro de Italia, una misma palabra latina sirve para designar el sujeto central de la historia, la _domus_, y sus divinidades tutelares, los _lares_. Son dioses antiguos, cuyos órganos sexuales, ya sea el falo o la vulva, están señaladamente representados. Juntos protegen las márgenes de los campos. Se les venera tradicionalmente en las encrucijadas, aunque sus efigies se conservan sobre el fogón. Son objeto de un culto diurno, aunque surjan de las profundidades de la tierra, residencia de los muertos, para velar por el orden de la casa. Y la casa misma, el “hogar”, la fundación doméstica en torno al fogón, también se denomina _lar_. Este vocablo podría servir como un término técnico para designar aquella realidad de la cual la _domus_ es un ejemplo específico. + +### El cuerpo y el género + +El género modela los cuerpos como los cuerpos modelan el espacio, y a su vez son modelados por sus configuraciones. El cuerpo en acción, con sus movimientos y sus ritmos, sus gestos y sus cadencias, modela el hogar; éste es algo más que un refugio, una tienda de campaña o una casa. Vivir en algún lado significa hacer la propia casa allí, tanto trayendo hijos al mundo como plantando árboles y construyendo muros. En la cultura vernácula, habitar y vivir son coincidentes. Al manejar las herramientas que están ligadas al género de manera específica y patente, la vida vernácula teje un capullo genérico en un nicho biológico. Toda vida es morada, formación de una morada. Los vestigios de las moradas sobreviven del mismo modo que las osamentas. Los espacios inhabitados pronto se convierten en un desierto. + +Construirse un hogar significa invadir los territorios de otra vida, la vida salvaje, a fin de crear campos, pastizales, lugares para cultivar las formas domésticas de la vida —los cereales, los asnos y las bacterias sin las cuales la mantequilla no puede cuajar—. Entre los nichos ecológicos posibles, la vivienda constituye una clase aparte, pero su carácter particular ha quedado más oscurecido que iluminado por el reciente discurso ecológico. El movimiento ecológico ciertamente engendró un sentido común nuevo, pero también alentó sutilmente el sexismo al enriquecer un lenguaje neutro o, dicho de otro modo, sexista. Los términos de la ecología, de reciente ingreso en el vocabulario de las palabras clave, deben utilizarse con prudencia. + +El hogar no es un nido ni tampoco un garaje. El ecologista es capaz de llamar a estos tres “nichos” o “hábitats”. Para el filósofo se trata de sitios en tres tipos de espacios, cada cual creado en virtud de una especie diferente de acción. El nido (biológico), el garaje (técnico) y la habitación (histórica) engendran espacios heterogéneos. Por instinto, el animal “marca” su territorio. El nido es la modalidad espacial de la reproducción instintiva de la especie. El garaje es exactamente lo contrario, pues ha sido concebido para estacionar los vehículos, partiendo de la suposición de la escasez de espacio. El nido, por su parte, supone la porosidad del espacio y la vitalidad de la materia. + +El apartamento moderno procede del mismo tipo de espacio para el cual se diseñan los garajes. Se construye económicamente, es decir, mediante la agregación de módulos espacio-temporales sin género, y su función consiste en responder a las necesidades imputadas a sus habitantes. Y por lo general está vinculado a sistemas de transporte. Tanto el garaje como el apartamento han sido construidos racional y económicamente con el propósito de almacenar durante la noche un recurso productivo. Ambos ofrecen seguridad para, y contra, lo que allí se guarda: sus muros están asegurados contra los ocasionales daños que los niños y las defensas de los autos pueden causar, así como niños y autos están asegurados contra los accidentes. El apartamento es un almacén que sirve para confinar a las personas, a quienes se considera frágiles y peligrosas. Es imposible para los ocupantes “hacerse su hogar” allí; el espacio está estructurado y equipado para el trabajo fantasma, únicamente. Es un domicilio a donde llegan los cables y las vías urbanas, el cartero y el policía, a fin de comunicar a aquellos que todavía se encuentran sanos espiritual y físicamente, aquellos civiles que sobreviven “en libertad” gracias al valium, a la televisión y a sus fantasías sexuales. Es el lugar reservado para el comercio carnal entre humanos sin género, el único sitio donde los dos sexos aún pueden compartir el retrete.[^f85] + +En Montaillou, en Minot o en la aldea mexicana de hoy en día, el hogar no es un territorio delimitado por animales que se reproducen porque sus genes lo exigen, ni una vivienda especialmente destinada a compañeros sexuales, mezquinamente dispuesta en un espacio económico. Es una vivienda que está hecha _por_ la gente, no _para_ ella, es un espacio engendrado por los cuerpos de aquellos que la habitan, es el vestigio ambiental de la vida vernácula. No es un ámbito para el engendramiento ni una cómoda caja fuerte; es el reflejo de los hombres y las mujeres en su medio ambiente. Por tal razón, _estar en casa_ significa algo diferente para ambos géneros. + +### La procreación y el género + +Así como un tejido nace del entrelazamiento, en ángulo recto, de la urdimbre ininterrumpida y de la trama transversal, las acciones que engendran el hogar, las acciones que engendran el espacio vital, son necesariamente diferentes según los géneros. Los hombres y las mujeres se crean su hogar mediante cada uno de sus movimientos. Pero sólo la mujer crea la sucesión ininterrumpida de la vida. No importa que la cultura sea matriarcal o patriarcal, que sean las mujeres o los hombres quienes detenten el poder, vivir y habitar significan para las mujeres, y para ellas únicamente, parir cuerpos, dar la vida. En cierta cultura, los hombres construyen el refugio, levantan bardas o hacen terrazas de cultivo en las colinas; en otra, las mismas tareas las realizan las mujeres. Pero solamente las mujeres pueden dar vida a otros cuerpos. Importa poco la representación del creador que la mitología local impone —madre, padre o andrógino; poco importa el nombre que se le dará al hijo—, el de su madre, padre o tío. Este espacio particular, y el tiempo que le corresponde, que hacen del hogar algo más que un nido o garaje, _solamente_ es creado por las mujeres, porque sólo ellas procrean cuerpos. + +Son éstas ideas que pueden parecer poéticas, oscuras o románticas, hasta que recordamos que en el espacio del departamento moderno las mujeres se encuentran doblemente _desplazadas_, y que ellas lo dicen claramente. La invasión y la usurpación del espacio normativo frustran a las mujeres en su carne de una manera que los hombres no pueden experimentar. La arquitectura unisex es necesariamente sexista. Su concepción amenaza a las mujeres en dos sentidos, en su carne y en sus ritmos: se obstaculiza su potencial contribución a la creación del hogar y se les excluye del contexto específico de su género; sufren más que los hombres por ambas razones. Para ellas, crear “su hogar” no equivale más que a cambiar los muebles de lugar. Despojadas de su propio dominio, han sido privadas de la posibilidad de traer hijos al mundo en el seno de su género, en el seno de su contexto de mujeres en su hogar. + +Al ser transformadas en productoras económicas —remuneradas o no, en un empleo o en la casa—, a las mujeres se les priva, tanto como a los hombres, de las condiciones ambientales que les permitirían vivir en un lugar _habitándolo_, y al hacerlo, crear su hogar. En la medida que las mujeres y los hombres se vuelven más productivos económicamente, menos poseen un medio de vida. Pero esta pérdida de un hogar intragenérico, el cual ha sido remplazado por “módulos habitacionales”, priva a las mujeres de la amplitud indispensable para crear una existencia generadora de espacio. Cada cual en su soledad procrea individuos en un espacio económico neutro, en un mundo hecho de ladrillos espacio-temporales estandarizados. En este sentido, el espacio de un departamento y el de la sala de partos de un hospital son igualmente rígidos y carentes de género; el parto en el seno del género es allí imposible. Aquellas que han querido dar a luz en casa, en su apartamento, y que lo recuerdan gratamente, aunque con cierta desilusión, en comparación con la estancia en una maternidad, saben que la topología de su cuerpo no está hecha ni para parir camadas ni para la reproducción estandarizada; no está hecha para el nido ni para la línea de montaje; está hecha para crear, al parir, el espacio y el tiempo vernáculos. + +El espacio vernáculo no sólo da forma al paisaje y a la casa, no sólo está en contacto con el pasado y aún más allá, sino que también se extiende en el cuerpo mismo, y esto de manera diferente en hombres y mujeres. De ahí resulta que la arquitectura económica, que está desprovista de género y que forma un espacio-tiempo internacional rígidamente definido, _invierte_ a las mujeres, transformando al género femenino en el segundo sexo. La “perspectiva clínica”, como la ha llamado Michel Foucault, que se desarrolló durante el siglo XIX, vacía el cuerpo del género.[^f86] + +Hay estudios recientes que han analizado con cuidado las etapas de esta extirpación corporal del género, la cual se da a la par de una reconstitución anatómica de la mujer en cuanto ser humano singular, dotado de órganos sexuales aunque escasa capilaridad. Pero la innovación decisiva de esta “humanización” polarizada de la mujer es el nuevo sitio que se le ha asignado al alumbramiento, el cual es objeto de estudio y de reglamentación pública. Aproximadamente hasta 1780 los tratados médicos y la legislación civil consideran que éste pertenece al dominio de las mujeres. La cesación de las menstruaciones, la confirmación del embarazo, el mal parto, el aborto, el alumbramiento, la lactancia, como también el infanticidio y los cuidados del bebé, todo ello es asunto de las mujeres. No es que estas cosas sean privadas o secretas, pero están relacionadas con el género. No se llama al médico más que para los partos verdaderamente difíciles, a fin de que la mujer no se arriesgue, si hay un accidente, a ser acusada de haber matado a su bebé, aunque por lo general las autoridades no se conmueven por el deceso de un recién nacido. En la lengua como en el discurso médico y legal, traer al mundo hijos es claramente asunto de las mujeres. + +Es sólo en la última generación del _Ancien Régime_ cuando evoluciona la percepción de las mujeres como fuente de vida. Durante este periodo, la lengua jurídica traspasa el umbral de la vulva de la misma manera que antiguamente el inquisidor había traspasado el de la _domus_. Se empieza a ver en el feto al ciudadano futuro. La ley se emplea en regir la matriz a fin de proteger la vida que contiene. El principal agresor, la amenaza contra el ciudadano o el futuro soldado, en adelante será la madre, particularmente si es pobre o no tiene marido. Hacia 1785, la policía prusiana inicia el registro de las mujeres solteras cuya regla ha cesado. Las plantas abortivas clásicas se encuentran entre los primeros fármacos cuya venta se prohíbe, o que sucesivamente los farmacéuticos sólo entregarán bajo prescripción; en los jardines públicos, la policía arranca las plantas de ruda. + +El vientre materno es declarado territorio público. Las parteras sólo pueden ejercer su oficio tras seguir estudios formales y obtener un diploma. Tal transformación de la vecina experimentada en partera especializada, con licencia o ilegal, es uno de los acontecimientos clave del profesionalismo mutilador. Y la lengua refleja este cambio. El alumbramiento deja de ser un acontecimiento femenino que las mujeres viven entre sí. En el vocabulario de la policía médica la matriz se convierte en el órgano especializado que produce hijos. A las mujeres se les describe como matrices ambulantes. + +A mediados del siglo XIX, los ginecólogos comienzan a colonizar el nuevo territorio del vientre materno incluso antes de iniciarse los dolores del parto. Hacia fines de siglo, ante todo se preocupan por desinfectar el canal por donde saldrá el vástago, a fin de protegerlo contra las enfermedades que la madre podría comunicar durante el parto. En el siglo XVIII, mientras más pobre fuera una mujer, más se podía sospechar que intentaría abortar; en el siglo XIX se le considera particularmente propensa a infectar al hijo. De cualquier modo, su pobreza proporciona el pretexto para aislarla de la compañía de otras mujeres y hacerla parir en un establecimiento, cosa que al mismo tiempo la pone a disposición de los futuros médicos para que se entrenen en la práctica. Y a principios del siglo XX, más precozmente en Massachusetts que en Berlín o en Milán, el parto neutro de hospital —hasta entonces considerado como una precaución contra las vilezas o las enfermedades de las mujeres— empieza a ser presentado como un beneficio para la madre misma. La intrusión del cuidado médico fuera del género opera una metamorfosis en el vientre materno, haciendo de éste una especie de garaje prenatal. Yo veo en esta vigilancia profesional intensiva del embarazo el ritual solemnizador de la victoria final del espacio-tiempo imperial sobre el espacio-tiempo vernáculo.[^f87] + +En este ensayo quiero mostrar la oposición entre una existencia genérica y una economía sexista. Pero no intento dilucidar por qué un régimen sexista opera perseverantemente en contra de las mujeres. La razón principal de esta limitación que me impongo es que pienso que solamente una filosofía auténtica del género podría proporcionar una explicación satisfactoria —y tal filosofía aún no existe—. No obstante, si yo intentara explicar por qué la pérdida del género es más perjudicial para las mujeres, comenzaría por el análisis de los efectos distintos y diversos que el espacio-tiempo imperial y fuera de género produce en el cuerpo de los hombres y de las mujeres. + +### La influencia del género + +El género es vernáculo. Es tan resistente y adaptable, tan precario y vulnerable como el habla vernácula. Es obliterado, al igual que ésta, por la Instrucción, y su existencia rápidamente se olvida o incluso se niega. Son muchos quienes hoy en día no se acuerdan más del género que del habla vernácula, e incluso no serían capaces de imaginarlos. Para el bachiller, el habla vernácula de sus padres es un dialecto en comparación con la lengua materna que se le ha enseñado en la escuela. Para la joven egresada de la universidad que regresa con su diploma a la provincia mexicana, el género de su madre puede muy bien parecer como una servidumbre de la cual _ella misma_ ha escapado. + +El profundo contraste entre el habla vernácula y la lengua materna inculcada, con frecuencia es evidente para los padres e inasequible para los hijos. Ellos perciben que estos dos medios de expresión oral pertenecen a mundos irreconciliables. Pero la diferenciación entre el género y el sexo es todavía más difícil de captar. Efectivamente, ahí encontramos dos especies de dualidades cuyas complementariedades respectivas se sitúan en planos diferentes. Una y otra son, en verdad, construcciones sociales. Yo adjunto al género como al sexo los epítetos “masculino” o “femenino”, porque ambos son construcciones sociales que implican la referencia a una distinción biológica; pero género y sexo no son dualidades del mismo orden. El género es sustantivo; el sexo, adjetivo. + +El género es una realidad primordial. Es también una entidad social que exige un complemento; jamás está completo en sí mismo. Los géneros no se comprenden sino juntos, como el yin y el yang. Como en el símbolo yin/yang, solamente desde fuera se puede ver que lo negro y lo blanco forman un todo. No sucede lo mismo con el sexo en el neutro económico. Aquí el sexo es un atributo secundario, la propiedad de un individuo, una característica del ser humano. El rol de los sexos es algo que se adjunta a la existencia de lo humano. Ciertamente, el individuo no alcanza a percibir su sexo como un rol más, como una vestimenta entre otras, una prenda de trabajo o de gala. Este rol no se puede cambiar a voluntad: las mujeres, hundidas en el suyo, bien lo saben. Pero se quiera o no, tener un rol sexual —ya sea aceptado o padecido— es otra cosa enteramente que pertenecer a un género. Decir que se es hombre o mujer es totalmente diferente de decir que se es del sexo masculino o femenino. A diferencia del género, que significa que se es un círculo o bien un cuadrado, el sexo es un rol básico sobre el cual se pueden edificar otros roles. En el ámbito vernáculo se nace o se crece en el seno del género; pero el rol del sexo se adquiere. Podemos reprocharle a nuestros padres o a la sociedad el habernos “asignado” un rol sexual, pero no podemos culpar a nadie por el hecho de que poseamos un habla vernácula o un género vernáculo. + +### El género y el universo conceptual + +Por doquier muchachos y muchachas asumen precozmente sus respectivos géneros. Al llegar el destete, ya poseen maneras típicamente diferentes. En el Mashrik, corazón del Islam entre Egipto y Persia, donde no se desteta a los infantes antes de la edad de dos años —y los niños después que las niñas—, existen docenas de dichos relacionados con las formas distintas de mimar a un género o al otro. En ciertas lenguas, donde los hombres y las mujeres emplean un término diferente para designar al mismo tío, esa palabra propia de su género es frecuentemente una de las primeras que aprenden y pronuncian. Y los deberes propios de cada género son inculcados desde la más tierna edad. Entre los bembas, a los nueve años una niña sabe reconocer 40 variedades de hongos, mientras que un niño distingue los cantos de las aves.[^f88] Vemos aquí que la división cognitiva más fundamental en la evolución de los conceptos es la del género. Sin embargo, desde hace tres generaciones la epistemología psicológica se desentiende del tema. La identificación y la oposición del género forman parte del desarrollo empírico inicial, que todavía no es verbal. Piaget ha creado para estas primeras distinciones el calificativo “infralógicas”, a fin de significar que no sólo son prelógicas. Pero al parecer la más profunda, la del género, lo evade. + +El recién nacido no puede llegar a formar un concepto más que captando físicamente lo que está “ahí”. No es capaz de discernir sino extendiendo los brazos, tocando, asiendo, abrazando. No se trata de movimientos “espontáneos”, de simples reflejos biológicos en los que no interviene la cultura. Los ojos de la madre, que miran de modo diferente al niño y a la niña, imprimen desde entonces un ritmo diferente en los ojos del bebé. Así, el bebé adquiere su primer contacto, su aprehensión inicial del mundo, mediante su cuerpo y bajo el dictado del género, de conformidad con su sexo biológico. Allí donde el género impera, crecer no significa jamás convertirse en un “humano”, solamente un neutro lógico, en un _niño_ de género no especificado. + +Cuando desde la cuna hombres y mujeres captan el mundo según dos maneras complementarias, desarrollan dos modelos distintos de conceptualización del universo. Un estilo de percepción ligado con un género que corresponde a un dominio de herramientas y de tareas propias de este género. Los dos géneros no sólo ven las mismas realidades con una perspectiva y con matices diferentes, sino que aprenden precozmente que toda cosa tiene su envés. + +Los vocablos clave fuera de género del discurso contemporáneo nos obligan a describir la bilateralidad ambigua de la realidad vernácula como una guerra de sexos inaugurada por Adán y Eva. Hoy en día la reacción ante la alteridad ya no es el miedo sino la comparación envidiosa. Los rituales que orquestan la danza de la vida, marcando los cuerpos, entremezclando los géneros y luego separándolos, nos los presentan como una educación sexual primitiva. La extraña aberración que nos impulsa a imaginar a “la madre” que habla de Yocasta acarrea un mito _monstruoso_, una visión tan anormal como la de atribuir a un muchacho las pasiones de Edipo. El sexo y el género no pueden cohabitar en el mismo universo conceptual. La intención de conjugarlos necesariamente conduce al sexismo científico de la antropología. + +En este ámbito, casi siempre la perspectiva corresponde al observador _masculino_, y por lo tanto es más que extensamente sexista —cosa que hoy se sabe muy bien—. La aplastante mayoría de los etnógrafos son hombres. Las raras mujeres que trabajan en esta disciplina son discípulas o rivales de sus colegas masculinos. Para un investigador es tentador interrogar de preferencia a los _hombres_, quienes, por lo demás, con mayor frecuencia que las mujeres, saben una lengua vehicular —el hausa que se habla en el mercado, el árabe de la escuela coránica, el francés si han servido en el ejército—, lo cual reduce las dificultades de la comunicación verbal. Además, resulta decepcionante interrogar a las mujeres, porque, como observa Edwin Ardener: “Las jóvenes ríen, las viejas gruñen, encuentran las preguntas ridículas, rehúsan hablar con un extraño”. Por añadidura, los hombres impiden llegar a ellas, con el pretexto de que las mujeres son peligrosas, están impuras, o hay que protegerlas. En consecuencia, es a los hombres a quienes los etnógrafos hacen las preguntas que confirman sus propios modelos, y sus interlocutores, aunque modifican o adornan tales axiomas, o equivocan su sentido o acomodan sus respuestas para que cuadren con el tema. Puesto que las preguntas se hacen en un idioma que no toma en cuenta el género, evidentemente resulta que el género no aparece en las respuestas. + +Desde hace poco tiempo, las investigadoras han proporcionado una descripción “complementaria”, un espejo feminosexista, en el cual ellas leen una suerte de imagen invertida de la visión masculina a que ha sido reducida la realidad genérica por la “ciencia”. Su investigación se halla centrada sobre todo en el contraste entre la óptica femenina y la óptica masculina, en la manera en que las mujeres manejan el símbolo y el poder. Pero como estos nuevos estudios abordan principalmente la dominación y la sujeción en las sociedades no europeas, también están ubicados en una perspectiva sin género. En último análisis, la dominación y la sujeción no son más que asuntos de poder, ya sea que resida aquí o allá; implican la competencia por valores o posiciones que desconocen el género. Desde el momento que se postula la escasez de estos valores, y su igual conveniencia para hombres y mujeres, la lucha por tales valores es inevitablemente estudiada desde una perspectiva “sexista”, aun cuando sea bajo la forma inversa del “feminosexismo”. + +Edwin Ardener es uno de los raros antropólogos que han tratado de separar el estudio de la dominación masculina del análisis de universos conceptuales asimétricos donde la complementariedad es ambigua —sin negar por eso la importancia de tal asimetría—.[^f89] En su investigación de las mujeres bakweri, da constancia que son ellas las que definen las fronteras de su mundo, de modo y manera que viven como mujeres —aunque solamente hasta cierto punto— dentro de aquello que para los hombres es lo “salvaje” y para los antropólogos un laberinto aparentemente impenetrable. “Para ellas, la sociedad no esta forzosamente separada de la naturaleza; ellas no proporcionan necesariamente un modelo unitario de la sociedad, que las contenga a la vez a ellas mismas y a los hombres. Pueden concebir perfectamente un modelo en el que las mujeres y la naturaleza son exteriores respecto a los hombres y a la sociedad.” + +Por desgracia, Ardener emplea términos tales como “sociedad”, “salvaje”, “naturaleza” sin insistir en el hecho de que para él son metáforas.[^f90] Sus críticos por lo tanto se han esforzado en mostrar que estos términos están impregnados de ideología, con base en la forma en que fueron usados por los pensadores de la Ilustración. No son capaces de captar el argumento de Ardener —a saber, que no poseemos términos aptos par expresar, en prosa, la simetría de las percepciones en el seno del género—. + +En última instancia, el prejuicio sexista de tantos antropólogos resulta de algo mucho más fundamental que la intervención de informadores masculinos, el enfoque elegido por las investigadoras o los malentendidos. Los prejuicios contra el género están inscritos en la antropología porque ésta pretende ser una ciencia. Su lógica científica hace de ella una herramienta analítica para estudiar a los hombres y a las mujeres en calidad de _anthropoi_, para reducir el género al sexo y para hacer de una complementariedad que solamente son capaces de describir los poetas de una cultura, un sistema de dos contrarios homogéneos. Cosa que plantea una cuestión más fundamental: si la antropología no es capaz de captar el género como sujeto, ¿cómo puede explorar el dominio vernáculo?[^f91] + +### El género y el habla + +La manera distinta mediante la cual cada género aprehende la realidad encuentra su expresión en el lenguaje. El niño y la niña a los cinco años no emiten los mismos sonidos, aunque sus órganos vocales son similares anatómicamente. Al pasar del balbuceo al habla, adoptan la forma y el estilo conveniente para su género, y esto incluso durante sus juegos.[^f93] + +Al igual que lo que pasa con el “trabajo de las mujeres”, el “lenguaje de las mujeres” también ha atraído el interés académico en tres olas sucesivas.[^f94] La curiosidad al respecto nace a fines del siglo XIX, época en que cualquier posible prueba de la alteridad constitucional de las mujeres resultaba para muchos atrayente. Por entonces el lenguaje femenino era uno de aquellos descubrimientos que habían surgido de la iniciativa clínica que había definido a _priori_ una realidad y una existencia humanas totalmente nuevas, desde el punto de vista anatómico, psicológico y de comportamiento. Esta definición ubicaba a las mujeres, en cuanto segundo sexo, en una sociedad de neutros, una sociedad estandarizada de acuerdo con una norma común. Todo aquello que pudiera probar que las mujeres se apartaban de esa norma era agua para el molino de los profesionales que con ello obtenían ganancias: ginecólogos, clérigos, profesores de economía doméstica y trabajadores sociales que se obligaban a definir “necesidades” para las que sólo ellos podían formular un diagnóstico y prescribir una terapia normativa. + +Pero el interés del siglo XIX en el habla femenina fue efímero.[^f95] A pesar de que cada vez más lingüistas competentes han explorado toda suerte de variantes de la lengua —según la edad, el estatus, el grado de instrucción o el coeficiente intelectual—, las distinciones lingüísticas entre el habla de las mujeres y el habla de los hombres han sido relativamente despreciadas. Los estudios de la segunda ola de interés que registraron correctamente las singularidades del comportamiento lingüístico de las mujeres tendían por lo general a describirlo como un “dialecto” particular de las mujeres, algo subalterno en comparación con una entidad superior que sería la lengua “real”. Durante los años setenta, las mujeres mismas exploraron este ámbito. Pudieron hallar en cada dimensión y área del habla moderna incontables pruebas de la dominación masculina.[^f96] + +Sin importar el idioma —francés, alemán o inglés—, las estadísticas muestran que los hombres hablan más alto y con mayor frecuencia que las mujeres, son más propensos a interrumpir, a imponer el tema de la conversación y a callar a los demás hablando más fuerte. En cuanto a las mujeres, éstas tienden a sonreír con complacencia, a abstenerse de hablar, a tartamudear, si bien para disimular su inseguridad también son capaces de imitar y superar a los hombres. En ese caso adoptan su vocabulario y sintaxis, sus estrategias y argumentos. Pero mientras más unisex son las palabras y los temas, resulta más patente que tanto las expresiones estridentes como el mutismo soñador colocan a las mujeres en el segundo sexo lingüístico. La educación mixta y la fábrica, la mesa de conferencias y el cóctel han hecho sexista el habla, así como el mercado laboral lo ha hecho con el trabajo.[^f97] + +Todavía hoy en día, en muchos sitios del mundo, los hombres y las mujeres no solamente hablan de cosas diferentes, sino que el lenguaje mismo se los impone. Por ejemplo, fuera de la oficina, la fábrica o la arena política, las mujeres japonesas rara vez tocan —mucho menos que las euro peas— los temas que interesan a los hombres. Sin embargo, cuando lo hacen, sus expresiones difieren de las de los hombres. Y la diferencia es tanta que sería inútil buscar frases equivalentes en el habla masculina y femenina. Cinco minutos de conversación tocante a un jardín o a una fiesta se reducen, en un intercambio verbal entre hombres, a tres vocablos que como respuesta tienen un gruñido inarticulado.[^f98] + +El estudio regional del lenguaje específico de un género aporta una visión parcial del ámbito multidimensional del género. Una encuesta que recientemente se llevo a cabo en una aldea española mostró que los hombres hablan sobre el trabajo en el campo, sobre el ganado, el comercio y el oficio, mientras que las conversaciones de las mujeres giran en torno a observaciones sobre las personas y sus motivos, sobre la existencia y las necesidades del hogar. Pero los temas mismos, como las herramientas que se utilizan, no son suficientes para revelar de qué manera se percibe el mundo. Las diferencias fonológicas, la entonación, la sintaxis, el vocabulario, las referencias nominales y pronominales, distinguen al habla masculina del habla femenina.[^f99] No es posible conjeturar lo que estas diferencias podrían revelar acerca de la complementariedad simbólica, si se las admitiera más como constituyentes del lenguaje que como rasgos marginales. En una lengua vernácula de Madagascar, se considera prestigioso el lenguaje de los hombres precisamente porque es indirecto y esquiva la confrontación.[^f100] El orador hábil ha de recurrir a un estilo alusivo convenido. Aquello que a un blanco neoyorquino le podría parecer vacilante y vago, para el hombre de raza merina queda muy claro. En esta sociedad, el comercio es asunto de las mujeres. Ellas discuten agresivamente los precios, gritan tras los niños, ponen a todos en su sitio, divulgan a voz en cuello las conductas reprobables. Las mujeres se hacen respetar porque son capaces de expresar sin reservas lo que sienten. El lenguaje femenino y el lenguaje masculino revelan la complejidad de la dominación relativa del género, incluso mejor que la utilización de las herramientas.[^f101] + +Son de lo más frágil y vulnerables los rasgos masculinos y femeninos del lenguaje, aun cuando éste se encuentre en pleno vigor. En el pasado, se los ha visto desaparecer, particularmente cuando un habla se convierte en el instrumento de un imperio, en una lengua del comercio o de la administración. Son estos rasgos masculinos y femeninos los que primero peligran cuando una lengua se estandariza; lo que de ellos queda se reduce a un simple género gramatical vaciado de sus antiguas dualidades, y cuya utilidad primordial consiste en permitir la expresión discriminatoria. Cuando el habla vernácula desaparece por absorción en una lengua materna inculcada, su dualidad lingüística se reduce solamente a diferentes esquemas, entonaciones y temas de conversación, y a la dominación masculina del género gramatical. Esto se puede comprobar dondequiera que el proceso haya sido estudiado, dondequiera que el género vernáculo haya sido abolido por la relación monetaria, y el habla vernácula por la alfabetización, la escolarización y la televisión. En el suroeste de Luisiana, la lengua indígena _koasati_ que se hablaba en el pasado poseía sutiles y claras diferencias en el habla masculina y en el habla femenina.[^f102] Pero tras la segunda Guerra Mundial, sólo los ancianos recordaban aquellas distinciones, aquella facilidad, lentitud y dulzura propia del habla femenina. Hoy en día éstas emplean las formas masculinas. Las femeninas solamente sobreviven en calidad de curiosidades, cuando se recuerdan las expresiones de las mujeres del pasado. Así, la transición al predominio masculino —al igual que en el nuevo “medio de comunicación” unisex que tan perfectamente se adapta al estilo de vida industrial— se observa en el lenguaje, sin importar el número de “géneros” gramaticales que éste pueda poseer. + + +## El género a través del tiempo + +COMO el lenguaje, la cultura evoluciona. ¿No implica ésta por sí misma una evolución _sui generis_? Si el término “cultura” tiene un significado que todos los antropólogos admiten, es éste: forma de comportamiento que no está inscrita en el programa genético, que no está totalmente sometida al instinto. La cultura traduce un nivel de la vida que no puede explicarse en términos biológicos. El bagaje genético y la herencia cultural evolucionan según leyes opuestas. La selección natural opera a base de una variación no orientada que conduce a una divergencia genética; la evolución cultural transmite a la sucesiva generación rasgos modelados por la generación actual. La evolución biológica extiende nuevas ramas que no pueden fecundarse entre sí, que una vez que se solidifican jamás podrán reunirse. La evolución cultural responde a la forma opuesta, la anastomosis:[^f103] como los de un río, sus brazos se dividen, se extienden serpenteando y vuelven a unirse. La evolución biológica queda grabada; la cultura implica el recuerdo de las cosas pasadas que no sobreviven más que en el mito y en la historia. + +En el Museo Nacional de México se puede ver una bella ilustración de este sistema fluvial: la presentación de una serie de _malacates_[^t01]. Éstos son pequeños discos de cerámica con una perforación en el centro donde se inserta el huso para hilar, y que sirven de contrapeso. Cada año los arados mexicanos exhuman miles de ellos, de todas las épocas, incluso de las más lejanas. Un arqueólogo del museo los ha dispuesto como un sistema reticular de afluentes: comenzando por las formas muy antiguas, arcaicas y diversas, los malacates se adaptan, intercambian ciertos rasgos, se vuelven más elaborados, práctica y artísticamente. Se puede ver que en tal región, el malacate permanece sin cambiar durante siglos y luego, bruscamente, se hace mestizo, incorporando un detalle característico de un valle distante. Me encanta contemplar esta red y preguntarme si fue hombre o mujer quien introdujo aquel nuevo detalle.[^f104] + +En algunos casos, la modificación pudo haber sido el fruto del azar: el malacate se mella accidentalmente, y alguien se da cuenta de que la muesca lo hace más práctico. Pero es más probable que esta mejora haya venido de afuera: que un forastero al pasar por allí haya dejado su malacate, o que un esclavo capturado trajera consigo un modelo diferente. Ese malacate con la extraña muesca fue examinado, probado y adoptado. Pero el peso del huso cambia. La mano que lo hacía girar aprende un nuevo movimiento y la otra mano responde con una nueva torsión del hilo. Un nuevo movimiento de una mano produce nueva respuesta de la otra mano. Puesto que en las culturas los utensilios corresponden forzosamente a un género únicamente, aquello que se denomina “cambio cultural” jamás sobreviene, inicialmente, sino en el dominio de _un_ género; seguidamente tiene lugar una reacción correspondiente en el otro género. En la evolución cultural, como en una danza, siempre hay uno que manda y otro que sigue, a veces con un gesto, a veces con un paso. + +Hace miles de años, en la vertiente meridional de la Sierra Madre se comenzó a cultivar una nueva forma de maíz cuyos primeros granos debieron haber llegado de muy lejos. Este nuevo maíz era azul, y mucho más productivo que la antigua variedad. Tenía que ser plantado a mayor profundidad, así que la coa cambio de manos, pasando de las de la mujer a las del hombre. Pero el nuevo maíz, que un nuevo dios protegía, requería un nuevo metate también, uno mayor, para que las mujeres pudieran molerlo. Si la antropología cultural se ubicara a sí misma en la perspectiva del género, sólo con base en los datos ya recopilados sería capaz de decirnos mucho sobre la evolución técnica y cultural. + +### El género y la transgresión + +En periodos largos, la línea divisoria de los géneros puede cambiar de ruta. Y también, en ciertas condiciones, puede —incluso debe— ser transgredida. Es esto lo que distingue a las usurpaciones que un género inflige en el otro, de las desviaciones de los animales relacionadas con su comportamiento sexual. Pero he de decir que hay algo más importante que la diferencia entre el sexo animal y el género social: es la diferencia entre las usurpaciones mutuas de los géneros y la desaparición de su línea divisoria. Esta desaparición del género, la característica antropológica _por excelencia_ de las culturas industriales, tiene que ser cuidadosamente diferenciada de la transgresión del género. + +La violación de la frontera entre los géneros aparece claramente cuando en el curso del tiempo una herramienta cambia de manos. Pero solamente podemos especular sobre los numerosos factores que han podido intervenir para modificar el entorno del género. Es probable que el cambio con frecuencia sea el resultado de un descubrimiento tecnológico: un utensilio o un elemento que, hasta ese momento, era extranjero pero no tabú, accede al dominio de un género. Así sucedió con el burro, que los antiguos mexicanos desconocían, y que fue introducido por los españoles. No podía ser exclusivo de los hombres, ni de las mujeres, y no era tabú —nada prohibía que ambos géneros lo tocaran—. Pero pronto, en las montañas de guerrero, entre los indios este animal pasó a manos de los hombres exclusivamente y así fue descubierto culturalmente. El descubrimiento cultural, o como frecuentemente se le llama, la evolución tecnológica, siempre ha sido un proceso de domesticación vinculado con un género. Inevitablemente, el empleo del asno hizo más que enriquecer el equipo del hombre: amplió la provincia territorial de un género, introduciendo una asimetría nueva entre el dominio de los hombres y el de las mujeres, y con toda seguridad aligeró el trabajo de éstas, al tiempo que redujo su estatus público. + +Para los antiguos mexicanos, el burro fue algo totalmente sorprendente, pero no tabú. Yo prefiero reservar este término “tabú” para una prohibición que afecta a _ambos géneros_, aunque de manera muy diferente, prohibición que mediante su “¡No!” absoluto, mantiene a los géneros en el seno de su _gens_. Por haber comido el fruto del único árbol prohibido, Adán y Eva son expulsados del jardín del Edén junto con toda su descendencia. La violación de un tabú acarrea terribles consecuencias para toda la comunidad; exige un sacrificio extraordinario, un redentor. Pero traspasar la línea de separación de los géneros no es tabú, es algo que denominaré _pané_. El género les dicta a los hombres guayaki: “No tocarás ninguna canasta; _ésa_ pertenece al dominio de la mujer”. Lo que para el género femenino es adecuado, para él es _pané_. + +Tanto el _tabú_ como el _pané_ son prohibiciones, pero las cosas que respectivamente prohíben se encuentran en espacios diferentes. El tabú es una amenaza desde fuera contra el dúo genérico, donde hombres y mujeres de la _gens_ dicen “nosotros”. _Pané_ implica la otra cara de la luna, la otra mitad del mundo, aquella parte de la realidad que sólo conozco a través de su reflejo en la apariencia, la palabra, la acción del género opuesto. + +Desde siempre y por doquier, la barrera entre los géneros se ha traspasado, aunque no haya cambiado ni de tamaño ni de lugar. Los motivos más comunes son los desastres, las calamidades. En la Edad Media, el pesado arado del que tiraba un caballo herrado y guarnecido era casi un símbolo del género masculino. Las mujeres jamás se hubieran atrevido a acercarse a la herramienta o al animal. Pero a finales del siglo XIV, en un periodo de 15 años diversas miniaturas provenientes del norte de Francia muestran a mujeres tras el arado. Sucedía que la peste había diezmado a la población, mientras que la guerra segaba a los hombres que habían sobrevivido. Por lo tanto, las mujeres tenían que labrar la tierra en espera de que sus hijos varones llegaran a la edad de relevarlas.[^f105] + +Las calamidades públicas y también las desgracias personales pueden conducir a un campesino a despreciar las conveniencias y hacer el trabajo de una mujer. Hasta hace poco tiempo, en el norte de Suecia los hombres no podían entrar en los establos. En ese lugar cálido, las muchachas vivían y dormían junto al ganado y, durante el largo invierno, ellas y las amigas que las venían a visitar tenían la seguridad de que estarían a salvo entre mujeres. Pero el viudo que no tenía hija ordeñaba él mismo su vaca al abrigo de los muros del establo, cosa que jamás habría hecho afuera, a la vista de todo el mundo. Si amenaza con caer una tormenta mientras las mujeres cosechan el heno en un prado alpino, el granjero y sus hijos acuden a ayudarlas —pero jamás le pedirían a un obrero agrícola realizar esa tarea—. Aparentemente, tener rango superior en una comunidad implica mayor libertad para traspasar las conveniencias. Pero estas excepciones no hacen más que confirmar la regla general; fueron dignas de atención y mención porque se las consideró notables, y hoy constituyen una fuente para el estudio del género. + +Paradójicamente, el travestismo también confirma la separación de los géneros, y por eso mismo sirve para informar al historiador. Las violaciones espontáneas de esta frontera rara vez son obra de grupos, y siempre se ven con terror. En Alemania, durante las guerras campesinas, nada aterrorizaba tanto a los nobles como la furia de las mujeres que habían tomado las armas. En ciertos casos, hombres disfrazados de mujeres pusieron al enemigo en fuga antes de que empezara el combate.[^f106] + +Pero el travestismo también puede ritualizarse, convertirse en un acontecimiento público periódico. Durante las fiestas del carnaval, desde Sicilia a Escandinavia, era obligado que las mujeres hicieran de hombres, los hombres hicieran de mujeres, y los hombres también de mujeres que hicieran de hombres. Hay quienes han sugerido que las mascaradas a veces eran empleadas para suscitar agitaciones políticas. Especialmente en el siglo XVIII, tales inversiones tradicionales de los géneros dieron ocasión para burlarse del “progreso de la civilización” que a la población le disgustaba, para oponer resistencia al maestro escolar o al clérigo. La sátira y la comedia utilizaron con gran libertad estas violaciones de la frontera entre los géneros. Estudios recientes que se han consagrado a la cultura de las diversiones, fiestas, mascaradas y tumultos ponen al descubierto precisamente la utilización política del travestismo a fin de proteger la economía moral, la existencia intragenérica de las muchedumbres.[^f107] Estas inversiones también servían para satirizar y por lo tanto para refrenar la dominación relativa de un género. Ridiculizaban a los hombres al poner a las mujeres ocasionalmente en la cima, de manera pública y divertida. Al contrario, en un pueblo mexicano actual donde sigue vigente el temor a los brujos, la danza de hombres disfrazados de viejas que persiguen a jovencitos disfrazados de coyotes da inicio a la celebración anual de una jornada de diversiones que alivia la angustia latente.[^f108] + +Pero el travestismo posee una función todavía más profunda. En casi todas las culturas, ciertos sacerdotes deben vestirse de mujeres, ciertos actos mágicos se relacionan con ritos sodomitas, la persona condenada lleva vestidos del sexo opuesto, el héroe cultural debe desafiar la división de los géneros. Se trata de otras tantas maneras de subrayar esta separación: su perspectiva pública inversa la hace todavía más evidente. De manera mágica, el travestismo sorprende a los demonios guardianes, manteniéndolos a distancia al mismo tiempo que los satisface. Refleja la inserción del género en lo más profundo de la experiencia mística. + +### La exaltación de lo heterosexual + +La sexología moderna nubla la óptica del historiador respecto al travestismo tradicional. Sus categorías interesan al sexo, y no al género.[^f109] Esto se ve bien en el vocabulario que se usa para describir a los homosexuales. Solo un número limitado de sociedades posee términos para clasificar a sus miembros según el género que les atrae _eróticamente_. En este sentido, el tipo de clasificación vigente en las sociedades europeas modernas es único. El hecho de que el amor entre hombres o entre mujeres haya sido más o menos frecuente en ciertos lugares y ciertas épocas no autoriza al historiador a concluir que todas las sociedades han considerado al “homosexual” un ser singular. Antes del renacimiento europeo, una persona no se definía a sí misma ni como homosexual ni como autor —podía preferir más a los muchachos que a las chicas, o podía ser hábil para escribir versos—. Podía entregarse a la pederastia de la misma manera que a la ira asesina. Sus contemporáneos le llamaban pederasta o asesino, pero estos términos no poseían el contenido _diagnóstico_ que los términos modernos revisten. El que un hombre amara a los hombres no lo volvía intrínsecamente “otro”. Se reconocían las prácticas homosexuales y cada cultura tenía su manera de considerarlas —diversión juvenil, inversión ritual, vicio risible o merecedor de atroz castigo—. Pero en el reino del género el homosexual no podía concebirse como una entidad singular. El desviado europeo moderno es tan singular como la pareja conyugal heterosexual. + +Dos importantes estudios recientes han examinado la historia de la homosexualidad como una propensión que se percibe socialmente distinta del comportamiento sexual mismo. D. S. Baily ha mostrado que la tradición cristiana preescolástica no veía en la homosexualidad una desviación sexual “característica” de ciertas personas. Legisladores, teólogos o moralistas condenaban las prácticas amorosas entre gente del mismo sexo y, siguiendo al apóstol san Pablo, abominaban de los grupos que hacían ostentación de tales prácticas. Con base en el estudio crítico de gran cantidad de documentos, John Boswell nos permite seguir las etapas que condujeron a ver a los homosexuales como un grupo dotado de una naturaleza desviada.[^f110] Es obvio que no podía haber allí tal “desviación” si al mismo tiempo no hubiera surgido la norma heterosexual —base de la consagración de la producción conyugal—. Pero todavía no se ha escrito la historia paralela del “heterosexual”. Por lo tanto, hay que utilizar al “homosexual” como un espejo donde se puede ver la conquista del Occidente por el régimen heterosexual. + +Aquí no puedo hacer más que evocar la relación compleja entre la Iglesia y la transformación del género en sexo. Tomemos el primer ejemplo de la historia de Montaillou, donde el inquisidor interroga al subdiácono Arnaud, a quien se acusa de sodomía. Sus respectivos criterios divergen radicalmente. Arnaud considera sus actos desde la perspectiva del género, mientras que el inquisidor los enfoca con la óptica naciente del sexo _contra natura_.[^f111] Lo que desconcierta totalmente al religioso es que el superior quiera tratarlo como hereje porque es sodomita. Expresa con toda buena fe: “Yo creía … con la sencillez de mi corazón, que la sodomía y la simple fornicación ciertamente eran pecados mortales, pero mucho menos graves que el desfloramiento de vírgenes, que el adulterio y el incesto”. El tal Arnaud era de familia noble y urbana. Poseía cierto refinamiento y una cultura asaz “lite raria”. En esa época en que era extremadamente raro poseer un libro, podía prestar libros a sus amigos. Entre sus tomos, no había únicamente biblias y calendarios, sino también clásicos; poseía un Ovidio, autor que transmite explícitamente lo que la Antigüedad sabía sobre la teoría y la práctica del arte de amar. Y aunque no había sido jamás ordenado sacerdote, Arnaud realizaba sus funciones clericales con evidente devoción. La perplejidad que sus respuestas muestran refleja todavía el punto de vista intragenérico. No alcanza a entender que el inquisidor (el futuro papa Benedicto XII) pueda interpretar su sodomía como una desviación. Para él aquélla significaba una manera entre otras de aplacar la concupiscencia. + +La historia del vocablo “ _bougre”_ con que por entonces se designaba en Francia al sodomita puede ilustrar este conflicto. Originalmente había sido un término eclesiástico. Designaba a los búlgaros que se habían convertido al cristianismo en el siglo IX, entrando en la comunidad católica de Constantinopla, entonces separada del papado. Posteriormente, la designación pasó de estos cristianos “separados” a los bogumiles, secta gnóstica que se extendió desde Tracia a Bulgaria y de allí hasta los Balcanes, dejando sus huellas en forma de grandes y sobrias tumbas de piedra. Si se había acuñado para designar a cristianos, incluso cismáticos, ahora la palabra se refería a un grupo extranjero y no cristiano. Tres siglos después se desplazaba nuevamente y servía para calificar a esos primos de los bogumiles que eran los “albigenses” o los “cátaros”. Estos languedocianos, nacidos en el corazón de la cristiandad, habitaban la vertiente septentrional de los Pirineos, el baluarte de Europa contra el Islam. Hogar tras hogar fueron seducidos por el espíritu del gnosticismo; las creencias, los ritos y las costumbres de los cátaros eran calificados indiferentemente de “herejías” o _bougreries_. + +Precisamente por entonces la Iglesia tenía amplios motivos para temer la expansión de un adversario espiritual. A unos cuantos siglos se remontaban la doctrina, el clero, la organización y el método necesarios para cuidar _pastoralmente_ de los hogares constituidos por almas individuales. Las iglesias habían pasado de ser lugares de culto público y de enseñanza religiosa, a agencias para cuidar personalmente de las almas —transformación que se había iniciado con Carlomagno—. Tal solicitud pastoral implicaba, ante todo, el fomento y la regulación de los hogares _conyugales_. [^f112] Se olvida que sólo fue en la alta Edad Media cuando el matrimonio lentamente se convirtió en un sacramento —es decir, un asunto sujeto a la autoridad de la Iglesia—. De ahí resultaron innumerables conflictos entre los antiguos modelos vernáculos del género y los nuevos modelos católicos. La solicitud pastoral de la Iglesia debilitó el dominio del género local que había sobrevivido autolimitándose, y suscitó simultáneamente una átmósfera de resistencia a la administración eclesiástica de un _género_ católico. Era propicio el momento para la propagación de una “herejía” que pudiera ofrecer a los aldeanos una fe “católica” donde no intervenía una autoridad y una vigilancia superiores que imponían un género de su cosecha. + +La cruzada en el siglo XIV contra los herejes de Languedoc se dirigió a la red de caseríos de la región de Albi que habían abrazado creencias heterodoxas que eran atrayentes porque estaban regidas _localmente_. Estos hogares cátaros eran considerados cánceres que proliferaban en el cuerpo de la Iglesia. La inquisición acudía al terreno para interrogar a la gente una por una, investigando si el veneno se había difundido por el conducto de una _domus_ emparentada. Hasta entonces, los miembros de los hogares habían sido quienes iban a la iglesia; ahora, mediante un movimiento inverso, ésta traspasaba el umbral de las casas. El inquisidor diagnostica la desviación y se encarga de su tratamiento. Sabueso religioso, el teólogo husmea al _bougre_, todo aquel que huele a herejía. En tal contexto, el término _bougre_ se emplea de manera doblemente novedosa: imputa un comportamiento criminal a una natualeza pervertida, y ya no solamente el gozo que experimenta una naturaleza pecaminosa que transgrede la ley divina. + +Para salvaguardar el sentimiento religioso, la Iglesia remplazó la normalización católica del comportamiento cotidiano; a su misión de hombres consagrados al servicio litúrgico, los clérigos sustituyeron la de pastores y confesores de fieles constituidos por los dos _sexos_ —a partir de entonces, la _bougrerie_ sexual se convertía en herejía teológica—. Para el pastor, ahora representado por la imagen de un gallo célibe sobre el campanario, velando sobre un rebaño compuesto por dos sexos, el _bougre_ se había convertido en el enemigo irredimible, aquel que se debía condenar a la hoguera. + +El _plebanus_ que cuida desde lo alto del campanario al rebaño que se le ha confiado, es el prototipo del profesional de los servicios. Tiene a su cargo las almas, posee el instrumento que le permite leer las conciencias. Se le ha formado para que considere toda alma igualmente digna y dotada de una conciencia que es necesario explorar y formar. + +El obispo inquisidor de Aviñón habla en nombre de la Iglesia, de una nueva Iglesia en pleno auge que sucesivamente, cuando llegue a secularizarse y dividirse, habrá de asumir su forma contemporánea de estructura profesional. Este prelado pertenece a la Iglesia que ha transformado el ritual de la penitencia en un acto de confesión anual, a la Iglesia que desde hace un siglo apenas —a partir del Concilio de Letran de 1215— ha impuesto a todos los creyentes decir sus pecados a su párroco una vez al año. A esta nueva regla correspondía una fórmula original que refleja una nueva perspectiva, la perspectiva homogeneizadora del sexo: _Omnes utriusque sexus fideles_ —todos los fieles, hombres y mujeres, en adelante deberán comparecer ante su pastor una vez al año para acusarse—. A fin de que éste estuviera preparado para oír su confesión, en el siglo precedente se habían redactado manuales especiales —aparentemente Arnaud no los conocía—. Éstos indicaban a los confesores cuáles son las preguntas que deben hacer a los fieles para ayudarlos a discernir las transgresiones que en lo sucesivo se calificarán de pecaminosas. Ahora las mujeres tendrán que obedecer con toda franqueza como mujeres y los hombres como hombres. Y los nuevos manuales cada vez con mayor precisión definían lo que esto significa para los humanos en general, sin consideración para la línea de separación específica de los géneros en cada lugar, y ocasionalmente contradiciéndola. La ley eclesiástica no era, en sí, sexista, porque reservaba el poder, los privilegios y la ordenación para los hombres —en esto no hacía más que reflejar sus orígenes—. Pero _inauguraba_ el sexismo rigiendo las conciencias de almas que eran todas igualmente inmortales y capaces de cometer el mismo pecado con cuerpos diferentes. Al afirmar que en términos del pecado eran iguales las transgresiones de la misma ley por hombres y mujeres, sentaba las bases de los códigos sexistas.[^f113] + +La confesión obligatoria de los pecados en la intimidad del confesionario es algo radicalmente nuevo, es el primer paso, sin duda el más importante, hacia la educación universal. Es casi lo contrario de la penitencia pública, largo y penoso ritual, que tenía lugar frecuentemente ante el portal de la Iglesia, y al cual se sometían irlandeses y escoceses en la época de su conversión, a principios de la Edad Media. Ese antiguo orden penitencial era asunto de los hombres. Expresaba la sumisión pública y voluntaria de los recién conversos a las leyes nuevas de los misioneros. Ranulf había matado al asesino de su padrastro. Había actuado como le correspondía a un hijo; según las antiguas leyes de su clan; no tomar venganza habría sido imperdonable. Pero según la nueva ley de Jesucristo, debió haber perdonado al asesino. Haciendo penitencia por haber recaído en el paganismo, Ranulf permaneció de pie ante la Iglesia durante 17 años, bajo la canícula del verano y los hielos del invierno. Pero el nuevo orden confesional traslada la penitencia del espacio exterior al espacio interior; obliga a toda “alma” a crear este espacio dentro de sí misma, y a hacerlo de conformidad con las reglas arquitectónicas decretadas por la ley eclesiástica. Contrariamente a la penitencia pública, que se cumple de _una vez por todas_, durante un periodo, a causa de un crimen de sangre, la confesión constituye el relato anual de las transgresiones secretas de las leyes formuladas por una institución católica, es decir, universal, la Madre Iglesia. La confesión crea un tribunal de la conciencia, un “foro interno”. Una vez al año, el pecador abre la cámara íntima de su alma a un juez público, nombrado por la Iglesia, el cual en secreto absoluto escucha al culpable que se acusa. El varón consagrado, el juez sacerdotal, escucha cada año al alma sin género y evalúa sus transgresiones a una ley escrita que define lo que es un comportamiento sexuado. + +Es aleccionador el ejemplo del adulterio. En cada sistema de parentesco, la infidelidad significa algo diferente —para la mujer jamás significa el mismo tipo de crimen que para el hombre—. Pero el criterio de la transgresión de la ley de la Iglesia ahora lo convierte en un pecado único. Hombres y mujeres son iguales en el pecado, si bien en cuanto miembros de sus géneros respectivos hayan cometido un crimen diferente. La sexualidad empieza a tomar la forma de un concepto fuera del género: es un conjunto de pecados contra el sexto mandamiento que la Iglesia ha definido así: “No cometerás adulterio”. Al considerar este proceso, hay que cuidarse de no confundir la nueva capacidad del alma para aplicar los decretos de la Iglesia en su foro interno, con el sentido de la rectitud y de la “honestidad” que mantiene intacta la separación entre los géneros. La conciencia se afina mediante la interiorización de una ley positiva para el _humano_, mientras que la “honestidad” es el resultado de la formación del ser dentro de su género; la conciencia procede de la educación, el género procede de lo inverso de la educación. El _speculum confessoris_ nace en el siglo XIII y se desarrolla: gracias a esta herramienta, el confesor puede sondear el alma del penitente, hacer las preguntas convenientes, juzgar si la respuesta es correcta. Así, el reino de la honestidad vernácula se ve eclipsado progresivamente por los mandamientos de la conciencia. Si durante un milenio las mujeres no tuvieron la palabra en una Iglesia gobernada por los hombres, he aquí que ante el sacerdote ellas son iguales a los hombres respecto a la penitencia, en el seno de un régimen sexista. La ley unisex hace a esta cohabitación sexista: decreta que el hombre y la mujer son iguales como pecadores, aunque aun así el lugar natural del hombre es superior. Los textos mediante los cuales la Iglesia se esfuerza en reglamentar la frecuencia, las circunstancias y las posiciones de las relaciones sexuales,[^f114] contrastan de manera tajante con la tradición del _Ars amatoria_ de Ovidio que, según el registro del inquisidor, Arnaud había prestado a un amigo días antes de su proceso. A través de estas reglas se puede ver la formación de un nuevo tipo de misión, para el cual la Iglesia se consideraba investida: penetrar en los hogares, los lechos, las almas. Había comenzado la derrota del género por la propagación del sexo, la reglamentación de la “honestidad” por una ley normativa. + +En el corazón de Europa, el periodo que se extiende desde el siglo XII hasta finales del XVIII podría llamarse la época de la “honestidad” bajo la sombra creciente de la conciencia.[^f115] Con la penetración de la conciencia en las sociedades que hasta entonces habían sido regidas únicamente por la “honestidad”, las imágenes del “hombre” y de la “mujer” tenían que modificarse inevitablemente. Sin duda alguna, la dama a quien el trovador dedica su canción es una especie nueva de mujer, es su “amante”, que para él está más allá del matrimonio y el parentesco. Con frecuencia es una mujer educada; y en el mejor de los casos representa un tipo de mujer que sólo una minoría es capaz de imaginar. Que esta minoría no hubo de ser pequeña es cosa que se transparenta en la capacidad de ciertos habitantes de Montaillou, gente sencilla, para distinguir entre las mujeres que han amado y las que han querido _(adamari)_. + +### La iconografía del sexo + +Marina Warner ha propuesto otra vía para seguir las transformaciones de la imagen de la mujer. Ha sondeado el inmenso acopio iconográfico de la virgen. Ha intentado descubrir la visión de la mujer a través de las representaciones de la Virgen María. Claramente, a finales de la Edad Media, la virgen no es ya más la “bendita _entre_ todas las mujeres”; por entonces aparece simplemente como una persona “de su sexo”. + +En el estilo y el carácter de sus representaciones pictóricas, no solamente en la Edad Media sino también durante dos milenios, yo veo una guía de la ruta que conduce de la _Théotokos_ del ábside griego a las cursis ilustraciones que decoran las recámaras de los cónyuges. María jamás fue representada como una diosa. Desde sus primeras imágenes en las catacumbas de Priscilla, a las miles de efigies pintadas que el arte románico nos ha legado, una cosa la distingue de todas las otras efigies femeninas que jamás fueron pintadas o esculpidas: los artistas han querido representarla como una mujer histórica a quien le tocó un destino sin igual. Había sido la mujer elegida entre todas las mujeres para ser la madre virgen, para dar a luz a Dios. Había sido la nueva Eva, puesto que el fruto de su vientre fue la fuente de un nuevo principio entre los hombres. Pero esta visión ya no prevalece en los retratos góticos y, con más razón aún, en los posteriores. Poco a poco, la virgen se despoja del género, abandona su aura mítica que había tomado prestada de la diosa, así como la serie de vigorosos calificativos teológicos con que la habían adornado los Padres de la Iglesia. Se transforma en un modelo de la “mujer”, un tipo que se opone al “hombre”.[^f116] Dante formula claramente esta idea cuando, en el trigésimo tercer canto del _Paraíso_, le dice a la virgen _umile ed alta più che criatura_… + +Los cuentos pueden relatar lo que la historia no es capaz de describir. Contaré cómo la Madre de Dios se transformó en Nuestra Señora. Cuando ella se convirtió en el prototipo de “la mujer” —no habiendo sido jamás una diosa, no siendo ya un icono ni tampoco la figura sentimental del arte barroco— las otras figuras que poblaban las catedrales románicas también emprendieron su propio camino. Muchas habían ingresado en la Iglesia al mismo tiempo que una población que se había convertido, al mismo tiempo que su _gens_. Ya en el presbiterio, algunas de las bestias que eran las guardianas del género local fueron vestidas con las ropas de los mártires o recibieron los atributos de un santo eclesiástico. Otras encontraron un nicho en la decoración vegetal esculpida en la piedra, conservando sus cuernos o sus escamas. La muchacha de la leyenda que fue arrojada al dragón recibió el hábito de santa Margarita y fue colocada arriba del altar, junto al dragón encadenado. Los dioses fluviales y los sátiros, los gnomos y las tormentas personificadas, todos encontraron su lugar, ya en un capitel, ya en el bestiario esculpido de un friso, y muchos en los portales y los asientos, en forma de piedras angulares o soportes. En una sola columna se asociaban hirsutos monstruos nórdicos, leones sasánidas, quiméricos pavorreales sacados de un manuscrito con estampas y cantidad de personajes bíblicos. La Iglesia se sentía cómoda en la seguridad de poder abrazar el cielo, el infierno y la tierra, y todo lo que vuela y se arrastra. A lo largo de cinco siglos, su método empírico fue: _Ecclesia omnia benedicat_ —“la Iglesia bendice todo y a todos”—. En el siglo XI, el Diablo mismo se había convertido más en una farsa que en una amenaza. Mitos y costumbres de cosecha local enriquecían el ritual y hacían de la catedral un invernadero donde se mantenían vivos los frutos del pasado. La presencia de estos ejércitos de símbolos bautizados era testimonio del poder del mensaje de la Iglesia, y la posibilidad de una infinita diversidad de existencias vernáculas bajo la égida de la religión.[^f117] + +Esta fraternidad, dentro de la Iglesia del periodo románico, de espíritus locales recientemente domesticados, de dioses de importación “bautizados”, de cabezas de gorgonas revestidas con un nuevo significado, de profetas y de apóstoles “legítimos”, esta fraternidad hay que representársela claramente si se quiere comprender lo que significó el éxodo de estos recientes huéspedes, que inevitablemente se habría de producir. Para empezar tuvieron lugar las fulminaciones del austero y rígido reformador del mona-quismo, Bernardo de Claraval, contra los monjes que toleraban en sus claustros efigies que acaso fueran necesarias para conducir a almas más simples y sencillas hacia la pura luz de la fe. Luego, un siglo más tarde, la Iglesia acoge a la Inquisición y en adelante se preocupará más de la conciencia que de la creencia, esforzándose por destruir el ámbito de estos huéspedes. Los antiguos guardianes de la “honestidad” ya no habrían de tener un hogar bajo los austeros arcos de la moralidad gótica. La cacería de los disidentes de toda especie desalojó a los antiguos dioses de los contrafuertes y los nichos desde donde habían vigilado, durante generaciones, las convenciones locales que la fe católica había amparado. + +Los dragones y gnomos, basiliscos y seres salvajes fueron expulsados de las naves al tiempo que la arquitectura pasaba del románico al gótico. Ya no podían alojarse en los pilares, ahora más angostos y largos. Pero en el exterior siguieron aferrados a la Iglesia durante más de un siglo. Como gárgolas se extendían sobre el vacío, a punto de iniciar el vuelo, derramando agua por sus fantásticas fauces. Los teólogos, absortos en la cuestión de la conciencia, ya no podían bendecirlos. Al acercarse el Renacimiento, ciertos eruditos interpretaron la supervivencia de esta chusma disparatada como vestigios de la cábala, y en ellos buscaron símbolos, emblemas, tipos. Pero las gárgolas efectivamente emprendieron el vuelo y, durante tres siglos, fueron a vagar por los campos, convertidas en criaturas nunca antes vistas: santos depuestos, mártires cojos, dragones de roídas alas, que se comportaban como hatos de animales domésticos que hubiesen retornado al estado salvaje, como gatos errantes en una ciudad bombardeada. Estos extraños espíritus dieron origen a una nueva especie de sacerdotes, por lo general llamados “brujos”. + +Una parte de la historia del género se podría encontrar en las historias que podrían contar de su éxodo algunos de estos espíritus transformados en fantasmas o en diablos.[^f118] Por ejemplo, Shela-na-gig, una pequeña figura en cuclillas de Escocia. Este tipo de encuclillada se conoce en todo el mundo. Los iconógrafos las llaman encuclilladas _obscenas_. Algunas son masculinas, pero la mayoría femeninas. Exhiben una vulva abierta, en una posición que sugiere un poder. En Egipto se llama “Bes” a esta representación, que era la de un genio hogareño que protegía a las mujeres en el parto. Originalmente fue una divinidad sudanesa que descendió el Nilo para dominar a sus semejantes, en todas las márgenes mediterráneas, durante el periodo de las antiguas dinastías. En su _Historia natural_, Plinio testifica que un cultivo a punto de cosecharse se salvará de una tormenta de granizo si una mujer que está menstruando se acuesta allí de espaldas con el sexo al descubierto. A veces, sólo el amuleto sería suficiente. También consigna que en cualquier día del mes una mujer tiene la capacidad de ahuyentar la tempestad en alta mar. La acuclillada ha subsistido hasta nuestros días, como lo muestran cientos de ejemplos. Al final del periodo románico, en las iglesias se mezcla con una hermana del Mediterráneo: la sirena de doble cola o Melusina. Y desde las Islas del Norte, otra acuclillada baja hasta Francia. Tiene la forma de Eva, nuestra madre común. Ésta es Shela-na-gig, que debió haber tomado su lugar en el santuario cuando una tribu irlandesa, o un clan escocés, ingresó en la Iglesia en una fecha precoz. En sus orígenes fue también un espíritu guardián del género, un poderoso antídoto contra los maléficos espíritus masculinos. Pero al ingresar en el cosmos cristiano, se convirtió en el símbolo de todo lo que en la Tierra vive y en consecuencia asumió el rostro de Eva, el origen de la vida. En cuanto Eva, se halla esculpida en el pilar central del portal occidental, el de la fachada. En consecuencia orienta su desnudez hacia el poniente, la noche, la dirección desde donde todos los espíritus y potencias del mal amenazan al pueblo de Dios. Ella sola es suficientemente poderosa como para proteger a la multitud de fieles y a las figuras zoomorfas en el interior de la Iglesia. Pero a veces otras dos figuras en cuclillas, una de ellas itifálica, cuidan del portal occidental, en cuyo caso la primera pareja original aparece siempre encima, en el tímpano. Shela-na-gig con el rostro de Eva es el paradigma de la hierofanta tradicional que ha sido bautizada por la Iglesia. Todas las acuclilladas son hierofantas, revelaciones de la potencia y la protección de lo sagrado. En calidad de Eva, la acuclillada es elevada al rango de protectora de un pueblo católico. + +Pero si Shela-na-gig como Eva representa el apogeo del poder de las acuclilladas, su destierro de la Iglesia la despoja de su nimbo sagrado —a ella y a todas las demás—. Estas figuras que los doctos humanistas transforman en emblemas eruditos son símbolos, no hierofantes; ningún demonio se atemorizaría con las sirenas de doble cola que en las _loggias_ de Rafael abundan. Los teólogos de entonces convierten a la sirena en una alegoría de la lujuria, a la que presentan como un vicio seductor. Vuelta uno de los siete pecados capitales, la lujuria atormentará en lo sucesivo a la conciencia. Se le ha dolorosamente arrebatado su carácter sagrado como guardiana de la línea de separación de los géneros. Pero lo que resulta más importante es que apartada de la manzana de Eva, de la conversación con la serpiente y con Adán, sin la diáfana transparencia con la que reveló su poder sagrado, y expulsada de la Iglesia, la acuclillada ha sobrevivido. Con su género dislocado pero aún no suprimido, se convierte en una de las representaciones de la brujería y como tal sobrevive en la cocina y en la caverna. + +Durante el medio milenio a través del cual habían sostenido dócilmente los pilares, portales y púlpitos, la acuclillada, el macho cabrío, el dragón, el gigante y el enano vieron debilitarse su género sagrado. Las bendiciones indiferenciadas de la Iglesia lo habían borrado. Ahora los nuevos teólogos aprendieron a distinguir esmeradamente entre los _sacramentos_ —ni más ni menos que siete, universales, imprescindibles para la salvación— y las antiguas bendiciones, que formarían el estrato de las cosas sacramentales, claramente de segunda categoría. Para los nuevos doctores, los antiguos espíritus de las conveniencias locales en el mejor de los casos no eran más que símbolos, en todo caso intrusos, cuando no parásitos. Los antiguos duendes bajaron de los campanarios, fueron obligados por la fuerza a abandonar los claustros y, mientras huían, se metamorfosearon. Ya no dioses paganos sino diablos cristianos, ya no custodios irredentos sino espíritus apóstatas, ya no hierofantes ambiguos sino espectros con olor a azufre, comenzaron su errancia. Habían perdido el poder de exorcizar los temores vernáculos, pero todavía podían rondar el campo. Expulsadas por la Iglesia de Aviñón, las sombras domeñadas del pasado regresaron a las plazas de las aldeas, a los ríos y a las montañas en la forma de demonios exangües y mutilados con nombres cristianos, creando una nueva amenaza para un clero que ahora estaba al servicio de un nuevo orden. + +Jean Delumeau ha descrito el nuevo temor característico de esta situación peculiar durante el ocaso de la Edad Media. La confusión, la angustia, el terror de la gente que había perdido simultáneamente la tranquilidad de su fe cristiana y los símbolos vernáculos de la rectitud que las guiaba, dieron origen a una situación religiosa sin precedente. Se había roto la cadena de los sacerdotes y adivinos que anteriormente sancionaban ritualmente la existencia intragenérica, y los sacerdotes cristianos que los remplazaron se transformaron en pastores encargados de administrar y normalizar esta existencia. Se había creado un vacío, que exigía un nuevo rito. Su celebrante sería la bruja, la sacerdotisa de la época del género dislocado. Es posible que ésta haya sido tan singular como el estado conyugal en el seno del género, característica de ese tiempo, tan nueva como el homosexual, tan extraña como pretendían sus perseguidores. Sea como fuere, la lucha que se entabló contra ella creó la unión de la Iglesia y el brazo secular del nuevo Estado.[^f119] + +## Del género dislocado al sexo económico + +EL PROPÓSITO de este ensayo no es hacer una historia del género sino de elaborar conceptos que nos permitan disociar el género del sexo. La historia de la escasez es lo que me interesa. Pero primero tengo que hablar de la desaparición del género y del patriarcado, en conjunción con el auge del individualismo no genérico y sexista. He señalado que a finales de la Edad Media un nuevo orden económico se instaló en las almas mediante la conciencia. Ésta debilitó a los guardianes del género vernáculo varios siglos antes de que el sexo viniera a remplazar al género. Un largo periodo de _dislocación_ del género media entre la sujeción de las parejas en el yugo conyugal y su polarización industrial en el trabajo salariado y el trabajo fantasma. Este periodo del género dislocado difiere considerablemente según los lugares. Es el material con que se teje la ciudad medieval, sin el cual la aldea “europea” característica no existiría. En Florencia, el factor importante para el surgimiento del sexo social, en el curso de solamente dos siglos, es el comercio. En Milán, e inclusive en Ámsterdam, es la _workhouse_, el asilo-taller de fines del siglo XVII. Y en ciertas aldeas, a pesar de la escuela pública, el género dislocado ha sobrevivido hasta nuestros tiempos.[^f120] + +La etapa del género dislocado puede llamarse de diversas maneras. Cuando se dice que es la guerra contra la subsistencia, se pone al descubierto la acción que ejerce el Estado-nación. Cuando se dice que es el cercado de las tierras comunales, se destaca el aspecto ambiental que igualmente lo define: la supresión de los derechos adquiridos sobre la propiedad o la producción de bienes comunes que permiten anclar los ámbitos del género en los recursos productivos, a fin de asegurar el trabajo económico, retribuido o gratuito. Pero para hacer justicia a los procesos que operan, también habría que llamarla la era de la brujería, el periodo del alumbramiento del sexo. Se inicia con la formación de la conciencia y termina cuando el sexismo se vuelve banal. + +Para las poblaciones que viven en un régimen de subsistencia, la pérdida del género es una experiencia central que los historiadores incapaces de ver el género disfrazan, describiéndola como una “transición a un modo de producción capitalista” —cosa que oculta el hecho de que un _novum_ ahistórico surgió de esta mutación, un productor sujeto al consumo y necesariamente sexista—. + +Las sociedades precapitalistas están fundadas en el género.[^f121] Ésta es la condición de la subsistencia, lo es también de la supervivencia. Las sociedades donde el reino del género se ha hundido _son_ sociedades capitalistas; sus sujetos sin género son productores individuales. Curiosamente, esta transformación decisiva aún no ha sido reconocida como lo que es: la condición antropológica principal de la transición de las economías precapitalistas a la sujeción de las necesidades cotidianas a la mercancía, sujeción que se denomina “capitalismo”. El pasaje al capitalismo coincide antropológicamente con la declinación que lleva al género dislocado hasta el régimen del sexo. + +“Capitalismo” es un término curioso.[^f122] Era desconocido para Marx cuando Engels lo usó por primera vez en 1870. Proudhon lo había empleado ocasionalmente en algún texto, pero fue Sombart quien le dio su familiar resonancia. Fernand Braudel juzga necesario disculparse por su utilización en el título de su obra monumental: _Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe-XVIIIe siècles_.[^f123] La obra de Braudel constituye un magnífico fresco de la vida económica posterior a la Reforma y anterior a la Revolución francesa. Ante nosotros hace desfilar tres siglos de vida económica, institucional y política. Revive la Europa posmedieval, territorio pletórico de ferias, mercados, talleres, donde se multiplican las rutas del comercio y los gremios. Insiste en destacar que eso que nosotros llamamos “capital”, “capitalista”, “capitalismo”, penetra muy lentamente en la producción, el intercambio y la adquisición de necesidades. Escruta minuciosamente los cambios que podrían explicar esta penetración y los motivos por los cuales la acumulación exponencial del capital se había convertido en un factor de la existencia cotidiana de la mayoría de la gente antes de inaugurarse el siglo XIX. Muestra que la dependencia creciente en relación con el mercado, las condiciones legales de la acumulación a largo plazo y la expansión del espacio económico en el extranjero son las condiciones convergentes sin las cuales la producción industrial capitalista jamás habría podido llegar a predominar. Pero, a lo largo de estos tres volúmenes, la pérdida del género no figura más que de manera implícita, jamás de manera expresa. El autor pasa por alto totalmente la universalidad de la existencia intragenérica en las sociedades precapitalistas y el debilitamiento del género en la transición al capitalismo. Para él, el género no es un factor histórico esencial. + +Escribir la historia de los cimientos en los que reposa nuestro mundo es muy distinto a tratar de contar la historia de lo que ha desaparecido. Para el historiador que mira hacia el pasado por un espejo retrovisor, la guada ña y la hoz son instrumentos agrícolas locales que solían usarse en las cosechas; las _técnicas_ se adoptan cuando sobreviene la modernización. Cuando la investigación histórica se interesa en las mentalidades y en los sentimientos, suele centrarse en la enajenación, la soledad, la explotación que se dan a la par con las nuevas técnicas. Examina los sufrimientos que en las personas infligen la nueva economía de mercado, la mecanización y el hambre. El otro sufrimiento, el que experimentan por la pérdida del género, el cual se evacua con las aguas negras en el nuevo sistema de plomería, es el aspecto oculto del triste cuento. ¿Qué perdió la _mujer_ al mismo tiempo que la hoz? ¿Qué debió abandonar el _hombre_ al mismo tiempo que la guadaña? Para contar la historia de estas pérdidas de toda especie un historiador tiene que estudiar los sentimientos vernáculos que han dejado huella muy tenue, tiene que describir la muerte de una realidad genérica que ha escapado a sus colegas, a pesar de haber existido durante milenios. + +A fin de prepararme en esta tarea, me esforcé en apoyar la reflexión teórica en una especie de telón de fondo donde ciertos decorados estaban esbozados con más vigor que otros. Varios de estos ilustraban la dislocación de la _domus_—y por ende del género— en beneficio de la pareja conyugal, es decir, de la dualidad sexuada. Añadiré todavía una escena a mi descripción del alumbramiento del sexo económico. Es la de una aldea luterana de Wurtemberg que dejó testimonios de las reacciones de los hombres y las mujeres al ser confrontados por vez primera con la obligación del trabajo fuera del género. + +Entre 1800 y 1850 en esta aldea se registró la cantidad anormalmente alta de 48 peticiones de divorcio. David Sabean ha intentado interpretar los motivos aducidos, en la medida de que eran enteramente nuevos.[^f124] Para entender lo que había sucedido, tuvo que examinar las transformaciones económicas de la región en el curso de aquel medio siglo: construcción de la vía férrea, modificación de la tenencia de la tierra, abandono forzado de la pequeña explotación agrícola familiar a cambio de los cultivos frutales con mayor rendimiento. Los huertos frutales (ciruela y manzana) y la remolacha remplazaron a los pequeños cultivos diversificados. Ahora bien, éstos requerían más mano de obra. Súbitamente las mujeres tuvieron que participar en el trabajo de los hombres a fin de asegurar un ingreso familiar suficiente para comprar lo que hasta entonces la hortaliza había proporcionado. Al mismo tiempo debieron acortar el tiempo que dedicaban a sus propias ocupaciones en la cocina. Los procesos de divorcios reflejan la profunda perturbación que estas innovaciones causaron en la vida de los hombres y las mujeres, sus sentimientos de impotencia, su incapacidad para comprender las implicaciones de sus decisiones aparentemente racionales. Las mujeres se quejaban de que los hombres repentinamente habían empezado a darles órdenes respecto al trabajo, algo totalmente nuevo para ellas. Aunque las ocupaciones definidas por el género de las mujeres pudieran haber parecido subordinadas al trabajo de los hombres, la idea de que los hombres pudieran dar órdenes a las mujeres que hacían su trabajo había sido inconcebible hasta entonces. Otra queja de las mujeres: mientras que los hombres tenían tiempo de relajarse en la taberna tras terminar de trabajar al ritmo de la yunta, ellas estaban continuamente apresuradas, tanto en los campos, manejando la azada, como en la cocina. De esta manera aparecía una nueva especie de envidia, una envidia destinada a perdurar como una característica central de la vida moderna, una envidia plenamente “justificada” en el contexto de la labor unisex, aunque impensable en el contexto del género. La queja recurrente entre los hombres: su esposa no valía lo que su madre; en el pasado comían alimentos ricos y variados; actualmente tenían que contentarse con _spaezli_, pastas de huevo, día tras día. Había bajado el telón para la coproducción conyugal fundada en el género dislocado. En este microcosmos podemos ver vívidamente cómo habría de escribirse el nuevo guión de la era industrial. Para que la obra se animara, la escena tendría que poblarse de actores heterosexuales que al mismo tiempo fueran seres neutros económicos —es decir, trabajadores—. + +En todas las versiones de este drama moderno, generalmente hay un breve intermedio entre el género y el sexo, que separa el reino del género, donde el hogar obtiene su subsistencia gracias a la repartición de tareas realizadas por dos pares de manos no intercambiables, del régimen de la economía industrial, donde manos desprovistas de género producen mercancías a cambio de un salario. Durante este intermedio protoindustrial, el hogar se ve sujeto al trabajo unisex que tiene que realizarse en casa.[^f125] De esta manera, el hogar se transforma en un molino donde se tritura el género hasta que de él no queda más que el sexo. Los sufrimientos que esta molienda del género ocasiona tanto en los hombres como en las mujeres casi nunca se han registrado. Puedo dar dos razones para explicar tal carencia. Por una parte, la experiencia _nueva_ del sufrimiento económico se convirtió en el cemento de la unión del proletariado. Todos los “trabajadores” padecieron la misma desorientación, soledad, dependencia. Tales sentimientos propiciaron la aparición de intérpretes políticos y de la élite de una nueva clase. El diagnóstico de la aflicción universal se convirtió en el campo exclusivo de los nuevos profesionales: educadores, médicos y demás ingenieros sociales, quienes prosperan produciendo programas, terapias y guías. Los obvios intereses del jefe revolucionario como del comerciante de remedios sociales excluían toda tentativa de _comprender_ el dolor de la pérdida. Por otra parte, la obliteración del género, al tiempo que empobrecía a las personas, las hacía sufrir, pero de modo diferente de un lugar a otro. Pocos habrían podido traducir verbalmente las sutilezas del dolor vernáculo en todas sus formas. + +Mientras se montaba el escenario del trabajo en la fábrica y se construía un decorado económico moderno, pero antes de que se reescribiera el guión de los nuevos e inusitados roles sexuales, se improvisaron teorías críticas para este teatro de vanguardia. El genio de Marx y de Freud sólo puede apreciarse cuando se considera cuán tempranamente definieron las reglas del desarrollo del drama moderno. Ambos forjaron los conceptos definitivos que habrían de usarse para describir _y_ poner en escena al nuevo tipo de actor, el “hombre” industrial. Siete siglos antes, la Iglesia había imputado un pecado carente de género a almas carentes de género. Ahora, el poder sin género de humanos sin género en un cosmos sin género se convertía en la característica trascendental de las categorías utilizadas en un nuevo tipo de metafísica. Hacia mediados del siglo XIX, de manera simultánea pero cada cual por su parte, diversos sabios redefinieron la _vis viva universi_ (la fuerza viva del universo) como energía, algunas veces cautiva, otras libre. Se atribuye a Helmholtz la proeza de haber imaginado la idea pensable. Durante el mismo decenio, la mano de obra, que los anglosajones denominan _labor force_, se convirtió en una palabra clave. En fin, una generación más tarde, Freud, quien retoma textualmente ciertas frases de Helmholtz, atribuiría al ser humano una energía psíquica en la forma de la _libido_—a veces cautiva, a veces libre—. Los nuevos canonistas fabricaron su teoría del hombre laico y de su salvación a partir de postulados derivados de la química y la mecánica de fluidos. Según ellos, hay una energía sin género que circula, en calidad de capital, por los conductos sociales y, en calidad de libido, por los canales psicológicos. Así, desde hace tres cuartos de siglo las palabras clave que condicionan nuestra existencia son “energía”, “trabajo” y “sexualidad”. Pero ahora que otra palabra, “crisis”, les está haciendo sombra, acaso ha llegado el tiempo de cuestionar públicamente su realidad. + +Toda sociedad necesita un pasado. Para tener el sentido del presente, los vivientes tienen que poseer un pasado propio. No existe un “nosotros”, una primera persona del plural, al margen de su mito de la creación. En todas las épocas las sociedades mantuvieron vivo su “nosotros” de doble género mediante los rituales, las fiestas, los tabúes. Tampoco la sociedad industrial sería capaz de existir sin su mito de la creación. + +La máquina que teje el pasado de la sociedad industrial es la historia. Desde hace un siglo la historia ha venido fabricando una continuidad entre el presente sin género y el pasado intragenérico, legitimando el sexo como descendiente del género. Mediante una metodología que constantemente afina, la nueva ciencia ha interpretado la historia a partir de categorías sexistas, a fin de dar un pasado a nuestro mundo económico. Sin esta reconstrucción económica de un pasado intragenérico, el mundo contemporáneo de la economía sexista no habría podido ser presentado como una realidad seductora, especialmente para aquellas que jamás han dejado de practicar la discriminación. Mediante miles de sintéticos lazos sentimentales, la historia ata el mundo contemporáneo a un reino del género que de hecho había abandonado al emprender su frenético viaje. Los historiadores han tejido un tapiz que debe hacernos sentir cómodos en nuestro medio ambiente sexista, pero lo han tejido con fibras industriales. Sesudas obras pretenden mostrar el pasado como la simiente, una forma primitiva del presente, y demostrar que sus lenguas, costumbres, instituciones son seguramente las formas ancestrales, embrionarias de las nuestras. En nuestras bibliotecas abundan los volúmenes que atribuyen una estructura de clase a la ciudad-Estado griega, que veía en el sofista que pregona sus artificios el precursor del educador moderno, que describen la vida sexual _(¡sic!)_ en Mesopotamia. El presente ensayo busca contrarrestar esta perspectiva _centralista_ de la historia. Aunque de manera voluntaria no me incluyo entre los historiadores “científicos”, pues no aplico al pasado palabras clave, ni conceptos forjados por la utopía, creo que honro a los muertos mediante una investigación razonada, documentada y crítica. + +He intentado hacer comprensible la ruptura entre el género y el sexo, hacer perceptible el abismo que separa el presente del pasado. He querido poner al descubierto la falsa genealogía del sexo que subyace en la historia económica. Esta ficción es indispensable para una sociedad sexista que no puede admitir que carece de una legítima ascendencia. Sin embargo, es falso que el sexo proceda del género. Los orígenes de ambos son sociales, pero sus matrices no tienen ningún parentesco. La matriz del sexo es el _alma mater;_ la matriz del género solamente se puede hallar más allá de “la gruta de los siete durmientes”, “alojada en las hendiduras de las rocas y en las ramas de inmensos tejos huecos” (Robert Graves, _La diosa blanca_). + +Ya sean hijas de la matriz del género o pupilas de la matriz del sexo, las mujeres tienen que enfrentarse a los hombres. Pero cada matriz las dota de un poder relativo diferente. En el reino del género, hombres y mujeres dependen colectivamente unos de otros. Su mutua dependencia fija límites al conflicto, a la explotación, a la derrota. La cultura vernácula representa una tregua entre ambos géneros —y a veces una cruel tregua—. Allá donde los hombres mutilan el cuerpo de las mujeres, el gineceo sabe cómo vengarse cruelmente de ellos y de sus sentimientos. Contrastando con esta tregua, el régimen de la escasez impone una guerra sin fin, donde las mujeres pierden constantemente, siempre de manera nueva. Mientras que en el régimen del género las mujeres podían estar a veces subordinadas, en _todo_ régimen económico siempre son el segundo sexo, _y nada más que eso_. Las mujeres siempre están en desventaja en los juegos donde las apuestas ignoran el género y donde el _ex aequo_ no existe. Allí donde se despoja a los géneros, donde los neutros se enfrentan, el hombre siempre prevalece. No es por lo tanto sorprendente que hoy en día sea la mujer quien “descubra” la transformación del género producida por la economía. Típicamente, la mujer se queja de ser “invisible”, tanto para los demás como para sí misma. En el régimen de la economía, no es capaz de percibirse como una compañera en igualdad, ni tampoco reconocerse en el género. Los pomposos argumentos de las ciencias políticas, fundados en un conjunto de nociones que postulan la igualdad entre todos los hombres, no la toman en cuenta. La utopía feminosexista de la “tierra de las mujeres” ni siquiera supone la pobre camaradería que impera en los vestidores deportivos masculinos, y las tentativas de reconstitución del pasado de las mujeres con la ayuda de nociones clave son caricaturas de las investigaciones históricas científicas. Pero al menos, al tratar de escapar en vano de este doble callejón sin salida, los estudios feministas tuvieron el mérito de proporcionar un punto de apoyo para la palanca capaz de derribar el “tinglado” científico. + +En este ensayo no he pretendido explicar por qué la sociedad pone al hombre en la cima e impone un _handicap_ a la mujer. Puse límites a mi curiosidad a fin de tener la libertad de escuchar con mayor atención lo que cuentan las perdedoras, no para aprender más sobre ellas sino para aprender más sobre el campo de batalla que es la economía. La sociedad industrial crea dos mitos, uno sobre su origen sexuado, otro sobre su progresión hacia más igualdad. Ambos mitos son engañifas, como lo revela la experiencia personal del neutro del segundo sexo. + +He querido mostrar que la lucha contra el sexismo converge con la lucha contra la destrucción del medio ambiente y con la oposición al monopolio radical de los bienes y los servicios sobre las “necesidades”; que estos tres movimientos convergen porque proceden de la misma causa: la recesión; que la constatación que cada quien haga, por razones propias, de que la reducción de la economía no es una simple necesidad negativa sino condición positiva para una mejor existencia, puede conducir de una convergencia teórica a una acción publica concertada. Yo pienso que estas tres acciones representan tres aspectos de una tentativa para recobrar los ámbitos de comunidad, que significan exactamente lo contrario que los recursos económicos. Es por esto que he querido esbozar una teoría que permita clarificar los conceptos necesarios para una historia de la escasez. + +La transición histórica de la subsistencia intragenérica a la sujeción a productos escasos justifica mi tesis. La escasez es histórica, tan histórica como el género o el sexo. El régimen de la escasez no podía surgir más que con base en el postulado de que el “hombre” es individualista, posesivo y, en el ámbito de su supervivencia económica, un _neutrum œconomicum_ rapaz. Tal postulado, encarnado en las instituciones, desde el matrimonio hasta la escuela, transforma al sujeto de la historia. Este sujeto no es ya la _gens_ o los lares que designan la complementariedad ambigua y asimétrica de un conjunto de mujeres y hombres que se fijan, ellos mismos, sus límites. El sujeto deviene una construcción ideológica que se fabrica mediante una falsificación del “nosotros”, una construcción como las clases sociales, la nación, la sociedad o la pareja unida. Pienso que para elaborar una teoría sobre la acción necesaria para la recuperación de los ámbitos de comunidad, un historiador tendría que explorar la etiología de esta metamorfosis del sujeto de la historia. + +No tengo ninguna estrategia que ofrecer. Rehúso especular sobre las probabilidades de algún tratamiento curativo. No quiero que la sombra del porvenir oscurezca los conceptos con los cuales yo intento captar lo que es y lo que ha sido. Tal como el asceta y el poeta que al meditar sobre la muerte celebran con gratitud el exquisito regalo de la vida, todos debemos afrontar la triste pérdida del género. Creo que entonces será posible que nazca un arte de vivir contemporáneo, siempre que nuestra aceptación austera y lúcida del doble gueto de los neutros económicos nos incite a renunciar a las comodidades del sexo económico. + + + +[^f0:] Las notas al pie, destinadas a los estudiantes del curso que impartí en Berkeley y durante el otoño de 1982, y a los lectores que desean continuar la reflexión más allá de mi texto, son más bien anotaciones. Proponen orientaciones de lectura, de investigación, iluminación y prolongan los temas.] + +[^f1:] _Valores vernáculos_. De los cinco ensayos que componen _El trabajo fantasma_, el segundo y el tercero tratan de la diferencia entre el habla vernácula y la lengua materna inculcada. Fueron producto de las prolongadas conversaciones que mantuve con el padre Devi P. Pattanayak, cuando yo estudiaba bajo su tutela en el Central Institute of Indian Languages Manacagangotei de Mysore. Respecto a los fundamentos de esta distinción, véase su obra _Aspects of Applied Linguistics_, Asia Publishing House, Nueva York, 1981. Se encuentra una prolongación de esta discusión en las actas del seminario internacional “In Search of Terminology”, enero de 1982, Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore 570006, India. Mis dos participaciones se convirtieron en capítulos de la obra que actualmente preparo sobre los valores vernáculos, con la perspectiva de una historia de la escasez. (Respecto al término “vernáculo”, véase la nota 51.)] + +[^f2:] _Palabras clave_. La obra de Raymond Williams, _Keywords_: _A Vocabulary of Culture and Society_, Oxford University Paperback, Nueva York, 1976, me parece única en su género, y me dio la pista de las palabras clave. El autor nos hace compartir su sorpresa y pesar ante la precariedad de las palabras en las cuales había fundado el rigor de su pensamiento. Guiado por él, me esfuerzo en: _1)_ explorar los nuevos tipos de palabras clave; _2)_ discernir las condiciones bajo las cuales una red de palabras clave puede implantarse en el habla cotidiana. Al respecto me he inspirado eficazmente en _The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness_, Vintage Books, Nueva York, 1974, de Peter Berger, Brigitte Berger y Hansfried Keliner. Para una introducción a un tipo de semántica histórica específicamente alemán, véase Irmline Veit-Brause, “A note on _Begriffsgeschichte_” en _History and Theory_, 20, núm. 1, 1981, pp. 61-67. Respecto a las redes específicamente modernas de ciertos términos, estoy en deuda con Michel Foucault, _Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings_, _1972-1977_, Pantheon, Nueva York, 1981, y su obra anterior: _L’archéologie du savoir_, Gallimard, París, 1969. Respecto a la semántica comparativa de las palabras clave en las principales lenguas de Europa oriental, véase Johann Knobloch _et al_., eds., _Europäische Schlüsselwörter_, 3 vols., Max Hüber, Munich, 1963-1967.] + +[^f3:] _Campos semánticos_. Para una bibliografía crítica internacional de las monografías y los diccionarios que exploran los campos semánticos, véase H. Gipper y J. Schwartz, _Bibliographisches Handbuch zur Sprachinhaltsforschung. Schrifttum zur Sprachinhaltsforschung in alpahabetischer Folge nach Verfassem, mit Besprechungen und Inhaltshinweisen_, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, Colonia, 1961. La obra sólo se completó hasta la letra L, pero dos índices temáticos de esta primera mitad existen ya. Como las palabras clave en el siglo XX revisten la apariencia de un sentido comúnmente admitido que trasciende cada lengua, su estudio requiere con frecuencia realizar comparaciones. Para el inglés, el instrumento principal es _A Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary_, R. W. Burchfield, ed., 3 vols., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1972, que contiene las palabras que “entraron en el lenguaje durante el periodo de las entregas de la obra” (el _Oxford English Dictionary_, o OED), es decir, de 1884 (primer fascículo de la letra A) a 1928 (último fascículo del diccionario), así como aquellos que entraron en la lengua inglesa en Gran Bretaña y el extranjero desde 1928 hasta la fecha. _The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles_, revisado y editado por C. T. Onions, tercera edición totalmente revisada, con etimologías corregidas por G. W. S. Friedrichsen y anexos revisados y corregidos, 2 vols., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1973, presenta en forma abreviada todos los elementos del OED, incluyendo los términos (y sus acepciones) arcaicos, obsoletos, dialectales o de la lengua vulgar del pasado. Es siempre útil H. L. Mencken, _The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States_, cuarta edición y los dos suplementos actualizados y anotados por Raven I. McDavid, Jr., asistido por David W. Maurer Knopf, Nueva York, 1980; de esta obra existe una edición de bolsillo abreviada que consta de un solo volumen. Para el francés, Paul Robert, _Dictionnaire alpha-bétique et analogique de la langue française_, Société du Nouveau Littré, París, segunda edición revisada y aumentada, 1977. El _Petit Robert 1_ es una excelente edición abreviada del _Grand Robert_ de seis volúmenes. Un intento de crear un equivalente francés histórico y exhaustivo del OED y de sus suplementos es el _Trésor de la langue française. Dictionnaire de la langue du XIXe et du XXe siècle (1789-1960)_ de Paul Imbs, Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, París, obra iniciada en 1971 y que está por aparecer. Desgraciadamente, a partir del tomo tres el campo de esta obra ha sido severamente reducido. Para el español, yo prefiero a J. Corominas, _Diccionario crítico etimológico_, Gredos, Madrid, 1954-1957. Las adiciones, rectificaciones e índices se encuentran en el 4° tomo de la reimpresión Francke, Berna, 1979. La mayoría de los artículos contiene una bibliografía. En alemán, el _Deutsches Wörterbuch_ de Jakob y Wilhelm Grimm (en 1854 empezaron a aparecer los 16 volúmenes, que actualmente se encuentran en proceso de revisión) es apenas accesible. Es una obra práctica la de Hermann Paul, _Deutsches Wörterbuch_, quinta edición enteramente revisada y aumentada por N. Werner Betz Niemeyer, Tubinga, 1966. Puesto que el pensamiento alemán se interesa particularmente en la historia de las ideas y en la historia de los conceptos, en el idioma alemán existen dos grandes obras de referencia que no tienen igual en otras lenguas y que con frecuencia resultan útiles en la investigación de las palabras clave en las lenguas europeas: Joachim Ritter, ed., _Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie_, Schwabe, Basilea, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, comenzado en 1971, obra que contendrá 10 volúmenes (seis ya han aparecido); Otto Brunner, Werner Conze, Reinhart Koselleck, ed., _Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexicon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland_, E. Klett, Stuttgart, comenzado en 1972 y en proceso de publicación, obra que estará integrada por 130 monografías en torno a temas y conceptos sociopolíticos. Para el italiano, Salvatore Battaglia, _Grande Dizionario della lingua italiana_ (director de redacción Giorgio Barberi Squarotti), Unione Tipografico Turín, comenzado en 1961 y en proceso de publicación, ya han aparecido los volúmenes uno al ocho; éste es un diccionario histórico de la lengua italiana, y sus índices permiten la consulta práctica de numerosas citas, antiguas y modernas. Para contraponer los sinónimos vernáculos con el “sentido único” de las palabras clave, hube de recurrir a Carl Darling Buck, _A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages: A Contribution to the History of Ideas_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1949.] + +[^f4:] _Lo humano_. Hasta el siglo XVIII, humano era todo lo que estaba relacionado con la especie humana, pero todo _humano_ era un hombre, una mujer o un niño. El término “humanidad” había tenido una evolución diferente, aunque relacionada. A partir del siglo XIV, tuvo el significado de cortesía, civilidad (como el italiano _umanità_). A partir el siglo XVI adoptó también el sentido de bondad, generosidad. El empleo del término “humanidad” para designar al género humano, su acepción más común en nuestros días, sólo comienza en el siglo XVIII. Lo “humano” hoy en día posee este sentido abstracto. Además, califica a la _falibilidad excusable_, el error humano. Véase al respecto Williams, _op. cit_., en la nota 2, pp. 121 ss. Para una bibliografía sobre el concepto y el término, véase Michael Landmann, _Philosophical Anthropology_, Westminster Press, Filadelfia, 1974.] + +[^f5:] _Individualismo fuera de género_. Los historiadores, incluyendo los que estudian las ideas económicas, no se han dado cuenta de que la desaparición del género crea el tema de la ciencia económica. Marcel Mauss fue el primero en ver que “nuestras sociedades occidentales sólo recientemente han hecho del hombre un _animal económico_” (1909). El hombre occidental es el _homo œconomicus_. Decimos que una sociedad se ha “occidentalizado” cuando sus instituciones son restructuradas en previsión del mercado, es decir, de la producción de mercancías para satisfacer las necesidades básicas. Véase al respecto Karl Polanyi, _The Great Transformation_, Beacon Press, Boston, 1944; traducción francesa, Gallimard, París, 1983. Respecto a la influencia de Polanyi, véase S. C. Humphreys, “History, Economics and Anthropology: The Work of Karl Polanyi”, _History and Theory_, 9, núm. 2, 1968, pp. 165-212. La definición nueva del hombre en cuanto sujeto y cliente de una economía _disembedded_ (“desincrustada”, separada de las relaciones sociales) tiene su historia. Para una iniciación a esta historia, recomiendo Louis Dumont, _Homo æqualis_, Gallimard, París, 1977. La percepción que de sí mismo tiene el ser como individuo _humano_ y la exigencia de una satisfacción institucional igualitaria de las necesidades, constituyen una ruptura respecto a todas las demás formas premodernas de la aprehensión de sí. Pero tanto los motivos como la forma de esta discontinuidad radical de la conciencia de sí siguen siendo muy controvertidos. Para una orientación en torno a esta discusión, véase Marshall Sahlins, _Culture and Practical Reason_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1976; traducción francesa: _Au cœur des sociétés. Raison utilitaire et raison culturelle_, Gallimard, París, 1980. Sahlins define la diferencia entre el ayer y el hoy como un “modo distintivo de producción simbólica” que es propio de la civilización occidental. No he de discutir este punto. Pero sostengo que existe una profunda discontinuidad entre todas las formas antiguas de la existencia y el individualismo occidental, y que este cambio constituye una ruptura fundamental. Reside principalmente en la _pérdida del género_. Esta pérdida del género social no ha sido tomada en consideración por la historia del individualismo. Una historia del individualismo económico debe comenzar con Élie Halévy, _La Formation du radicalisme philosophique_, 3 vols., Félix Alcan, París, 1900-1903; está agotada la edición francesa, que jamás ha sido reeditada; existe una reedición reciente en inglés, _The Growth of Philosophical Radicalism_, Faber & Faber, Londres, 1972. Halévy describe detalladamente las vías muy contradictorias que siguieron los diversos discípulos de Bentham. Califica a Bentham y a sus discípulos de “radicales” por haber roto deliberadamente con las corrientes filosóficas anteriores. Sobre la profunda transformación de la estructura de la personalidad que dio origen a la clase obrera inglesa entre 1790 y 1830, véase E. P. Thompson, _The Making of the English Working Class_, Random Press House, Nueva York, 1966. El utilitarismo podía conducir a la defensa de un paternalismo burocrático fundado en la intervención legislativa, o a la preconización del individualismo anárquico y de la doctrina del _laissez-faire_. Halévy muestra que los discípulos de Bentham se dividieron entre ambas orientaciones. Véase también Leszek Kolakowski, _Main Currents in Marxism: Its Rise, Growth and Dissolution_, 3 vols., Oxford University Press, Londres, 1978. La historia social de nuestros tiempos que ha sido interpretada por el marxismo es la historia del conflicto entre grupos que se adhieren a estas corrientes opuestas surgidas de los principios utilitaristas. Dumont ( _op. cit_) estudia los rasgos fundamentales comunes a las corrientes utilitaristas. Procede con un sólido análisis de los textos de Mandeville, Locke, Smith y Marx. Todos estos ven en el “humano” un “individuo” determinado por necesidades fundamentales basadas en el postulado de la escasez universal. La significación del “individuo” es expuesta en C. B. MacPherson, _The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke_, Oxford University Press, Londres, 1962; traducción francesa: _La Théorie politique de l’individualisme possessif de Hobbes à Locke_, Gallimard, París, 1971, _The Real World of Democracy (idem_, 1966) y _Democratic Theory: Essays on Retrieval (idem_, 1972). El autor funda firmemente su intuición en el rasgo común fundamental de los individuos que subyace en todo el pensamiento democrático moderno, a saber, su carácter _posesivo_. Muestra que todos los humanismos del siglo XIX y del XX se basan en el valor supremo del individuo posesivo, que evoluciona personalmente, con libertad —en la medida en que la libertad se ve como una posesión, donde el individuo se libera de todos los lazos no económicos que lo ligan con sus semejantes—. Por mi parte, estimo que una característica adicional constituye con igual derecho el sujeto de la teoría y la práctica sociales modernas: _el individuo posesivo no tiene género_, antropológicamente es un simple neutro sexuado. Lógicamente, como he de mostrarlo, sólo el individuo que es a la vez posesivo y sexuado responde al postulado de la escasez en que está fundada toda economía política. La “identidad” institucional del _homo œconomicus_ excluye el género. Es un _neutrum œconomicum_. La desaparición del género es por ende un dato primordial de la historia de la escasez y de las instituciones que la estructuran.] + +[^f6:] _Individualismo envidioso_. El individuo contemporáneo, sin género y posesivo, que es el sujeto de la economía, gobierna su vida en función de consideraciones de utilidad marginal. Toda decisión económica está relacionada con una percepción de la escasez y en consecuencia tiende hacia una forma de envidia que era desconocida en el pasado. Las instituciones _productivas_ modernas nutren el individualismo envidioso al mismo tiempo que lo ocultan —las instituciones del pasado, orientadas hacia la subsistencia, buscaban reducirlo y denunciarlo—. Ésta es la tesis de Paul Dumouchel y Jean-Pierre Dupuy en sus respectivos ensayos en _L’enfer des choses: René Girard et la logique de l’économie_, Seuil, París, 1979. Los autores ponen al descubierto el contraste tipológico entre las instituciones modernas que engendran y luego disfrazan la envidia, y aquellas que tenían la función inversa —a las que han remplazado—. Cada cual, en su exposición, aplica en la economía los resultados del análisis literario que René Girard desarrolla en _Mensonge romantique et vérité romanesque_, Grasset, París, 1961. Véase también, del mismo autor, _La violence et le sacré_, 1972\. Girard busca en la novela del siglo XIX las pruebas de la transformación histórica del deseo: la evolución de las “necesidades” que se basa en una comparación envidiosa con lo que otro desea. En lugar de aplicar las categorías freudianas a los personajes de Dostoievski, analiza a Freud a través de los ojos de los hermanos Karamazov. Con esta perspectiva, el llamado progreso económico muestra ser la propagación del deseo triangular o “mimético”. La historia del individualismo económico coincide con la modernización de la envidia. En el presente ensayo, pretendo investigar la aparición de un tipo de envidia que es característica de las relaciones entre los sexos y que nace en la sociedad cuando el género desaparece. Respecto al tema de la envidia, cuya historia aún no ha sido escrita, véase el texto fundamental de la antropología de la envidia: George M. Foster, “Peasant Society and the Image of Limited Goods”, _American Anthropologist_, 67, núm. 2, abril de 1965, pp. 293-315, y “The Anatomy of Envy: A Study in Symbolic Behavior”, _Current Anthropology_, 13, núm. 2, abril, 1972, pp. 165-202. “Cuando experimenta la amenaza constante que la envidia representa para él mismo y para la sociedad, el hombre siente temor: teme las consecuencias de su envidia y las consecuencias de la envidia de los demás. De ahí resulta que en toda sociedad la gente recurre a ciertas formas culturales, simbólicas o no, a fin de neutralizar, reducir o dominar los peligros que ven surgir de la envidia, particularmente su temor de la envidia.” Respecto a la percepción de la envidia en la Antigüedad clásica, véase Svend Ranulf, _The Jealousy of the Gods and Criminal Law in Athens: A Contribution to the Sociology of Moral Indignation_, 2 vols., Williams & Norgate, Londres, 1933-1934. Respecto a la _hybris_ que suscita la Némesis: David Greene, _Greek Political Theory: The Image of Man in Thucydides and Plato_, University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Books, Chicago, 1965, y E. R. Dodds, _The Greeks and the Irrational_, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1968, especialmente el capítulo 2. Respecto a la actitud relacionada con la envidia al final de la Antigüedad clásica, es interesante un estudio sobre el aspecto contrario: R. A. Gauthier, _Magnanimité: l’idéal de la grandeur dans la philosophie païenne et dans la théologie chrétienne_, Vrin, París, 1951. Sobre la visión cristiana del “vicio” de la envidia, véase el artículo “Envidia” de Édouard Ranwez en _Dictionnaire de spiritualité_, Beauchesne, París, comenzado en 1932, en proceso de edición, pp. 744-785; también, Lester K. Little, “Pride Goes Before Avarice: Social Changes and the Vices in Latin Christendom”, _The American Historical Review_, 76, febrero, 1971, pp. 16-49. En torno a la iconografía medieval de la envidia, Mireille Vincent-Cassy, “L’envie au Moyen Âge”, _Annales ESC_, 35, núm. 2, marzo-abril de 1980, pp. 253-271, y “Quelques réflexions sur l’envie et la jalousie en France au XIVe siècle”, en Michel Mollat, _Études sur l’histoire de la pauvreté (moyen âge-XVIe siècle)_, publicaciones de la Sorbonne, París, 1974, serie Études, tomo 8, pp. 487-503. Una “historia de la envidia” no podría tener nada en común con las investigaciones realizadas por los psicólogos o los sociólogos modernos que imputan a la gente de otros tiempos lo que consideran ser la “envidia”. He aquí dos ejemplos de esta especie de estudios: Melanie Klein, _Envy and Gratitude_, Delacorte Press, Nueva York, 1957, especialmente pp. 176-235 (traducción francesa: _Envie et gratitude et autres essais_, Gallimard, París, 1968, que parte del postulado freudiano de la envidia innata que las mujeres tienen respecto al pene; y Helmut Schoeck, _Envy: A Theory of Social Behaviour_, Harcourt, Brace and World, Nueva York, 1970 (traducción alemana: _Der Neid und die Gesellschaft_, Herder, Friburgo, 4a edición, 1974), que pasa totalmente por alto el hecho de que la emoción y la percepción de la envidia poseen una historia. Entre los hombres y las mujeres, la denigración y la maledicencia no son fenómenos nuevos, pero la institucionalización de la inagotable comparación envidiosa entre individuos desprovistos de género es históricamente inédita.] + +[^f7:] _Sexo y sexismo_. La palabra _sexo_ viene del latín _sexus_, que pertenece a la familia _secare_ (cortar) cuya raíz _sec_\- indica división: sec-ción, seg-mento. Gramaticalmente, la palabra _sexus_ siempre debe acompañarse del calificativo _virilis_ (masculino) o _muliebris_ (femenino). Durante la Ilustración, cuando lo “humano” asumió la forma de un ideal, la lengua francesa restringe el término a las mujeres. La _Enciclopédie_ de Diderot le da 10 líneas: _“El sexo_ en sentido absoluto, o más bien _el bello sexo_, es el epíteto que se da a las mujeres … las más caras delicias del ciudadano apacible… cuya feliz fecundidad perpetua los amores y las gracias …” Será solamente durante el último cuarto del siglo XIX cuando el término tomará un sentido común para hombres y mujeres, aunque sin dejar de implicar diferencias morfológicas y psicológicas. Pero designa en ellos y ellas una especie de sistema de canalización de una energía agenérica que Freud habría de llamar “libido”. El sexo moderno desconoce el género, tal como lo muestra claramente el término “sexualidad”. Paradójicamente, en su función de palabra clave, el sexo es agenérico. Y la formación de la sexualidad agenérica es una de las condiciones necesarias para la aparición del _homo œconomicus_. Ésta es la razón por la que contrapongo el _sexo económico_ al _género vernáculo_. Pienso que el primero muestra la polaridad de caracteres comunes, el segundo, una dualidad complementaria. Tanto el género como el sexo son realidades sociales que no tienen más que una tenue relación con la anatomía. El sexo económico individualizado es todo lo que queda del género social en el seudo género del humano contemporáneo _sexuado_. El género no puede florecer en un medio ambiente estructurado por la economía. Y, sin embargo, la expoliación del medio ambiente social apropiado para el género vernáculo sigue siendo ignorada por los ecologistas. Es evidente que aquí empleo los términos _género_ y _sexo_ en calidad de “tipos ideales”, en el sentido weberiano. Véase Max Weber, _Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre_, Mohr, Tubinga, 1922 (traducción francesa: _Essais sur la théorie de la science_, Plon, París, 1965). Un tipo ideal ( _Idealtypus_) es una construcción conceptual ( _ein Gedankenbild_) que no es una realidad histórica y ni siquiera una “verdadera” realidad. No puede servir como medida de una situación o de una acción real. Es un concepto _limitante_ ideal al que se le _compara_ la situación o la acción real para explicar algunos de los componentes importantes de éstas. Tal como yo los empleo, “género” y “sexo” son conceptos limitantes ideales que designan una polaridad: la transformación industrial de la sociedad que se convierte en un sistema “sexualizante” y ya no más “generizante”. Tanto para el género como para el sexo, la anatomía no es más que la materia prima, pues ambos transforman los órganos genitales en realidades sociales. El género transforma al pene en incontables tipos de _phalloi_; el sexo no produce más que el internacional, el amenazador, el envidiado “pene”. (Respecto a la homogenización análoga de la matriz y la vagina, véanse notas 87 y 90). Gayle Rubin (véanse notas 22 y 76) subraya el hecho de que en los grupos _humanos_ la existencia de sistemas genéricos es universal, sea cual fuere la muy amplia diversidad estructural de tales sistemas. Y no obstante, independientemente de su configuración única, cada sociedad posee una ideología que expone la inmutabilidad de las categorías del género. Estoy de acuerdo con ello, pero he de añadir que la sociedad _sexuada_ posee una ideología que expone la irrevocable decadencia del género (respecto al patriarcado como oposición del sexismo, véase la nota 21). En torno a la gama de sutiles variaciones de los símbolos del género, véanse las notas 116 y 117, así como L. Kriss-Rettenbeck, _“Feige”; Wort, Gebärde, Amulett_, Munich, 1955, y M. L. Wagner, “Phallus, Horn und Fisch. Lebendige und verschüttete Vorstellungen und Symbole, vornehmlich im Bereich des Mittelmeerbeckens”, en _Domum Natalicium_, Carol Jaberg, Zurich, 1973, pp. 77-130.] + +[^f8:] _Degradación del medio ambiente_. Cada vez son más evidentes los límites que modifican los postulados fundamentales de la economía política. Aunque la ecología, en cuanto ciencia y sistema de ideas, tiene una historia todavía reciente, va ganando en madurez. Hace referencia cada vez más a su propia historia, signo de una disciplina que se hace “adulta”. El término _Ökologie_ (que en francés se adoptó al principio con la ortografía _Œcologie_) fue creado en 1866 por E. Haeckel en una investigación sobre la morfología general de los organismos que realizó con base en una perspectiva evolucionista darwiniana. Robert P. McIntosh, “The Background and Some Current Problems of Theoretical Ecology”, _Synthese_, 43, 1980, pp. 195-255, proporciona una historiografía crítica y analítica de la ecología en las ciencias biológicas. La ecología como ciencia política tiene un origen mucho más reciente. En torno a la discusión sobre el tema, véase William Ophuls, _Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity: Prologue to a Political Theory of Steady State_, W. H. Freeman, New York, 1977. En mi concepto, la ecología no habrá de madurar si no incorpora dos distinciones que actualmente descuida: la distinción jurídica entre los _ámbitos de comunidad_ y los _recursos productivos_ (véase nota 10) y la distinción entre los ámbitos complementarios y el espacio agenérico.] + +[^f9:] _Contraproductividad_. La _contraproductividad_ es un indicador social que mide la frustración particular que produce el consumo obligatorio de una mercancía o de un servicio en un grupo o una clase. Algunos ejemplos: las frustraciones causadas por los transportes, que en la medida que se multiplican y se hacen más rápidos producen mayor pérdida de tiempo; por el tratamiento médico, más nefasto que la enfermedad; por la educación pública o los medios de información que más que nada embrutecen; por la tutela política o social que engendra a drogadictos de la “asistencia institucional”. Es posible ver en este fenómeno una medida de la _intensidad_ de las privaciones que las instituciones modernas infligen — _por necesidad técnica_— a la mayoría de sus clientes, por no cumplir con los objetivos para las que fueron creadas y financiadas por el erario —por ejemplo, la rapidez de los transportes—. La contraproductividad no es el congestionamiento, que también genera insatisfacción, sino la gran cantidad de cosas que estorban su funcionamiento, ya sean los vehículos, las materias que se imparten en las escuelas o las terapias. Yo veo en la contraproductividad el resultado de un _monopolio radical de las mercancías sobre los valores vernáculos_, que yo aún llamaba “valores de uso” en _La convivencialidad_, véase vol. I, 2006, particularmente el apartado _El equilibrio múltiple_, y en _Energía y equidad_. En último análisis, este monopolio radical procede de la transformación de los ámbitos de comunidad —por ejemplo, aquellos donde el derecho tradicional reconocía el “derecho del paso” peatonal— en utilidades públicas necesarias para la producción o la circulación de las mercancías. Escribí _Némésis médica_, véase vol. I, 2006, para ilustrar cómo la contraproductividad opera claramente en los niveles de la técnica, de la estructura social y del símbolo cultural. Como lo demuestran JeanPierre Dupuy, _Valeur sociale et encombrement du temps. Monographie du séminaire d’économétrie_, CNRS, París, 1975, y Jean-Pierre Dupuy y Jean Robert, _La trahison de l’opulence_, PUF, París, 1976, la contraproductividad no es la medida de las molestias individuales que las iniciativas políticas o técnicas podrían suprimir, sino un indicador social que refleja las particularidades tecnológicas. Wolfgang Sachs ha esclarecido el problema para su previsible discusión pública en _Are Energy-Intensive Life-Images Fading? The Cultural Meaning of the Automobile in Transition_, Technische Universität, Berlín, manuscrito, octubre de 1981. Véanse también las notas 60 y 112.] + +[^f10:] _Reapropiación de los bienes de los ámbitos de comunidad_. El término _communaux_ es antiguo en el francés, y lo es también en otras lenguas: _commons_ en inglés, _Almende_ o _Gemeinheit_ en alemán. Véase Iván Illich, _Das Recht auf Gemeinheit_, Rowohlt, Hamburgo, 1981, especialmente la introducción, y _gli usi civici_ en italiano. Los ámbitos de comunidad eran las tierras a las que todos los habitantes de una comunidad tenían derechos de uso adquiridos, no para extraer una ganancia monetaria sino para asegurar la subsistencia familiar. Los ámbitos de comunidad son esa parte del medio ambiente cuyo usufructo está garantizado por la ley de la costumbre, respecto a las cuales ésta impone formas específicas de respeto comunitario. Pienso exponer en una obra mía sobre los _Valores vernáculos_ (véase nota 1) en la que estoy trabajando, la degradación de los ámbitos de comunidad con el propósito de transformarlos en recursos productivos. Aquellos que luchan por la preservación de la biosfera y aquellos que rechazando un estilo de vida caracterizado por el monopolio de las mercancías sobre las actividades intentan recuperar poco a poco la capacidad de vivir fuera del régimen mercantil de la escasez, convergen actualmente en una alianza nueva en el seno de la cual todas las corrientes tienden a la recuperación y aumento de los _ámbitos de comunidad_. Esta realidad social que está en vías de surgir y converger es llamada por André Gorz el “archipiélago de la convivencialidad”. El instrumento principal para la cartografía de este nuevo mundo es la obra de Valentina Borremans, _Guide to Convivial Tools_, Special Report núm. 13, _Library Journal_, 1180 Sixth Avenue, Nueva York, 1980, guía razonada que registra más de 1 000 bibliografías, catálogos, periódicos, etc. Se pueden encontrar informes periódicos sobre la lucha por los nuevos ámbitos de comunidad en publicaciones como _Trans-National Network for Appropriate Technology_ (Tranet), P. O. Box 567, Rangeley, Maine 04980, Estados Unidos de América, y el _CoEvolution Quarterly_ (director: Stuart Brand, P. O. Box 428, Sausalito, California 94965, Estados Unidos de América).] + +[^f11:] _Escasez_. Empleo aquí este término en el sentido estricto que le dan los economistas desde que L. Walras lo empleó por vez primera con esta precisa significación en 1874. La escasez define el campo en el que las leyes de la economía relacionan a: _1) sujetos_ (individuos posesivos, envidiosos, agenéricos, bien se trate de personas o de compañías); _2) instituciones_ (que nutren simbólicamente a la _mimesis_); y _3) mercancías_, en el seno de un medio ambiente donde los ámbitos de comunidad han sido transformados en _recursos_, privados o públicos. No hay que confundir la escasez en este sentido y lo escaso en su sentido usual de “raro”, cuando se habla de: _1)_ aves _raras_ que interesan a los ornitólogos; _2)_ un régimen alimenticio _frugal_, como el de los camelleros del desierto desde hace siglos; _3)_ una alimentación _deficiente_, según el trabajador social que visita a una familia pobre; _4)_ las _últimas reservas_ de trigo en la aldea francesa del siglo XI (allí la costumbre o la violencia se encargaban de que todos pudieran obtener su parte, por pequeña que fuera). Aunque aún no es realmente una historia de la escasez, una fuente útil de referencias y bibliografías se halla en Bálint Balla, _Soziologie der Knappheit. Zum Verständnis individueller und gesellschaftlicher Mängelzustände_, Enke, Stuttgart, 1978. Niklas Luhman, “Knappheit, Geld und die Bürgerliche Gesellschaft”, _Jahrbuch für Sozialwissenschaft_, 23, 1972, pp. 186-210, identifica cinco características de la “contingencia social” en relación con la creencia contemporánea (que no ha sido impugnada) del régimen de la escasez. Históricamente, el régimen de la escasez llegó a instalarse gracias a la proliferación del dinero como medio (poco abundante) de intercambio; véase Karl Polanyi, “Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies”, en _Essays of Karl Polanyi_, Beacon Press, Boston, 1971, pp. 175-203. El autor diferencia las utilizaciones del dinero: como medio de conservación de los valores, como patrón del valor y como medio de intercambio. Respecto a las teorías psicoanalíticas que pretenden explicar los orígenes de la escasez, véase Ernest Borneman, _Psychoanalyse des Geldes_, Suhrkamp, Francfort de Meno, 1975, compilación de ensayos de 24 autores. Si no se establece filosófica y legalmente la distinción entre los recursos productivos escasos y los ámbitos de comunidad compartidos, la _sociedad rígidamente estatal_ en un futuro cercano habrá de ser un expertocracia oligárquica, no democrática, autoritaria, gobernada por los ecologistas. Al respecto véase la demostración sólidamente argumentada de William Ophuls, _Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity_, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1979. La desaparición del género y la intensidad y variedad crecientes de las escaseces son dos caras del mismo proceso de _occidentalización_ (véase nota 5). Por esta razón, yo considero que estos capítulos sobre el género son los estudios preliminares de una historia de la escasez.] + +[^f12:] _Dualidad_. Un método clásico del análisis sociológico consiste en emplear alguna forma de dualidad. La dualidad que propongo no está relacionada con ninguna de las que conozco. En ésta, la complementariedad asimétrica del género se contrapone a la polarización de las características homogéneas que distinguen al sexo social. Si me estuviera dirigiendo a matemáticos, hablaría de pares homomórficos de ámbitos extraídos de espacios heterogéneos. Es posible medir la complejidad del asunto en Lynda Glennon, _Women and Dualism. A Sociology of Knowledge Analysis_, Longman, Nueva York, 1979. Mediante un análisis del contenido de textos feministas, la autora expone las recientes discusiones en torno a la lógica de la dualidad que las feministas han llevado a cabo, y con base en éstas la impugnación de las “leyes” clásicas de la sociología con sus numerosas dualidades analíticas. Centra esencialmente su estudio en las tipologías dicotómicas que han aparecido desde Ferdinand Tönnies, limitándose a citar las anteriores. Según la autora, con la oposición que estableció entre _Gemeinschaft_ y _Gesellschaft_ (1887), Tönnies irrigó el terreno donde se cultivarían las demás dualidades modernas: sociedad de estatus y sociedad de contrato en Maine; forma militar (de lucha) y forma industrial (de cooperación), en Spencer; Estado de conquista y Estado de cultura en Ratzenhofer; polaridad natural y polaridad cultural en Wundt; solidaridad mecánica y orgánica en Durkheim; grupos primarios y grupos secundarios (implícitos) en Cooley; relación comunitaria y relación societaria en MacIver; comunidades locales y cosmopolitas en Zimmerman; régimen de Estado (civilización) y _folk society_ (cultura popular) en Odum; el continuo urbano de la _folk society_ en Redfield; las relaciones familiares y las relaciones contractuales en Sorokin; las sociedades sagradas y las sociedades seculares en Becker… Gracias a Tönnies también se crean otras dualidades más “generales”: primitivo/civilizado; lector/analfabeta; rural/urbano; primacía de lo público o de lo privado, del matriarcado o del patriarcado (véase nota 54). Aquí contrapongo otras dos dualidades, la del género y la del sexo. Sostengo que aparte del hecho de que son dos dualidades sociales relacionadas con una distinción genital, poca cosa tienen en común.] + +[^f13:] _Trabajo y sexo_. “Trabajo” y “empleo” son vocablos claves de nuestro tiempo; véase J. Knobloch, ed ., _op. cit_. en la nota 2, II, pp. 258-354, y O. Brunner, W. Konze y R. Koselleck, eds., _op. cit_. en la nota 3, volumen I, pp. 154-243. El vocabulario relacionado con el trabajo es recien-te y más que nada técnico: Arthur E. Bestor, Jr., “The Evolution of the Socialist Vocabulary”, _Journal of the History of Ideas_, 9, núm. 3, junio, 1948, pp. 259-302. En la mayoría de las lenguas no europeas la traducción del término ha presentado grandes dificultades; existe una bibliografía sobre el tema en Iván Illich, “El derecho al desempleo creador”, _Tecno-Política_, doc. 78/11, apdo. 479, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. En la época medieval, la relación entre trabajo y retribución es tenue: véase Helmut Stahleder, _Arbeit in der mittelalterlichen Geselschaft_, Neue Schriftenreihe des Stadtarchivs München, Munich, 1972. Las actitudes relacionadas con esta relación han cambiado lentamente con la mecanización: Lynn White, Jr., “Medieval Engineering and the Sociology of Knowledge”, _Pacific Historical Review_, 44, 1975, pp. 1-21. Martín Lutero fue el único que le dio al trabajo un sentido contemporáneo: véase Hildburg Geist, “Arbeit: die Entscheidung eines Wortwertes durch Luther”, _Luther Jahrbuch_ (1931), pp. 83-113. Descubrió que el trabajo en cierto sentido era loable en sí mismo. “Fue el auténtico inventor de la doctrina moderna que afirma que en el trabajo hay algo intrínsecamente digno y meritorio, y que el hombre que labora a pleno sol es más agradable a Dios que el que descansa a la sombra.” (H. L. Mencken, _op. cit_. en la nota 3). La historia de la discriminación sexista en el trabajo coincide con la lenta promoción del empleo salariado al rango de prototipo del trabajo que es digno, gratificante, significativo y accesible para todos. Todavía durante gran parte del siglo XVIII, la fracción relativamente pequeña de los salariados podía subsistir principalmente porque vivía en casa de los patrones: Bronislav Geremek, _Le salariat dans l’artisanat parisien aux XIIIe–XVe siècles_, Mouton, París, 1968. La necesidad de sobrevivir gracias a un salario no es simplemente un signo de pobreza, sino de miseria. Éste es uno de los grandes temas de Michel Mollat, _Études sur l’histoire de la pauvreté, op. cit_. en la nota 6. En la Edad Media, a los pobres se les reconoció un conjunto de derechos legales que no tenía relación alguna con el trabajo: G. Couvrier, _Les pauvres ont ils des droits_? _Recherches sur le vol en cas d’extrême nécessité depuis la Concordia de Gratien (1140) jusqu’a Guillaume d’Auxerre, mort en 1231_, Univ. Gregoriana, Roma/París, 1961. Véase también B. Tierney, _Medieval Poor Law: A Sketch of Canonical Theory and Its Applications in England_, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1959. Respecto a las actitudes hacia el trabajo salariado en la Florencia de los Medicis, véase Judit C. Brown y Jordan Goodman, “Women and Industry in Florence”, _Journal of Economic History_, 40, núm. 1, marzo, 1980, pp. 73-80. Este estudio se dirige a dos talleres florentinos, uno edificado en 1561, el otro en 1642. Cuando el sector artesanal creció a partir de fines del siglo XVI, los hombres dejaron la producción textil por los oficios de lujo, más lucrativos. Las mujeres fueron empleadas casi exclusivamente en las industrias de la lana, de la seda y de la tela, que, respondiendo a la nueva demanda, abandonaron la producción de vestidos de lujo y adoptaron la de prendas menos elaboradas cuya confección era más fácil rutinariamente. Así, cierta forma de división de los sexos se instalaba en el trabajo salariado, pero no una división entre actividades destinadas al mercado y las que no lo estaban. Los hombres proporcionaban la fuerza de trabajo artesanal, muy especializada, y las mujeres la mano de obra ordinaria, poco especializada, relacionada con el hilado, el tejido y la costura. A partir de entonces, con la expansión y la generalización del trabajo salariado, la discriminación económica de las mujeres no ha dejado de aumentar. Cada vez más, las mujeres ven en sus ganancias inferiores la prueba constantemente administrada de su inferior valor económico. Por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos las posibilidades que las mujeres tenían de entrar en diversos sectores eran mucho mayores durante el periodo colonial que a mediados del siglo XIX: véase Elizabeth Anthony Dexter, _Career Women of America_, _1776-1840_, Clifton, N. J., Augustus Kelley, 1972. Para la comparación entre las ganancias y la duración del trabajo es imprescindible la obra de Edith Abbott, _Women in Industry: A Study in American Economic History_, Appleton, Nueva York, 1916. Para obtener materiales más recientes: tablas, estadísticas y bibliografía, véase Valerie Kincade Oppenheimer, _The Female Labor Force in the United States: Demographic and Economic Factors Governing Its Growth and Changing Composition_, Population Monograph núm. 5, University of California, Institute of International Studies, Berkeley, 1970, y Alice Kessler-Harris, “Women’s Wage Work as Myth and History “, _Labor History_, 19, 1978, pp. 287-307.] + +[^f14:] _La creciente diferencia entre los salarios_. En los Estados Unidos, la diferencia entre los salarios de los hombres y los de las mujeres continúa aumentando, al mismo tiempo que aumentan la legislación antidiscriminatoria y el movimiento de reivindicación feminista organizado. Con la actual _stagflation_ (estancamiento e inflación combinados) podría alcanzar un récord todavía no superado: 55%. Es mayor que hace 20 años, aunque desde 1963 una ley federal supuestamente la combate. En 1956, la ganancia o la remuneración salarial anual media de una mujer empleada tiempo completo era de 2 827 dólares, es decir, 63% de la de un hombre (4 466 dólares); en 1973, la cifra equivalente para una mujer fue de 6 488 dólares, pero la de un hombre aumentó aún más rápido: 11 468 dólares. De esta manera, durante el mandato de Kennedy y la Guerra de Vietnam, la ganancia anual media de las mujeres decreció, no alcanzando más que 57% de la de los hombres. En otros países se puede constatar una diferencia comparable: Austria 64,4% (1975); Canadá 59% (1971); Francia 66.6% (1972); Suecia 86% (1974). Obtuve estas cifras de Ronnie Steinberg Ratner, _Equal Employment Policy for Women: Strategies for Implementation in the USA, Canada and Western Europe_, Temple University Press, Filadelfia, 1978, pp. 20-23. Esta es una compilación de estudios originales relacionados con diversos recursos institucionales, gracias a los cuales las posibilidades de igualdad en el empleo para las mujeres se hicieron “efectivas” durante los años de la posguerra: pero todas estas posibilidades “efectivas” en nada cambiaron la diferencia de los salarios (véase nota 15). Entre las naciones industriales, la única excepción fue Japón. En 1960, el salario medio de una mujer equivalía a 43% del de un hombre; en 1974 a 54%. Pero, simultáneamente, la discriminación _social_ de las mujeres se intensificó. Respecto al fondo de esta evolución, váse Kazuko Tsurumi, _Women in Japan: A Paradox of Modernization_, Sophia University, Institute of International Relations, Tokio, 1977. Para una bibliografía reciente, véase _Women at Work: An ILO News Bulletin_, núm. 2, Ginebra, International Labor Office for Women Worker’s Questions, 1979. Jeanne Mager Stellman, _Women’s Work, Women’s Health: Myths and Realities_, Pantheon, New York, 1977, proporciona útiles datos sobre los salarios de las mujeres, tanto monetarios como no monetarios (asistencia médica, por ejemplo), según los niveles de instrucción. Bibliografía sobre este tema: Mei Liang Bickner, _Women at Work: An Annotated Bibliography_, Manpower Research Center, Institute of Industrial Relations, University of California, Los Angeles, 2 vols., 1974 y 1977. Una forma de empleo particularmente femenina es el “servicio”, es decir, _las tareas domésticas retribuidas_; de todas las actividades modernas, es a la vez aquella que está más específicamente reservada a las mujeres, y aquella donde la diferencia entre los salarios masculinos y los salarios femeninos es más marcada. La primera gran historia de esta actividad económica —que también nació en el siglo XIX— acompañada de una orientación bibliográfica, se encuentra en la obra de David Katzman, _Seven Days a Week: Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing America_, Oxford University Press, Nueva York, 1978. Compárese con I. Davidoff y R. Hawthorn, _A Day in the Life of a Victorian Domestic Servant_, Allen & Unwin, Londres, 1976, y Pierre Guiral y Guy Thuillier, _La Vie quotidienne des domestiques en France au XIXe siècle_, Hachette, París, 1976. Mundialmente, la cifra de las mujeres que “sirven” es hoy muy superior a lo que era en el siglo XIX, pero la mayor parte está en el Tercer Mundo. Véase, por ejemplo, Elisabeth Jelin, “Migration and Labor Force Participation of Latin American Women: The Domestic Servant in the Cities”, _Signs_, 3, núm. 1, 1977, pp. 129-141. Las mujeres emigran más que los hombres hacia las ciudades. La demanda de sirvientas es literalmente ilimitada. En gran parte de América Latina es posible encontrar sirvientas en hogares ubicados en un nivel social tan bajo que, para hacer una comparación, habría que considerar las condiciones europeas en el siglo pasado.] + +[^f15:] _Estadísticas sobre la discriminación_. Para extraer de los censos norteamericanos todo lo que este tipo de datos puede expresar, consúltese Robert Tsuchigane y Norton Dodge, _Economic Discrimination Against Women at Work_, Heath, Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., D. C., 1974. Representa un sobrio análisis estadístico y técnico de la discriminación salarial relacionada con las mujeres en los Estados Unidos. Los autores reconocen la complejidad de traducir los datos cuantitativos al concepto normativo de _discriminación total_. Cuando se trata de la diferencia, en la economía, de las ganancias totales de los hombres y las ganancias totales de las mujeres, la discriminación total se considera como la suma de tres tipos de discriminación: en el salario, en el oficio y en la participación. “… en la medida que, en el mismo empleo, las mujeres ganan menos que los hombres, existe discriminación salarial. Si la proporción de mujeres es mayor en los empleos con bajos salarios que en los empleos con altos salarios, existe discriminación en el oficio. Si la tasa de participación de las mujeres en la fuerza de trabajo es menor que la de los hombres, existe discriminación en la participación” (p. 6). Al comparar las cifras de los censos, particularmente los de 1960 y 1970, los autores constatan una ligera disminución de la discriminación total. ¿Pero de dónde procede? De una ligera disminución de la discriminación en el oficio (un poco más de mujeres tienen empleos mejor pagados), combinada con una disminución notable de la discriminación en la participación (un mayor porcentaje de las mujeres acudió todos los días al trabajo en 1970). En virtud del método de los autores, estas dos modificaciones de los datos hacen que se reduzca significativamente la discriminación total, a pesar de “un aumento considerable y sorprendente de la discriminación en los salarios durante el mismo periodo” (p. 16). Dicho de otra manera: si bien con la expansión de la economía un número creciente de mujeres “trabaja”, y si gracias a la presión de las feministas la diferencia de las ganancias entre la mayoría mal remunerada y la minoría bien retribuida se volvía casi la misma que existe entre los hombres, las mujeres en conjunto reciben actualmente, en relación con un empleo igual, una fracción todavía menor del salario que obtienen los hombres. Moshe Semyonov, “The Social Context of Women’s Labor Force Participation: A Comparative Analysis”, _American Journal of Sociology_, 86, núm. 3, 1980, pp. 534-550, confirma esta tendencia en el mundo entero, partiendo de datos relacionados con 61 sociedades y de amplias fuentes bibliográficas. La integración de un número creciente de mujeres en la mano de obra siempre ha dado por resultado la discriminación profesional. Por doquier, más mujeres “trabajan” y menos de ellas tienen la posibilidad de alcanzar una buena posición y un salario alto. Cuando se escrutan con atención las fuentes especializadas y las publicaciones poco conocidas, se puede ver que lo mismo sucede en la URSS: véase Alastair McAuley, _Women’s Work and Wages in the Soviet Union_, Allen & Unwin, Londres, 1979. La doble carga (tareas domésticas _más_ empleo) es al parecer más pesada allí. Los datos positivos respecto al trabajo de las mujeres soviéticas no conciernen a los salarios: el porcentaje de institutrices y de profesoras es mayor (en la URSS, éstas son profesiones mal remuneradas) y casi un tercio de los diputados son mujeres (desprovistas de poder y generalmente mudas).] + +[^f16:] _Ritos institucionales_. Las instituciones modernas son contraproductivas. En el mejor de los casos, las buenas intenciones de ciertos individuos, ya sean médicos, maestros de escuela o cuadros feministas, hacen que la contraproductividad sea menos amarga. Un ejemplo entre muchos es el del sistema médico, que de hecho no puede más que amenazar la salud. Era éste el argumento de mi _Némesis médica_, que John Bradshaw reformuló de forma todavía más clara en _Doctors on Trial_, Wildwood House, Londres, 1979. De manera general, los servicios institucionales son rituales que ocultan tanto a los proveedores como a los clientes la distancia constantemente creciente entre el mito al _que aspiran y la realidad material que estructuran social-mente;_ véase Iván Illich, _La sociedad desescolarizada_, vol. I, capítulo II: “El ritual del progreso”. Hoy la reivindicación organizada de la igualdad económica para las mujeres, la “empresa feminista”, sigue el mismo esquema. Para apreciar la magnitud de esta empresa informal en el periodo 1960-1975, véase Marija Matich Hughes, _The Sexual Barrier: Legal, Medical, Economic and Social Aspects of Sex Discrimination_, Hughes Press, Washington, 1977. Hasta hoy la acción compensatoria en favor de la igualdad económica de las mujeres ha significado un vano intento de reducir la diferencia de los salarios para la mayoría. Su resultado ha sido la creación de empleos para las mujeres que defienden los derechos de las mujeres, y una considerable mejora del estatus, del salario y de las posibilidades de empleo para aquellas que se encontraban en puestos muy altos de la sociedad, sobre todo profesionales. Esto atestigua, por ejemplo, la creciente participación internacional de las mujeres en el ámbito médico, que ha sido bien documentada por Sandra L. Chaff en _Women in Medicine: A Bibliography of the Literature on Women Physicians_, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, N. J. ,1977. La asistencia técnica a las mujeres ha tenido el mismo efecto contraproductivo —la relativa indigencia de la mayoría— que la asistencia técnica internacional en el desarrollo económico de los países pobres. Para poder realizar la autocrítica necesaria, autocrítica que ha sido incapaz de emprender el sistema médico —como también los sindicatos, las fuerzas armadas y los partidos comunistas—, el feminismo tendría que impugnar seriamente el postulado según el cual sus metas fundamentales pueden lograrse efectivamente (y no sólo ritualmente) en un régimen de escasez. Con frecuencia se cita al sistema médico y al sistema educativo para ilustrar el desarrollo común de todas las instituciones de la era industrial _durante su expansión:_ se les obliga a producir de manera exponencial los símbolos que ocultan el hecho de que sus efectos son contrarios a sus objetivos. Sobre el apoyo sociopolítico paradójico a causas que inevitablemente son contraproductivas, véase la investigación teórica de Jean-Pierre Dupuy, “Épistémologie de l’économie et analyse de systèmes”, en Jacques Lesourne, ed., _la Notion de système dans les sciences contemporaines_, tomo II: _Epistémologie_, Aquisgrán, Librairie de l’Université, Aix-en-Provence, 1981. El crecimiento exponencial necesario para ocultar la contraproductividad no se limita a la medicina, la enseñanza y el transporte. Ya hace más de un siglo que la igualdad económica de las mujeres está en la agenda de cientos de organizaciones: Albert Krichmar, _The Women’s Rights Movement in the United States_, _1848-1970_. _A Bibliography and Sourcebook_, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, N. J., 1972. Decenas de miles de mujeres dedicaron su vida profesional a la lucha por alcanzar esta meta y constantemente registraron progresos en la tarea. Un número mucho mayor todavía invirtió su tiempo, su esfuerzo y su entusiasmo en esta causa. Los tres grandes sistemas modernos del derecho: el derecho romano, el derecho inglés y el derecho islámico, afirman la igualdad económica de las mujeres: Kathleen Newland, _The Sisterhood of Man: The Impact of Women’s Changing Roles on Social and Economic Life around the World_, Norton, Nueva York, 1979. La batalla legal contra la discriminación económica también continúa, y constantemente da a la luz boletines de “victorias”: _Women’s Rights Law Reporter_, Newark, N. J., Rutger’s Law School. Todo esto permanece sin producir efectos mensurables respecto a la única cuestión que cuenta y que cada vez más queda sumergida en las olas de la retórica y las satisfacciones ilusorias: la diferencia entre las ganancias de los hombres y las de las mujeres, que muestra la inferioridad económica de estas últimas.] + +[^f17:] _Las mujeres y el derecho_. Todo derecho consuetudinario, no escrito, es intragenérico (véanse notas 80 a 83). El derecho escrito europeo es patriarcal (véanse nota 21) y el derecho del Estado-nación moderno es infaliblemente sexista. No se han estudiado suficientemente las repercusiones que en el estatus legal de la mujer ha tenido el pasaje del patriarcado al sexismo. _Sexual Divisions and Society: Process and Change_, Tavistock Publications, Londres, 1976, por Diana Leonard Barker y Sheila Allen, eds., reúne diversos estudios interesantes en este sentido, particularmente el de Yves Dézalay, “French Judicial Ideology in Working Class Divorce”, donde el autor comenta: “Las formulaciones jurídicas modernas, en su ambigüedad, confunden las obligaciones profesionales de los hombres y las obligaciones conyugales de las mujeres, definiendo como iguales las obligaciones recíprocas de ambas partes. De hecho, muchos hombres consideran que es por causa de su mujer que deben “matarse” en el trabajo, lo cual para ellos compensa todos los sacrificios que su mujer está obligada a realizar en el matrimonio”. Haría falta un estudio histórico que distinguiera: _1)_ el derecho intragenérico (que destaca la complementariedad ambigua y equilibrada entre los géneros); _2)_ el derecho patriarcal (que desprecia al género femenino), y _3)_ el derecho sexista (que deroga el género en favor de una quimérica igualdad entre los sexos).] + +[^f18:] _Las mujeres en los países socialistas_. En un país industrializado la degradación relativa del valor económico de las mujeres no parece fundamentalmente afectada por la ideología política dominante. Se pueden citar dos estudios recientes: M. P. Sacks, “Unchanging Times: A Comparison of the Everyday Life of Soviet Working Men and Women between 1923 and 1966”, en D. Atkinson, A. Dallin y G. W. Lapidus, eds., _Women in Russia_, Harvester Press, Sussex, 1978, y A. Heitlinger, _Women and State Socialism: Sex Inequality in the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia_, Macmillan, Londres, 1979. Aunque son mecanismos diferentes, el plano económico y el mercado financiero son bastante precisos en su desvalorización de las mujeres; véase también A. McAuley, _op. cit_. en la nota 15.] + +[^f19:] _Las mujeres y la recesión estructural_. El deterioro mundial de la actividad económica en los años setenta, y las tímidas recuperaciones que le siguieron, coincidieron con el final de un periodo que había visto un crecimiento neto de la participación de las mujeres en la mano de obra. Sin embargo, este auge de la fuerza de trabajo femenina se vio acompañado del desempleo femenino que se advirtió en todos los países del norte de América y de Europa occidental, con excepción de Gran Bretaña (donde al parecer las cifras oficiales sobre las trabajadoras desempleadas se subestiman en alrededor de 50%). Tal era la situación cuando la reducción general del empleo por todos conocida empezó a hacerse sentir. En la época las mujeres estaban más concentradas que los hombres en un pequeño número de industrias y una gama restringida de actividades, sobre todo el servicio doméstico. Al principio, las mujeres fueron en cierta medida protegidas de la recesión que inicialmente afectó a las industrias de la producción y a los oficios manuales donde ellas eran comparativamente pocas. Pero a medida que la caída se hizo general, las mujeres fueron más vulnerables a los recortes de personal y tuvieron mayores dificultades para volver a encontrar empleo, particularmente en los ámbitos tradicionalmente “masculinos”, donde los hombres ya competían entre sí. Véase Diane Werneke, “The Economic Slowdown and Women’s Employment Opportunities”, _International Labor Review_, 117, núm. 1, enero-febrero, 1978, pp. 37-52. Puede resultar útil la lectura de Marjorie Galenson, _Women and Work: An International Comparison_, Ithaca, Cornell University, 1973, en relación con las comparaciones internacionales sobre los empleos y sus salarios correspondientes. En las estadísticas sobre el desempleo, el número de mujeres actualmente se subestima, porque ellas abandonan más rápidamente que los hombres la búsqueda de empleo, el cual de todos modos tienen menos oportunidades de obtener. Véase Naciones Unidas, _The Economic Role of Women in the ECE Region_, U. N. Publications, Nueva York, 1980.] + +[^f20:] _Violación sexista_. No existe todavía una historia social de la violación, en parte porque aún no se ha establecido una distinción clara entre la _violación moderna, sexista, que se ubica en las condiciones generales de la escasez, consideradas axiomáticamente_, y las formas milenarias de la posesión sexual de una mujer mediante la violencia. Lo que actualmente temen más las mujeres norteamericanas es la violación como expresión física suprema del sexismo moderno —y en el sexismo les asusta su hedor de violación moderna—. Según yo, la violación moderna es el producto implícito de la obliteración del género. No encuentro huella alguna de esta distinción en Susan Brownmiller, _Against Our Will_, Bantam, Nueva York, 1976, aunque implícitamente la reconoce Pamela Foa y Susan Roe Petersen en su contribución a la antología de Mary Vetterlin-Braggin _et al_., _Feminism and Philosophy_, Littlefield, Totowa, N. J., 1971; ambas afirman que la violación, como hecho social, refleja las actitudes de la sociedad respecto a las relaciones heterosexuales (más de esto en la nota 110). E. Shorter sostiene que es necesaria una historia de la violación en “On Writing the History of Rape”, _Signs_, 3, núm. 2, 1977, pp. 471-482, artículo que desató una controversia en la misma publicación. La dificultad de fundamentar estadísticamente lo que anteriormente declaro aparece en la lectura de Allan G. Johnson, “On the Prevalence of Rape in the United States”, _Signs_, 6, núm. 1, 1980, pp. 136-146. El autor protesta vigorosamente contra la afirmación de Shorter de que “los riesgos que corre una mujer normal de ser realmente violada (es decir, de estimar que ha experimentado una violación) son todavía mínimos” en los Estados Unidos. Johnson proporciona las cifras que muestran que una habitante urbana de 12 años corre el peligro de ser violada al menos una vez en su vida por alguien que no es ni su padre ni su marido, con una probabilidad que se puede situar entre uno sobre tres y uno sobre dos. El hecho de que es difícil que se admitan las declaraciones de violación muestra lo ardua que es la empresa de escribir una historia de la violación con base en las estadísticas. Precisamente esto es lo que debiera alentar la reflexión sobre la realidad social actual del miedo a la violación. Es más temida hoy que en el pasado. Las nuevas formas de ultraje sexista unidas a la brutalidad han creado algo diferente. Sucede lo mismo con la prostitución bajo el postulado de la escasez: el sexismo agrava con sus insultos una realidad que existe desde siempre. Para hacerse una idea de esta evolución de un “estado” a una “profesión”, comparárense los dos artículos de Jacques Rossiaud, “Prostitution, jeunesse et société dans les villes du Sud-Est au XVe siècle”, _Annales ESC_, 31, núm. 2, marzo-abril, 1976, pp. 289-325, y “Fraternités de jeunes et niveaux de culture dans les villes du Sud-Est à la fin du Moyen Âge”, _Cahiers d’histoire_, 21, 1967, pp. 67-102. Con la incorporación del “ama de casa” en la economía, mediante su transformación en trabajadora fantasma (mientras que anteriormente contribuía a la subsistencia), la realidad social de la prostituta también cambió radicalmente. La prostituta pertenecía a la minoría de las mujeres que ejercían una actividad que no estaba insertada en el mercado —sus servicios escapaban a la economía, al contrario de los de una señora “legítima” o de una sirvienta que participaban en la subsistencia del hogar. Pero cuando en el siglo XIX las mujeres hubieron de entrar en la economía oficial, sobre todo como trabajadoras fantasmas, la mujer honesta y la prostituta se vieron compitiendo entre sí: una rivalidad enteramente nueva, económica y por ende violenta, que hubo de conducir a la exclusión brutal e institucional de la prostitución, así como a su regulación. Para una introducción a los muy numerosos textos sobre tal proceso, véase Alain Corbin, _Les filles de noce_: _misère sexuelle et prostitution, XIXe et XXe siècles_, Aubier-Montaigne, París, 1978.] + +[^f21:] _Patriarcado y sexismo_. La explicación más común del sexismo es el patriarcado, y muchos autores emplean indiferentemente uno y otro término. Por mi parte me preocupo por distinguir entre ambos (véase también la nota 7). Por “patriarcado” entiendo un esquema de dominación masculina en una sociedad bajo la égida (es decir, en griego, el escudo) del género. Más específicamente, en la historia europea el patriarcado representa la desigualdad del poder en las condiciones de complementariedad asimétrica del género, desigualdad que adquirió su estilo particular en la sociedad mediterránea de tiempos antiguos. Para Julian Pitt-Rivers, _The Fate of Shechem, or the Politics of Sex: Essays in the Anthropology of the Mediterranean_, Cambridge University Press, Nueva York y Londres, 1977, especialmente el capítulo 7, la política del sexo (que en las sociedades occidentales parece “natural”) se enturbió con la formación del Estado prehomérico. Los sistemas elementales de unión matrimonial, conforme a los cuales las mujeres eran cambiadas por otras mujeres, fueron a la sazón remplazados por un nuevo sistema, donde las mujeres eran cambiadas por una posición política. Jane Schneider, “Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies”, _Ethnology_, 10, 1971, pp. 1-24, identifica un conjunto singular de fuerzas ecológicas que fragmentaron a las sociedades pastoriles en pequeñas unidades económicas, las cuales no podían poseer la dimensión y la estratificación interna que eran típicas de las sociedades asiáticas, y que por lo tanto limitaban la capacidad de violencia organizada. En estas condiciones, las mujeres —en cuanto recursos— podían convertirse en causas de disputas, del mismo modo que el agua o los pastizales. Y lo que es más importante, la común preocupación que tenían por el “honor” de sus mujeres, de quienes eran los amos, era lo que frenaba la amenaza constante del conflicto mortal entre padres e hijos. Sherry B. Ortner, “The Virgin and the State”, _Michigan Discussions in Anthropology_, 2, otoño, 1976, pp. 1-16, va más lejos aún: tales condiciones propiciaron la formación de un dominio privado de los hombres que englobaba a las mujeres cuya pureza protegían, dominio que no coincidía simplemente con la esfera doméstica (en contraposición con la esfera pública). Según Jane Schneider, este tipo de dominio masculino y privado sobre la “pureza” de las mujeres es lo que distingue la hegemonía de un género en las sociedades de la cuenca mediterránea, de los sistemas homólogos en otras sociedades. Es por esta razón que yo no excluyo la posibilidad de cernir diferentes estilos de patriarcado, especialmente en el caso del “genero dislocado” (véanse las notas 77, 120 y 121). Entiendo por “patriarcado” una dominación asimétrica en el contexto del género (véase nota 83). Es evidente que el sexismo no es la prolongación, en las sociedades modernas, de aquellas relaciones de fuerza del patriarcado. El sexismo es una degradación individual de la mitad de la humanidad, con base en criterios sociobiológicos (notas 58 y 60) que anteriormente eran inconcebibles. Por esta razón es necesario apreciar la diferencia entre la atribución de un prestigio menor a las mujeres (en los países mediterráneos o en otros lugares) y la degradación individual de la mujer, quien en el régimen del sexo se ve forzada a competir con el hombre. Se encuentra una guía de los textos relacionados con las causas del sexismo en el empleo, en Natalie J. Sokoloff, “Bibliography of Women and Work: The 1970’s”, _Resources for Feminist Research/Documentation sur la recherche feministe_, Toronto, 1981, pp. 57-61. La autora propone interesantes categorías para clasificar las teorías que explican la posición de desventaja de las mujeres en el mercado del trabajo, pero utilizando conceptos que ignoran el género. El artículo no clasifica más que las publicaciones posteriores a 1970 relacionadas con eso que los sociólogos tienden a llamar “el trabajo”, es decir, principalmente el trabajo salariado, y la autora las ordena de acuerdo con las rúbricas siguientes: datos de base; crítica feminista de estos datos; teoría de la adquisición de estatus; teoría del doble mercado de trabajo; teoría de la estratificación de los sexos; sociología radical (marxista); modelos masculinos del mercado de trabajo de los teóricos del capitalismo monopolista contemporáneo; aplicación de estos modelos a las mujeres; feminismo marxista antiguo; mentoras feministas radicales del feminismo marxista de nuevo cuño. El hecho de ignorar la distinción entre género social y sexo social condujo a estos sociólogos a un análisis del conflicto actual igual al que se hacía en el pasado, viéndolo como un conflicto que oponía a dos clases de individuos: las mujeres y los hombres. Esta ignorancia conduce a una brillante mitóloga en dirección opuesta: Mary Daly, _Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism_, Beacon Press, Boston, 1978. Con mayor lucidez que muchos autores, reconoce en eso que yo denomino el sexismo la “religión predominante en todo el planeta” —pero, ahistóricamente, no lo contrapone al patriarcado—.] + +[^f22:] _Reproducción_. El termino “reproducción” forma con el de “producción” una pareja célebre. Actualmente estos conceptos marxistas básicos se han empleado tan extensamente que ya perdieron su sentido preciso. Como dice Agnes Heller, “Paradigm of Production: Paradigm of Work”, _Dialectical Anthropology_, 6, 1981, pp. 71-79: “Los intérpretes de Marx que emplean el concepto de producción en relación con todas las esferas de la interacción humana (‘producción artística’, ‘producción de ideas’) amalgaman dos paradigmas en uno solo … sin tener conciencia del cambio de sentido”. Gayle Rubin ha intentado emplear el concepto de reproducción para el análisis del estatus y de las funciones de las mujeres, en su ensayo “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex”, en Rayna Reiter, ed., _Toward an Anthropology of Women_, Monthly Review Press, Nueva York, 1976, pp. 157-210. A pesar de la crítica que hago en la nota 76, yo saqué provecho de la lectura de este artículo. Véase también Felicity Edholm, Olivia Harris y Kate Young, “Conceptualizing Women”, _Critique of Anthropology_, 9/10, núm. 10, 1977, pp. 101-130. Sin embargo, buena parte de la pretendida “historia de las mujeres” en los Estados Unidos se ha convertido en un vivero de mitos que no podrían sobrevivir al aire libre. Las universitarias feministas buscan un semblante de legitimidad aferrándose a residuos de legitimidad recogidos en teorías marxistoides de segunda mano que han sido desechadas por los especialistas de la historia social. Las feministas norteamericanas intentan construir una historia de los “modos de reproducción”, y las “teorías de la reproducción” (física, social, económica, ideológica) proliferan en todo discurso susceptible de distinguir el género del sexo. Representativa de esta tendencia, con una calidad muy por encima de la media, Heidi I. Hartmann, “The Family as the Locus of Gender, Class and Political Struggle: The Example of Housework”, _Signs_, 6, núm. 3, primavera, 1981, pp. 366-394. Yo empleo el término “reproducción” en relación con la fotografía, la división celular o el vaciado de estatuas. Sólo empleo el término “reproducción social” para hablar del sistema escolar, el cual funciona como una máquina de fotocopias.] + +[^f23:] _La economía inaparente_. Son raras las entidades nuevas que hayan recibido tantas designaciones. Este conjunto de actividades que estorban, falsean o desacreditan las estadísticas económicas oficiales, todavía no han podido ser circunscritas o denominadas de una forma unánimemente aceptada. Los siguientes textos atestiguan la búsqueda de la terminología: Scott Burns, _The Household Economy: Its Shape, Origins and Future_, Beacon Press, Bostón, 1975; Peter M. Gutmann, “The Subterranean Economy”, _Financial Analysts Journal_, noviembrediciembre, 1977, pp. 26-28; Yona Friedman, “Le ‘secteur D’ de l’économie”, _Futuribles_, núm. 15, mayo-junio, 1978, pp. 331-338; Jean-Marie Delatour, “Une forme de dissidence passive: le travail noir”, _Cadres CFDT_, núm. 289, junio-julio-agosto, 1979, pp. 26-29; Rosine Klatzman, “Le travail noir”, _Futuribles_, núm. 26, septiembre, 1979, pp. 26-29; Alessandra Nannei, “La resurrección de la economía subterránea”, _Le Monde Diplomatique_ en español, núm. 19, julio, 1980, pp. 4-5. Este último artículo es un comentario sobre Giorgio Fua, 1976, quien atribuía el auge económico de Italia a su inmensa economía subterránea. Nannei expone las diversas razones que causan que el trabajador de la economía subterránea sea relativamente más explotado. Véase también Dieter Piel, “Das dunkel Gewerbe, Schwarzarbeiter und illegale Verleihfirmen prellen den Staat um Milliarden”, en _Die Zeit_, archivo núm. 38, Hamburgo, 1981, pp. 9-11, y “Schwarzarbeit: Unglaublich was da läuft”, _Spiegel_, 46, Hamburgo, 1981, pp. 62-81. Como carezco del término adecuado, paradójicamente llamo economía “inaparente” a esta masa innominada de actividades. Digo “paradójicamente” porque no existe ningún otro hecho que más se haya intentado explicar en el curso de los años ochenta. Para una bibliografía de los estudios económicos, particularmente en los países del Tercer Mundo, véase Stuart Sinclair, _Bibliography on the “Informal” Sectors_ McGill University, Center of Developing Area Studies, Montreal, 1978. El término “sector informal” es cada vez más utilizado por los economistas, quienes hacen de él una especie de notación estenográfica para designar las actividades cuya productividad económica han logrado formalizar: bazares, pequeños comercios instalados en la vía pública, changarros familiares, mordidas… En otro lugar he sostenido que la formalización económica del sector informal y su control burocrático por los organismos dedicados a promover la iniciativa individual y la ayuda mutua revestirán una función análoga al colonialismo del pasado durante el último cuarto del siglo xx.] + +[^f24:] _Remuneraciones fuera de control e inflación_. Después de 1978, empezó a inquietar crecientemente al fisco de Norteamérica la proporción de las remuneraciones que escapaban a su control, ya sea porque fueran ganancias no declaradas, ya sea porque se trataran de transacciones ocultas. Al respecto citaré a Richard Porter, _Some Notes on Estimating the Underground Economy_, agosto 10, 1979, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, y M. Higgings, _Measuring the Hidden Economy_, Second Report from OCPU, University of Bath, Center for Fiscal Studies, julio de 1980. Edgar L. Feige realizó un intento por construir herramientas de evaluación macroeconómicas: _A New Perspective on Macroeconomic Phenomena. The Theory and Measurement of the Unobserved Sector of the United States Economy: Causes, Consequences and Implications_, agosto, 1980, 63 páginas, manuscrito: “Sostengo que el sector que escapa a la observación es tan vasto que rivaliza con el sector conocido, y tan variable en relación con la remuneración observada, que nos podría proporcionar la clave que nos permitiera comprender el malestar económico contemporáneo”.] + +[^f26:] _Subestimación: lo económico contra lo político_. Las estimaciones del volumen absoluto y relativo de la economía inaparente en el PNB dependen de las actividades que el autor incorpora en sus cálculos. En un polo se sitúan ciertos autores, de los que son representativos Gary S. Becker, _A Treatise on the Family_, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1981, y, en Francia, H. Lepage, _Autogestion et capitalisme_, Masson, París, 1978. Estos autores intentan evaluar idealmente los diversos factores que constituyen la economía inaparente, mediante unidades derivadas de las referencias utilizadas para evaluar la economía inaparente. “El valor imputado al trabajo escolar (hecho por los estudiantes) ha aumentado regularmente, yendo de 5% del PNB en 1929, a más de 11% en 1973 … El valor calculado del trabajo voluntario ha aumentado proporcionalmente todavía más, de 0.6% del PNB en 1929 a 2% en 1973 … Pero las notas de consumo del personal mostraron una relativa disminución de casi la mitad, yendo de 2.5% del PNB en 1929, a 1.3% en 1973 … reflejando una reglamentación fiscal más rigurosa.” Estas afirmaciones se encuentran en John W. Kendrick, “Expanding Imputed Values in the National Income and Product Accounts”, _The Review of Incarne and Wealth_, 25, núm. 4, diciembre, 1979, pp. 349-363. En el polo opuesto de estos procedimientos contables, yo propongo un enfoque que es más político que técnico, el del movimiento inglés Power of Women Collective, que existe desde principios de los años setenta. Tal enfoque ha sido definido por Mariarrosa Dalla Costa, _Women and the Subversion of the Community_, y Selma James, _A Women’s Place_, dos panfletos que se publicaron conjuntamente en 1972, Falling Wall Press, Bristol. Ambas autoras se proponen esencialmente la evaluación de la economía no percibida no en términos propios, sino en términos del tiempo perdido, de la labor y las molestias que impone a los desempleados, es decir, por razones obvias, sobre todo a las mujeres. Respecto a su posición, véase la nota 49. Las formulaciones respectivas de Becker y James son tan diferentes que a primera vista parece absurdo confrontarlas. Pero hacerlo cobra sentido cuando se considera que representan dos intentos similarmente infructuosos de evaluar dos ámbitos heterogéneos, empleando términos que entresacan recíprocamente una de la otra: la labor medida en términos de la producción de mercancías, y la labor que desempeñan a fin de satisfacer necesidades básicas utilizando las mercancías (véase nota 30).] + +[^f27:] _“Nueva economía doméstica.”_ La obra de Scott Burns ( _op. cit_. en la nota 23) constituye una buena introducción al tema. Para una bibliografía, véase Richard Berk, “The New Home Economics: An Agenda for Sociological Research”, en Sarah Fenstermaker Berk, ed., _Women and Household Labor_ Beverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1980. Este ensayo posee el doble interés de relatar la historia de la nueva disciplina y de insertar estrictamente la cuestión en el contexto de las labores domésticas de la mujer contemporánea. Un enfoque paralelo en voga pretende calcular las contribuciones económicas al PNB que representan las actividades “del hogar” en los países subdesarrollados. Los textos se sitúan en la frontera entre la antropología económica y la nueva economía doméstica. Véase por ejemplo Moni Nag, Benjamin White y Creighton Peet, “An Anthropological Approach to the Study of the Economic Value of Children in Java and Nepal”, _Current Anthropology_, 19, núm. 2, 1978, pp. 293-306. En el contexto de los estudios sobre el género, la nueva economía doméstica plantea una cuestión fundamental: permite una polarización sexual de los métodos empleados para evaluar el valor económico de las personas. Cuando los textos asignan a las mujeres un valor económico, casi siempre es un valor _imputado_. Al respecto, Harvey S. Rosen, “The Monetary Value of a Housewife: A Replacement Cost Approach”, _The American Journal of Economics and Sociology_, 33, núm. 1, enero, 1974, pp. 65-73, proporciona una iniciación a los métodos vigentes. El ama de casa produce ingresos monetarios o bienes hogareños. El valor de los ingresos perdidos puede calcularse fácilmente porque hay pérdida de ingresos mensurables. El valor de la producción doméstica, en cambio, debe ser imputado. Tal imputación es imperfecta, pero —según el autor— resulta mejor que la suposición de un valor nulo allí donde no hay una transacción monetaria. “La mayoría de los métodos … dividen las horas durante las cuales el ama de casa trabaja en diversas categorías de empleos y luego las calculan según los _salarios corrientes_ y las suman … Otro método calcula los costos de sustitución; se va al mercado para ver cuánto costaría emplear a alguien para remplazar a la madre de familia … Según un tercer método, el valor de un ama de casa es igual _al costo de sus posibilidades de empleo_ en el mercado de trabajo.” En otro texto he propuesto un _cuarto método_ para este juego de imputación de un valor. He sugerido que se calcule el capital que se invierte en cierto tipo de “industria doméstica” y que se establezca qué salario se paga en un periodo de 24 horas en las industrias vecinas que han invertido el mismo capital por cada puesto de trabajo. Los cuatro métodos permiten determinar el “valor” de un ama de casa de manera derivada. Su estatus como miembro del segundo sexo económico se evalúa, establece y confirma mediante la referencia al trabajo asalariado y al capital. Hay que señalar que a las amas de casa se les ha imputado un valor monetario en relación con su trabajo fantasma en el mismo decenio, el de los años setenta, cuando el trabajo asalariado en gran parte se transformó en una ocupación artificial: una seudo producción de dudoso valor mercantil.] + +[^f28:] _Desempleo ilícito_. En 1982, estar desempleado legalmente entre un relativo privilegio. Durante un decenio, el desempleo ilícito en los Estados Unidos había sido privativo de los negros, las mujeres, los que habían tenido que abandonar los estudios, los que no poseían diplomas de estudios; en la actualidad se empieza a extender a los varones blancos. Las fuentes de ingresos ilícitos se agotan crecientemente: los pequeños oficios o comercios informales, las prestaciones de servicios o necesidades “clandestinas”, incluso las actividades delictivas —fuentes de ingresos que impugnan los profesionistas, los sindicatos, la justicia—. La correlación entre la situación del desempleado ilegítimo y el legítimo forzosamente tiene que plantear un problema político mayor. En una sociedad que pretende ofrecer pleno empleo, muchos de los que realizan tareas no remuneradas no son incluidos entre los desempleados, mientras que muchos de los que trabajan en el sector inaparente están inscritos en el desempleo legal y, con frecuencia, reciben la ayuda correspondiente. No resulta fácil desentrañar si “el concepto de desempleo (_unemployment_) rebasaba la panoplia de las ideas de los primeros reformadores victorianos, sobre todo porque carecían de un término para él (G. M. Young, _Victorian England_), o si … (evitando ese término como victorianos que eran) simplemente demostraban así su incomprensión de los sentimientos populares, tesis que sostendría E. P. Thompson ( _Making of the English Working Class_)”; véase al respecto R. Williams, _Keywords, op. cit_. en la nota 2, pp. 273-275. Sea cual fuere la razón precisa, la división de los ciudadanos entre aquellos que tienen un empleo (los trabajadores), aquellos que no tienen empleo (desempleados) y aquellos que no están en ninguno de los dos casos, no es característica sino hasta mediados del siglo XX. La percepción social de las “personas sin trabajo”, en cuanto categoría derivada, posee una historia, ciertamente breve, que no se toma en consideración. John A. Garraty, _Unemployment in History: Economic Thought and Public Policy_, Harper and Row, (Nueva York, 1978, comenta en su introducción: “ … no se ha escrito todavía una historia general del desempleo … titulo este libro _Unemployment in History_, y no _A History of Unemployment_ … Mi propósito no es describir por qué existía el desempleo, sino cómo se percibía la condición del desempleado y qué actitudes había al respecto, en diversas sociedades desde el principio de la historia”. Por lo tanto, para Garraty el “trabajo” existe desde el momento que la “historia” existe. Y es en este sentido que la obra cojea, a pesar de su interés: ignora el hecho de que el “trabajo” en cuanto categoría dentro de la clasificación de las actividades humanas, y el “trabajador” en cuanto designación de un estatus especial, son ambos términos de reciente origen (véase la nota 13). Tras haber predominado durante un siglo, estas dos nociones actualmente se desvanecen. Los microprocesadores reducen la importancia de la mano de obra en la producción. Por añadidura, las actitudes respecto al _desempleo considerado como una forma de desviación_ tienen que modificarse: mientras más crece el número de personas que obtienen sus ingresos del sector inaparente, más son las medidas implementadas para favorecer el “empleo” que amenaza _sus medios de existencia no observables_. La correlación entre estas fuentes inaparentes y el volumen de los empleos comprobables se convierte en una cuestión política importante. Veamos un buen ejemplo: la conservación de la energía y la transición de las fuentes de energía clásica hacia las fuentes renovables, tienen repercusiones imprevisibles en los niveles y las características del empleo y el desempleo, tal como se miden tradicionalmente. Es verdad que la transición crea empleos. Pero lo importante es saber cuáles son las consecuencias en el volumen y en las características de las fuentes inaparentes de los medios de existencia. Las “tecnologías blandas” a la larga pueden prescindir de la mano de obra organizada. Para una guía autorizada sobre esta cuestión, consúltese Skip Laitner, Center for Renewable Resources, Suite 510, 1001, Connecticut Avenue N. W., Washington, DC 20036. La pérdida de las fuentes inaparentes de sus medios de existencia a muchas personas pronto les podría atemorizar más que el “desempleo”. Es difícil obtener estadísticas sobre estas dos formas fundamentales de privación de actividad. Ciertos autores, todos colaboradores de la _Review of Income and Wealth_, distinguen simplemente entre las actividades económicas y las no económicas. Para ellos, un servicio no mercantil es económico si también puede pagarse. Aun con este criterio restrictivo, llegan a las generalizaciones siguientes: en los Estados Unidos, el sector inaparente casi alcanzó el volumen de todo el sector privado, con más de 1.2 billones de dólares en 1976. Comparado con el sector inaparente (observado), se ha incrementado notablemente en 20 años. En este sector inaparente de la economía, los autores distinguen dos componentes: el monetario y el no monetario. “Descubren” que en relación con el segundo, el primero no es estable sino que fluctúa. De ahí deduzco que la exclusión del mercado ilícito de trabajo (el _desempleo ilícito_) fluctúa de la misma manera que el “desempleo”, pero de acuerdo con un ciclo diferente. Una razón fundamental que me impide estar de acuerdo con estos autores es la siguiente: incluyen en sus cálculos parte de lo que yo llamo el “trabajo fantasma”, y de esta suerte subestiman la economía de mercado inaparente. De manera implícita, estos autores falsifican la naturaleza del trabajo fantasma y subestiman su volumen. Ellos lo ven como no trabajo no económico: consideran que se trata de actividades agradables o deseables ligadas al consumo. Para un enfoque diferente que emplea utensilios conceptuales similares en relación con la economía francesa, particularmente a la economía doméstica, véase Pierre Kende, _Consommation_, 2, 1975, pp. 7-44. Es necesario hacer hincapié en el hecho de que no existen datos sobre el desempleo ilícito que distingan entre hombres y mujeres. Esta ausencia de estudios sólidos sobre la discriminación en la economía inaparente, sobre sus formas y sobre su magnitud, es una laguna en los estudios feministas] + +[^f29:] _Desintermediación_. Éste es un término técnico que originalmente se empleó para designar la actitud de los inversionistas que en vez de pasar por los bancos y las cajas de ahorro, se agrupaban para invertir directamente a fin de obtener mayores ganancias. Paul Hawken, “Disintermediation: An Economics Buzzword that Neatly Explains a Lot of the Good that is Going on”, _CoEvolution Quarterly_, núm. 29, primavera, 1981, pp. 6-13, propone el uso de este término para designar las consecuencias de una extensa gama de actividades donde las personas prescinden cada vez más de las instituciones a fin de obtener lo que realmente quieren, y a mejor precio. Prescinden del especialista, el sindicato, el fisco. Se sustraen al diagnóstico y al tratamiento de los médicos y se las arreglan para morir de cáncer en su propio lecho. Sobre todo “evitan” a los profesionales que controlan y coordinan estos servicios múltiples. La distinción que yo hago entre economía aparente y economía inaparente de hecho corresponde a una distinción entre el polo muy intermediado y el polo muy desintermediado de la economía oficial. Pero las tareas del hogar femeninas no se insertan en ninguno de estos dos polos. Puede existir la “intermediación” en los cuidados a un niño enfermo (por el hospital), pero no de la cocina o del alumbramiento; estos son efectivamente paradigmas del trabajo fantasma. Como tipo ideal, como categoría de las actividades económicas, el trabajo fantasma es diferente del “trabajo” (declarado o no, pagado con dinero o con especies) porque no puede ser desintermediado en virtud de razones culturales.] + +[^f30:] _Trabajo fantasma_. Concebí este término en mis conversaciones con Claudia von Werlhof, (véase nota 49), quien no lo comparte totalmente. Yo designo así el trabajo no remunerado del consumidor que proporciona a una mercancía un valor agregado necesario para hacerla útil a la unidad consumidora misma. Llamo a esta actividad “trabajo” para subrayar que constituye una pesada pérdida de tiempo, y lo califico de “fantasma” para indicar que dicha labor está asociada (y es anterior) al acto del consumo. Llamo _economía fantasma_ al sector de una economía industrial donde prevalece ese trabajo fantasma. Si he tenido que crear estos neologismos es con el fin de evitar la confusión entre este trabajo no retribuido asociado con el consumo y otros dos tipos ideales de actividad —el primero, como el trabajo fantasma, es parte integral de toda economía industrial; el segundo está inscrito en la cultura y el género y por lo tanto es no económico en sentido estricto—. Resultaba imprescindible diferenciar estos tres ámbitos, todos “inaparentes”. Para dar con esta imagen del “trabajo fantasma”, hube de pensar en un iceberg. Sólo su cima emerge y sólo puede observarse de un lado (su otra cara es análoga al sector _inaparente_ de la economía). La mayor parte del iceberg permanece sumergida, sin que pueda observarse su forma, aunque es posible inferir su talla. El iceberg en su totalidad es la economía: flota porque la mayor parte está sumergida; porque en la economía fantasma se lleva a cabo una labor. Todo el iceberg se cristalizó a partir del agua, a partir de la subsistencia intragenérica; salvo marginalmente, no se encuentra ninguno de sus tres ámbitos en las sociedades preindustriales. El iceberg representa la existencia de la humanidad según el postulado de la escasez. Para una crítica al respecto, véase Claudia von Werlhof, “Schattenarbeit oder Hausarbeit? Zur Gegenwart and Zukunft der Arbeit. Eine feministische Kritik an Ivan Illich”, en Th.Olk y H.-U.Olk, _Soziale Dienste im Wandel 2 Professionnelle Dienstleistung und Selbsthilfebewegung, 1982_, Bielefeld, Fakultät für Soziologie, noviembre, 1981.] + +[^f31:] _Labores del hogar_. La lectura de Gisela Bock y Barbara Duden, “Zur Entstehung der Hausarbeit im Kapitalismus”, _Frauen und Wissenschaft_, Courage Verlag, julio, 1977, pp. 118-199, me llevó a constatar que no existía una categoría donde me fuera posible ubicar “naturalmente” las labores del hogar de la mujer moderna. Ambas historiadoras me permitieron ver la diferencia funcional típica entre las actividades domésticas no remuneradas (históricamente nuevas) de las mujeres en todas las sociedades tradicionales, y las actividades domésticas de las mujeres que “se ocupan de la casa” mientras su marido “mantiene” a la familia con su salario. En el primer caso, tenía que hablar de la atribución concreta de tareas, definidas culturalmente, a un género, el de las mujeres; en el segundo caso, me encontraba ante la polaridad sexual de la mano de obra no retribuida, ante la división sexuada de las actividades económicas. A fin de encontrar un término económico (consecuentemente “agenérico”) para designar las actividades económicas no retribuidas que se impusieron de manera desproporcionada a las mujeres a lo largo del siglo XIX, tuve que ubicar las labores del hogar en la categoría del trabajo fantasma. Esto significaba convertirlas en paradigmas del trabajo fantasma, destacando una característica esencial: la discriminación sexual que confina a las mujeres en el trabajo fantasma. En el siglo XIX se pasó de la repartición de las tareas concretas entre los géneros, a la polaridad sexual de la mano de obra. Este paso está implícito en los recientes estudios sobre las mujeres, ya sean históricos o relacionados con las mujeres de las sociedades industriales. Dos obras muestran el nivel de la investigación en lengua inglesa sobre el tema: Sarah Fenstermaker Berk, ed., _Women and Household Labor, op. cit_. en la nota 27, y Nona Glazer-Malbin, “Housework”, _Signs_, 1, núm. 4, 1976, pp. 905-922. Ambas examinan los textos aparecidos de 1950 a 1975 que ven las labores del hogar como una variedad del trabajo, así como aquellos, posteriores a 1970, que estudian la estimación económica de su valor. Véase también Louise A. Tilly y Joan W. Scott, eds., _Women, Work and Family_, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, Nueva York, 1978, y Sandra M. Burman, _Fit Work for Women_, Croom Heim, Londres, 1979. Respecto a la modernización y las labores del hogar, véase C. E. Clark, “Domestic Architecture as an Index to Social History: The Romantic Revival and the Cult of Domesticity in America, 1840-1870”, en _Journal of Interdisciplinary History_, 7, 1976, y Susan J. Kleinberg, “Technology and Women’s Work. The Lives of Working-Class Women in Pittsburgh, 1870-1900”, _Labor History_, 17, 1976, pp. 58-72. Véanse también las notas 36, 37 y 85. Estas notas estaban ya en proceso de editarse cuando recibí las galeras de la obra de Susan Strasser, _Never Done: A History of American Housework_, Pantheon, Nueva York, 1982. Se trata del primer estudio acerca de la realidad histórica de las labores del hogar en los Estados Unidos; el autor nos muestra lo que _hacían_ las mujeres en su hogar, _no_ lo que _supuestamente hacían_; no nos habla de la _función_ sociológica que asumían ni de la _significación_ de su trabajo. La obra abunda en datos y notas precisos, es muy ágil y algunas de sus afirmaciones son particularmente notables.] + +[^f32:] _La mujer en el hogar_. El término “dueña” o “señora” ha sido poco a poco suplantado por la expresión “ama de casa”, pero está se refiere exactamente a la misma realidad. Es posible preguntarse cómo perciben esta realidad las interesadas mismas cuando se escucha, cosa frecuente, a una mujer responder a quien la interroga sobre su profesión: “No trabajo, soy ama de casa”. Al respecto, se puede leer con provecho el excelente y divertido capítulo 7 de la obra de Ann Oakley, _Woman’s Work the Housewife, Past and Present_, Vintage, Nueva York, 1974.] + +[^f33:] _Antropología económica_. Desde 1957, año de la publicación, por Karl Polanyi, C. Arensberg y M. Pearson, eds., de _Trade and Markets in Early Empires_, Glencoe, Nueva York, 1957, muchos textos han intentado responder esta pregunta: “¿De todos los conjuntos de conceptos analíticos posibles, cuál conviene más para la interpretación del comportamiento fuera de los sistemas mercantiles?” El texto de Geroge Dalton, “Theoretical Issues in Economic Anthropology”, _Current Anthropology_, 10, núm. 1, febrero, 1969, pp. 63-102, constituye una excelente introducción a la materia. Desde su aparición, es evidente que eso que los economistas denominan las decisiones económicas en el seno de los sistemas económicos no define el comportamiento de los “primitivos”, de los campesinos o de los habitantes urbanos del pasado que nos describen los antropólogos y los historiadores. Una de las razones fundamentales de que los conceptos económicos sean _inaplicables_ en el análisis de sociedades diferentes a la sociedad híperconsumidora de mercancías, es que estos conceptos suponen condiciones de escasez (véase la nota 11) y de sujetos sin género (véanse las notas 4 y 5).] + +[^f34:] _La ocultación del trabajo fantasma_. Una prohibición se cierne sobre el reconocimiento de la existencia del trabajo fantasma (el cual no representa una actividad de subsistencia, ni tampoco su sustitución empírica). Para no tener que analizarla, se disfraza a la economía fantasma. Hay cuatro tipos de disfraces. El de la antropología, que generalmente ve las labores del hogar como una supervivencia de las actividades de subsistencia. El de los economistas (véase la nota 26), quienes la amalgaman con el sector informal: la consideran ya sea como una labor gratuita cuya retribución consiste en la satisfacción que procura; ya sea como una actividad en el seno del sector inaparente que percibe una compensación no monetaria. El de los marxistas, que utilizan el concepto comodín de la reproducción para “evacuar” el trabajo fantasma (véase la nota 22). Por último, el de ciertas feministas, que matizan la óptica marxista y se esfuerzan sin descanso en identificar el trabajo fantasma y el trabajo femenino. Al hacerlo, impiden apreciar el hecho de que hay una categoría de la actividad humana: _1)_ exclusivamente característica de los tiempos modernos; _2)_ estructuralmente distinta del trabajo salariado, y todavía más fundamental.] + +[^f35:] _La economía del valium_. La sociología médica describe un “consumo de cuidados médicos” que difiere respecto a los hombres y las mujeres. En la población activa, las mujeres son las mayores consumidoras de las prestaciones médicas costosas y del tiempo necesario para sanar. La medicina se maneja de manera impúdica como una técnica de control de las mujeres. Mientras que los hombres pueden recurrir eficazmente a la “incapacidad” para adjudicarse un descanso, las mujeres intentan, aunque rara vez lo logran, esquivar el trabajo fantasma por motivos de salud. Véase Constance Nathanson, “Illness and the Feminine Role: A Theoretical Survey”, en _Social Science and Medicine_, 9, 1975, pp. 57-62, y M. Barrett y H. Roberts, “Doctors and their Patients: The Social Control of Women in General Practice”, en C. y B. Smart, eds., _Women, Sexuality and Social Control_, Routledge and Paul Kegan, Londres, 1978; véanse también las notas 86 y 87.] + +[^f36:] _Aparatos domésticos_. Ruth Schwarz Cowan, “A Case Study of Technological and Social Change: The Washing Machine and the Working Wife”, en Mary S. Hartman y Lois Banner, eds., _Clio’s Consciousness Raised_, Harper Colophon Books, Nueva York, 1974, pp. 245-253, estudia el hecho de que dos generaciones de norteamericanas gracias a sus aparatos eléctricos pudieron tener una mejor vida hogareña. La tercera generación ha comenzado a sospechar que esta “mejor vida” es engañosa: “El efecto primordial de la difusión de los electrodomésticos ha sido que la burguesía se preocupa más del ámbito doméstico, obligando a las mujeres del hogar a asumir diversas funciones que anteriormente estaban a cargo del personal doméstico pagado, o que se realizaban fuera de casa. Al mismo tiempo, las prioridades temporales han cambiado para ellas; el tiempo que ganan —por ejemplo, en el desempeño de las tareas culinarias— se piensa que lo deben invertir en otras labores, sobre todo en el cuidado de los niños. Si esta hipótesis es correcta, sus implicaciones son inquietantes … porque las ideas que gobiernan los programas de asistencia, entre nosotros y en el extranjero, están basadas en el postulado que supone que para reducir la pobreza en la India es necesario introducir allí la agricultura moderna y el control de los nacimientos. Pero no está claro cómo el empleo de contraceptivos masculinos o de una aspiradora perfeccionada puede ser suficiente para mejorar las relaciones entre los sexos”. Yo mismo había llegado a conclusiones análogas respecto a los efectos de la modernización en la vida cotidiana en _Energía y equidad, Obras reunidas_, vol. I, en la nota 9. Las conclusiones de Ruth Cowan en relación con las labores del hogar son válidas para el trabajo fantasma en general: _1)_ la maquinaria ligada al hogar (tanto el automóvil como la lavadora) constituye principalmente una inversión financiera que lo transforma en una fábrica donde se realiza un trabajo fantasma altamente capitalizado; _2)_ la proliferación de esta maquinaria obliga a dedicar _más_ tiempo, no menos, al trabajo fantasma; _3)_ al hacer las labores del hogar más neutras, menos específicas del género, da al sexismo doméstico bases todavía más sólidas.] + +[^f37:] _Trabajo no remunerado_. Para un estudio de las repercusiones de las labores hogareñas femeninas en el estatuto económico, la mano de obra, los roles de la pareja, la discordia familiar, el tratamiento brutal de las mujeres en el empleo, véase particularmente Susan M. Strasser, “An Enlarged Human Existence? Technology and Household Work in Nineteenth-Century America”, en Sarah Fenstermaker Berk, ed., _op. cit_. en la nota 27, pp. 25-51 (contiene una buena bibliografía). Respecto al tiempo invertido en las actividades domésticas no pagadas, véase Kathryn E. Walker y Margaret E. Woods, _Time Use: A Measure of Household Production of Family Goods and Services_, Center for the Family of the American Home Economics Association, Washington, 1976. El tema de esta investigación es el tiempo que se gasta en ejecutar diversos tipos de labores hogareñas; pretende medir el _output_ de las tareas domésticas en términos del empleo del tiempo. La investigación se limita a una comunidad suburbana al norte de Nueva York, y a parejas, con y sin hijos. No proporciona evaluaciones utilizables en relación con el trabajo fantasma, sino que muestra precisamente cuán difícil es obtenerlas. Respecto a Francia, véase B. Riandey, “L’Emploi du temps des mères de famille en France”, en L. Michel, _Les Femmes dans la société marchande_, PUF, París, 1978.] + +[^f38:] _Trabajo no remunerado_. En _Les trois mondes. Pour une théorie de l’après-crise_, Fayard, París, 1981, Jacques Attali afinó considerablemente sus reflexiones en torno a este aspecto onanista de las economías postindustriales. Sus argumentos favorecen la distinción que yo hago aquí entre la economía fantasma y el sector de producción inaparente (poco importa si este trabajo _productivo_ es remunerado o es compensado con otras ventajas). Pero el autor no insiste por su parte en esta distinción. Para comparar nuestras respectivas posiciones, véase Louis Puiseux, “Les visionnaires de l’après-crise”, _Politique Hebdo_, abril 12, 1981, pp. 8 y ss.] + +[^f39:] _Trabajo no remunerado_. A. Leibowitz, “Home Investment in Children”, en T. W. Schultz, ed., _Economics of the Family: Marriage, Children, Human Capital_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974, pp. 432-451 (la cita que doy está en la p. 451). Frank Stafford ( _ibid_., pp. 453-456) afirma: “Es limitada la eficacia de las medidas de interés público susceptibles de promover un cambio en la repartición de los ingresos. En efecto, si como se afirma, la influencia del medio familiar juega un papel considerable en el nivel de los ingresos, el hecho de mejorar las posibilidades de instrucción no habrá de tener consecuencias apreciables en los ingresos de aquellos que nacen en el seno de familias modestas. Con esta perspectiva, las formas diferentes de garantía de ingresos que podrían otorgar a las madres más tiempo para dedicarse a su hogar, ¿las harían dedicar más tiempo a sus hijos?” (Véanse obras citadas en las notas 26 y 27.) Un modelo probable de lo que sucederá al Estado-benefactor será una sociedad de benevolencia bajo la égida del Estado, basada en la estructuración social de las condiciones que promueven e incitan la iniciativa individual y la ayuda mutua. Suecia, modelo precoz del Estado-benefactor, ha asumido abiertamente esta transformación.] + +[^f40:] _Trabajo no remunerado_. Yo pienso que la distinción entre las políticas que engendran la _ayuda mutua totalitaria_ y las que engendran la _convivencialidad personal_ será una cuestión de moral social prioritaria en los años noventa. Actualmente disponemos de una bibliografía anotada, vivaz y exhaustiva, sobre la oposición entre los medios y los fines en los Estados Unidos: S. H. Cutliff _et al_., _Technology and Values in American Civilization: A Guide to Information Sources_, Gale Research, Detroit, 1980. Para una fenomenología de las diversas vías que puede asumir el cuidado y la protección totales de los seres, véase Valentina Borremans, “L’envers de la santé médicalisée “, en _Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Sozial und Preventivmedizin_, núm. 2-3, 1979.] + +[^f41:] _Trabajo no remunerado_. Al respecto véase la demostración argumentada de Jean Robert, _Le temps qu’on nous vole. Contre la société chronophage_, Seuil, París, 1980. Muchas conversaciones con el autor, desde hace un decenio, me han ayudado a precisar mis ideas sobre el trabajo fantasma.] + +[^f42:] _Trabajo no remunerado_. En el sector militar de una economía moderna, relativamente pocas actividades escapan al escrutinio. Es verdad que el comercio internacional de armas se mantiene en secreto, pero al menos aparece en las cuentas de los gobiernos. Al parecer, sólo en Italia las grandes fábricas de armamentos tienen subcontratantes en el mercado “negro”. También hay que interpretar la tendencia actual a la militarización de las economías postindustriales como un intento de proteger a la economía “aparente” de la economía “inaparente”.] + +[^f43:] _La economía de los autoservicios_. Las consecuencias para las mujeres de la actual transición a la economía de los autoservicios apenas se ha tocado en los estudios sobre el trabajo femenino. En la economía inaparente, las mujeres tienen un _handicap_ todavía mayor que en la economía aparente cuando intentan competir con los hombres por los _jobs_ generadores de ingresos, de estatus y de otras satisfacciones sociales. En la economía fantasma, a la que también los hombres se hallan condenados, éstos contienden con las mujeres por las formas menos fatigantes y las más gratificantes de eso que se denomina el _self help_ (la “autoasistencia”). Attali ( _op. cit_. en la nota 38) define la última fase del sistema industrial como la industrialización de los servicios que cada consumidor se proporciona a sí mismo. La organización de esta producción gratuita absorbe un porcentaje creciente de las actividades retribuidas. Las actividades retribuidas se adjudican el propósito de incitar la demanda de servicios auto-producidos. Yo veo esta tendencia reflejada en un nuevo ideal familiar: la redefinición de la familia como estructura económica “intermediaria”. El hogar se convierte en un lugar de autoservicios. Antes de la industrialización, la familia en gran medida era autosubsistente. Con la industrialización, se convirtió en el sitio donde un valor se añadía a los productos del trabajo asalariado gracias al trabajo fantasma femenino. Actualmente tiende a convertirse en un sitio donde la sociedad inyecta la más pequeña cantidad posible de productos industriales, a fin de que estos sean transformados por el trabajo fantasma de la familia en una variedad de bienes que satisfagan a los miembros del hogar, los mantengan ocupados, dependientes los unos de los otros y disciplinados. Este modelo no es solamente válido para la pareja conyugal tradicional, sino también para las nuevas formas de uniones y de comunidades; puede combinarse con ideales ecológicos, libertarios y descentralizadores. Esta nueva familia postindustrial ya no está organizada alrededor del trabajo asalariado de uno o varios de sus miembros; es una asociación de personas sin género que se entregan en común al trabajo fantasma sexista.] + +[^f44:] _La discriminación en el_ self-help. Gerda R. Wekerie, “Women House Themselves”, _Heresies_, 11, volumen 3, núm. 3, 1981, pp. 14-16, examina los programas de autoconstrucción de viviendas que han sido implementados con patrocinio oficial, y subraya la necesidad de una legislación antidiscriminatoria en este ámbito. Muestra la discriminación constante hacia las mujeres por parte de los organismos encargados de promover los programas de _self-help_. Le Werkgroep Kollektivering, en _Kollektivering van Huishoudelijke Arbeid_, Amsterdam, 1981, señala que en todos los lugares donde en el curso de tres generaciones las labores hogareñas se han vuelto colectivas, las mujeres han resultado perjudicadas.] + +[^f45:] _Estudios feministas_. Ann Oakley proporciona un excelente panorama en _Subject Women: Where Women Stand Today – Politically_, _Economically, Socially, Emotionally_, Pantheon, Nueva York, 1981, estudio histórico y sociológico de la sociedad industrial de finales del siglo XX, centrado en las mujeres, su mundo y su experiencia. La autora intenta una clasificación de las tendencias en el seno de los estudios feministas y de los movimientos de liberación (pp. 317-341). “Si la antropología de las mujeres no ha alcanzado la madurez en el mundo anglófono, por lo menos ha alcanzado una vigorosa adolescencia”, observa Rayna Rapp, “Review Essay: Anthropology”, _Signs_, 4, núm. 3, primavera, 1979, pp. 497-513. Éste es un ensayo que completa la obra de Ann Oakley. La perspectiva crítica alcanza un nuevo nivel, como lo muestra Margrit Eichler, _The Double Standard: A Feminist Critique of Feminist Social Science_, St. Martin’s Press, Nueva York, 1980. Finalmente, tres obras de consulta: Jane Williamson, _New Feminist Scholarship. A Guide to Bibliographies_, Feminist Press, Old Westbury, Connecticut, 1979, estudio selectivo, erudito y crítico; Mary Anne Warren, _The Nature of Woman: An Encyclopedia and Guide to the Literature_, Edgepress, Nueva York, 1980, estudio inteligente y vivaz; Cynthia E. Harrison, _Women in American History: A Bibliography_, Clio American Bibliographie Center, Santa Barbara, California, 1979: 3400 “notas de lectura” que abarcan 550 publicaciones periódicas de 1963 a 1976. Para las bibliografías sobre temas precisos, véase, en la presente obra, la nota correspondiente.] + +[^f46:] _Ciencia estereoscópica_. Respecto a la investigación sobre las mujeres en América Latina, véase June Nash y Helen I. Safa, eds., _Sex and Class in Latin America: Women’s Perspective on Politics, Economics and the Family in the Third World_, Bergin, Nueva York, 1980. En la introducción, June Nash afirma: “Hemos llegado a un estado liminal en las ciencias sociales. Los valores en los que se fundaban nuestros criterios selectivos están siendo cuestionados por personas que, hasta ahora, no habían contado para nada en la _profesión_. Son principalmente las mujeres y los indígenas de las culturas investigadas” (p. 15). Los 16 estudios reunidos en esta antología ilustran tres intentos típicos de combinar una visión nueva basada en las mujeres, con la perspectiva central clásica de las ciencias constituidas. De ahí surge algo que la autora llama _ciencia estereoscópica_, de la cual propongo desprender tres corrientes: _1)_ la investigación _complementaria_, en la que los conceptos y los métodos clásicos se aplican a sujetos hasta entonces selectivamente descartados (por ejemplo, el hecho de que las bachilleres mestizas son obreras); _2)_ la investigación _compensatoria_, en la que el prejuicio teórico (blanco/varón/capitalista/nórdico/etc.) se reconoce y compensa. Característicamente, la investigación compensatoria utiliza categorías gastadas de la historia o de las ciencias sociales clásicas (producción, productividad, explotación…) pero con la perspectiva de “los de abajo”; _3)_ la investigación sobrecompensatoria o _contrastante_, que colorea los conceptos analizados: por ejemplo, las actividades no remuneradas no se consideran formas de explotación más que cuando son femeninas. Estas tres formas de la ciencia estereoscópica ilustran el hecho de que la perspectiva central característica de las ciencias puede ser tanto estereoscópica como monocular. El resultado de este tipo de investigación es un sexismo epistemológico complementario, compensatorio o contrastante (véase la nota 54). He mostrado en otro lugar (“La investigación convivencial”, en _El trabajo fantasma_, en este volumen, en la nota 1), que el investigador que pretende evitar el prejuicio teórico implícito en una perspectiva central, tiene que estar muy consciente de que es necesario emprender una investigación disciplinada, crítica, documentada, pública, y sin embargo no científica. Sólo la investigación no científica, que emplea la analogía, la metáfora, la poesía, puede captar la realidad del género.] + +[^f47:] _Modernización de la pobreza_. Del mismo modo que el “trabajo” (véase nota 13, particularmente Mollat), la “pobreza” ha experimentado una discontinuidad semántica al convertirse en palabra clave moderna. La pobreza moderna es una realidad social diferente de la pobreza del pasado; implica condiciones de escasez. Cuando se dice “pobre mujer” al hablar de la esposa enferma de un millonario, es porque se usa “pobre” en sentido figurado. Hoy, ser “pobre” es lo contrario de ser “rico”, lo cual no era para nada el caso en la Edad Media, donde ser pobre era lo contrario de ser poderoso. Véase Karl Bosl, “Potens und Pauper: Begriffsgeschichtliche Studien zur gesellschaftlichen Differenzierung im frühen Mittelalter und zum Pauperismus des Hochmittelalters”, en _Festschrift O. Brunner_, Gotinga, 1963, pp. 601-687. La pobreza —no solamente en la India, sino también en Europa— fue en ciertas épocas un ideal, un signo de prestigio, una virtud. G. Ladner, “ _Homo viator_: Mediaeval Ideas on Alienation and Order”, _Speculum_, 42, núm 2, abril, 1967, pp. 233-259, describe magistralmente al peregrino, _Homo viator_, situado entre _ordo_ y _abalienatio_. Los “Convegni del Centro di Studi sulla Spiritualità Medievale”, volumen III, _Povertà e Richezza nella Spiritualità del secolo XI a XII_, Todi, 1969, reúnen una docena de ensayos sobre la espiritualidad de la pobreza. Estas actitudes medievales no parecen absurdas más que a quienes olvidan que las sociedades modernas se enorgullecen de su capacidad de empobrecer al mayor número posible de ciudadanos, definiéndolos como beneficiarios de servicios que ya no pueden proporcionarse por ellos mismos. Éste es un mecanismo que se ha descrito con frecuencia; véase principalmente Robert A. Scott, _The Making of Blind Men: A Study of Adult Socialization_, Russell, Sage Foundation, Nueva York, 1969. El autor observa que “ser aceptado entre los ciegos y conducirse como un ciego son cosas que en gran medida son independientes del grado de impedimento visual. Actualmente en los Estados Unidos el estatus de muchos _ciegos_ está relacionado con las buenas relaciones que puedan mantener con cierto organismo que se ocupa de la gente que padece ceguera”.] + +[^f48:] _Las mujeres y el desarrollo económico_. Esther Boserup, _Women’s Role in Economic Development_, St. Martin’s Press, Nueva York, 1974, especialmente el capítulo “Male and Female Farming Systems”, pp. 15-35, expone lo que experimentan las mujeres durante la transición de una cultura rural tradicional a una economía urbana y moderna. Lejos de incorporar a las mujeres en el proceso de producción, el auge de la economía monetaria resulta un obstáculo para su participación como iguales en la creación de la cultura material. La autora compara la degradación económica de las mujeres de América Latina, de Asia y de África. Véase también al respecto Laurel Bossen, “Women in Modernizing Societies”, _American Ethnologist_, 2, núm. 4, noviembre, 1975, pp. 587-591. Para el caso de África, véase Denise Paulme, _Women in Tropical Africa_, University of California, Berkeley, 1971; la autora demuestra que el colonialismo ha destruido la complementariedad entre las ocupaciones de los hombres y las ocupaciones de las mujeres, en las cuatro comunidades que investigó. En todas, el tránsito a una economía monetaria ha conducido a diferencias de estatus hasta entonces desconocidas por los sexos. Jane I. Guyer, “Food, Cocoa, and the Division of Labour by Sex in Two West African Societies”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 22, núm. 3, 1980, pp. 355-373, da en las primeras notas un resumen de la discusión en torno a la división sexuada de la mano de obra durante los años setenta. Aunque prácticamente no cita más que textos que conciernen al África, las cuestiones teóricas en juego quedan claramente al descubierto. En las dos sociedades que estudia, constata el hecho de que la incorporación de las mujeres en la relación monetaria ha confirmado y agravado, respecto a los ingresos, su segregación anterior relacionada con la definición cultural. Se puede encontrar una buena orientación sobre los textos franceses más antiguos en el estudio de Gabriel Gosselin, “Pour une anthropologie du travail rural en Afrique noire”, _Cahiers d’études africaines_, III, núm. 12, 1963, pp. 512-549. Al contrario de lo que pasa con los hombres, la modernización disminuye el número de empleos para las mujeres. En los países socialistas, la modernización hace más pesada la doble carga del empleo/tareas hogareñas. En los países capitalistas, conduce a las mujeres a competir entre sí para obtener las plazas de trabajadoras domésticas. Para la situación en Lima, Perú, véase Elsa M. Chaney, _Domestic Service and Its Implications for Development_, Agency of International Development, Washington, D. C., 1977. Por añadidura, más y más mujeres trabajan para otras mujeres pobres, pues en los 78 países subdesarrollados que fueron estudiados, es creciente el número de hogares que dependen principalmente de las ganancias de una mujer adulta; véase Mary Buvinic y Nadia Youssef, _Women-Headed Households. The Ignored Factor in Development Planning_, International Center for Research on Women, Washington, D. C., 1978. Guía bibliográfica: Mary Buvinic, _Women and World Development. An Annotated Bibliography_, Overseas Development Council, Washington, 1976. En Mona Etienne y Eleanor Leacock, eds. _Women and Colonization. Anthropological Perspectives_, Praeger, Nueva York, 1980, los antropólogos, situándose en una perspectiva histórica, intentan reconstituir la posición de las mujeres en una docena de sociedades antes del surgimiento del sistema capitalista. Finalmente, Valentina Borremans, “La Technique et le fardeau des femmes”, _Les Temps Modernes_, núm. 437, diciembre, 1982 (“Técnica y agobio de las mujeres”, _Ixtus_, núm. 60, noviembre-diciembre, 2006), demuestra que la “investigación _para_ las mujeres”, que intenta proporcionarles tecnologías nuevas, es parte integrante de todas las políticas de desarrollo, resultando siempre, para las mujeres, en el aumento y no en la disminución de sus tareas. Sólo la “investigación _por_ las mujeres”, es decir, conducida por aquellas que emplean las nuevas herramientas o las nuevas técnicas, podrá aliviar la dependencia de las mujeres respecto a los vínculos monetarios y, al mismo tiempo, reducir el sexismo.] + +[^f49:] _“Domesticación” internacional_. Según Claudia von Werlhof, _Las Mujeres y la periferia_, Universität Bielefeld, Fakultät der Soziologie, 1981, se puede explicar el desarrollo económico como el resultado de la sumisión de las mujeres y otros trabajadores marginales al tipo de actividad respecto a la cual son paradigmas las tareas domésticas en los países ricos. La autora señala la tendencia a dividir el trabajo entre los que producen los bienes mercantiles y aquellos que los utilizan (p. 21), y a ubicar a los primeros en la esfera comercial, monetaria, pero no a los segundos (p. 17). La actual restructuración de la economía mundial, con su adaptación a la energía costosa, a los microprocesadores, conjuntamente con la dominación social creciente que ejerce, parecen representar un intento por infundir e imponer mundialmente a los hombres una aptitud para labores que hasta ahora se consideraban características y naturales de las mujeres solamente. A partir de esto, el desarrollo significa la creación de un inmenso sector donde, para poder sobrevivir, los seres marginados deben volverse aptos para reciclar eso que el sector industrial califica de desecho (es decir, las mercancías de calidad inferior o descartadas). En al ámbito internacional, las sociedades “subdesarrolladas” tienden a convertirse en los sectores marginados del mundo industrializado, semejantes a las “amas de casa” de los “asalariados”. Por lo tanto se puede decir que este proceso que se desenvuelve en la periferia de la sociedad industrial es una _Verhausfraulichung_ (literalmente, “domesticación” del trabajo) internacional. André Gorz, en su obra _Adieux au prolétariat. Audelà du socialisme_,Éditions Galilée, París, 1980, pp. 127-146, propone un argumento paralelo, sorprendente a pesar de pasar por alto casi enteramente la cuestión de la discriminación de las mujeres en esta nueva “domesticación” internacional.] + +[^f50:] _Desamparo de los solteros_. Véase Micheline Baulant, “La Famille en miettes: sur un aspect de la démographie du XVIIe siècle”, _Annales ESC_, 27, núms. 4-5, julio-octubre, 1972, pp. 959-968.] + +[^f51:] _Vernáculo_. Éste es un término técnico que ha sido tomado del derecho romano, donde se encuentra desde las primeras estipulaciones hasta su codificación por Teodosio (el Código Teodosiano.) Designa lo contrario de una mercancía: “ _Vernaculum, quidquid domi nascitur, domestici fructus; res quae alicui nota est et quam non emit_” (Du Cange, _Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis_, volumen VIII, p. 283). Era vernáculo todo lo que se confeccionaba, tejía y criaba en casa, no destinado a la venta sino al uso doméstico. Tanto en inglés como en francés se emplea principalmente para designar la lengua “natal”. Pretendo reanimar este término porque no conozco uno mejor. Hablaré de su historia en la obra que estoy preparando sobre los _Valores vernáculos_. Califico de “vernáculo” todo conjunto constituido por dos subconjuntos genéricos. Hablo del _lenguaje vernáculo_, en el que existe una complementariedad entre el modo de hablar de las mujeres y el de los hombres (nota 101); de un _universo vernáculo_ (nota 89), donde los hombres y las mujeres aprehenden complementariamente la realidad social; o de _herramientas vernáculas_, cuando quiero designar el herramental de un grupo que está más o menos nítidamene dividido por el género (nota 70).] + +[^f52:] _Complementariedad y ciencias sociales_. En la física moderna, se ha aprendido a considerar la complementariedad de dos perspectivas. No se puede explicar el fenómeno de la luz únicamente como un fenómeno ondulatorio ni tampoco como un fenómeno corpuscular. En un caso como en el otro, eso significaría excluir un aspecto demasiado importante. Decir que consiste en ambos parece una paradoja. La complementariedad sólo es significativa en virtud de la forma matemática de la teoría en la que aparece. La idea subyacente de complementariedad epistemológica no es nueva. A partir de Euclides, para quien el ojo emitía rayos cuyas extremidades sondeaban el objeto, Tolomeo y luego los grandes escolásticos distinguían _lumen_ de _lux_. _Lux_ es la luz que se percibe subjetivamente; _lumen_ es una corriente que emana del ojo y que ilumina el objeto. Es posible imaginar la realidad vernácula como un inmenso mosaico cuyas piezas poseen cada una su propio color iridiscente, su _lux_. En la _lumen_ del análisis del género, cada “cultura” aparece como una metáfora, una complementariedad metafórica (notas 55 a 57) que vincula dos conjuntos de herramientas distintos (nota 70), dos tipos de espacio-tiempo (notas 78 y 79), dos dominios (notas 85 y 86). Éstos encuentran su expresión en las maneras, distintas pero afines, de ver y comprender el mundo (nota 89) y del que hablan (notas 94 a 101). La ciencia, tanto mono como estereoscópica (nota 46) es un filtro, una pantalla entre la ambigüedad de la luz generada y el ojo del observador. Pero tal filtro es permeable en ambos sentidos a la _lumen_ agenérica que el observador proyecta sobre el objeto, y en el que él (o ella) lo observa. La perspectiva central de la antropología cultural borra la asimetría simbólica que constituye la realidad social de toda realidad vernácula. La _lumen_ monocromática, neutra, de conceptos tales como el _rol_ (notas 63 y 64), el _intercambio_ (nota 33), la _estructura_ (notas 76 y 77), apaga el _Eigenvalue_ de toda realidad vernácula. Lo que el observador científico no capta a través de sus anteojos de diagnosticador no son hombres y mujeres que actúan realmente en una sociedad de subsistencia intragenérica, sino a seres sexuados que una norma cultural abstracta y agenérica desvía y a quienes hay que poner en funcionamiento, evaluar, clasificar y estructurar mediante jerarquías. Puesto que opera partiendo de conceptos que desconocen el género, la antropología cultural es inevitablemente sexista (véase mi comentario sobre Rubin en la nota 7). Y este sexismo es bastante más ofuscador que la antigua arrogancia etnocéntrica.] + +[^f53:] _Derecha e izquierda_. Desde hace algún tiempo, _derecha_ e _izquierda_ son términos que se han vuelto etiquetas en la investigación biológica y neurológica, así como en la mitología popular. (Respecto a la bibliografía de este tema, véase Hubbard y Friend, en la nota 58.) Los textos que citaré hablan del empleo de “derecha” e “izquierda” como términos taquigráficos que designan un dualismo que no es biológico sino _simbólico_. Para una historia y una apreciación del material etnográfico sobre el dualismo simbólico, véase Rodney Needham, ed., _Right and Left: Essays on Symbolic Classification_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1973, que reúne 17 artículos escritos por 17 autores entre 1909 y 1971, precedidos por una importante introducción de Needham. Entre las muchas interpretaciones posibles del simbolismo derecha/izquierda, en la tradición intelectual occidental se ha introducido una visión singular de esta complementariedad. Al respecto véase Otto Nussbaum, “Die Bewertung von Rechts und Links in der Römischen Liturgi”, _Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum_, 5, 1962, pp. 158-171, y Ursula Deitmaringen, “Die Bedeutung von Rechts und Links in theologischen und literarischen Texten bis um 1200”, _Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur_, 98, núm. 4, noviembre, 1969, pp. 265-292.] + +[^f54:] _Sexismo moral/sexismo epistemológico_. La ciencia es sexista en dos sentidos: está dominada por los hombres y se basa en categorías y procedimientos agenéricos —objetivos— (véase la nota 52). Cuando el género surge entre los temas académicos, suele ser en las humanidades, por ejemplo, los estudios sobre las religiones como los de Mircea Eliade, _Le sacré et le profane_, 1965, _La nostalgie des origines_, 1971 (ambas obras: Gallimard, París), y en la crítica literaria: Carolyn G. Heilbrun, _Toward a Recognition of Androgyny_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1973. Califico de “moral” a la primera forma de sexismo, la cual resulta de la personalidad de los académicos, individual o colectivamente. Las feministas estigmatizan el _sexismo moral_, en virtud de lo que hace y también de lo que desprecia: los hombres predominan en el campo científico, los hombres deciden lo que debe considerarse como ciencia, la mayoría de las mujeres científicas son discípulas de estos hombres, y las categorías científicas están totalmente impregnadas de prejuicios masculinos. De tales críticas resulta un feminosexismo a la moda, al que cada vez más también se afilian hombres. La segunda forma de sexismo es más fundamental. Lo llamo _sexismo epistemológico_. Éste expurga del género (femenino y masculino) los conceptos y los métodos de las ciencias (véanse las notas 46 y 52). Se halla implícito en todo discurso científico que confunde género y sexo, y también en el lenguaje corriente, cuando la trama de la conversación está configurada por palabras clave (nota 2). El sexismo moral ha sido seriamente impugnado durante los años setenta. Pero los que lo denunciaron en las ciencias, luego con demasiada frecuencia convinieron más firmemente con el sexismo epistemológico. Un ejemplo flagrante de sexismo moral es el interpretar como algo innato toda diferencia entre los sexos (la derecha/la izquierda, por ejemplo) que puede tener una correlación en biología. En este sentido existe una tendencia tan extendida que ya se había vuelto trivial a finales de los años setenta, cuando el vocabulario científico expresaba el cumplimiento de las expectativas de los hombres de ciencia: derecha = dominación masculina; izquierda = adaptación femenina. Las dos formas de respuesta a esta interpretación (véase bibliografía en la nota 58) eran ambas sexistas epistemológicamente: _1)_ una crítica en el plano moral, abiertamente feminosexista, según la cual, por ejemplo, el título de la nota 53 tendría que ser “Izquierda y derecha”; _2)_ una crítica más sólida, que hacía notar que derecha/izquierda efectivamente indica una dualidad, pero en forma abstracta, haciendo así de la dualidad masculino/femenino una dualidad entre otras y confirmando, por vía del estructuralismo, la inexistencia del género como dualidad _sui generis_ (sobre el estructuralismo, véase la nota 76). Respecto a las tendencias muy recientes en los estudios feministas que auguran el reconocimiento del sexismo epistemológico en la ciencia, véase Lynda Glennon, _op. cit_. en la nota 12. Ella distingue cuatro tipos (parcialmente traslapados) de intentos feministas de lidiar con el sexismo implícito en las dualidades que comúnmente se utilizan como conceptos analíticos en las ciencias sociales.] + +[^f55:] _Yin y yang_. El sinólogo Marcel Granet, de quien Rodney Needham reproduce un ensayo en _Right and Left, op. cit_. en la nota 53, pp. 43-58, hacía notar que en China jamás se encuentran al respecto oposiciones absolutas: el zurdo no es más “siniestro” que el diestro. Innumerables reglas atestiguan el predominio alternado de la derecha y de la izquierda. La diversidad de las épocas y los lugares impone en cada ocasión una elección delicada entre la izquierda y la derecha, pero ésta elección se basa en un sistema muy coherente de representaciones. Ciertamente, es la mano derecha la que se usa más frecuentemente, pero es sin duda por esto que la mano izquierda es preponderante, hecho que atestiguan muchas reglas importantes de la etiqueta. En relación con África, Marcel Griaule ha dado de esta ambigüedad una clásica y sutil descripción en _Dieu d’eau. Entretiens avec 0gotemmêli_, Éditions du Chêne, París, 1948, y posteriormente Fayard, 1966. En la India, R. Panikkar ha dedicado varios textos a esta cuestión. Interpreta la “búsqueda de Cristo” occidental como un _equivalente homomórfico_ (un término no idéntico que realiza una función similar) de la búsqueda brahmánica de los polos que se funden sin mezclarse; véase R. Panikkar, _The Unknown Christ of Hinduism_, Orbis, Nueva York, 1981. En la crítica literaria reciente, la palabra clave con la que se aborda esta cuestión es “androginia”; véase N. T. Bazin, “The Concept of Androgyny: A Working Bibliography”, _Women’s Studies_, 2, 1974, pp. 217-235.] + +[^f56:] _Metáforas mutuas_. Cuando hablo metafóricamente, cuando me desvío del discurso directo para emplear mis propias combinaciones bizarras y sorprendentes de palabras, bien sé que mi interlocutor no me entenderá a menos que perciba claramente el empleo intencional de un término portador de un sentido distinto del literal. Todo lenguaje vernáculo es el resultado de dos formas de hablar diferentes, que corresponden a dos dominios del género, dentro de los cuales el mundo se percibe de manera propia al género en cuestión (véae la nota 101). Aquel (o aquella) que emplea palabras vernáculas corrientes para hablar del ámbito opuesto recurre instintivamente a la metáfora. Sobre la metáfora, véase Warren A. Shibles, _Metaphor: An Annotated Bibliography and History_, Whitewater, Wisconsin, 1971, pp.10-17. El texto que para mí expone la casi imposibilidad de emplear la lengua del siglo XX para hablar del género (o de lo que de éste sobrevive) es de Luce Irigaray, _Speculum de l’autre femme_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1974, principalmente las pp. 9-161: “La tache aveugle d’un vieux rêve de symétrie”. Para una magistral introducción al tema, véase William Empson, _Seven Types of Ambiguity_, New Directions, Nueva York, 1947. La relación metafórica misma se puede expresar mediante la metáfora: esto pasa frecuentemente con los símbolos religiosos. Ludwig Wittgenstein, “Bemerkungen über Frazers _The Golden Bough_”, _Synthese_, 17, 1967, pp. 233-253, decía lo siguiente: “… en la especie poner la magia entre paréntesis es magia”, y “la metafísica se convierte en una suerte de magia”. La _gorgona_ es una metáfora de esta especie. Como dice Jean-Pierre Vernant, “L’autre de l’homme: la face de _gorgô_”, en Maurice Olender, ed., _Le Racisme. pour Léon Poliakov_, Éditions Complexe, París / Bruselas, 1981, pp. 141-154. “O, para expresar en otros términos esta reciprocidad, esta simetría tan extrañamente desigual del hombre y del dios, lo que revela la máscara de _gorgo_, cuando te fascina, eres tú mismo, tú mismo en el más allá, cabeza vestida de noche, rostro con la máscara de la invisibilidad que, en la mirada de _gorgo_, se revela como la verdad de tu propia figura”, pp. 153-154. Para el mismo autor, “Figuration de l’invisible et catégorie psychologique du double: le Colossos”, _Mythe et Pensée chez les Grecs_, Maspero, Petite Collection, 2 vols., París, 1971-1974, pp. 251-264, los gemelos son igualmente aterradores, véase por ejemplo Aidan Southall, “Twinship and Symbolic Structure”, en J. S. La Fontaine, ed., _The Interpretation of Ritual_, Tavistock, Londres, 1972, pp. 73-114. En la presente obra, cuando empleo el término “género”, le confiero sentido en tres niveles diferentes: _1)_ en el sentido descriptivo, designo así uno de los dos sólidos subconjuntos de toda realidad vernácula (“maneras de hablar”, tareas, espacios, símbolos) que están más o menos vinculados con las características genitales masculinas o femeninas; _2)_ hablo de un “todo” vernáculo, en la medida en que está constituido por la complementariedad de estos dos subconjuntos; _3)_ epistemológicamente sé que el “género” en este segundo sentido es una metáfora relacionada con la complementariedad simbólica ambigua que constituye a cada uno de los dos “géneros” (en el primero de los sentidos) como metáforas mutuas. En este punto, mi pensamiento procede del concepto escolástico de _relatio subsistens_.] + +[^f57:] _Complementariedad ambigua_. La complementariedad de los géneros es a la vez asimétrica y ambigua. La asimetría implica una desproporción de magnitud, de valor, de poder o de peso —lo cual no crea ambigüedad—. La asimetría indica una posición relativa; la ambigüedad indica el hecho de que los dos géneros no se corresponden exactamente. Respecto a la asimetría de los géneros, véanse las notas 21 y 83. Aquí me refiero a la ambigüedad. La ambigüedad que caracteriza a los géneros es única. Tiene dos caras: los hombres no simbolizan la relación mutua de la misma manera que las mujeres (véase la nota 56). Robert Hertz, autor del primer ensayo de la compilación realizada por Rodney Needham, _op. cit_ en la nota 53, “The Pre-eminence of the Right Hand: A Study in Religions Polarity”, pp. 3-31, intentó incorporar en las ciencias sociales esta noción de complementariedad, en una época en que el concepto comenzaba a dar frutos en las ciencias físicas. Este investigador genial se había dado cuenta de que en las ciencias sociales la polaridad fundamental implicaba a la vez asimetría y ambigüedad. Murió en el frente durante la primera Guerra Mundial y desde entonces su pensamiento ha sido tergiversado. Primero, su “editor”, Marcel Mauss, domesticó las desconcertantes nociones de asimetría y de ambigüedad contenidas en la idea de la complementariedad que Hertz había propuesto, haciendo de esta dualidad nueva, anómala, el fundamento de todo “intercambio”; véase Marcel Mauss, _Essai sur le don. Forme et raison de l’échange dans les sociétés archaïques_, París, 1925, reeditado en la segunda antología de sus artículos: _Sociologie et anthropologie_, PUF, París, 1950. Luego, Lévi-Strauss vino a decir que Mauss había sido el primero en haber tratado la totalidad del hecho social como un sistema simbólico de intercambios entre individuos y entre grupos, convirtiendo así a Hertz en el maestro de Mauss. La complementariedad _nebulosa, parcialmente incongruente_, que únicamente era posible captar mediante la metáfora y que Hertz sospechaba era el sustrato de la cultura, fue desterrada de las ciencias sociales por conceptos operativos como el rol, la clase, el intercambio y, finalmente, el “sistema” (véase la nota 76). Aquí quiero oponer la complementariedad que constituye la relación entre los géneros a los procesos de intercambio entre parejas formales. La primera tiende idealmente hacia la _relatio subsistens_: significaciones vinculadas metafóricamente y no antitéticamente. Inversamente, el intercambio implica tanto el entendimiento entre actores sociales, como una obligación común que es independiente del objeto mismo del intercambio. El intercambio conduce a las parejas a _ubicarse claramente_ unos respecto a otros, por lo tanto a tender hacia la _jerarquía_ y la _dependencia_. Allí donde el intercambio estructura las relaciones, un denominador común define las posiciones respectivas. Allí donde la ambigüedad constituye dos entidades y al mismo tiempo las relaciona, constantemente engendra nuevas discordancias parciales entre hombres y mujeres, al mismo tiempo que pone en entredicho toda tendencia a la jerarquía y la dependencia.] + +[^f58:] _Mitología sociobiológica_. Al menos parcialmente, la ciencia es una empresa intelectual apegada a sus épocas, a las ideas en boga, y los hombres de ciencia centran sus investigaciones en las cuestiones que les preocupan emocional o políticamente. Esto aparece muy claro en los intentos científicos de establecer un vínculo entre las diferencias humanas, intraespecíficas y orgánicas, y los comportamientos. Stephen Jay Gould, _The Mismeasure of Man_, Norton, Nueva York, 1981, hace la reseña histórica de estos intentos de abstraer la inteligencia, convirtiéndola en una entidad cuantificable que está ubicada en el cerebro y que permite clasificar a los seres. Pero la obra también es una buena introducción a las peripecias de la ideología del determinismo biológico, desde la craneoscopía hasta Peter J. Wilson. Ya en 1944, Gunnar Myrdal hablaba de “la tendencia a admitir sin discusión la causalidad biológica, y a no considerar una explicación social más que a la fuerza”, como de una ideología que se permitía considerar la situación vigente de un grupo como medida del estado que sus miembros _deberían tener_ normalmente. Gould centra su estudio en tal biodeterminismo, cuya popularidad actualmente resurge, como suele suceder en los periodos de retroceso político. Desde mediados de los setenta, millones de personas han aprendido a aceptar la idea de que su intolerancia o su inferioridad social son, al fin y al cabo, hechos científicos; que están insertadas políticamente en los lugares y categorías donde han sido colocadas por la especialización intraespecífica. Respecto a las críticas de estos intentos de volver a elevar las ciencias humanas y sociales a subdisciplinas de la sociobiología, mediante la exageración de los efectos de la herencia en el comportamiento humano, véase William M. Dugger, “Sociobiology for Social Scientists: A Critical Introduction to E. O. Wilson’s Evolutionary Paradigm”, _Social Science Quarterly_, 62, núm. 2, junio, 1981, pp. 221-246, así como la crítica de D. Symons, _The Evolution of Human Sexuality_, Oxford University Press, Nueva York, 1980, que Clifford Geertz publicó en _The New York Review of Books_ del 24 de enero de 1980, pp. 3-4. Sobre el tema de esta nota, véase Helen H. Lambert, “Biology and Equality: A Perspective on Sex Differences”, _Signs_, 4, núm. 1, otoño, 1978, pp. 97-117, y sobre todo el análisis exhaustivo y múltiple de la perspectiva sexista en los estudios de biología humana que se encuentran en la importante antología de M. S. H. Hubbard y Barbara Friend, eds., _Women Look at Biology Looking at Women_, Schenkman, Cambridge, Mass., 1979. Sin embargo, hay que señalar que actualmente hay feministas que piensan que los hombres y las mujeres son subespecies separadas de la especie humana y se comportan de manera intrínsecamente diferente, sin importar la cultura a la que pertenezcan; véase Alice Rossi, “A Biosocial Perspective on Parenting”, _Dedalus_,106, núm. 2, primavera, 1977, pp. 1-31. La exigencia igualitaria del feminismo es capaz de camuflar el matiz racista implícito en el determinismo biosocial —a pesar de que pretenda poseer las mejores intenciones—.] + +[^f59:] _Sociología animal_. La sociología animal es una especie de ciencia ficción a la inversa. Mientras que ésta atribuye un comportamiento reflexivo y significativo a seres que son invenciones de la imaginación, la sociobiología animal atribuye la construcción social a seres subhumanos. Lo que ambas tienen en común con las ciencias sociales es que operan en términos que ignoran el género. El valor ocasionalmente profético de la ciencia ficción, o la confirmación de ciertas teorías del comportamiento mediante la experimentación con animales, simplemente demuestran que las categorías de las ciencias sociales ignoran lo que es característico y exclusivamente humano: la cultura genérica. Al respecto véase Donna Haraway, “Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic”, _Signs_, 4, núm. 1, 1978, pp. 21-60, así como los otros artículos en el mismo número.] + +[^f60:] _El racista y el profesional_. Es deliberada mi comparación entre el racista y el profesional de los servicios, aunque bien sé que muchos de mis lectores se consideran profesionales, y pocos se sienten racistas. Pero es una comparación que me siento obligado a hacer. Recomiendo a los que se interesan en estas ideas mi _Desempleo creador_, véase _Obras reunidas_, vol. I, en especial la segunda mitad de la obra. Más y más estudios sobre el siglo XIX muestran que los profesionales de los servicios inventaron su diagnóstico de las “necesidades” a fin de crear la demanda de las terapias que monopolizaban. Véase al respecto Burton S. Bledstein, _The Culture of Professionalism_, Norton, Nueva York, 1976. En el marco del Estado-nación, que tendía a monopolizar la producción de servicios, incluso antes de que la producción y comercialización de las mercancías se ubicaran en el sector privado, los profesionales “jugaban con los temores del público relacionados con el desorden y la enfermedad, adoptaban con deliberación una oscura jerga, ridiculizaban las tradiciones populares del _self-help_ calificándolas de retrasadas y no científicas, y de tal forma creaban … o intensificaban la demanda de sus servicios” (Christopher Lasch, _The New York Review of Books_, noviembre 24, 1977, pp. 15-18). En este contexto, los profesionales se arrogan el mandato de definir “científicamente” las “deficiencias”; de conducir las investigaciones de acuerdo con esta “misión”; de imputar concretamente estas deficiencias a ciertos individuos con base en un “diagnóstico”; de someter a grupos enteros de la población a pruebas obligatorias; de imponer terapias a aquellos que según ellos requerían ser sanados, corregidos, reciclados. La lógica de este proceso ha sido desmontada con inimitable penetración por John L. McKnight, _The Mask of Love: Professional Care in the Service Economy_, Londres y Boston, Marion Boyars, 1982. El _ethos_ profesional y el _ethos_ racista convergen. Ambos se basan, aunque de forma sutilmente distinta, en el mismo postulado: el diagnóstico biológico permite a la biocracia clasificar socialmente a los seres. Esta convergencia del _ethos_ profesional y de la discriminación biológica, en ninguna parte aparece con tanta claridad como en la historia de la ginecología (véanse las notas 86 y 87). Diversos textos de la antología de Maurice Olender, ed., _Pour Léon Poiakov, op. cit_. en la nota 56, señalan un vínculo entre los prejuicios relacionados con las mujeres y los relacionados con los judíos en la tradición de la Ilustración.] + +[^f61:] _Rol_. El “rol” es un concepto mediante el cual, desde Ralph Linton, _The Study of Man: An Introduction_, Appleton-Century Crofts, Nueva York, 1936, la sociología vincula el orden de una sociedad con el comportamiento característico de los individuos que la integran. Gracias al “rol”, la gente forma parte de una pluralidad que luego es posible analizar mediante conceptos que ignoran el género. Por añadidura, el empleo del “rol” en calidad de categoría de las ciencias sociales excluye la posibilidad de introducir el género en la discusión. El género establece la relación mutua entre dos términos que poseen más _otredad_ que la que jamás podrían tener los simples individuos. La sociología tomó prestado del teatro el concepto de rol. Allí, el rol aparecía como concepto y término técnico desde el momento en que los actores europeos comenzaron a desplazarse en un entarimado, donde las escenas seguían una secuencia de “entrada”, “actuación” y “salida”. El concepto de rol fue tan novedoso para el teatro del siglo XVI como lo ha sido para la sociología del siglo XX. Al respecto, véase Richard Southern, “Fourth Phase: The Organized Stage”, _The Seven Ages of the Theatre_, Hill and Wang, Nueva York, 1963, pp. 155-215. En torno a la influencia que ha tenido en la metodología el concepto de rol, véase W. H. Dray, “Holism and Individualism in History and Social Science”, _Encyclopedia of Philosophy_, bajo la dirección de Paul Edwards, Macmillan, Nueva York, 1967, tomo 4, pp. 53-58.] + +[^f62:] _Morfología social_. En cualquier medio vernáculo, el género es la fuente de una forma social que no puede existir más que dentro de parámetros limitados. En este sentido, el género es la fuente de la autolimitación de las formas sociales. Esta tesis jamás se ha propuesto, y aquí sólo la menciono. En biología, una forma no puede existir más que en el seno de una gama restricta de tamaños. La forma de los congéneres del ratón abarca desde los 25 milímetros hasta el tamaño de una rata; no puede existir un elefante con patas tan pequeñas como las de un ratón. Sobre este tema existe un texto admirable de J. B. S. Haldane, “On Being the Right Size”, en James R. Newman, ed., _The World of Mathematics. A Small Library of the Literature of Mathematics from A’h-mose the Scribe to Albert Einstein_, Simon and Schuster, Nueva York, 1956, volumen 2, pp. 952-957. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson, en _Growth and Form_, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, edición abreviada de J. T. Bonner, 1971, centra su investigación en las relaciones morfológicas de la forma y el tamaño. Leopold Kohr, _The Breakdown of Nations_, Londres, 1941, inauguró la morfología social buscando las relaciones entre la forma y el tamaño de una sociedad. Discípulo de Kohr, E. F. Schumacher retomó el axioma de su mentor en _Small Is Beautiful_, 1973; traducción francesa con el mismo título, Seuil, París, 1978, con el subtítulo “Una sociedad a la medida del hombre”. Para mí, la _belleza social_ existe allí donde los elementos materiales de una cultura son de un tamaño adecuado para la complementariedad concreta basada en el género. El medio debe permanecer dentro de los parámetros de tamaño que corresponden a su forma (en griego, _morphè_) —condición necesaria para que exista y se mantenga una relación intragenérica entre el dominio de las mujeres y el de los hombres en un medio vernáculo—. Si el medio se deforma más allá de un umbral crítico, la complementariedad genérica se disuelve: entran en escena individuos que desempeñan un rol sexuado en un escenario que ya no está hecho a su medida.] + +[^f63:] _Rol de los sexos_. Respecto al término “sexo”, véase la nota 7; respecto al “rol”, la nota 61. La expresión “rol de los sexos” no entró en el lenguaje corriente sino después de la segunda Guerra Mundial. A los victorianos les fascinaban las _diferencias entre los sexos_ (véase la nota 65). Durante los primeros años del siglo XX, los hombres de ciencia se interesaron particularmente en la diferencia entre hombres y mujeres en términos de inteligencia mensurable (véase Gould, nota 58). Al final de los años veinte, la creación de escalas que permitían medir el cociente de feminidad o de masculinidad que se manifestaba en los rasgos característicos no intelectuales se convirtió en un buen negocio. Para una orientación de lecturas, véase Julia Ann Sherman, _On the Psychology of Women: A Survey of Empirical Studies_, C. Thomas, Springfield, Mass., 1971, y como complemento crítico de esta obra, Joyce J. Walstedt, _The Psychology of Women: A Partially Annotated Bibliography_, KNOW, Pittsburgh, 1972, que también incluye estudios que no son de especialistas. Durante los años treinta, bajo la influencia del psicoanálisis, fueron las diferencias entre las necesidades emocionales las que se identificaron científicamente y se pusieron en operación a fin de que les pudieran servir a los terapeutas, a los trabajadores sociales y a los educadores. Durante los años cincuenta, los investigadores se interesaron más en las diferencias entre las tendencias a la homosexualidad. Para la historiografía de las diferencias entre los sexos, véase Eleanor E. Maccoby y Carol N. Jacklin, _The Psychology of Sex Différences_, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, California, 1974. Sobre la importancia que ha adquirido en las ciencias sociales el rol de los sexos, véase H. A. D. Astin, _Sex Roles: A Research Bibliography_, National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, Maryland, 1975.] + +[^f64:] _Rol de los sexos_. Melville J. Herskovits, _Economic Anthropology_, Norton, Nueva York, 1965; 1a edición, 1935, con el título _Economic Life of Primitive Peoples_. Durante 30 años, la mayoría de las citas sobre la repartición sexual del trabajo que se encontraban en los manuales de sociología, tanto en inglés como en otras lenguas, consistían en pasajes enteros del séptimo capítulo de esta obra.] + +[^f65:] _Feminismo victoriano_. El feminismo victoriano logró hacer de las relaciones entre los hombres y las mujeres en las sociedades primitivas un tema fascinante en las conversaciones. Pero la evidencia de esa gran variedad de comportamientos entre los “salvajes” fue interpretada por los antropólogos victorianos como la prueba de un esquema evolucionista que conducía finalmente a la norma universal de la familia burguesa; véase Elizabeth Fee, “The Sexual Politics of Victorian Sexual Anthropology”, _Feminist Studies_, 1, 1973, p. 23 ss. Véanse otros estudios recientes sobre el sexismo victoriano en Jill Roe, “Modernization and Sexism: Recent Writings on Victorian Women”, _Victorian Studies_, 20, invierno, 1977, pp. 179-192; Marlene LeGates, “The Cult of Womanhood in Eighteenth-Century Thought”, _Eighteenth-Century Studies_, 10, núm. 1, 1976, pp. 21-39; B. Didier, “L’exotisme et la mise en question du système familial et moral dans le roman, à la fin du XVIIIe siècle: Beckford, Sade, Potocki”, _Studies on Voltaire_, 152, 1976, pp. 571-586. La polarización sexual representa un nuevo tipo de clasificación social que no emplea como principal parámetro el estatus, sino la personalidad (clasificación que habría sido impensable antes de la Ilustración). Es esto lo que me permitió comprender a Karin Hausen, “Family and Role Division. The Polarisation of Sexual Stereotypes in the Nineteenth Century. An Aspect of the Dissociation of Work and Family Life”, en Richard J. Evans y W. R. Lee, eds., _The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Families in Nineteenth-and Twentieth- Century Germany_, Croom Helm, Londres, Totowa, N. J., Barnes and Noble Books, 1981, pp. 51-83, y también Barbara Welter, “The Cult of True Womanhood 1820-1860”, _American Quarterly_, 18, 1966, pp. 151-174. La polarización sexual ha conducido tanto a una nueva percepción social del cuerpo femenino (notas 86 y 87) como a una nueva percepción del ámbito de la ciudadana: la esfera doméstica. En torno a las etapas de la propagación en los Estados Unidos del valor ideológico de la vida doméstica, y a la colusión de las mujeres y los sacerdotes al respecto —que en virtud de la Independencia se encontraban “desestablecidas”— y sobre la necesidad absoluta de tener una _vida doméstica redentora_ en una sociedad en vías de industrialización, véase la brillante y compleja interpretación de Ann Douglas, _The Feminization of American Culture_, Discus Books/Avon, Nueva York, 1977. Los escritos de las feministas de la época victoriana muestran que éstas no adoptaron las ideas de sus tiempos relacionadas con los logros de las mujeres y con el trabajo femenino; además del ensayo de Jill Roe citado aquí anteriormente, véase Elaine Rose Ognibene, _Women to Women: The Rhetoric of Success for Women, 1860-1920_, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Dissertation, Nueva York, 1979.] + +[^f66:] _Sexo y temperamento_. Margaret Mead, _Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies_, 1935 (publicado en francés con otro ensayo más bajo el título de _Mœurs et Sexualité en Océanie_, Plon, París), 1963, y Erich Fromm y Michael Macoby, _Social Character in a Mexican Village_, Prentice Hall, Nueva Jersey, 1970, marcan respectivamente el principio y probablemente el fin del empleo de las categorías agenéricas del psicoanálisis (Fromm en conjunción con Marx) para explicar cómo el _temperamento o la personalidad social_ modelan las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres en condiciones sociales muy diferentes.] + +[^f67:] _Complementariedad de los roles_. Los victorianos centraron su investigación en las esferas opuestas que la naturaleza había destinado para los humanos masculinos y femeninos (nota 65). Durante la Gran Depresión, los norteamericanos se preocuparon particularmente por la división del trabajo productivo entre los sexos. Como era de esperar, miles de rasgos sociales que se recogieron en cientos de sociedades se clasificaron sistemáticamente; se buscaron constantes, se erigieron conjeturas con base en cuantificaciones significativas, todo lo cual condujo a hipótesis no válidas, aun cuando los datos originales pudieron ser significativos estadísticamente; al respecto véase A. D. Coult y R. Haberstein, _Cross-Tabulations on Murdock’s Ethnographic Sample_, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, 1965. Para una introducción sencilla a los datos compilados, véase George P. Murdock, “Comparative Data on the Division of Labor by Sex”, _Social Forces_, 15, 1937, pp. 551-553, y para un condensado de esta obra, “Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary”, _Ethnology_, 6, núm. 2, 1967, pp. 109-236. Aunque algo árida y fragmentaria, se puede encontrar información que a veces resulta útil en sus epígonos, en Joel Aronoff y William D. Crano, “A Re-examination of the Cross-Cultural Principles of Task Segregation and Sex Role Differentiation in the Family”, _American Sociological Review_, 40, febrero, 1975, pp. 12-20; Alain Lomax y Conrad M. Arensberg, “A Worldwide Evolutionary Classification of Cultures by Subsistence Systems”, _Current Anthropology_, 18, núm. 4, diciembre, 1977, pp. 659-708; William D. Crano y Joel Aronoff, “A Cross-Cultural Study of Expressive and Instrumental Role Complementarity in the Family”, _American Sociological Review_, 43, núm. 4, agosto, 1978, pp. 463-471. Siempre que se ha querido identificar tendencias universales para justificar la asociación de ciertos tipos de tareas con uno u otro sexo, los resultados han sido banales o incluso nulos. Estadísticamente, las mujeres han sido asociadas con trabajos que según los antropólogos “son repetitivos y pueden ser interrumpidos, no son peligrosos y están basados en técnicas simples”; con tareas “que implican pocos riesgos y se realizan en la proximidad del hogar” y “tienen poco valor social”; tareas “cuyos valores relativos son más resistentes al cambio que las técnicas que se utilizan para realizarlas”. Finalmente, este análisis cultural comparativo ha conducido a “descubrir” ciertas excepciones. Si Murdock calculaba una “tasa _mundial_ de intercambio de tareas” entre hombres y mujeres de 16%, esta tasa alcanza 81% en dos subgrupos de los bontoc igorot occidentales, indígenas de la isla de Luçon, en las Filipinas: Albert S. Bacdayan, “Mechanistic Cooperation and Sexual Equality among the Western Bontoc”, en Alice Schlegel, ed., _Sexual Stratification_, Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1977, pp. 270-291. Respecto a los mitos que engendran estas hipótesis, la obra crítica más legible y más ágil sigue siendo la de Ann Oakley, _Woman’s Work: The Housewife, Past and Present, op. cit_. en la nota 32.] + +[^f68:] _Subordinación femenina_. Muchos de los estudios de la primera mitad de los años setenta relacionados con las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres, interpretan como un signo de la subordinación de las mujeres el hecho de que fuera de la sociedad industrial no se otorga públicamente el poder y la autoridad a las mujeres. Para los textos sobre este tema, véase Susan Carol Rogers, “Woman’s Place: A Critical Review of Anthropological Theory”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 20, núm. 1, 1978, pp. 123-162, guía muy útil sobre la forma en que la antropología trata las diferencias entre los sexos, así como los estatus relativos de los hombres y las mujeres en los Estados Unidos y Gran Bretaña; véase también Naomi Quinn, “Anthropological Studies on Women’s Status”, _Annual Review of Anthropology_, 6, 1977, pp. 181-225. Evalyn Jacobson Michaelson y Walter Goldschmidt proporcionan en “Female Roles and Male Dominance among Peasants”, _Southwestern Journal of Anthropology_, 27, 1971, pp. 330-352, un útil índice de 46 monografías, publicadas entre 1940 y 1965, que analizan las sociedades campesinas y también tratan de los roles y los estatus relacionados con los sexos. Ruby Rohrlich-Leavitt, ed., _Women, Cross-Culturally: Chance and Challenge_, Mouton, La Haya, 1975, y un número enteramente dedicado a “Sex Roles in Cross-Cultural Perspective”, _American Ethnologist_, 2, núm. 4, noviembre, 1975, ofrecen una muestra representativa de los enfoques dentro de la investigación cultural comparativa de las mujeres; para una perspectiva feminomarxista, véase _Critique of Anthropology_, 3, núm. 9/10, 1977, número dedicado a las mujeres. Todos estos estudios casi no emplean más que categorías analíticas que rechazan implícitamente la distinción entre género y sexo, patriarcado y sexismo (nota 21), dominación asimétrica, y repartición jerárquica del poder (nota 83). Además, este rechazo los lleva a dar la primacía a la esfera pública, a admitir la definición “masculina” de la importancia cultural, y a no decir nada de la asimetría del poder que caracteriza la existencia en el seno del género. Esto es lo que efectivamente demuestra Louise A. Tilly, “The Social Sciences and the Study of Woman: A Review Article”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 20, núm. 1, 1978, pp. 163-173, quien comenta la obra de Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo y Louise Lamphere, eds., _Women, Culture and Society_, California, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, 1974. No obstante, y acaso de manera significativa, los dos únicos estudios importantes sobre las mujeres “primitivas” que fueron publicados durante un periodo de menor interés en la investigación sociológica y antropológica sobre las mujeres (aproximadamente entre 1945 y 1970) se ocupan de la asimetría del poder entre los géneros: P. M. Karberry, _Women of the Grassfields_, HMSO, Londres, 1952; reimpresión: Gregg International, 1970, y Audrey I. Richards, _Chisungu, a Girl’s Initiation Ceremony Among the Bemba of Northern Rhodesia_, Faber & Faber, Londres, 1951. En el ensayo de Ernestine Friedl, “The Position of Women: Appearance and Reality”, _Anthropological Quarterly_, 40, 1967, pp. 97-105, la cuestión de la asimetría del poder se retoma de manera encantadora: dentro de un estilo de vida en que la existencia está centrada en el hogar, el poder que cuenta parece ser el que se ejerce en casa. Mi distinción entre género y sexo, y su dominación relativa en diversas sociedades, podría disipar en gran parte la confusión que hasta ahora ha presidido inevitablemente toda discusión sobre la “subordinación de las mujeres”. Véase particularmente la bibliografía citada en las notas 21 y 83.] + +[^f69:] _La división del género_. Véase Pierre Clastres, _La Société contre l’État_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1974, pp. 88-111, “L’Arc et le panier”. Existen culturas en la cuales la distancia entre los seres es todavía mayor. Entre los siriono (grupo indígena de Bolivia), los hombres y las mujeres creen que no tienen vínculos recíprocos sino por intermediación de la luna. Véase John Ingham, “Are the Siriono Raw or Cooked?”, _American Anthropologist_, 73, 1971, pp. 1092-1099.] + +[^f70:] _Herramientas y género_. La asociación del género con las herramientas simples ocupa un lugar preferencial en la investigación sobre el género, porque tal asociación se puede observar directamente. No pasa lo mismo, por ejemplo, con la asociación entre el género y las tareas. La lista, o taxonomía, de todas las tareas “asignadas” en una cultura dada, es siempre, al menos parcialmente, creación del observador. Las herramientas son objetos concretos, y el observador siempre puede comprobar directamente si son manejadas por los hombres o por las mujeres. Por esto resulta una laguna sorprendente la ausencia de estudios tocantes a la asociación del género y las herramientas. Aunque hay observaciones al respecto, se dan en el marco de los estudios dedicados a otras materias. Es una buena introducción a este tema Michael Roberts, “Sickles and Scythes: Women’s Work and Men’s Work at Harvest Time”, _History Workshop_, 7, 1979, pp. 3-28. Son ricos y detallados (buena bibliografía) los textos de Günther Wiegelmann, “Zum Problem der Bäuerlichen Arbeitsteilung in Mitteleuropa”, _Geschichte und Landeskunde, Franz Steinbach zum 65. Geburtstag_, Bonn, 1960, pp. 637-671, y “Erste Ergebnisse der ADV-Umfragen zur alten bäuerlichen Arbeit”, _Rheinische Vierteljahresblätter_, 33, 1969, pp. 208-262. Es un útil complemento de los textos anteriores: Maria Bidling-maier, _Die Bäuerin in zwei Gemeinden Württembergs_, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, 1918, un estudio excepcional para su época, donde la autora compara minuciosamente el trabajo cotidiano de los campesinos antes de la primera Guerra Mundial en una aldea tradicional, y en otra en vías de modernización; véase también Ingeborg Man, _Erntegebrauch in der ländlichen Arbeitswelt des 19. Jahrhunderts. Auf Grund der Mannhardtbefragung in Deutschland von 1865_, Marburg, 1965. Para Hungría, véase Edit Fél y Tamás Hofer, _Proper Peasants: Traditional Life in a Hungarian Village_, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, volumen 46, Aldine, Chicago, 1969, pp. 101-137, y _Bäuerliche Denkweise in Wirtschaft und Haushalt: eine ethnographische Untersuchung über das ungarische Dorf Atány_, Otto Schwartz, Gotinga, 1972, particularmente la p. 149 y ss. referente a los dichos, gracejos y sarcasmos que censuran los traspasos de la división de los géneros. Allí donde las reglas son estrictas, las excepciones son claras: todavía tras la segunda Guerra Mundial, una viuda que se veía obligada a realizar el trabajo de su difunto esposo recibía ayuda —por ejemplo, la del herrero, que afilaba gratuitamente sus herramientas—. Un bello y rico estudio al respecto, aunque sólo enfoca indirectamente las herramientas: O. Loefgren, “Arbeitsteilung und Geschlechtsrollen in Schweden”, _Ethnologia Scandinavia_, 1975, pp. 49-72. B. Huppertz, _Räume und Schichten bäuerlicher Kulturformen in Deutschland_, Bonn, 1939, esp. pp. 191 y ss. y 281 y ss., quien observa que en ciertas regiones de Alemania los vínculos entre las herramientas y el género, y todavía más entre animales o plantas y el género, han permanecido intactos desde el Neolítico. Sobre los santos católicos que son los guardianes de la asignación correcta de las guadañas y las hoces a un género o al otro, véase Leopold Schmidt, _Gestaltheiligkeit im bäuerlichen Arbeitsmythos: Studien zu den Ernteschnittgeräten und ihre Stellung im europläischen Volksglauben und Volksbrauch_, Verlag des Österreichischen Museums für Volskund, Viena, 1952, sobre todo las pp. 108-177.] + +[^f71:] _División del trabajo_. Una expresión también puede constituir una “palabra clave”. Es el caso de _división del trabajo_. A primera vista, su empleo en la conversación común no parece crear confusión. Y sin embargo, al consultar los manuales y los diccionarios, se observa que tres _categorías distintas_ de actividades humanas se incluyen y confunden en esta locución: _1)_ la división funcional de las tareas productivas (ciudad/campo; zapatero/carpintero; o especialización: los 17 pasos para fabricar una aguja); _2)_ la repartición de las tareas según los géneros en las sociedades tradicionales; _3)_ los roles diferentes y opuestos que se asignan al trabajador salariado y a los que éste mantiene. Por lo tanto no es posible hablar de “división” del trabajo en una descripción histórica o antropológica sin crear un equívoco respecto al sentido de la expresión. Véase Barbara Duden y Karin Hausen, “Gesellschaftliche Arbeit-Geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung”, en Annette Kuhn y Gerhard Schneider, eds., _Frauen in der Geschichte_, Pädagogischer Verlag Schwann, Düsseldorf, 1979, pp. 11-13. Por esta razón yo evito hablar de la “división del trabajo”.] + +[^f72:] _Élites y género_. La producción, es decir, la creación de excedentes para los demás, se mantuvo en al ámbito del género hasta el siglo XIX. Y el consumo de los excedentes también permaneció en gran medida bajo el signo del género. Vivir de los propios productos del campo no significaba llevar una existencia basada en la satisfacción de necesidades neutras —como sucede con el consumidor moderno—. El hecho de tener un estatus superior no borraba la barrera del género. Incluso el “rango” la hacía más visible, pues los señores y sus damas podían permitirse el ocio de “exhibir” su género. Las incursiones en el otro género a veces eran obligadas (nota 106), a veces deliberadas: Loefgren (nota 70) evoca a las mujeres nobles que montaban a caballo en una sociedad donde por lo general sólo los hombres cabalgaban.] + +[^f73:] _Tributo feudal y género_. La prueba de que durante la alta Edad Media los hombres y las mujeres de una misma familia pagaban el tributo al señor con productos agrícolas distintos la aporta Ludolf Kuchenbuch, “Bäuerliche Gesellschaft und Klosterherrschaft im 9. Jh. Studien zur Sozialstruktur der Familie der Abtei Prum”, en _Vierteljahresschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, 2 volúmenes, fascículo 66, Wiesbaden, 1978. También ha sido bien demostrado que en el siglo IX algunos individuos, sin importar el sexo, recibieron tierras a cambio de tributos específicos que su familia tenía que aportar. No se ha escrito aún la historia del tributo genérico y su desaparición durante la Edad Media. En torno a la historia del trabajo servil que se imponía el día del Señor, véase Otto Neurath, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der Opera Servilia”, _Archiv für Sozialwissenschaften und Sozialpolitik_, volumen XLI, núm. 2, 1915, pp. 438-465. Respecto a los días estrictamente feriados, véase Pierre Braun, “Les tabous des ‘Feriae’”, _l’Année Sociologique_, 3a serie, 1959, pp. 49-125. Para comprender las dificultades ideológicas que se presentan en el estudio de la división del trabajo según los sexos en el pasado, véase Christopher Middleton, “The Sexual Division of Labour in Feudal England”, _New Left Review_, 113/114, enero-abril, 1979, pp. 147-168. Respecto a la mujer en la aldea medieval, véase Rodney H. Hilton, _The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages_, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975, pp. 95-110.] + +[^f74:] _Comercio y género_. Sobre esta cuestión véase Sidney W. Mintz, “Men, Women and Trade”, _Comparative Studies in Society and History_, 13, 1971, pp. 247-269. Un marido jamás podía inmiscuirse en los asuntos comerciales de su mujer, aun cuando podía beneficiarse de las ganancias. Mintz examina los estudios de ciencias sociales relacionados con las mujeres que se dedican al comercio, asegurando que sus colegas no aciertan a describirlos más que peyorativamente, pues los asocian con las nociones del abandono de los deberes maternales y con la prostitución. El estudio de Gloria Marshall (seudónimo, N. Sudarksa), “Where Women Work: A Study of Yoruba Women in the Marketplace and the Home”, _Anthropological Papers_, _Museum of Anthropology_, núm. 53, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1973, es rico y detallado. Describe un “mundo al revés”, donde los hombres dependen de las mujeres pero en el hogar mandan sobre ellas. Hay una descripción vivaz de las mujeres comerciantes de San Juan Evangelista (México) en B. Chinas, _The Isthmus Zapotecs (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology)_, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Nueva York, 1973, que registra la estricta repartición de las tareas y un alto nivel de complementariedad.] + +[^f75:] _Artesanado y género_. Véase Michael Mitterauer, “Zur familienbetrieblichen Struktur im zünftischen Handwerk”, _Wirtschafts- und Sozialhistorische Beiträge. Festschrift für Alfred Hoffmann zum 75. Geburtstag_, 1979, Munich, pp. 190-219, y “Geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung in vorindustrieller Zeit”, _Beiträge zur historischen Sozialkunde_, 3, 1981, pp. 77-78. El estatus legal de las mujeres en los gremios y los talleres ha sido estudiado recientemente, pero existe poco sobre la especificidad de las herramientas artesanales según los géneros. Pueden sacarse algunos datos en la bibliografía incluida en el ensayo de Edith Ennen, _Die Frau in der mittelalterlichen Stadtgesellschaft Mitteleuropas_, manuscrito, 1980; en Luise Hess, _Die deutschen Frauenberufe des Mittelalters_, Neuer Filser Verlag, Munich, 1940 y en Werner Danckert, _Unehrliche Leute: die verfemten Berufe_, Francke, Berna/Munich, 1963, particularmente sobre los oficios “semiproscritos”.] + +[^f76:] _Estructuralismo_. La materia inmediata de los estudios sobre el género es la correspondencia entre dos conjuntos de lugares, herramientas, necesidades, gestos y símbolos, y entre los que en toda sociedad son llamados los hombres y las mujeres. El estructuralismo se esfuerza justamente en eludir o minimizar el estudio de esta correspondencia y esta complementariedad únicas, clasificándolas en la misma categoría que otras dualidades —caliente/frío, derecha/izquierda, sagrado/profano— en las que se apoyan las leyes de las relaciones internas de un sistema. Para el estructuralismo, el sistema de signos y de símbolos que forma una cultura ha sido engendrado por un núcleo central que no está relacionado con el marco institucional del poder y de la subsistencia de una sociedad. Gracias al análisis de los mitos y los rituales, el antropólogo estructuralista intenta la exploración de este núcleo, que no se puede percibir mediante el análisis sociológico del marco institucional de la sociedad. Para una iniciación al estructuralismo, véase la antología editada por Roger Bastide, _Sens et usage du terme “structure” dans les sciences humaines et sociales_, Mouton, La Haya y París, 1962, y la serie _Qu’est-ce que le structuralisme?_, Seuil, colección Points, París, 1973, especialmente Dan Sperber, _Qu’estce que le structuralisme en anthropologie?_ De forma sutil aunque lógica, el análisis estructuralista refuerza las categorías agenéricas del _rol_ (nota 61) y del _intercambio_ (nota 57) hasta el grado de que para Lévi-Strauss “las mujeres, como las palabras, están destinadas al intercambio”. Una de las razones de la incapacidad del estructuralismo para relacionar el género y el parentesco está implícita en la crítica que le hace Edmund R. Leach en _Political System of Highland Burma_, Londres, 1954 (traducción francesa: _Les systèmes politiques des hautes terres de Birmanie_, Maspero, París, 1972), quien subraya que el sistema de parentesco que es central en el análisis estructuralista no responde ni a la cultura ni al marco institucional, tal como los conciben aquellos que realizan el análisis. En mi concepto, esto es consecuencia de la obstinación estructuralista en ver en la polaridad femenino/masculino una “pareja de términos opuestos” como muchas otras, perpetuando de esta manera la confusión entre la complementariedad analógica y el intercambio. Es difícil criticar el estructuralismo con una perspectiva a la vez marxista y feminista, como lo muestra el brillante ensayo de Gayle Rubin, “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex”, en Rayna Reiter, ed., _Toward an Anthropology of Women, op. cit_. en la nota 22, pp. 157-210, y Felicity Edholm, Olivia Harris y Kate Young, “Conceptualizing Women”, _op. cit_. en la nota 22.] + +[^f77:] _Matrimonio económicamente productivo_. Creo que es posible distinguir tres fases en el tránsito al paradigma de la asociación llamada “matrimonio”: _1)_ la constitución del hogar que paga individualmente un tributo; _2)_ el creciente predominio de la pareja en el seno de este hogar sujeto al tributo, durante el Renacimiento y los inicios del mercantilismo; _3)_ la polarización económica de los sexos en el siglo XIX. La evolución hacia la asociación sexual que en el siglo XX se ha observado, presupone esas etapas por las que pasaron, en periodos diferentes, clases diferentes en regiones diferentes de “Occidente”. Es ésta la conclusión a que llegué tras mis encuentros en Berlín con Barbara Duden y Ludolf Kuchenbuch, con la participación posterior de Uwe Pörsken. Nuestro punto de partida fue la crítica que Kuchenbuch hace de las teorías actuales sobre el feudalismo: Ludolf Kuchenbuch, “Bäuerliche Ökonomie und feudale Produktionsweise. Ein Beitrag zur Weltsystem Debatte aus mediaevistischer Sicht”, en _Perspektiven des Weltsystems. Materialen zu E. Wallerstein “Das moderne Weltsystem”_, publicación del Berliner Institut für vergleichende Sozialforschung, bajo la dirección de J. Blaschke, Francfort del Meno, 1982. La idea de que durante la Edad Media el parentesco empezó a declinar, siendo remplazado por una nueva realidad social, a saber, la pareja conyugal económica, me fue sugerida por Jack Goody, J. Thirsk y E. P. Thomson, eds., _Family and Inheritance, Rural Society in Western Europe, 1200-1900_, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976. También saqué diversas ideas del estudio de Hans Medick y David Sabean, “Call for Papers: Family and Kinship: Material Interest and Emotion”, _Peasant Studies_, 8, núm. 2, primavera, 1979, pp. 139-160. La etimología puede servir como punto de partida para reflexionar sobre esta cuestión. Émile Benveniste, _Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-européennes_,Éditions de Minuit, París, 1969, explica en el volumen I, capítulo 4, que en los más antiguos estratos de las lenguas indogermánicas no existen términos comunes para designar la relación conyugal. Además, los términos del parentesco que describen la relación recíproca se derivan de raíces diferentes. Aristóteles, en la _Política_, I, 2, 3-1253b, afirma que “la unión del hombre y la mujer no tiene nombre”: es _a-nonymós_. Los términos relacionados con el varón son generalmente verbos, y los relacionados con la mujer sustantivos. El verbo _maritare_ no significa otra cosa que _unir_; _mariage_ (francés) es una derivación. El término _matrimonium_ no proviene de _maritare_. Está compuesto a partir del vocablo “madre”, _mater_, y del sufijo - _monium_, que siempre indica un estado jurídico —en este caso, el estado legal de la maternidad—. El término que designa la unidad social y económica constituida por la pareja tuvo una evolución posterior. Una reforma jurídica promulgada por Nerón probablemente contribuyó de manera decisiva a la doctrina que elaboraron los Padres de la Iglesia respecto al paso “de una bisexualidad de acicalamiento a una heterosexualidad de reproducción”. Véase al respecto Paul Veyne, “La famille et l’amour sous le haut Empire Romain”, _Annales ESC_, 33, núm. 1, enero-febrero, 1978, pp. 35-63. En torno a la contribución de la Iglesia a la orientación de la sociedad medieval hacia el casamiento, véase Georges Duby, _Le chevalier, la femme et le prêtre: le mariage dans la France féodale_, Hachette, París, 1981. La sorpresa, perplejidad y confusión que esta nueva forma social engendró las relata Marie-Odile Métral, _Le mariage: les hésitations de l’Occident_, prefacio de P. Ariès, Aubier, París, 1977. Lo que despertó mi interés en el lento proceso de la fusión de los géneros en la productividad conyugal fue el estudio de David Herlihy, “Land, Family and Women in Continental Europe, 701-1200”, en _Traditio, Studies in Ancient and Medieval History_, 18, Fordham University Press, Nueva York, 1962, pp. 89-113. En torno a la adaptación del lenguaje a la nueva unidad reproductiva, véase Giovan-Battista Pellegrini, “Terminologia Matrimoniale”, _Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’ Alto Medioevo_, _Il matrimonio nella società alto medioevale_, Espoleto, 1971, pp. 43-102. Respecto a la evolución del casamiento, véase Jean-Baptiste Molin y Protais Mutembe, _Le rituel du mariage en France du XIIe au XVIe siècle_, Beauchesne, París, 1974. Respecto a las nuevas formas de registrar la existencia de las parejas, véase Diane Owen Hughes, “Toward Historical Ethnography: Notarial Records and Family History in the Middle Ages”, _Historical Methods Newsletter_, 7, 1973-1974, pp. 61-71. Una buena iniciación a la bibliografía reciente sobre la historia del casamiento en Occidente desde la época romana es la antología de 15 estudios realizada por Jean Gaudemet, _Sociétés et mariage_, CERDIC -Publication, Estrasburgo, 1980. Una notable guía bibliográfica sobre el tema se encuentra en Derek Baker, ed., _Medieval Women_, publicado por la Ecclesiastical History Society, Oxford, Blackwell, 1978. Véase también la notas 110-113 y 120.] + +[^f78:] _Medio y ámbito_. En _Le geste et la parole: technique et langage_, Albin Michel, París, 1964, André Leroi-Gourhan dice en la p. 214 que, “… a diferencia del territorio, no tiene paralelo -la estrecha complementariedad del hombre y la mujer- en el mundo animal superior”. Pero en una sociedad el espacio de los hombres y de las mujeres no es el mismo. Véase Pierre Bourdieu, _Esquisse d’une théorie de la pratique, précédée de trois études d’ethnologie kabyle_, Droz, Ginebra, 1972. Es sólo en el _haram_, al fondo de la vivienda berebere, que la pareja puede compartir el mismo espacio (p. 67). Todos los demás lugares de la habitación se encuentran marcados por el signo del género. Los sitios que los hombres ocupan se perciben como espacios diferentes de los de las mujeres. Cada tipo de lugar requiere el movimiento y el ritmo temporal correspondiente. El espacio y el tiempo están relacionados con el género, como las herramientas y las tareas. Es un grave error confundir este ambiente formado por dos ámbitos separados, que pertenecen respectivamente a uno de los géneros, con el territorio de los animales. Diferentes culturas se reparten el paisaje de manera diferente. Y como el espacio vernáculo es poroso, varias culturas pueden compartir el mismo paisaje. En el corazón de ese medio se encuentra la casa, la dualidad espacial que transmite la cultura: Clark E. Cunningham, “Order in the Antoni House”, en Rodney Needham, ed., _Right and Left, op. cit_. en la nota 53, pp. 204-238. Por lo tanto el _medio vernáculo_ contrasta a la vez con el _territorio animal_ y el espacio homogéneo de la economía. Respecto a la evolución de las teorías que procuran la definición de este espacio económico, véase Pierre Dockes, _L’espace dans la pensée économique du XVIe au XVIIe siècle_, Flammarion, París, 1969. El medio vernáculo es un espacio intragenérico: la realidad cultural que resulta de la complementariedad asimétrica y ambigua de los _dos ámbitos espaciales del género_. Es un fenómeno que parece haber escapado totalmente a la atención de los filósofos occidentales, como se puede comprobar en la monumental exposición de sus doctrinas relacionadas con el espacio: Alexander Gosztonyi, _Der Raum: Geschichte seiner Probleme in Philosophie and Wissenschaft_, 2 volúmenes, Alber, Friburgo, 1976. El espacio vernáculo está compuesto por una jerarquía de lugares, cada uno de los cuales corresponde a un género. C. Karnoch, “L’étranger, ou le faux inconnu. Essai sur la définition spatiale d’autrui dans un village lorrain”, _Ethnologie française_, I, núm. 2, 1972, pp. 107-122, muestra que hasta 1950 los habitantes de una aldea francesa distinguían el espacio en torno a ellos de acuerdo con tres círculos concéntricos: la aldea, el valle circundante, con un diámetro de travesía de tres horas, y el “país”, constituido por varias aldeas habitadas por “fuereños” que realizaban gran cantidad de matrimonios entre sí. Bajo esta tripartición se encuentra el hogar; más allá, el mundo exterior. Dependiendo del aumento o la disminución periódicos del número de los miembros del hogar, esta manera de percibir el mundo estaba más o menos presente en los diversos medios: Alain Collomp, “Maison, manières d’habiter et famille en haute Provence aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles”, _Ethnologie française_, VIII, núm. 4, 1978, pp. 321-328.] + +[^f79:] _Espacio y tiempo_. Cada ámbito del género tiene su paisaje y ritmo propios. Se extiende en el espacio y el tiempo. Dos notables estudios pretenden describir la realidad espacio-temporal de las mujeres. El de Yvonne Verdier, _Façons de dire et façons de faire. La laveuse, la couturière, la cuisinière_, Gallimard, París, 1979, es el resultado de una encuesta etnográfica que realizó durante siete años la autora con tres discípulos en Minot, aldea de 360 habitantes en la Costa de Oro, al norte de Dijon. A través de la actual manera de hablar de las mujeres de Minot, así como del estudio de los archivos locales, de las pinturas, de las viejas fotografías, de los dichos y refranes, la autora reconstituye la historia de las mujeres que dirigían a las demás: la mujer que lava (los recién nacidos, la ropa, los muertos); la costurera que inicia a las muchachas; la cocinera que preside ceremonias tales como las bodas y los entierros, impartiéndoles su ritmo. Aparte de la obra de Sidney Mintz, _Worker in the Cane_, Norton, Nueva York, 1958, que me reveló esta variedad de la investigación de campo, no había conocido libro más atractivo de este tipo, con excepción del estudio de Audrey Richards (cita en la nota 68). El de Martine Segalen, _Mari et femme dans la société paysanne_, Flammarion, París, 1980, puede leerse como complemento de la obra de Yvonne Verdier. En éste se hace mayor hincapié en los ritmos complementarios del hombre y la mujer en una granja francesa de hoy en día. Actualmente vivimos el tiempo mecánico y agenérico de los relojes que ritman la existencia, y este tiempo es por lo tanto escaso; los ritmos del género desaparecen. En virtud de los ritmos unisex, con frecuencia las mujeres se ven más _presionadas_ por el tiempo que los hombres, cosa que observó H. Bidlingmaier, _op. cit_. en la nota 70, en la aldea de Lauffen en 1915. Respecto a las consecuencias de ritmos más amplios, véase Evatar Zerubavel, “The French Republican Calendar: A Case Study in the Sociology of Time”, _American Sociological Review_, 42, 1977, pp. 868-877. En torno a la introducción en una región rural del tiempo medido por el reloj, véase Guy Thuillier, “Pour une histoire du temps en Nivernais au XIXe siècle”, _Ethnologie française_, VI, núm. 2, 1976, pp. 149-162. Sobre la relación entre la cultura y el tiempo, véanse los ensayos filosóficos en Paul Ricoeur, ed., _Les cultures et le temps_, Payot, París, 1975. La sociología, la antropología y la etnología del tiempo han dado origen a una vasta literatura moderna, pero debo señalar que hasta ahora se ha descuidado la investigación sobre el género y el tiempo, o sobre el género y el ritmo. Se encuentra una descripción esmerada del espacio de los hombres en una comunidad rural del sur de Francia en Lucienne A. Roubin, “Espace masculin, espace féminin en communauté provençale”, _Annales ESC_, 25, núm. 2, 1970, pp. 537-560; Maurice Agulhon ha comentado con amplitud el tema en “Les chambrées en basse-Provence: histoire et ethnologie”, _Revue historique_, abril-junio 1971, pp. 337-368. Su estudio trata sobre una “sociedad”, una asociación local de hombres, que da testimonio del abismo que existe entre el espacio de los hombres y el espacio de las mujeres. Los cafés, los grupos que preparan el carnaval, los bancos al sol en la plaza de la iglesia se encuentran claramente dentro del ámbito de los hombres. El hombre de mayor edad de la familia es únicamente quien con una hoz especial marcará los límites del campo que será cosechado al día siguiente. Los habitantes de la Provenza del sur de Francia no consideran que el espacio público y el ámbito masculino son una misma cosa, pero de hecho ambos tienden a coincidir. Un importante ensayo de reconstitución del medio ambiente del pasado que, por eso mismo, evoca el género, es el de Ina-Maria Greverus, _Der territoriale Mensch: ein literatur-anthropologischer Versuch zum Heimatphänomen_, Athenaeum, Francfort del Meno, 1972.] + +[^f80:] _Charivari (cencerrada)_. Para una buena iniciación a los textos que tratan de los métodos de justicia popular, en cuanto guardiana de las costumbres locales, véase Roger Pinon, “Qu’est-ce qu’un charivari? Essai en vue d’une définition opératoire”, _Kontakte und Grenzen. Probleme der Volks-Kultur und Sozialforschung. Festschrift für G. Heilfurt zum 60. Geburtstag_, Otto Schwartz, Gotinga, 1979, pp. 393-405. Los métodos citados incluían verdaderos castigos: la gente arrancaba el techo de una vivienda, derribaba árboles, salaba los pozos, ponía a los culpables en la picota, los boicoteaba, los embadurnaba de chapopote y los hacía rodar sobre montones de plumas. Françoise Zonabend, _La mémoire longue. Temps et histoires au village_, PUF, París, 1980, describe la “emboscada”, visita ritual a los vecinos, la cual indicaba, según fuera más o menos tumultuosa, el concepto que se tenía de la “honestidad” de los anfitriones. Se puede encontrar un repertorio de cantos populares que expresan variados grados de aprobación social en Ilka Peter, _Gasselbrauch und Gasselspruch in Österreich_, Alfred Winter, Salz-burgo, 1981. E. P. Thompson, “ _Rough music_: le charivari anglais”, _Annales ESC_, 27, núm. 2, marzo-abril, 1972, pp. 285-312, describe y analiza los rituales mediante los cuales la sociedadvernácula expresa, con frecuencia cruelmente, su desaprobación de los individuos que habían transgredido no tanto la ley sino los usos y costumbres locales. Estos rituales estaban estructurados por el parentesco y generalmente castigaban una transgresión de la división de los géneros o un comportamiento que estaba en contradicción con el género al que se pertenecía. Véase Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, “The Medieval Italian Mattinata”, _Journal of Family History_, 5, núm. 1, primavera, 1980, pp. 2-27. Sobre el conflicto entre las formas tradicionales de control que se dan entre las parejas y la nueva tentativa de hacer respetar las buenas costumbres durante los encuentros entre muchachos y muchachas, véase Hans Medick, “Spinnstuben auf dem Dorf. Jugendliche Sexualkultur und Feierabendbrauch in der ländlichen Gesellschaft der frühen Neuzeit”, en J. Reulecke y Wolfhard Weber, _Fabrik, Familie, Feierabend: Beiträge zur Sozialgeschichte im Industriezeitalter_, Wuppertal, Hamer, 1978.] + +[^f81:] _La probidad_. En la Francia del siglo XVI, era ésta la cualidad del “ _honnête homme_”, el hombre probo; la rectitud moral, la integridad, la probidad, la dignidad. Propongo usar el término para designar la percepción que un hombre o una mujer tenían de la división de los géneros, como norma que personalmente les concernía. La elección del término me permite hablar de este límite específico sin implicar un motivo particular, cosa que sucedería si empleara términos tales como “vergüenza”, “pecado”, “culpa”, “honor”, etc. Respecto a estos vocablos, véase Carl Darling Buck, _A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal IndoEuropean Languages, op. cit_. en la nota 3. Sobre el proceso mediante el cual _l’honneur_ (el honor), se hizo preeminente en el sentido que típicamente se daba a la _honnêteté_ en Europa, véase Julian Pitt-Rivers, “The Anthropology of Honour” y “Honour and Social Status in Andalucía”, pp. 1-47 de su obra _Fate of Shechem, op. cit_. en la nota 21, y P. Schneider, “Honor and Conflict in a Sicilian Town”, _Anthropological Quarterly_, 42, núm. 3, julio, 1969, pp. 130-155; véase también Pierre Bourdieu, “Le sens de l’honneur. La dialectique du défi et de la riposte. Point d’honneur et honneur. L’éthos de l’honneur”, en _Esquisse d’une théorie de la pratique, op. cit_. en la nota 78, capítulo I, pp. 13-44, que expone observaciones sobre el África del Norte. Para un estudio clásico, Max Weber, “Rechtsordnung, Konvention und Sitte”, en _Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft_, Mohr, Tubinga, 4a edición revisada, 1956, (traducción francesa: _Économie et société_, Plon, París, tomo 1, 1971). Para la transformación de la _honnêteté_ y del _honneur_ causada por el proceso de la civilización, véase Yves Castan, “La famille: masculin et féminin”, _Honnêteté et relations sociales en Languedoc, 1715-1780_, Plon, París, 1974, pp. 162-207. En el siglo XVIII la ley aún no reglamentaba la vida familiar de la pequeña gente, simplemente la protegía. Pasaría todavía algo de tiempo (tres a cinco generaciones) antes de que el Estado impusiera el casamiento civil y reglamentara la vida familiar (véase la nota 120). El ámbito físico de cada género y el comportamiento conveniente era salvaguardado por el sentido de la honestidad y el honor. Este sentido desaparecería hacia 1780; véase Yves Castan, “Pères et fils en Languedoc à l’époque classique”, _Le XVIIe siècle_, núm. 102-103: “Le XVIIe siècle et la famille”, 1974, pp. 31-43. Nicole Castan, “La criminalité familiale dans le ressort du parlement de Toulouse (1690-1730)”, _Cahiers des Annales_, 33, Armand Colin, París, 1971, pp. 91-107, estudia el honor femenino ( _honnêteté_) contrastándolo con el masculino. La mujer actúa con solidaridad hacia el hogar y puede decir y hacer cosas sin menoscabo de su honor que a los hombres jamás se les perdonarían. El honor exige que oculte los bienes robados; que ahuyente al cobrador de impuestos; que amenace de muerte a quien haya rendido testimonio contra algún miembro de la familia; que se encuentre sola en casa cuando ésta sirva a la prostitución. En la medida en que se codificaba el derecho y que la proliferación de las acciones judiciales remplazaron el control del género por el control civil, las mujeres perdieron su honor a cambio de un nuevo estatus como ciudadanas del segundo sexo. Sobre la cuestión es posible encontrar útiles señalamientos en A. Pointrineau, “Aspects de la crise des justices seigneuriales dans l’Auvergne du XVIIIe siècle”, _Revue d’histoire du droit français et étranger_, 1961, pp. 552-570. Para una orientación general, véase M. Alliot, “L’acculturation juridique”, _Ethnologie générale_,“Encyclopédie de la Pléiade”, 1968, pp. 1180-1247.] + +[^f82:] _Comadreo_. El _charivari_ (nota 80) y las burlas del carnaval (nota 108), sustentan la honestidad de la comunidad, pero solamente son episódicos. La honestidad es salvaguardada de manera sutil y continua por el “caudal oral” tradicional de la comunidad: máximas, adivinanzas, cuentos, y más que nada, por el comadreo. Su función es salvaguardar el honor de la comunidad. John B. Haviland, _Gossip, Reputation and Knowledge in Zinacantan_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1977, muestra cómo, en una aldea mexicana, este caudal oral le permite a la gente reflexionar sobre las reglas vigentes y manipularlas para fines personales. Los comadreos relacionados con los tiempos pasados son para la comunidad una manera de afirmar su arraigo, de crear para sus miembros una historia común. Vinculan a los amigos. Crean una especie de insignia de pertenencia al grupo, puesto que todos deben comprender porque algo resulta escandaloso para éste, así como las reglas tácitas del cuchicheo legítimo; véase Max Gluckman, “Gossip and Scandal”, _Current Anthropology_, 4, núm. 3, junio, 1963, pp. 307-316. Mientras más exclusivo es un grupo, más intenso es el comadreo. Éste mantiene la cohesión y la distinción de los géneros. Fue necesario que el género se dislocara para que el comadreo se volviera “femenino”: Alexander Rysman, “How the ‘Gossip’ Became a Woman”, _Journal of Communication_, 27, núm. 1, 1977, pp. 176-180. El vocablo inglés _gossip_ viene de _god sib_, que antiguamente designaba la relación entre el hombre y la mujer que conjuntamente habían acercado a un recién nacido a la pila bautismal, es decir, en francés, el _compère_ y la _commère_ (el compadre y la comadre). Hacia el siglo XVI, en inglés como en francés, el significado de los vocablos se modificó: el _gossip_ y el compadre se vuelven amigotes, compañeros de juerga. En el siglo XIX, ya sólo las mujeres son _gossips_ que se entregan al _gossip_ (comadres que se entregan al comadreo). Tocante a los chistes, bromas y trucos dirigidos contra los hombres, véase E. Moser-Rath, “Männerfeindliche Tendenzen in Witz und Schwank”, _Zeitschrift für Volkskunde_, 75, núm. 1, 1979, pp. 57-67. Sobre las mujeres españolas que se burlaban de los hombres, véase Yolando Pino-Saavedra, “Wette der Frauen, wer den Mann am besten narrt”, _Fabula_, 15, 1974, pp. 177-191.] + +[^f83:] _Dominación asimétrica_. Susan Carol Rogers, “Female Form of Power and the Myth of Male Dominance. A Model of Female-Male Interaction in Peasant Society”, _American Ethnologist_, 2, núm. 4, noviembre, 1975, pp. 727-756, estudia la transformación del mito de la dominación masculina, que se convierte en realidad durante la época de la industrialización. Según ese autor, la generalización universal del dominio masculino está fundada en definiciones masculinas y es por lo tanto un mito. En conjunto, los textos sobre la modernización de la vida campesina están basados en postulados erróneos respecto al rol de las mujeres. La autoridad habría estado _expresamente_ en manos de los hombres; la autoridad de las mujeres habría sido _relativa_. Pero si se deja de considerar los roles de los hombres y sus formas de autoridad como la norma, si se observa los procedimientos de las mujeres y se advierte que no son menos válidos y significativos que los de los hombres —pero que asumen formas diferentes— sólo entonces se puede percibir que los roles masculinos y femeninos están entremezclados, y se comienza a comprender cómo funcionan las sociedades humanas. En un ensayo de 1942, reeditado en _Steps to an Ecology of Mind_ (traducción francesa: _Vers une écologie de l’esprit_, Seuil, París, 1977), Gregory Bateson insistía en el profundo contraste entre las sociedades donde hay rivalidades y aquellas donde “los individuos reaccionan a lo que los otros hacen, haciendo ellos mismos algo similar” (p.111). En el ámbito de los estudios feministas, al parecer la corriente está siendo revertida: véase Alice Schlegel, ed., _Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View_, Columbia University Press, Nueva York, 1977. Esta es una compilación de 12 estudios relacionados con otras tantas sociedades, desde las Filipinas a Israel; la discusión sobre la igualdad e inequidad del estatus sexual intenta desenmarañar, mediante la comparación de diversos rasgos, tres dimensiones del rango sexual: recompensas, prestigio y poder. Para la editora, en condiciones de subsistencia, _equilibrio_ es la palabra clave que resume la interdependencia de los ámbitos distintos de los hombres y las mujeres, al menos en el marco de la cultura hopi descrita en las pp.245-269. La igualdad tradicional de las mujeres se ve amenazada por la creciente similitud entre los roles masculinos y femeninos en el hogar y en los empleos, similitud que resulta inevitable en virtud de la integración de los hopi en la economía norteamericana. J. Harris, “The Position of Women in a Nigerian Society”, _Transaction of the New York Academy of Sciences_, serie II, volumen. 2, núm. 5, 1940, observó algo análogo entre los ibo” el equilibrio entre los derechos nominales de los esposos y los derechos colectivos _de facto_ de las esposas ha sido trastornado por la integración económica. Rayna R. Reiter, “Men and Women in the South of France: Public and Private Domains”, _Toward an Anthropology of Women, op. cit_. en la nota 22, pp. 252-282, estudia una aldea de 185 habitantes al pie de los Alpes provenzales. Las mujeres, que trabajan y viven en su esfera doméstica, parecen considerar ésta como más importante que la esfera pública de los hombres (véase la nota 79). No obstante, en la medida que la familia se integra en el Estado moderno, a las mujeres se les define por su rol en la familia, y su “esfera” separada no puede ser ya interpretada como una esfera igual. Según Ernestine Friedl, “The Position of Women: Appearance and Reality”, _Anthropological Quarterly_, 40, 1967, pp. 97-105, el prestigio aparente del hombre puede ocultar el poder de la mujer. Su investigación de la vida de una familia en una aldea griega contemporánea la lleva a esta conclusión: “Puede ser que las actividades masculinas tengan mayor prestigio que las actividades femeninas en todas las sociedades; si esto es verdad, el descubrimiento del poder social relativo de los hombres y de las mujeres podría requerir una investigación al respecto más cuidadosa … Allí donde la familia es la unidad primordial de la estructura social y económica de la comunidad entera, el poder en su seno forzosamente ha de tener importantes consecuencias en la repartición del poder en el seno de toda la sociedad”. En el hogar, las mujeres continuamente les recuerdan a los hombres las penas y angustias que ellas sufren para poder realizar las tareas domésticas que les permiten, a ellos, mostrarse en público con la cabeza en alto. De esa manera les hacen sentir que dependen de ellas. Pero esta dominación asimétrica desaparece forzosamente cuando el predominio de la economía mercantil transforma el hogar en una “unidad de consumo” (véase la nota 122). Bajo el regimen del sexo, la jerarquización de un poder homogéneo remplaza a la dominación asimétrica de los géneros. Dominación, aquí, es un término ambiguo que significa algo diferente según se trate de hombres o de mujeres. El poder, en cambio, es una fuerza homogénea agenérica que cualquiera de los sexos puede ejercer —la diferencia sólo reside en las modalidades y la intensidad—. La asimetría es fundamental en la complementariedad ambigua de los géneros (nota 57). Constituye su existencia y determina el carácter concreto de su relación. En contraste, el poder que puede circular sin consideración del género, al igual que la moneda, tiende a fin de cuentas a la simetría. Y mientras que la asimetría entre los géneros siempre ha inspirado un respetuoso temor, la repartición jerárquica del poder entre iguales teóricos inspira la envidia (notas 5 y 6). Por esta razón, yo considero que el término _poder_, palabra clave que ignora el género, es inapropiada para expresar: _1)_ la exclusión recíproca de sus respectivos ámbitos propios, implícita en el concepto de género (notas 78 y 79); _2)_ la dominación relativa de los ámbitos masculinos sobre los ámbitos de las mujeres, situación cuyas diversas formas el patriarcado autoriza.] + +[^f84:] _El sujeto de la historia_. El ejemplo fue tomado de Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, _Montaillou, village occitan, de 1294 à 1324_, Gallimard, París, 1975. Sin embargo la _domus_ de los Pirineos no es más que una de las formas que ha adoptado el sujeto de la historia. En Francia también puede revestir muchas otras formas. Jean-Louis Flandrin, “La structure des ménages”, _Familles: Parenté, maison, sexualité dans l’ancienne société_, Hachette, París, 1976, pp. 68-91, distingue tres formas típicas en la Francia rural. La primera es la _domus_ del suroeste. En los tiempos feudales, la _domus_ era quien recibía el título de nobleza. El heredero llevaba el título de la casa; era relativamente secundario que fuera hombre o mujer. El principal deber del heredero consistía en dar otro heredero a la casa. La _domus_ era la propiedad de la tierra; anclaba en el pasado de la casa a aquellos que a la sazón la habitaban. Según Flandrin, la granja en la zona central de Francia es casi lo opuesto de la _domus_. Allí, los herederos son quienes trabajan en comunidad la tierra. Flandrin confirma lo que propone Martine Segalen (nota 79): el sujeto de la historia de una propiedad no es la _pareja_ sino el _hogar_. Finalmente, la tercera forma es típica de Normandía, donde los géneros la tejen. Probablemente fue introducida e impuesta por los conquistadores escandinavos. Aquí, la casa está fundada en los vínculos de parentesco de los linajes, y éstos están arraigados en sus respectivos suelos. La “sangre” reivindica la tierra. Al dejar la casa de su difunto marido, la viuda vuelve a recuperar las tierras que había aportado como dote. En estos tres tipos de “casa”, los géneros se entremezclan para tejer la trama social. En Francia, durante mucho tiempo el sujeto final de la historia fue alguna de estas formas de “casa”. El feudalismo tardío y posteriormente el gobierno estatal fueron construidos en Francia a partir del postulado de la unión conyugal económica (véanse las notas 77 y 124) como también en Inglaterra y Alemania, aunque de forma diferente; véase Michael Mitterauer, _Grundtypen alteuropäischer Sozialformen: Haus und Gemeinde in vorindustriellen Gesellschaften_, Forman-Holzboog, Stuttgart, 1979. Hasta una época reciente, este sujeto de la historia tenía una estructura diferente en la mayoría de los demás países y periodos, por ejemplo, el _mir_ ruso. Sobre el sistema de las castas en la India, véase Louis Dumont, _Homo hierarchicus_, Gallimard, París, 1967. Sobre la comunidad aldeana indonesa, véase Clifford Geertz, _The Religion of Java_, University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Books, Chicago, 1976. Es necesario encontrar un término que permita distinguir el sujeto de la historia intragenérica, del sujeto de la historia en la tradición hegeliana. Propongo _lares_, porque este término no tiene utilización hoy en día, al menos en su sentido exacto. La lectura de G. Radke, _Die Götter Altitaliens_, Münster, 1965, especialmente las pp. 166 ss., me ha sugerido que en sentido estricto debería hablar de _lares compitales_ —aquellos que se veneraban en una capilla que tenía tantas ventanas como hogares (fogones) dentro de los límites (mojones) de la comunidad—.] + +[^f85:] _La vivienda_. John Turner, en _Housing by People_, Marion Boyars, Londres,1976 (traducción francesa: _Le logement est votre affaire_, Seuil, París, 1979), introdujo la diferencia, hoy clásica, entre los dos sentidos principales del vocablo _alojamiento:_ “acción y efecto de alojar o alojarse” y “lugar donde una persona o un grupo de personas se aloja”. Prefiero, para el segundo sentido hablar de “hacerse su casa”. Tocante a este tema debo mucho a las conversaciones que mantuve con Sigmar Groeneveldt (Gotinga) sobre el espacio que modela al hogar y el espacio que se halla más allá de éste; con Franco la Cecla (Bolonia), sobre la oposición entre el umbral que divide y orienta, y los límites que circunscriben el contorno; con Jean Robert (Cuernavaca), cuando él estaba escribiendo _Le temps qu’on nous vole, op.cit_. en la nota 41. Los tres actualmente trabajan, cada quien por su lado, en estudios sobre las condiciones que permitirían engendrar un espacio “viviente” en una sociedad moderna. La oposición entre el espacio-tiempo del género y el espacio-tiempo del sexo (nota 79) ilumina y acrecienta la diferencia entre la arquitectura vernácula y la construcción profesional, que George Gilbert Scott fue el primero en evocar explícitamente en _Secular and Domestic Architecture_, Londres, 1857; más recientemente, Bernard Rudofsky ha llamado la atención sobre la arquitectura “espontánea” en _Architecture without Architects_, Museum of Modern Art, Nueva York, 1964 (traducción francesa: _Architecture sans architectes_, Éditions du Chéne, París, 1977), y _The Prodigious Builders_, Secker and Warburg, Londres, 1977. Dondequiera que las herramientas están asociadas con el género (nota 70), las habitaciones son a la vez el resultado del empleo de esas herramientas y del lugar donde se emplean. Como dice Sibyl Moholy-Nagy en su bella obra _Native Genius in Anonymous Architecture_, Horizon Press, Nueva York, 1957, la historia privada de una cultura se lee en la economía, la diversidad y la permanencia de sus construcciones. Un tercer autor que insiste en la oposición entre el abrigo vernáculo y el hábitat planificado es Paul Oliver, ed., _Shelter and Society_, Barrie and Rockcliff, Londres, 1969. En la introducción del libro yo encuentro aún otro elemento susceptible de aclarar la oposición que señalo entre el abrigo intergéneros, donde los dos ámbitos del género tejen su medio, y el abrigo intersexos, donde cohabitan humanos de uno y otro sexo. Para Oliver, todo abrigo es un _signo_, que al ser interpretado se convierte en _símbolo_. Yo diría que el abrigo vernáculo es el signo ambiguo de una cultura, que al ser interpretado expresa los dos ámbitos del género que la conforman. Sugiero dos bibliografías sobre el tema, una que abarca el mundo entero: Lawrence Wodehouse, _Indigenous Architecture, Worldwide_, Gale Research, Detroit, 1979, y otra relacionada con Inglaterra: Robert de Zouche Hall, _A Bibliography on Vernacular Architecture_, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1972. Sobre la vivienda en Italia, principalmente rural: Tina de Rocchi Storai, _Bibliografia degli studi sulla Casa Rurale Italiana_, Olschik, Florencia, 1968, vigésimo quinto volumen de una colección de estudios regionales. Tocante a las medidas tomadas para obstaculizar la arquitectura vernácula en los Estados Unidos, véase David Handlin, _The American Home: Architecture and Society, 1815-1915_, Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 1979, y Howard J. Boughey, _Blueprints for Behavior. The Intentions of Architects to Influence Social Action through Design_, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1968. Un estudio francés enfoca el pasaje de la arquitectura vernácula al acondicionamiento estatal del espacio; J. M. Alliaume _et al., Politique de l’habitat (1800-1850)_, Corda, París, 1977; contiene un artículo de Anne Thalamy que está relacionado particularmente con nuestro tema: “Réflexions sur la notion d’habitat aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles”. Las diferentes culturas emplean términos que denotan campos semánticos distintos para hablar de las relaciones entre los individuos y las comunidades y su hábitat, y también designan de manera diferente el espacio que se encuentra al traspasar el umbral, ese espacio que la habitación como tal integra. Sobre la variedad de campos semánticos que con este fin existen en diversas lenguas europeas, sobre sus contrastes y sus modificaciones entre el siglo XIX y XX, véase Paul Osswald, _Französisch “campagne” und seine Nachbarwörter im Vergleich mit dem Deutschen, Englischen, Italienischen und Spanischen: ein Beitrag zur Wordfeldtheorie_, Tübingen Beiträge zur Linguistik, Tubinga, 1970.] + +[^f86:] _El cuerpo bajo el régimen del sexo_. El cuerpo como entidad clínica no es lo mismo que la carne viva de los hombres y las mujeres que constituyen una realidad social y vernácula. Ciertas lenguas, el alemán, el inglés y el francés, por ejemplo, designan estos dos aspectos con términos diferentes: _Körper/Leib, body/flesh, corps/chair_. Desde 1972, la nueva serie de la _Ethnologie française_ ha publicado una colección de ensayos que resaltan la historia del cuerpo vernáculo en cuanto realidad social; por ejemplo: J.-P. Desaive, “Le nu hurluberlu”, VI, núm. 3-4, 1976, pp. 219-226; Françoise Piponnier y Richard Bucaille, “La bête ou la belle? Remarques sur l’apparence corporelle de la paysannerie médiévale”, VI, núm. 3-4, 1976, pp. 227-232; Françoise Loux y Philippe Richard, “Alimentation et maladie dans les proverbes français: un exemple d’analyse de contenu”, II, núm. 3-4, 1972, pp. 267-286; véase también F. Loux, _Le jeune enfant et son corps dans la médecine traditionnelle_, Flammarion, París, 1978. Véase también los textos mencionados por John Blacking, _The Anthropology of the Body_, Association of Social Anthropology, Monograph núm. 15, Londres, 1977. Michel Foucault, en _Naissance de la clinique. Une archéologie du regard médical_, PUF, París, 1972, e _Histoire de la sexualité_, tomo I: _la Volonté de savoir_, Gallimard, París, 1976, ha inaugurado la investigación histórica sobre el proceso mediante el cual el nuevo sujeto del Estado tutelar se constituyó a través del discurso del profesionista en torno al cuerpo. La justicia se apresuró a constatar y sancionar el funcionamiento de los órganos sexuales del hombre un siglo antes de que la clínica llegara a ejercer su control sobre los órganos genitales de la mujer; véase Pierre Darmon, _Le Tribunal de l’impuissance: Virilité et défaillances conjugales dans l’ancienne France_, Seuil, París, 1979. El autor describe la colaboración entre la policía y los tribunales especiales a fin de verificar la capacidad de un hombre para realizar el acto sexual. Sobre la medicación del “vientre” femenino, véase la nota 87. El proceso de normalización médica descrito por G. Canguilhem, _Le normal et le pathologique_, PUF, París, 1972, ha conducido al estudio clínico de la normalidad sexual, del cuerpo en calidad de “sexo”. G. J. Barker-Benfield, _The Horrors of the Half-Known Life. Male Attitudes Towards Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America_, Harper and Row, Nueva York, 1976, relata una etapa estremecedora de esta conquista epistemológica del interior del cuerpo. Cuenta la historia del doctor Sim, que mantenía con sus propios fondos un grupo de esclavas negras a fin de practicar intervenciones experimentales en sus conductos uterinos. En 1845 tuvo la idea de poner a la señora Merril en cuatro patas —la “posición de Sim”, como se le llamó desde entonces— y de mantenerle la vagina abierta mediante un mango de cuchara curvo. En su diario anotó: “Al introducir el mango curvo, vi lo que ningún hombre jamás había visto … el espéculo revelaba todo con perfecta claridad … Me sentí como un explorador en el país de la medicina que contempla por vez primera un territorio nuevo e importante”. Uno de sus colegas, el doctor Baldwin, hablaba en los siguientes términos: “El espéculo de Sim ha sido para las afecciones uterinas … lo que el compás para el navegante”. La vagina se convirtió en la entrada de un territorio nuevo para la exploración de la naturaleza. Veinte años más tarde sobrevino “el gran descubrimiento de que la mujer no solamente lo es en virtud de un lugar, sino en virtud de todos los aspectos mediante los cuales puede ser percibida”, que ha descrito Yvonne Knibiehler, “Les médecins et la ‘nature féminine’ au temps du Code civil”, _Annales ESC_, 31, núm. 4, julio-agosto, 1976, pp. 824-845. Véanse también las notas 60 y 87.] + +[^f87:] _Del alumbramiento de la mujer al alumbramiento del niño_. En _Némesis médica_ (véase _Obras reunidas_, vol. I), dediqué todo un capítulo a la medicación de la muerte, el cual ha aniquilado el _arte de morir_ vernáculo. Ya Norma Swenson, del Boston Women’s Health Collective, me había hecho notar que el control médico amenaza por igual al arte de dar la vida. Un manuscrito de Barbara Duden (Berlín) reforzó mi convicción de que con la inversión del nacimiento, el género (engendrado por las mujeres) es transformado en el sexo reproducido por una nueva biocracia, para la cual el vientre materno es un recurso natural. _La vida_ se convierte en el nuevo concepto guía para la ciencia y la administración; véase K. Figlio, “The Metaphor of Organization: A Historiographical Perspective on the Biomedical Sciences of the Early Nineteenth Century”, _History of Science_, 14, 1976, pp. 17-53, especialmente las pp. 25-28. La ciencia de la Ilustración ve en la naturaleza a una mujer cuyos velos han de ser arrancados, que ha de ser desnudada y penetrada por la luz de la razón. Penetrada por esta luminosa razón, la mujer, imagen de la naturaleza, cuando está encinta se convierte en el mecanismo mediante el cual se transmite _la vida_. El _establishment_ pluriprofesional, de donde el Estado saca su legitimidad, depende del control médico de la vida desde su origen. Para un estudio de la expansión del profesionalismo, al menos en los Estados Unidos, véase Burton L. Bledstein, _The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development of Higher Education in America_, Norton, Nueva York, 1978. Obtuve indicaciones útiles respecto a la procreación tradicional en Jacques Gélis, Mireille Laget y Marie Morel, _Entrer dans la vie: Naissance et enfance dans la France traditionnelle_, Gallimard, París, 1978, y Jean-Louis Flandrin, “Contraception, mariage et relations amoureuses dans l’Occident chrétien”, _Annales ESC_, 24, núm. 12, noviembre-diciembre, 1969, pp. 1370-1390; véase también Alessandra Alimenti y Paola Falteri, “Donna a salute nella cultura traditionale delle classi subalterne: Appunti di una ricerca sulla medicina populare nell’Italia Centrale”, _Donnawomanfemme_, 5, 1977, pp. 75-104, que contiene una bibliografía. Sobre los medios de contracepción tradicionales, véase Jean-Marie Gouesse, “En Basse Normandie aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. Le refus de l’enfant au tribunal de la pénitence”, _Annales de démographie historique_, 1973, donde se describe la sorpresa y el escándalo de los confesores ante los hábiles métodos contraceptivos de los campesinos. Sobre el aborto, véase Agnès Fine-Souriac, “La limitation des naissances dans le sud-ouest de la France”, _Annales du Midi_, 40, 1978, pp. 155-188. Sobre las formas tradicionales de infanticidio, véase Regina Schulte, “Kindsmörderinnen auf dem Lande”, en H. Medick y D. Sabean, eds., _Materielles Interesse und Emotion_, Gotinga, 1982, y Patricia Crawford, “Attitudes to Menstruation in Seventeenth-Century England”, _Past and Present_, 91, mayo, 1981, pp. 46-73. Sobre la ampliación del control ginecológico, Barbara Ehrenreich y Deirdre English, _For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Expert’s Advice to Women_, Anchor, Nueva York, 1978. Sobre la creación de parteras profesionales (mujeres y hombres) y la medicación del alumbramiento, véase Ann Oakley, “Wisewoman and Medicine Man: Changes in the Management of Childbirth”, en Juliet Mitchell y Ann Oakley, _The Rights and Wrongs of Women_, Penguin, Londres, 1976, pp. 17-58; Frances E. Kobrin, “The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization”, _Bulletin of the History of Medicine_, 40, 1966, pp. 350-363; J. Gélis, “Sages-femmes et accoucheurs: l’obstétrique populaire aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles”, _Annales ESC_, 32, núm. 5, septiembre-octubre, 1977, pp. 927-957; Giana Pomata, “Madri illegittime tra Ottocento e Novecento: storie cliniche e storie di vita”, _Quaderni Storici_, 44, 1980, pp. 497-552, número enteramente dedicado a “Parto e maternità, momento della biografia femminile”. Respecto a la ginecología preventiva por la medicación de la contracepción, véase Linda Gordon, _Woman’s Body, Woman’s Rights: A Social History of Birth Control in America_, Grossman, Nueva York, 1976, pp. 159-185. Al mismo tiempo que se “hospitaliza” el nacimiento, se inicia el monopolio de la moralidad sexual. Bien que la tendencia de la época sea a favor o en contra de la contracepción, a los profesionistas les incumbe el decidir cómo y cuándo las mujeres deben tener relaciones sexuales, para su propio bien. Un estudio particularmente fino sobre el control médico en relación con las mujeres, paralelamente con el nuevo lenguaje que comienza a modelar la nueva realidad del cuerpo femenino, ha sido realizado por Jean-Pierre Péter, “Entre femmes et médecins: violence et singularités dans le discours du corps et sur le corps d’après les manuscrits médicaux de la fin du XVIIIe siècle”, _Ethnologie française_, VI, núm. 3-4, 1976, pp. 341-348. Para los Estados Unidos, véase un estudio análogo de Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, “Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Feminity in Nineteenth-Century America”, _Clio’s Consciousness Raised, op. cit_. en la nota 36, pp. 25-37.] + +[^f88:] _Asimetría del universo simbólico_. Tomo este ejemplo de A. I. Richards, _Chisungu: A Girl’s Initiation Ceremony among the Bemba of Northern Rhodesia, op. cit_. en la nota 68, estudio encantador y apasionante.] + +[^f89:] _Asimetría del universo simbólico_. En la nota 52 (“complementariedad y ciencias sociales”), hice hincapié en la necesidad de abandonar los conceptos que imponen una perspectiva central cuando el objeto que se ha de describir es una realidad genérica. En la nota 46 mostré que no había que confundir las diversas formas de “ciencia estereoscópica”, que actualmente se proponen, con el enfoque necesario para captar el género; en efecto, ya sea que el estudio sea realizado con una perspectiva complementaria, compensatoria o contrastante, siempre se basa en una apreciación agenérica de la realidad. Solamente la investigación que no es explícitamente científica, que emplea la metáfora (nota 56) de forma epistemológica, puede explicar la complementariedad ambigua y asimétrica (nota 57) que constituye el género. He mostrado que en un mundo genérico, no solamente la cultura material —las herramientas (nota 70), el tiempo y el espacio (notas 78 y 79)— sino también la dominación es genérica (nota 83). Indiqué los límites que la terminología de las ciencias políticas impone al análisis del desequilibrio entre los dos ámbitos del género. Pero todavía debo hacer resaltar que en un mundo genérico no solamente los componentes materiales de la cultura sino también las percepciones y las inferencias simbólicas de la cultura son genéricos. La extensión, la perspectiva, los colores, los objetos que las mujeres ven y las cautiva, son captados por los hombres de manera distinta. Un primer artículo de Edwin Ardener, “Belief and the Problem of Women”, que posteriormente se reeditó en Shirley Ardener, ed., _Perceiving Women_, Halsted Press, Nueva York, 1975, pp. 1-17, fue criticado por Nicole-Claude Mathieu, “Notes pour une définition sociologique des catégories du sexe”, _Epistémologie sociologique_, 11-16, 1971-1973, pp. 21-39. En respuesta, Edwin Ardener escribió “The ‘Problem’ Revisited”, que también fue reeditado en Shirley Ardener, ed., _op. cit_. En este segundo artículo, Ardener expone un marco conceptual según el cual los hombres se ven “reducidos al silencio” en ciertos espacios del dominio de las mujeres: son incapaces de captarlos directamente, y también de hablar de ellos conceptualmente. Ardener estima que, en sentido inverso, las mujeres “no tienen voz” en ciertas partes del dominio de los hombres. Actualmente preparo un ensayo sobre el concepto de que este mutismo asimétrico es parte constitutiva de la complementariedad simbólica de los géneros; al respecto véase Rodney Needham, _Reconnaissances_, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1980, pp. 17-40 (“Unilatéral Figures”). Charlotte Hardmann, “Can There Be an Anthropology of Children ?”, _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford_, 4, 1973, pp. 85-99, considera a los niños como el paradigma de la existencia de grupos que son “reducidos al silencio”, que no son “percibidos”, que son “inasibles” —como las mujeres—, que viven en un segmento autónomo aunque no enteramente incomprensible de la sociedad, y que poseen ciertos valores y formas de interacción exclusivos. Estudia las estratagemas mediante las cuales los antropólogos prescinden en sus textos de la necesidad de reconocer esta existencia “reducida al silencio”. Ciertas nociones que en el artículo se exponen son aplicables al enmudecimiento mutuo de los ámbitos del género.] + +[^f90:] _Naturaleza/cultura_. Para hacer del _género_ un paradigma analítico, resulta esencial distinguir las diversas dualidades corrientes e incluso normativas en la investigación de las ciencias sociales (véanse las notas 12 y 76). Al oponer _naturaleza_ y _cultura_, decía Condorcet, “hemos hecho a la naturaleza cómplice del crimen de desigualdad política”. Respecto a la _naturaleza_ así redefinida, véase Jean Erhard, _L’Idée de nature en France à l’aube des Lumières_, Flammarion, París, 1970. Acaso la dualidad más difícil de desenmarañar de todas, es la del género en relación con la de naturaleza/cultura, porque después de la Ilustración la ciencia busca _naturalizar_ a la vez la experiencia y la ideología, a fin de que la lengua pueda expresarlas (argumento sacado de Figlio, _op. cit_, en la nota 87). Por lo tanto la ciencia debe analizarse de la misma manera que Roland Barthes lo hacía con el mito, como un _collage_ “convincente”, puesto que expresa lo que es “natural”. Parafraseando a Barthes, es posible decir que eso que el mundo (o el conjunto de datos empíricos) da al mito (o a la ciencia) es una realidad histórica definida por la manera en que los hombres la han creado o utilizado; y lo que el mito (o la ciencia) da en cambio es una imagen natural de tal realidad. De ahí resulta que la “naturaleza” investigada se vuelve tan mítica (científicamente desprovista de género) como las categorías agenéricas mediante las cuales se estudia. La antropología debería tomar esto en cuenta cuando se ocupa de las “mujeres”, como lo observa Sherry B. Ortner, “Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?”, en Rosaldo y Lamphere, _op. cit_. en la nota 68, pp. 67-87, quien por otra parte se preocupa menos que Ardener de la asimetría del universo conceptual. Sobre todo le interesa encontrar una teoría que explique la subordinación de las mujeres a los hombres, cosa que parece casi universal. No obstante, insiste en el hecho de que toda relación entre la naturaleza y las mujeres proviene de la cultura y no de la naturaleza. Su ensayo ha suscitado un simposio muy animado: Carol P. MacCormack y Marilyn Strathern, eds., _Nature, Culture and Gender_, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980. Esta antología contiene varias comunicaciones fecundas que permiten tomar algo de distancia respecto al paradigma naturaleza/cultura, que tan profundamente se halla inscrito en las ciencias y que tanto se ha popularizado mediante las palabras clave del lenguaje corriente (nota 2). Ciertas sociedades son incapaces de contraponer naturaleza y cultura. Un ejemplo extremo de esto lo presenta M. Strathern, “No Nature, no Culture: The Hagen Case”, _ibid_., pp. 174-222. Entre los hagen (Papuasia-Nueva Guinea) no existe la cultura en el sentido de conjunto de obras del hombre, ni tampoco una naturaleza que haya que domar y hacer productiva. Cuando el género se utiliza de manera diferenciadora, dialéctica, la distinción entre lo masculino y lo femenino siempre crea la noción de humanidad como el “telón de fondo de la similitud común”. Ni el hombre ni la mujer son capaces de representar a la “humanidad” como algo opuesto a la naturaleza, porque la distinción entre ambas se emplea para evaluar zonas donde la acción humana es creadora e individualizante. Para los hagen, todas las representaciones de dominación y de influencia entre los sexos están relacionadas con formas precisas de interacción humana y no con un proyecto de la humanidad respecto a un mundo inferior a lo humano.] + +[^f91:] _Antropología_. La historia de esta palabra es curiosa. Cuando Aristóteles la emplea ( _Ética nicomaquea_, 1225 _a_ 5) significa “chisme”. Para los teólogos, desde Philo a Leibniz, significa otra cosa: la atribución de sentimientos o de motivos humanos a Dios, particularmente cuando se hace con toda humildad y con la conciencia de que el lenguaje metafórico es el único que puede traducir —si bien de forma ambigua— aquello que se quiere decir. En el siglo XVII, el término fue empleado para denominar una nueva ciencia _natural_ cuyo objeto era el _hombre_. En el siglo XIX, accede al rango de ciencia social; respecto a la evolución de la palabra, véase O. Marquard, “Anthropologie (philosophische)”, en J. Ritter, ed., _Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie, op. cit_. en la nota 3, pp. 362-374. Me inclino a pensar, como Jürgen Habermas, que la antropología como ciencia filosófica distinta sólo aparece después de la primera Guerra Mundial. Desde entonces, siempre ha empleado una terminología unisex, aun cuando la antropología enfoca su investigación en la distinción entre los hombres y las mujeres. Es imprescindible elaborar una epistemología moderna del género.] + +[^f93:]_Diferenciación sexual del lenguaje_. Desde hace más de 10 años, en el sur de Alemania se ha estado realizando una gran investigación a fin de registrar la lengua que allí se utiliza actualmente; un informe preliminar apareció: Arno Ruoff, _Grundlagen und Methoden der Untersuchung gesprochener Sprache. Einführung in die Reihe Idiomalica_, Niemeyer, Tubinga, 1973. Fue una gran sorpresa para los investigadores descubrir que la principal variable es el género de la persona que habla (p. 247). “Die offenkundige Tatsache, dass sich zwischen Mann und Frau der in allen Bestimmungen gleichen Gruppen die stärksten sprachlichen Unterschiede zeigen, war für uns die _unerwarteste_ Feststellung.” Como lo indica el título, la obra de Barrie Thome y Nancy Henley, eds., _Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance_, Rowley, Mass., Newbury House, 1975, trata sobre la diferencia y la dominación. Respecto a algunos textos sobre el tema, véase Nancy Faires Conklin, “Toward a Feminist Analysis of Linguistic Behavior”, _The University of Michigan Papers in Women’s Studies_, I, núm. 1, 1974, pp. 51-73; respecto a la bibliografía reciente, consúltese Susan Philips, “Sex Differences and Language”, _Annual Review of Anthropology_, 9, 1980, pp. 523-544. Existe una antología de buenos textos en J. Orasanu, M. K. Slater y L. L. Adler, “Language, Sex and Gender”, _The Annual of the New York Academy of Sciences_, 327, 1970, así como en B. L. Dubois y I. Crouch, eds., _The Sociology of the Language of American Women: Proceedings of a Conference at San Antonio_, Trinity University Press, San Antonio, Texas, 1979. Mi primera introducción al tema se la debo a un joven amigo fallecido, Larry M. Grimes: _El tabú lingüístico: su naturaleza y función en el español popular de México_, CIDOC, Cuaderno núm. 64, Cuernavaca, CIDOC, 1971. Su obra es una mina de los vocablos tabú relacionados con el género en el español de México. La mayoría de los sociolingüistas ven la diferencia entre el habla masculina y el habla femenina “como un lingüista trata cualquier variedad de lenguaje”. Yo hago lo contrario. Parto del postulado de que esta diferencia es única, comparada con otras diferencias que los lingüistas exploran. Por experiencia sé que el habla vernácula está compuesta por dos formas distintas de expresión oral, y esto es verdad en todos los aspectos: entonación, gramática, vocabulario; temas principales de conversación y manera de tratarlos; ritmo de los silencios, sonidos no articulados, y miradas. Claro está que cito principalmente los textos que concuerdan con mi hipótesis, que por lo demás está fundada en mis propias observaciones.] + +[^f94:] _Complementariedad de la palabra_. Hablo del “lenguaje de las mujeres” de la misma forma en que hablé ya del “trabajo de las mujeres”, pues no existe un término lingüístico que designe el habla del género. Respecto a la nomenclatura disponible, véase Joshua A. Fishman, “Some Basic Sociolinguistic Concepts”, _Sociology of Language_, Newbury House, Rowley, Mass., 1972, pp. 15-19. El habla respectiva de los géneros no es una variedad de “la” lengua, sino eso que la constituye fundamentalmente de modo complementario. Tratarla como una variedad de la lengua significa introducir automáticamente una norma agenérica, “unisex” y, al mismo tiempo, la idea de una desviación. También implica que existe de manera independiente, al igual que un dialecto; que cualquiera de las dos formas lingüísticas podría existir incluso en la ausencia de su complemento. Las mujeres comprenden el habla de los hombres, pues el habla femenina es su complemento, pero los hombres y las mujeres comprenden de manera distinta el habla de los primeros (notas 89 y 97) y viceversa. Nadie ha podido escuchar jamás una _lengua vernácula_ como tal; ésta es una elaboración del lingüista que describe el comportamiento de _humanos_ estáticos. La _lumen intellectualis_ del lingüista es la del _neutro científico_ (nota 52). Su proyector conceptual y su perspectiva centralizadora amortiguan la diferencia entre los géneros. La codificación y la ortografía jamás han cesado de imponer la forma masculina y de esta manera han categorizado como una desviación la forma de hablar que las mujeres siguen utilizando. Aun cuando la estandardización ha creado una forma de hablar única, mediante la cual hombres y mujeres se vuelven iguales, en la práctica las mujeres tienen un poco menos de igualdad. En las culturas vernáculas son raras las ocasiones en que los hombres y las mujeres hablan entre sí, por lo que no experimentan la desigualdad del habla. Una de las razones de la estandardización de una forma de habla, es la voluntad de crear un lenguaje mediante el cual los hombres y las mujeres puedan conversar como _humanos_. En la práctica, toda conversación mixta conducida en un lenguaje unisex está dominada por los hombres. Véase Don H. Zimmermann y Candace West, “Sex Roles, Interruption and Silence in Conversation”, en M. A. Lowrie y N. F. Conklin, eds., _A Pluralistic Nation: The Language Issue in the United States_, Newbury House, Rowley, Mass., 1978; consúltese también C. West, “Against Our Will: Male Interruptions of Females in Cross-Sex Conversation”, en Orasanu, Slater y Adler, _op. cit_. en la nota 92, pp. 81-100; M. Swacker, “Women’s Verbal Behavior at Learned and Professional Conferences”, en Dubois y Crouch, eds., _op. cit_. en la nota 92, pp. 155-160; B. Eakins y G. Eakins, “Verbal Turn Taking and Exchanges in Faculty Dialogue”, _ibid_., pp. 53-62.] + +[^f95:] _El lenguaje de las mujeres_. La obra capital es: Otto Jespersen, _Language, It’s Nature, Development and Origin_, 1922 (traducción francesa, _Nature, évolution et origines du langage_, Payot, París, 1976, especialmente el capítulo 13: “Femmes”; véase también, de Jespersen, _The Philosophy of Grammar_, 1924 (traducción francesa: _La philosophie de la grammaire_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1971). Ensayos representativos de la investigación: Antoine M. Badia Margarit, “Note sur le langage des femmes et la méthode d’enquête dialectologique (domaine aragonais)”, _Orbis_, 1, 1952, pp. 15-18; Karl Bouda, “Die tschuktschische Frauensprache”, _Orbis_, 2, 1953, pp. 33-34; Jacobus van Ginneken, “Mannen-en vrouwentaal”, _Onze Taaltuin_, 1934-1935, pp. 289-292 (sobre el empleo de los títulos o rangos en el dialecto de Drente, Holanda).] + +[^f96:] _Subordinación del habla femenina_. El estudio de la dominación ha producido algunas observaciones fundamentales sobre el género. Nancy Faires Conklin, “The Language of the Majority: Women and American English”, en Lowrie y Conklin, eds., _A Pluralistic Nation, op. cit_. en la nota 94, pp. 222-237, afirma que “en toda comunidad existen normas distintas para el comportamiento de los hombres y el de las mujeres, sin exceptuar el comportamiento lingüístico. Hasta hace poco, la visión clásica de las comunidades lingüísticas en cuanto grupos uniformes de hablantes ha encubierto el rol del género en las variaciones de la lengua. En ciertas culturas, los hombres y las mujeres poseen lenguajes sensiblemente distintos: palabras diferentes para nombrar las cosas, una sintaxis diferente. A primera vista el inglés parece diferenciarse poco en relación con el sexo, pero las diferencias, aunque más sutiles, también podrían calificarse de sistemáticas”. Paradójicamente, estas diferencias, que son obvias incluso para los niños, actualmente constituyen un campo de descubrimiento lingüístico. Pero la cuestión primordial está en cuáles son, en la lengua inglesa contemporánea, las diferencias que representan _restos sobrevivientes de formas de expresión relacionadas con el género_, y cuáles son _reflejos del sexismo en el lenguaje_ (nota 101). El género parece subsistir _sistemáticamente_ en el lenguaje, aunque se le impongan cada vez más las formas unisex —en las cuales es siempre el habla masculina la que tiene primacía—.] + +[^f97:] _El rol en el habla y el rol en la lengua_. En _Language and Sex, op. cit_. en la nota 92, Barrie Thorne hace hincapié en la influencia que en los estudios del lenguaje tiene la noción del _rol_. “Eufemísticamente, el término de ‘rol’ tiende a minimizar las diferencias de poder entre hombres y mujeres. Es significativo que la terminología de los roles, que tiende a implicar que se es ‘diferente pero igual’, no se emplea en relación con otras diferencias de poder: no hablamos de los roles raciales, o de los roles de clase … Es evidente que nos hace falta un vocabulario más exacto y más flexible para hablar de las diferencias sociales y culturales entre los sexos.” Este vocabulario técnico más exacto tendría que distinguir entre dos situaciones diferentes: el empleo del habla vernácula y el empleo de la lengua materna enseñada. En el primer caso, cada palabra tienen una resonancia diferente según cuál sea el género que habla. En el segundo caso, se emplea el mismo código del lenguaje inculcado; de manera característica, según el sexo social del género, masculino o femenino, que maneja el lenguaje. Y en el foro sin género de la lengua materna enseñada el habla del hombre siempre predomina.] + +[^f98:] _El habla del género_. J. J. Ottenheimer, “Culture and Contact and Musical Style: Ethno-musicology in the Comore Islands”, _Ethnomusicology_, 14, 1970, pp. 458-462, explora el hecho de que las mujeres cantan canciones distintas de las de los hombres, y Karl Haiding, “Das Erzählen bei der Arbeit and die Arbeitsgruppe als Ort des Erzählens”, en G. Heilfurth y I. Weber-Kellerman, eds., _Arbeit und Volksleben. Deutscher Volkskundekongress 1965 in Marburg_, Otto Schwartz, Gotinga, 1967, pp. 292-302, observa que tradicionalmente los hombres y las mujeres no cuentan las mismas cosas, los mismos chistes. Tienen sus temas de conversación respectivos. Véase Roy Miller, _Japanese Language_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1967, p. 289. Tal como lo muestra el mismo autor en “Levels of Speech _(keigo)_ and the Japanese Linguistic Response to Modernization”, en Donald H. Shively, ed., _Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture_, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1971, pp. 661-667, ambos poseen modos de expresión orales diferentes. Una compleja línea de demarcación separa el habla masculina del habla femenina, que se distinguen claramente por partículas pospuestas diferentes (femenino: _wa_; masculino: _za, ya_). Las mujeres emplean el prefijo honorífico _o-_ delante de palabras que los hombres pronuncian directamente; por ejemplo, las mujeres dicen _o-mizu_ para referirse al agua. Ciertas palabras que designan la misma cosa no tienen ninguna relación etimológica: para decir “delicioso” las mujeres usan _oishi_ y los hombres _umaï_. Véase Richard Bauman y Joel Sherzer, eds., _Exploration in the Ethnography of Speaking_, Cambridge University Press, Nueva York, 1975.] + +[^f99:] _El habla del género_. S. Harding, “Women and Words in a Spanish Village”, en R. Reiter, ed., _Toward an Anthropology of Women, op. cit_. en la nota 22, describe las estrategias que emplean las mujeres de una aldea española para participar en las conversaciones de los hombres, que habitualmente no las incluyen.] + +[^f100:] _El habla del género_. Elinor Keenan, “Norm Makers, Norm Breakers: Use of Speech by Men and Women in a Malagasy Community”, en Bauman y Sherzer, _op. cit_. en la nota 98, pp. 125-143.] + +[^f101:] _El habla del género_. La obra de Yvonne Verdier, _Façons de dire, façons de faire, op. cit_. en la nota 79 es un admirable modelo del enfoque adecuado para estudiar la complementariedad entre los modos de hablar de los géneros.] + +[^f102:] _El habla del género_. Mary R. Haas, “Men’s and Women’s Speech in Koasati”, Language, 20, núm. 3, 1944, pp. 141-149.] + +[^f103:] _Anastomosis_. Cuando hablo de la evolución, evito relacionarla con una teoría: darwiniana, lamarckiana, mendeliana, calificativos todos que al igual que “protestante” o “marxista” han perdido todo sentido. Aquí expongo la transformación que experimenta la cultura vernácula cuando se modifica la configuración del umbral entre los géneros, así como la del espacio-tiempo que ocupan sus ámbitos complementarios. Respecto a las dificultades de relacionar las modificaciones biológicas y las modificaciones culturales, véase Stephen Jay Gould, “‘The Ghost of Protagoras’: A Review of _The Evolution of Culture in Animals_, by John Tyler Bonner, and _Man, the Promising Primate_, by Peter J. Wilson”, _New York Review of Books_, enero 22, 1981, pp. 42-44. Sobre la historia del término “anastomosis” y la legitimidad de su empleo, véase el artículo correspondiente en _Trésor de la langue française, op. cit_. en la nota 3. Sobre la historiografía del “lamarckismo”, resulta útil la consulta de H. Graham Cannon, _Lamarck and Modern Genetics_, Greenwood, Manchester, 1975.] + +[^f104:] _Anastosomosis_. Una organización análoga de formas de la plástica mexicanas (en este caso, estatuillas de barro cocido), con sus vueltas y atajos, sus serpenteos y desdoblamientos, se encuentra en Eduardo Noguera, _La cerámica arqueológica de Mesoamérica_, UNAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropólogicas, México, 1975.] + +[^f105:] _Abandono del género: signo de plagas_. Muchas crónicas medievales señalan que uno de los principales signos de la llegada de una calamidad era el hecho de que se veía a los hombres realizar tareas de mujeres, y viceversa. La gravedad de tal cosa equivalía a lo que en los relatos de las hambrunas se contaba sobre los sobrevivientes que habían tenido que alimentarse con gatos, perros, ratas y raíces, cuando el hombre se había vuelto lobo del hombre. La desaparición de la línea divisoria de los géneros, la transformación de lo incomible en alimento y el surgimiento del individualismo económico son, tomados en conjunto, los signos del hundimiento de la sociedad y la aparición del régimen de la escasez. Es esto lo que describe, por haberlo observado en nuestros tiempos, Raymond Firth en _Social Change in Tikopia_, Macmillan, Nueva York, 1959. En una isla del Pacífico, la hambruna al principio refuerza la solidaridad entre las familias. Las reglas generales que gobiernan las culturas primitivas que Chayanov observó, y más recientemente, Marshall Sahlins en _Stone Age Economics_, Aldine, Chicago, 1972 (traducción francesa: _Âge de pierre, âge d’abondance_, Gallimard, París, 1976), permanecen intactas: al contrario de la escasez (nota 11), la _penuria_ estrecha los lazos sociales y refuerza la regla de que los alimentos solamente se pueden compartir, jamás intercambiar. En la primera etapa de la hambruna, las familias rivalizan más que nunca antes en su generosidad. En la segunda etapa aparecen los primeros signos de la hipocresía: la gente comienza a acumular los víveres en secreto, éstos no se comparten más que con los miembros de la familia. Y cuando inclusive esta repartición cesa, el tejido vernáculo se rompe: nace el _homo œconomicus_, el individuo envidioso. Hasta esta tercera etapa, el abandono del género es pasajero; más allá, el sexo triunfa sobre el género.] + +[^f106:] _Intrusión en el otro ámbito del género_. Véanse por ejemplo las obras citadas en la nota 70. Estas transgresiones individuales causadas por necesidades materiales deben distinguirse del descuido de los deberes del género que el _charivari_ (nota 80) castiga, y del traspaso deliberado de la frontera del género por motivos de “rango”. En ciertos lugares y ciertas épocas, cabalgar con los hombres hacía de una mujer una “dama”. Esta transgresión ocasional era más fácil para las élites (nota 72).] + +[^f107:] _Violación política de la frontera del género_. La violación es siempre un acto “político”. El caso aquí es muy diferente de la _pérdida_ individual del género; por ejemplo, el castigo que despoja a los guayaki de su género, registrado por Pierre Clastres (nota 69); del _abandono_ del género por causa de la guerra, de la hambruna, de la peste; del _derrumbamiento_ del género, que coincide con la desaparición de una cultura (nota 105); de la _intrusión_ ocasional en el ámbito opuesto (nota 106). Llamo “políticas” a aquellas infracciones que constituyen un asalto simbólico contra el orden establecido. Se pueden dividir en tres categorías: _1)_ la provocación: la de las mujeres bemba que abandonan colectivamente las chozas y los hijos, dejándolo todo al cuidado de los hombres a fin de escarmentarlos (véase Richards, nota 68); o incluso, en las estructuras patriarcales, las muchas maneras que las mujeres tienen de imitar, de mofarse y de humillar a los hombres a fin de volver a equilibrar el poder; al respecto se pueden encontrar buenos ejemplos en Natalie Zemon Davis, _Society and Culture in Early Modern France_, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, California, 1975, especialmente el capítulo 5: “Women on Top”, pp. 124-150. _2)_ El acto de ridiculizar la invasión de la cultura local por la civilización burguesa. En esto se ve una utilización política del travestismo que ocurre en los comienzos del desarrollo capitalista: hombres y mujeres, que recientemente han entrado a formar parte de la mano de obra industrial, intentan preservar su economía genérica mediante diversas formas de protesta simbólicas. _3)_ El tercer tipo de transgresión política no viola la frontera entre los géneros sino la división de los sexos. La pornografía, al menos desde Sade, y gran parte de las manifestaciones de los movimientos homosexuales y feministas parece entrar en esta categoría del travestismo. Hasta hace poco tiempo, el carnaval y sus travestismos duales servían para rememorar periódicamente la cesura entre la economía moral del pueblo y la invasión de la economía comercial. Para un ejemplo de nuestros tiempos, véase Gerald Sider, “Christmas Mumming and the New Year in Outport New-foundland”, _Past and Present_, 71, mayo, 1976, pp. 102-125.] + +[^f108:] _Función de la burla_. El estudio del travestismo en el carnaval muestra perfectamente que la burla ritual conserva _intacta_ la línea de separación de los géneros. Los chistes, los dichos, los proverbios y los acertijos tienen la misma función.] + +[^f109:] _El lenguaje del travestismo_. El lenguaje moderno amalgama el género y el sexo (véase la nota 7), creando así la imagen de individuos desprovistos de género que poseen una libido desprovista de género, y que durante su existencia escogen entre diversas formas características. En este lenguaje nuevo se habla del _transexual_, el individuo que cree ser del sexo opuesto al propio, y del _travestido_, quien obtiene satisfacción sexual al adoptar el vestido y/o el comportamiento del otro sexo. También se habla de las tendencias a adoptar formas de comportamiento unisex que disimulan frecuentemente un imaginario sexista o feminosexista inconsciente. Una historia de la transgresión, que debe describir los tipos mencionados en las notas 105 a 108, por lo general se ubica en la perspectiva del sexólogo social; su lenguaje, que ignora el género, parece por ende “natural”. Pero tal óptica necesariamente deforma la realidad y el sentido de los documentos que pretende interpretar. Respecto a la bibliografía, tan extensa como confusa, sobre el tema, véase Vern L. Bullough _et al., An Annotated Bibliography of Homosexuality_, 2 volúmenes, Garland, Nueva York, 1976, particularmente el volumen 1, pp. 37-67 (sobre la historia), y el volumen 2, pp. 351-384 (sobre el travestismo y el transexualismo); del mismo autor, “Transvestites in the Middle Ages”, _The American Journal of Sociology_, 79, núm. 6, 1974, pp. 1381-1394. Sobre la mujer travesti en la tradición cristiana, véase John Anson, “The Female Transvestite in Early Monasticism: The Origin and Development of a Motive”, _Viator_, 5, 1974, pp. 1-32; Marie Delcourt, “Le complexe de Diane dans l’hagiographie chrétienne”, _Revue de l’histoire des religions_, 153, 1958, pp. 1-33; Marina Warner, _Joan of Arc_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1981.] + +[^f110:] _La historia del heterosexual_. El término _homosexual_ figura en el _Oxford English Dictionary_; el término _heterosexual_ únicamente se encuentra en su suplemento. En inglés, los dos vocablos aparecen en 1890. En francés, la fecha de su aparición varía según las fuentes, pero también se puede ubicar a finales de ese siglo. Sin embargo hay que observar que el suplemento del _Nouveau Larousse illustré_, París, 1907, registra al homosexual pero no al heterosexual. En 1957, el _Wolfenden Report_, destinado al Parlamento Británico, claramente distinguía entre la propensión a la homosexualidad y el comportamiento homosexual. Ambos aspectos tienen su historia en las sociedades occidentales, y por primera vez fueron cuidadosamente distinguidos por D. S. Baily, _Homosexuality and the Christian Western Tradition_, Longman, Londres, 1955. Intentó diferenciarlos con claridad y precisión, hablando de “homosexualismo” para designar la conducta y de “homosexualidad” para el temperamento desviado. El descubrimiento histórico del homosexual como un tipo particular de ser humano fue expuesto en una obra reciente de John Boswell, _Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century_, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1979. Para una respuesta crítica a su tesis, véase J. D. Adams, _Speculum_, 56, núm. 2, 1981, pp. 350-355; Peter Linehan, _The Times Literary Supplement_, enero 23, 1981, p. 73; Keith Thomas, _The New York Review of Books_, diciembre 4, 1980, pp. 26-29. Sobre la historia de la percepción de algunas mujeres como _lesbianas_, véase Lillian Faderman, _Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present_, Morrow, Nueva York, 1981, especialmente la bibliografía, pp. 417-480. Carrol Smith-Rosenberg, “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America”, en N. Cott y E. Pleck, eds., _A Heritage of Her Own_, Simon and Schuster, Nueva York, 1979, piensa que entre las mujeres norteamericanas el contacto físico no se cristalizó como una forma aberrante de actividad sexual hasta finales del siglo XIX. Véase también _Frontiers: A Journal of Women’s Studies_, 4, núm. 3, 1979, número especial sobre la historia del lesbianismo. Paralelamente a esta historia del _desviado_, marcada por la exclusión, actualmente se tendría que escribir una historia del _humano normal_, del heterosexual. Mientras no se conozca mejor la ortopedia conceptual que antecede la construcción social del heterosexual, masculino o femenino, no se podrá comprender el carácter _económico_ de la pareja conyugal y de nuestra sociedad sujeta a la producción mercantil.] + +[^f111:] _Sodomía y herejía. Pecado_ contra Dios o _crimen_ entre los hombres, la sodomía sucesivamente se convierte en _herejía_ (separación del cuerpo de la Iglesia): una nueva actitud respecto a la desviación se hace patente. Hasta entonces, la herejía se relacionaba con la negación pública de una doctrina formulada por la Iglesia, o con el rechazo a cumplir con actos rituales prescritos por ésta. Con bastante frecuencia herejía y cisma (separación administrativa respecto a Roma) se confundían. La herejía era contraria a la ortodoxia católica, a la fe, a las creencias. Después el término progresivamente vino a designar una conducta contraria a los preceptos religiosos, al comportamiento estandardizado por la Iglesia. A partir de entonces, todo cristiano que observara sus usos y costumbres vernáculas, tradicionales, podía ser acusado de herejía si contradecía las normas de comportamiento de la Iglesia. Respecto a esta transformación de la herejía, véanse las actas de una conferencia: “Sénéfiance 5”, _Exclus et systèmes d’exclusion dans la littérature et la civilisation médiévales_, CUERMA; Aix-en-Provence, Champion, París, 1978, y V. Branca, _Studi sulle eresie del secolo XII, Studi Storici_, Roma, 5, 2a edición aumentada, 1975, pp. 293-327. Respecto al estado actual de la investigación sobre la participación de las mujeres en la herejía cátara del siglo XII, véase Richard Abels y Ellen Harrison, “The Participation of Women in Languedocian Catharism”, _Medieval Studies_, 41, 1979, pp. 215-251.] + +[^f112:] _Asistencia institucional_. John McKnight dice que la asistencia institucional es la “máscara del amor”. Para mí, la transformación de la solicitud cristiana de la “caridad” en asistencia pública es un caso histórico único. Una sociedad hiperproductora de mercancías necesariamente tiene que ser hiperproductora de asistencias. El ciudadano es necesario sobre todo como objeto de la asistencia que prodigan aquellos que se han adjudicado el monopolio radical de ésta (nota 9). En una sociedad así, la necesidad de la asistencia institucional es la base misma de las profesiones mutilantes (nota 60) y de la ayuda mutua “dirigida”. Bajo el régimen del sexo, la asistencia institucional sustituye al amor y al odio. Tal solicitud equivale al “amor” desprovisto de género. En la alta Edad Media, el cura es quien cuida a las almas (del latín _curare_, cuidar). El término aparece en la Iglesia de Occidente durante la reforma carolingia, para designar aquel a quien el obispo confía una parroquia; véase Maria Bidlingmaier, “Alkuin zwischen Antike und Mittelalter”, _Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie_, 81, 1959, pp. 306-350 y 405-453. En el Oriente cristiano, el sacerdote jamás se convirtió en cura: allí su tarea primordial seguía siendo la celebración de la Eucaristía, no la administración de los sacramentos. Al principio de la Edad Media, la impartición de bendiciones todavía dan mucho quehacer al cura occidental: A. Franz, _Die Kirchlichen Benediktionen im Mittelalter_, 2 volúmenes, Friburgo, 1909; H. Reifenberg, _Sakramente, Sakramentalien und Ritualien im Bistum Mainz seit dem Spätmittelalter: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Diöizesen Würzburg und Bamberg_, Münster, 1971-1972. La evolución de la teología sacramental (una teología técnica), que se inicia en el siglo XI, corre paralelamente con la evolución de una actitud de apertura a otras técnicas nuevas; la Iglesia oriental ha resistido ambas tendencias. Por ejemplo, novedades mecánicas increíblemente complejas —el órgano y, en el campanario, el reloj— en Occidente se convirtieron en símbolos del nuevo rostro de la “iglesia del cura”; el Oriente por su lado las rechaza; véase Lynn White, Jr., “Cultural Climates and Technological Advances in the Middle Ages”, _Viator_, 2, 1971, pp. 171-201, y Ernst Benz, “I fondamenti cristiani della tecnica occidentale”, _Tecnica, Escatologia e Casistica_, Roma, 1964, pp. 47-88. A partir de entonces, el cura cuidará a sus ovejas bajo la égida de la técnica —prefiguración de múltiples asistencias institucionales modernas—. Sobre la transformación de las actitudes en relación con la técnica durante el segundo cuarto del siglo XII, en este volumen, _El trabajo fantasma_, en la nota 1, “La investigación convivencial”.] + +[^f113:] _Alma Mater_. El monopolio de la asistencia médica por los profesionales (nota 112) se da junto con la redefinición de la institución “tutelar”: la Madre Iglesia (el _Alma Mater_, la madre cuyos pechos prodigan leche). La noción de una institución universal en cuyo seno han de beber todos los que buscan la salvación se remonta a los primeros tiempos del cristianismo. Aparece por vez primera en los escritos de Marción el gnóstico, hacia el año 155. No obstante, ni la imaginería gnóstica ni el panteón pagano entran en la formación de esta idea; al respecto véase Joseph C. Plumpe, _Mater Ecclesia: An Inquiry into the Concept of the Church as Mother in Early Christianity_, Catholic University of America Press, Washington, 1943. Tampoco se puede vincular la noción al culto de la “diosa madre” de la Roma imperial, _ibid_., pp. 9-14, 28-32. En un principio, la Iglesia romana rechazó la identificación con esta imagen. No era la Iglesia, sino el amor cristiano lo que se definía como maternal, como un amor que engendraba una nueva vida. Pero al final del siglo III y en el siglo IV aparecen muchas referencias a la Iglesia “madre” en los textos de los Padres de la Iglesia: ésta es _fecunda, concipit, generat, parturit_, puede abortar, amamantar a quienes recoge en su seno; experimentar placer, exaltación, tristeza; llora y suspira. Los cristianos beben la leche de la fe de sus pechos. En el siglo v, los obispos tenían a su cargo la _educatio prolis_, la educación de los cristianos —el término _educatio_, en el latín clásico, es una función femenina únicamente—. Véase también Sebastian Tromp, “Ecclesia sponsa, virgo, mater”, en _Gregorianum_, 18, 1937, pp. 3-29. Respecto a la evolución posterior de la imagen, véase Karl Delahaye, _Ecclesia Mater chez les Pères des trois premiers siècles_, Cerf, París, 1964; en la introducción de esta obra, Yves Congar habla del cambio en la utilización de esta imagen de la madre durante la alta Edad Media. El término ya no se empleará para designar las características vivificadoras del amor mutuo entre los cristianos, sino que servirá para justificar jurídicamente la autoridad de la Iglesia institucional cuando ejerce el control sobre las fuentes de la vida. El cura es el guardián de los pechos de la Iglesia: así, la Iglesia se convierte en el modelo de una institución social descrita como una mujer cuyos favores sólo pueden obtenerse por mediación clerical. Ciertamente, en muchas culturas las diosas madres se simbolizan mediante estatuas, grutas, montañas y pozos. Ciertamente, la definición del hombre como niño abandonado es típicamente griega: E. Pöhlmann, “Der Mensch-das Mängelwesen? Zum Nachwirken antiker Anthropologie bei Arnold Gehlen”, _Archiv für Kulturgeschichte_, 52, 1970, pp. 297-312. La Antigüedad clásica describía a la naturaleza como una madrastra forzada por su mezquindad a adoptar la cultura. Pero la correlación en términos de lactación entre el profesionista dispensador de cuidados y la asistencia institucionalizada corresponde a la occidentalización de la cultura europea (nota 5).] + +[^f114:] _El pecado_. El sacramento de la penitencia que se administra en forma de una confesión secreta obligatoria y anual es una de las manifestaciones claras de la transición a una _sociedad de la asistencia institucional_. De la penitencia pública relacionada con los crímenes notorios se pasa a la confesión de los pecados secretos, y de esta manera la Iglesia se otorga el poder de reglamentar los comportamientos privados: Jean-Charles Payen, “La pénitence dans le contexte culturel des XIIe et XIIIe siècles”, _Revue des sciences philosophiques et théologiques_, 61, 1977, pp. 300 y ss. Dicta oficialmente leyes que gobiernan las relaciones sexuales: dónde, en qué momento, con qué frecuencia y en cuáles circunstancias deben tener lugar; cosas todas que hasta entonces habían sido determinadas por la honestidad local y circunscritas por el _pané_ o el _tabú_ heredados. Este conflicto entre la honestidad vernácula y la ley de la Iglesia fue particularmente bien registrado en diversos textos durante la cristianización de Islandia. Los misioneros llegaron allí con relativa tardanza, cuando las reglas de la Iglesia respecto a la cuestión ya habían cristalizado. Sobre la sustitución de la penitencia pública por la confesión privada, el estudio más sólido es el de Herbert Vorgrimmler, “Busse und Krankensalbung”, 4, fasc. 3, en _Handbuch der Dogmengeschichte_, Friburgo,1978, esp. pp. 89-112. Sobre los libros penitenciales de la época, la mejor obra sigue siendo la de J. Wasserschleben, _Die Bussordnung in der abendländischen Kirche_, 1851; reimpreso por Graz, ed., Akademische Verlagsanstalt, 1958. Las plegarias litúrgicas se decían en latín, pero la confesión se hacía obligatoriamente en lengua vernácula; véase H. Eggers, “Die altdeutschen Beichten”, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, 77, Niemeyer, Halle,1955, pp. 81, 89-123 y 1959, pp. 78-122. Véase también Jenny M. Jochens, “The Church and Sexuality in Medieval Iceland”, _Journal of Medieval History_, 6, 1980, pp. 377-392, y Elizabeth M. Makowski, “The Conjugal Debat and Medieval Canon Law”, _Journal of Medieval History_, 3, 1977, pp. 99-114. Los esfuerzos desplegados por la Iglesia para enseñar a los fieles a realizar su confesión anual pueden verse como un primer intento de inaugurar una educación individual, aunque universal, y un primer intento de proporcionar al fiel una prestación medica anual, absolutamente indispensable para la salvación de su alma. Los documentos de la época subrayan _medicina_. Esta asistencia “médica” que la Iglesia inauguraba transformó el lenguaje de los médicos; véase J. Agrimi y C. Crisciani, _Medicina del corpore, medicina dell’anima: Note sul sapere del medico fino all’inizio del secolo XIII_, Episteme, Milán, 1978.] + +[^f115:] _La conciencia_. Aquí, la conciencia es la interiorización por parte del ser humano de aquello que lo guía y juzga en la época en la que el tipo ideal es lo inverso del sentido de la honestidad vernácula que impone el género (nota 81). El llamado “proceso de civilización” se pone en marcha gracias a otro desarrollo, que se puede denominar de la “concientización”. Este término fue acuñado en Brasil para designar una especie de formación política de los adultos que buscaba que se responsabilizaran de sus propios asuntos, instrucción organizada principalmente por sacerdotes que popularizaron las categorías marxistas con el propósito de ayudar a los pobres a descubrir que son “humanos” (nota 4). Históricamente, el término sería apropiado para definir una empresa que la Iglesia configuró mediante la institucionalización del sacramento de la penitencia, una empresa que ha tenido una posteridad técnica variada. Yo denomino concientización a todos los rituales elaborados e impuestos con el fin de hacer interiorizar una idea religiosa o profana. La concientización consiste en la colonización y la estandardización de la honestidad y el honor vernáculos, mediante un conjunto de reglas institucionales “católicas” (es decir, universalmente humanas). Me atrevo a decir que en la alta Edad Media constituyó una perversión de la idea cristiana original de reforma. Los primeros cristianos veían en la reforma, en cuanto intento de renovación del mundo mediante la conversión personal, la vocación que los colocaba en un lugar aparte; véase al respecto Gerhart Ladner, _The Idea of Reform_, Gannon, Santa Fe, Nuevo México, 1970. Los cristianos daban al término _reforma_ un contenido enteramente nuevo; no era ni _1)_ la nostalgia de un paraíso perdido, ni _2)_ una utopía milenarista, ni _3)_ un “renacimiento” periódico que concordaba con el de la naturaleza. Estos tres sentidos eran conocidos en la Antigüedad, así como la salvación personal mediante la participación en los “misterios”, pero no se corresponden en absoluto con la idea cristiana de “reforma”. Ésta encontró una de sus expresiones concretas en las primeras prácticas penitenciales. Tales prácticas se reservaban para los hombres, conversos o hijos de conversos, que habían reincidido en formas de violencia que las conveniencias paganas podían haber exigido de ellos, pero que eran parte del mundo que habían prometido abandonar cuando recibieron el bautismo. Al aceptar públicamente un ritual penitencial, daban testimonio público de su reforma interior. En el confesonario la contrición íntima, secreta, y el compromiso de enmienda que la solicitud pastoral había comenzado a inculcar, remplazó a la declaración pública y precisa de las faltas. El “tribunal interno” requería una evaluación cuantitativa en el más allá. Sobre esta mutación cultural de la vida futura, véase Gilbert Chiffoleau, _La comptabilité de l’au-delà: Les hommes, la mort et la religion dans la région d’Avignon à la fin du Moyen Âge_, École Française de Rome, Roma, 1980; difusión en Francia: De Boc-card. Jacques Le Goff, _La Naissance du Purgatoire_, Gallimard, París, 1981, rememora el descubrimiento de un tercer criterio apropiado para este fin, situado entre el Paraíso y el Infierno, que visitaron en sueños ciertos individuos excepcionales (hacia 1220). Sobre la evolución de las representaciones pictóricas de los “tres pisos” del mundo medieval cristiano, véase J. Baltrusaitis, _Cosmographie chrétienne dans l’art du Moyen Âge_, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, París, 1939. La práctica de la confesión introdujo la distinción entre el pecado ( _culpa_, la falta) que conduciría al Infierno si no recibía el perdón sacramental del sacerdote, y el castigo de este pecado, que el perdón no modificaba. Este castigo mensurable de un pecado que ya se ha perdonado puede ser infligido por Dios en la forma de una enfermedad o de un desastre, o ser conmutado eclesiásticamente por la Iglesia mediante la participación en una cruzada, una peregrinación y, posteriormente, por donativos en efectivo. Desde finales del siglo XII, este castigo será experimentado en un nuevo lugar, el Purgatorio, en el caso de que no lo haya sido en el mundo. Así, la gente podía tener la conciencia purificada por la confesión y, al mismo tiempo, torturada por el temor perpetuo del castigo que aún habría de experimentar. Esta evolución separó un poco más todavía a la Iglesia occidental de la Iglesia griega ortodoxa, que rechazó la invención del purgatorio; véase Gilbert Dagron, “La perception d’une différence: les débuts de la querelle du Purgatoire”, _Actes du xe Congrès International d’Études Byzantines_, Atenas, 1979.] + +[^f116:] _La Madona_. La transformación de la Madre Iglesia, que pasa de ser símbolo del amor fértil a ser el símbolo del monopolio de la lactancia (nota 113), se duplica con la modificación de la imagen representativa de la devoción mariana: se pasa del icono de la _Theotokos_ (en griego: “quien engendra a Dios”) al ídolo de la Madona; de la inmensa mujer sobre un fondo de oro en el mosaico de la ábside, a la dama pintada “en perspectiva”. Esta transición simboliza la distancia que comienza a separar a Europa occidental del Oriente cristiano (véanse las notas 112 y 115). Al igual que los caminos recorridos por la “asistencia” (nota 112), la herejía (nota 111) y la conciencia (nota 115), esta transición a otra imagen de María nos permite seguir la pista de la “occidentalización” de Europa (nota 5). Sería un error asignar una fecha a estas transformaciones; no se producen en todas partes en el mismo momento. Son menos visible en los países protestantes que en los países católicos. Y sería ridículo decir que cualquiera de estas transformaciones representó dejar atrás un paraíso perdido, o que el siglo XII marca el fin de un periodo edénico; si centro mi interés en esta época es porque la conozco bien. Finalmente, hay que cuidarse de ver en la “dama” de los trovadores una versión renacentista de la Madona, o en la “feminidad victoriana” una versión profana. No hago estas advertencias sino para subrayar el interés de la obra de Marina Warner, _Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1976, que intenta leer la evolución de las actitudes relacionadas con el género en las representaciones de la Virgen. Marina Warner estudia principalmente las obras maestras del arte religioso. Un enfoque paralelo consistiría en estudiar las imágenes de María que provienen de la piedad popular (nota 117).] + +[^f117:] _La piedad popular_. El estudio de la piedad popular es distinto del estudio de la religión al que se dedican las ciencias religiosas. En esto se puede encontrar la misma diferencia que existe entre el estudio del habla genérica y el del lenguaje sexuado (nota 101). La piedad popular consiste en todas las oraciones y devociones, todos los rituales, todas las bendiciones y las canciones que expresan los sentimientos vernáculos y las actitudes vernáculas, y en todos y todas el género aparece. Mi guía en el estudio de la piedad popular, principalmente en Europa, ha sido Lenz Kriss-Rettenbeck, _Bilder und Zeichen religiösen Volksglaubens_, Callwey, Munich, 1977, y del mismo autor, en colaboración con Liselotte Hansmann, _Amulett und Talisman: Erscheinungsformen und Geschichte_, Callwey, Munich, 1976. El autor investiga la forma, el contenido y el significado de la piedad _(Frömmigkeit)_ interpretando los exvotos, los objetos piadosos _(Andachtsbilder)_, los gestos, los amuletos y los talismanes. Distingue cuidadosamente entre _piedad_ y _magia_ o _superstición_. La magia no es ni una forma antigua ni una parte de la religión o de la ciencia, y tampoco es importante en la devoción popular. Es un acto de dominación simbólico. La “superstición”, en el sentido medieval, no reside en las “estúpidas creencias de las viejas”, sino en el rechazo a servir a Dios y en el ingreso al campo de su enemigo, el Diablo. Sobre la transformación de la _realidad social de la superstición_, que de ser una perversión medieval de la religión se convierte en el siglo XVIII en una perversión del sentido común, véase Dieter Harmening, _Superstitio: Überlieferungs und theoriegeschichtliche Untersuchungen zur kirchlich-theologischen Aberglaubensliteratur des Mittelalters_, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlín, 1979. La gran limpia gótica que vació las catedrales suscitó una extraña unión entre la superstición y la magia. Al teólogo y al filósofo del Renacimiento les fascinan la caza de las brujas. Esto por dos razones: _1)_ el fenómeno era de por sí nuevo; _2)_ la brujería y la nueva ciencia que la persigue tienen en común la conjugación de dos aspiraciones: poseer poderes e independizarse de Dios. En el contexto de mi argumento, la historia de la brujería y la de la ciencia contribuyen al estudio del sexo, mientras que al intentar comprender la piedad popular, es posible obtener una visión privilegiada del género. Para un estudio de la piedad popular, véase Raoul Manselli, “Simbolismo magia nell’Alto Medioevo”, en su obra _Simboli e simbologia nell’Alto Medioevo_, Sede del Centro, Espoleto, 1976, pp. 293-329, y _La religion populaire au Moyen Âge: Problèmes de méthode et d’histoire_, Vrin, París, 1975, así como J. Toussaert, _Le Sentiment religieux en Flandre à la fin du Moyen Âge_, Plon, París, 1963. Hay útiles referencias (especialmente sobre la penitencia y la contrición) en Jean-Charles Payen, _Le motif du repentir dans la littérature française médiévale, des origines à 1230_, Droz, Ginebra, 1968. Una obra monumental, con frecuencia irremplazable en el estudio de la devoción en el marco de la fe católica, es el _Dictionnaire de spiritualité, ascétique et mystique, doctrine et histoire_, Beauchesne, París, al que se dio inicio en 1932 gracias a la iniciativa de Marcel Viller y cuya publicación prosigue (ha llegado al volumen X, fasc. 67, 3, letra M, y acaso se terminará al final del siglo). Los vínculos entre el cura y la piedad de sus fieles se exponen con claridad en Etienne Delaruelle, _La piété populaire au Moyen Âge_, Bottega d’Erasmo, Turín, 1975. No pude utilizar dos obras muy recientes: M. Ménard, _Une histoire des mentalités religieuses aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Mille retables de l’ancien diocèse du Mans_, Beauchesne, París, 1981, y Marie-Hélène Froeschlé-Chopard, _La religion populaire en Provence orientale au XVIIIe siècle_, Beauchesne, París, 1980. Si estimo que es muy importante la investigación en torno a la piedad popular en el siglo XIX, es porque en este periodo los símbolos religiosos fueron utilizados por la Iglesia para bendecir una nueva visión del mundo, una visión sexuada. Esto es lo que muestra, por ejemplo, Gottfried Korff, en “Heiligenverehrung und soziale Frage: zur Ideologisierung der populären Frömmigkeit im spaten 19. Jh”, en G. Wiegelmann ed., _Kultureller Wandel im 19. Jh_., Van den Hoeck and Ruprecht, Gotinga, 1973, pp. 102-111, y también en, “Bemerkungen zum politischen Heiligenkult im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert”, en Günther Stephenson, ed., _Der Religionswandel unserer Zeit im Spiegel der Religionswissenschaft_, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 1976, pp. 217-230. Puesto que la penetración de la ideología impuesta por la Iglesia en la religiosidad popular es un tema que me interesa, presidí la constitución de una colección de documentos sobre la piedad popular en América Latina desde 1820; esta colección, dirigida por Valentina Borremans, se encuentra actualmente en la biblioteca de El Colegio de México, Carretera Picacho-Ajusco, Bosques del Pedregal, México, D. F. Ha sido parcialmente registrada en microfilms por Inter Documentation Company, de Leiden (Holanda).] + +[^f118:] _El Diablo_. El estudio iconográfico del Diablo, de los demonios y de los zoomorfos es una manera de reconstituir la imagen de la mujer en la época: “Sénéfiance 6”, _Le Diable au Moyen Âge (doctrine, problèmes moraux, représentations_), coloquio, marzo de 1978, Aix-en-Provence; Champion, París, 1979. Sobre los animales sagrados y diabólicos, sigue siendo útil la obra de W. von Blankenburg, _Heilige und dämonische Tiere_, Koehler, Leipzig, 1942; véase también Dietrich Schmidtke, _Geistliche Tierinterpretationen in der deutschsprachigen Literatur des Mittelalters 1100-1500_, tesis, Berlín, 1968, especialmente pp. 208 y ss. Para la correlación entre las representaciones animales y la imaginería del periodo, véase J. Baltrusaitis, _Le Moyen Âge fantastique: Antiquités et exotismes dans l’art gothique_, Flammarion, París, 1981, nueva edición aumentada; 1a édition: 1955. Sobre la supervivencia de los dioses antiguos en la forma de demonios, véase M. Th. d’Alverny, “Survivance de la magie antique”, _Antike und Orient im Mittelalter_, Miscellanea Mediaevalia I, 1962, pp. 155-178 y, para la bibliografía sobre el tema, J. Seznec, _La survivance des dieux antiques_, Warburg Institute, Londres, 1940; véase también A. A. Barb, “The Survival of Magic Arts”, en Arnaldo Momigliano, ed., _The Conflict between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century_, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1964, pp. 100-125. Sobre el “estatus social” de los animales, véase J. Vartier, _Les procès d’animaux du Moyen Âge à nos jours_, Hachette, París, 1970. En torno a la imagen medieval de la mujer, véase el número especial de _Cahiers de civilisation médiévale_, 20, 1977, especialmente Jean Verdon, “Les sources de l’histoire de la femme en Occident aux Xe et XIIIe siècles”, y Chiara Frugoni, “L’iconographie de la femme au cours des Xe-XIIe siècles”, pp. 177-187, cuya conclusión es de notar: “… la iconografía de la mujer es la iconografía de una ausencia”. Respecto a Eva, véase E. Guldan, _Eva und Maria: eine Antithese als Bildmotiv_, Böhlau, Colonia, 1966.] + +[^f119:] _La bruja_. La bruja, personaje histórico, aparece cuando las gárgolas abandonan las torres de las catedrales, y desaparece hacia el fin de la Ilustración; es típica del periodo del género dislocado (nota 120). La bruja conoce las hierbas, realiza abortos, puede ser maga o exorcista o adivina, o incluso, lo cual suele ser lo más frecuente, ser sólo una pobre anciana; pero ante todo su figura es el resumen de la mujer que protesta contra la pérdida del género vernáculo. No es la sacerdotisa de una divinidad local, ni la devota de un ídolo: está asociada al Diablo cristiano, que es tan católico como el Dios al que combate. Los compañeros de la bruja no son espíritus vernáculos que el agua bendita pasó por alto, sino los zoomorfos y los demonios asociados desde ese momento con Satanás. En todos los lugares donde el proceso civilizador se esfuerza en imponer una frontera sintética entre los géneros, aparece la bruja (y también el brujo). Robert Muchembled, _Culture populaire et culture des élites dans la France moderne, XVe-XVIIIe siècles_, Flammarion, París, 1978, muestra la relación entre la brujería y la represión de la subsistencia local por el Estado-nación que se está constituyendo. Jean Delumeau, _La peur en Occident, XIVe-XVIIIe siècles_, Fayard, París, 1968, estudia _quién_ temía _qué_ y _cuándo_, y las expresiones que asumía el temor en las comunidades. Es una nueva forma de temor que se generaliza conforme desaparecen las referencias de la experiencia constituidas por las fronteras del género y que exige símbolos abstractos, siendo _la_ mujer el más importante. La bruja es una reacción característica del género ante la desaparición de la subsistencia local; esto lo pude entrever por vez primera en la obra de Julio Caro Baroja, _Las brujas y su mundo_, Madrid, 1961, traducción francesa: _Les Sorcières et leur monde_, Gallimard, París, 1972.] + +[^f120:] _La civilización del género dislocado_. Ludolf Kuchenbuch (véanse las notas 73 y 77) es mi guía en la cuestión de la civilización del género dislocado que dominó Occidente entre los siglos XI y XVIII. Designo así la segunda de las cuatro etapas de la formación de la pareja “sexuada” de nuestros tiempos, y la función económica de la pareja en el hogar. _1)_ Durante gran parte del periodo medieval, la unión conyugal no tiene como finalidad la creación de la pareja. El matrimonio con frecuencia tejía lazos complejos entre los miembros de ambas parentelas; entre sus posesiones, su estatus, su descendencia. Asumía una sorprendente variedad de formas; estimulaba la subsistencia y reforzaba la capacidad del campesino para resistir a las exigencias del rey o del señor. _2)_ En el siglo XI apareció un nuevo tipo de casamiento cuya finalidad inmediata era la creación de un vínculo entre los dos coproductores del tributo, cada cual de acuerdo con su género (nota 77). Pero el tributo pierde su género inclusive antes de que se pague en efectivo (nota 73). La Iglesia eleva el consentimiento mutuo al rango de sacramento, y la pareja se convierte en una institución sagrada. El proceso de la civilización (Norbert Elias, _Über den Prozess der Zivilisation_, Francfort, 1939, 2a ed., 1969; traducción francesa en dos volúmenes: _La civilisation des mœurs_, 1974; _La dynamique de l’Occident_, 1975, Calmann-Lévy, París), impuso progresivamente la unión conyugal a las capas sociales inferiores, remplazando las conveniencias sociales, como criterios del comportamiento del género, con las que el catolicismo impone. El _estado conyugal en el seno del género_ permitió al hogar europeo funcionar como una empresa económica única en la historia: _a)_ el género dislocado hacía a los hombres y a las mujeres más capaces de adaptarse a las técnicas nuevas, y por lo tanto de producir bienes eminentemente vendibles; _b)_ sin embargo la familia permanecía relativamente independiente del consumo de los productos mercantiles, puesto que su existencia seguía basada en la subsistencia intragenérica; _c)_ el hogar solo, sin el sólido apoyo de la aldea y de la parentela, no tenía la fuerza suficiente para resistir la expropiación de sus excedentes; la civilización del género dislocado termina en el intervalo protoindustrial (nota 125), que transforma a la pareja en: _3)_ una asociación económica desprovista de género entre un trabajador salariado y una trabajadora fantasma; por lo tanto, yo llamo a este tercer periodo la civilización del sexo económico. _4)_ No me atrevería a acuñar una denominación para el surgimiento actual de los pseudogéneros castrados, quienes tienen sus partidarios teóricos y sus detractores prácticos. Sobre la transición del género vernáculo al género dislocado, véanse las obras citadas en la nota 77; sobre la historia de la familia, véase la nota 121. Sobre la historia legal de la pareja en la civilización del género dislocado, véase sobre todo Gaudemet, _op. cit_ en la nota 77. Velma Bourgeois Richmond, “Pacience in Adversitee: Chaucer’s Presentation of Marriage”, _Viator_, 10, 1979, pp. 323-354, da una lista de los textos relacionados con las dificultades que encuentra el crítico o el escritor modernos cuando trata de decir cuáles eran, en la baja Edad Media, las actitudes ante el sexo, el amor, la reciprocidad de los sentimientos. John K. Yost, “The Traditional Western Concept of Marriage and the Family: Rediscovering Its Renaissance-Reformation Roots”, _Andover Newton Quarterly_, 20, 1980, pp. 169-180, y Alberto Tenenti, “Famille bourgeoise et idéologie au bas Moyen Âge”, en G. Duby y J. Le Goff, eds., _Famille et parenté dans l’Occident médiéval_, Actes du Colloque de Paris 1974, École Française de Rome, edición núm. 30, 1977, pp. 431-440, tratan ambos del descubrimiento de que, en la Florencia de Dante († 1321) y de Boccacio († 1375), el matrimonio podía concebirse como una empresa vitalicia iniciada por la pareja, empresa que tanto al noble como al campesino le tocaba en suerte —en cuanto al letrado, éste tenía que buscar un estado más propicio—. En los tiempos de Leonbattista Alberti (1404-1472), el ciudadano de Florencia se veía obligado a vivir en familia para ser respetado. La unidad aparente de un matrimonio era tan importante como lo es hoy en día la unidad aparente de una sociedad comercial, y por las mismas razones, observa Mary Carruthers en “The Wife of Bath and the Painting of Lions”, _Publications of the Modern Language Association_, 94, 1979, p. 212. Una mina de datos sobre las actitudes respecto a la pareja durante la primera mitad del siglo XVI es el _Heptamerón_, antología de relatos de Margarita d’Angoulême, reina de Navarra. Edward Benson la analiza en “Marriage Ancestral and Conjugal in the _Heptameron_”, _Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies_, 9, 2, 1975, pp. 261-275. En el siglo XVI las transformaciones de la vida económica permiten ganar mucho más al comerciante o al artesano que pueda contar con la ayuda directa de su esposa; por vez primera en la historia, las capacidades y los talentos del cónyuge tienen importancia económica para la pareja. Igualmente, el señor puede exigir un tributo mayor a la pareja campesina que colabora para “producir”. En el _Heptaméron_ es patente que de allí nace la discordia entre los sexos, que no podían saber que la pareja estaba en vías de convertirse en una unidad económica de producción.] + +[^f121:] _La historia de la familia_. He tomado mucho de esta nueva disciplina para formular la distinción entre el género y el sexo. Para mí resultó fundamental la obra de Philippe Ariès, _L’enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime_, Plon, París, 1960; edición revisada y completada, Seuil, 1973. Ya no es posible hablar de la historia de la familia sin referirse a las ideas de Ariès, sea para criticarlas acremente, sea para deleitarse con ellas, como yo. Respecto a la forma en que fueron recibidas, véase Adrian Wilson, “The Infancy of the History of Childhood: An Appraisal of Philippe Ariès”, _History and Theory_, 19, núm. 1, 1980, pp. 137-153. Yo mismo jamás habría escrito _La sociedad desescolarizada_ (véase vol. I) ni la presente obra, si no hubiera sido por los trabajos de Ariès. Hasta la fecha, la mayoría de los estudios sobre la historia de la familia ignoran el género. Existe una buena orientación respecto a esta nueva disciplina en Michael Anderson, _Approaches to the History of the Western Family, 1500-1914_, Macmillan & Co., Economic History Society, Bristol, 1980. Esta obra esta dividida en tres capítulos, cada uno dedicado a una de las grandes corrientes que se han desarrollado en esta disciplina: _1)_ el estudio demográfico cuantitativo (edad de los esposos y diferencias de edad entre ellos etc.; esquemas de la natalidad y esquemas de la contracepción); _2)_ la evolución de las actitudes relacionadas con la vida doméstica, la vida privada, los sentimientos, el control de la comunidad sobre la familia, así como las diferentes formas de maternidad; _3)_ enfoques nuevos de la historia económica de la familia hasta los tiempos modernos. Como introducción general al tema, al principiante le recomiendo el libro de J.-L. Flandrin, _Familles_, _op. cit_. en la nota 84, donde el autor muy hábilmente correlaciona la demografía, el estudio de las mentalidades y los comportamientos, y la tipología de las estructuras familiares. Una de las mejores iniciaciones es también un número especial de _Annales ESC_, núm. 27, “Famille et société”, París, 1972. Respecto a la relación entre la demografía y las actitudes diferentes, según los niveles sociales, véanse las diversas contribuciones reunidas por C. Tilly, ed., _Historical Studies of Changing Fertility_, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1978. Hay dos notables estudios locales sobre la familia en el siglo XIX, tanto en Inglaterra, D. Levine, _Family Formation in an Age of Nascent Capitalism_, Academy Press, Chatsworth, 1977, como en los Estados Unidos, P. J. Greven, _Four Generations: Population, Land and Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts_, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, Nueva York, 1970. Sobre la diversidad de formas familiares que pueden coexistir en una misma región, véase P. J. Greven, _The Protestant Temperament: Patterns of Childbearing, Religions Experience and the Self in Early America_, Knopf, Nueva York, 1977. El proceso mediante el cual la fábrica protoindustrial y el “mantenimieto del orden” convergen para suprimir la forma genérica de la pareja conyugal y remplazarla con el modelo de la polarización sexual de las funciones, es descrita por Jacques Donzelot, _La Police des famillas_, Éditions de Minuit, París, 1977. Sobre las consecuencias del trabajo de las mujeres (asalariado y fantasma), véanse las notas 31 y 48. Una buena bibliografía sobre la historia cultural y social del matrimonio: Natalie Zemon Davis, “La storia delle donne in trasizione: il caso europeo”, _Donnawomanfemme_, 3, 1977, pp. 7-33. También se puede citar al respecto: James Wallace Milden, _The Family in Past Time: A Guide to the Literature_, Garland, Nueva York, 1977, y Gerard Soliday, ed., _History of the Family and Kinship: A Select International Bibliography_, Kraus, Nueva York, 1980.] + +[^f122:] _Capitalismo_. Hablo de economías “precapitalistas” y “capitalistas” a falta de mejores términos, pero sobre todo en el segundo caso con cierta reticencia. En torno al empleo de estos términos, véase especialmente Edwin Deschepper, “L’histoire du mot ‘capital’ et dérivés” (tesis sostenida en la Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1964), así como Edgar Salin, “Kapitalbegriff und Kapitallehre von der Antike bis zu den Physiokraten”, _Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial-und Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, 23, 1930; consúltese también Jean Dubois, _Le vocabulaire politique et social en France de 1869 à 1872 à travers les oeuvres des écrivains, les revues et les journaux_, Larousse, París, 1963, así como el artículo mucho más sencillo de Bert Hoselitz, “Zur Begriffsgeschichte des Kapitalismus”, _Saeculum_, 18, 1967, pp. 146-163. La transformación social que recubre la oposición entre las sociedades precapitalistas y las sociedades capitalistas, de hecho coincide con la transición del régimen del género al régimen del sexo. Además, la distinción que en el seno del género establezco entre los modos de vida vernáculos y la era del género dislocado, me permite distinguir dos etapas sucesivas en la Europa precapitalista: la etapa de la subsistencia basada en la complementariedad del género vernáculo, en la que la producción mercantil juega un papel netamente secundario; y la etapa del género dislocado, en la que la mayor productividad, resultado del acoplamiento económico de los esposos, incrementa considerablemente la producción mercantil simple. Así, lo que se ha denominado la producción mercantil simple demuestra ser principalmente el excedente que puede derivarse del matrimonio en el seno del género (nota 77). En contraste, en la tercera etapa, la llamada capitalista, las mercancías son el producto de una sociedad que se apoya en un tipo de familia enteramente diferente; son el producto del trabajo económico, es decir, que ignora el género. Este trabajo se pudo imponer porque en la primera etapa de la industrialización la sujeción de la familia a las mercancías capitalistas la forzó a depender del empleo salariado; a finales del siglo XX, habrá de depender la mayor parte del trabajo fantasma (nota 30). El análisis del género me permite también añadir aún otra categoría, además de las dos que distingue Karl Polanyi en _Trade and Market in the Early Empire, op. cit_. en la nota 33, capítulo V, pp. 64-96, y en el ensayo “The Semantics of Money Use”, _Essays, op. cit_. en la nota 11, pp. 175-203. Polanyi establece una distinción entre el intercambio social (incluso el monetario) de los bienes y la venta de mercancías por los comerciantes. Respecto a la recepción de las categorías de Polanyi, véase Humphreys, _op. cit_. en la nota 5. Yo acepto esa distinción, sin relacionarla aquí con el género. Pero contrapongo la mercancía simple, “descubierta” por Aristóteles, a la mercancía capitalista, los bienes industriales o los servicios, pues la primera se origina en el género y la segunda no.] + +[^f123:] _La revolución industrial_. Véase Fernand Braudel, _Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme_, _XVe–XVIIIe siècles_, 3 volúmenes, Armand Colin, París, 1967-1979, y _Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism_, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1977. R. M. Hartwell, ed., _Causes of the Industrial Revolution in England_, Londres, 1967, expone con brevedad las grandes teorías históricas sobre las causas de la industrialización, así como las objeciones a cada una de ellas. Este inventario confirma el desconocimiento de la transformación, antropológicamente decisiva, que significó la desaparición del género vernáculo.] + +[^f124:] _La desaparición del género rural_. Véase David Sabean, “Intensivierung der Arbeit und Alltagserfahrung auf dem Lande-ein Beispiel aus Württemberg”, _Sozialwissenschaftliche Informationen_, 6, 1977, pp. 148-152. Para una comparación con el siglo XVIII, pero en Francia: Alain Lottin, “Vie et mort du couple: difficultés conjugales et divorces dans le nord de la France aux XVIIeXVIIIe et siècle”, _Le XVIIe Siècle_, núm. 102-103: “Le XVIIe siècle et la famille”, 1974, pp. 59-78.] + +[^f125:] _El intermedio protoindustrial_. Los especialistas de historia social emplean el término “protoindustrial” para designar los esquemas muy particulares de las culturas populares durante la transición de la producción mercantil simple al modo de producción capitalista en la Europa del siglo XIX; véase P. Kriedte, H. Medick, J. Schlumbohm, _Industrialisierung vor der Industrialisierung_, Van den Hoeck und Ruprecht, Gotinga, 1978, y especialmente Medick, pp. 90-154.] + +[^t01:] En español en el original.] diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/gender/index.txt b/data/pages/es/book/gender/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..98faa42 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/gender/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +# El género vernáculo + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#**: [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#**: Gender +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#**: 1982 +* **#@LANG_comments@#**: ... + + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/unemployment/es.txt b/data/pages/es/book/unemployment/es.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1585b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/unemployment/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1,255 @@ +# Desempleo Creador: la decadencia de la sociedad profesional + +Cincuenta años atrás, nueve de cada 10 palabras que oía un hombre civilizado le eran dichas como a un individuo. Sólo una de 10 le llegaba como miembro indiferenciado de una multitud —en el salón de clases, en la iglesia, en mítines o espectáculos—. Las palabras eran entonces como cartas selladas, escritas a mano, bien diferentes de la chatarra que contamina hoy nuestro correo. Actualmente son escasas las palabras que intentan llamar la atención de una persona. Con regularidad de reloj asaltan nuestra sensibilidad imágenes, ideas, sentimientos y opiniones empaquetados y entregados a través de los medios de comunicación, como artículos estandarizados. Dos cosas se han hecho evidentes: _1)_ lo que ocurre con el idioma se ha vuelto paradigmático para una amplia gama de relaciones entre necesidad y satisfacción; _2)_ estos fenómenos son ya universales e igualan al maestro de Nueva York, al miembro de la comuna china, al escolar de Bantú y al sargento brasileño. En este apéndice a mi ensayo sobre la convivencialidad pretendo hacer tres cosas: _a)_ describir el carácter de una sociedad de mercado-de-bienes intensivo, en la que la multiplicidad, especialización y volumen de las mercancías destruye el ambiente propicio para la creación de valores de uso; _b)_ insistir en el papel oculto que juegan las profesiones en una sociedad de este tipo al moldear sus necesidades; _c)_ proponer algunas estrategias para romper el poder profesional que perpetúa esta dependencia del mercado. + +## La intensidad inhabilitante del mercado + +Actualmente se llama crisis al momento en el que médicos, diplomáticos, banqueros y toda clase de ingenieros sociales asumen los controles y se suspenden las libertades. Lo mismo que los pacientes, las naciones conocen las crisis. Esto se debe a que la crisis, de haber sido una posibilidad de enmendar rumbos, ahora sólo significa el ir y venir de un lado a otro. Remite, en la actualidad, a una amenaza ominosa pero controlable contra la cual puede unirse el dinero, la fuerza laboral y la administración. Un ejemplo típico de este tipo de respuesta podría ser el de una ciudad de 13 000 000 de habitantes, a 2 500 metros sobre el nivel del mar, en la que, ante las cifras alarmantes de escasez y las dificultades en el suministro de agua a la mayoría de sus habitantes que solamente tienen acceso a menos de cinco litros, se declara una crisis que habrá de dar más trabajo a los ingenieros en vez de racionar el consumo de 5% de la gente que utiliza la mitad del agua en sus tinas y albercas. La crisis entendida de esta manera resulta siempre conveniente para los ejecutivos y comisarios, especialmente para los buitres que viven de los efectos secundarios, no deseados, del crecimiento anterior: para los educadores que viven de la alienación de la sociedad, para los doctores que prosperan a base del trabajo y del ocio que han destruido la salud, para los políticos que triunfan gracias a la distribución de un bienestar que, en primera instancia, se les quitó a los mismos que reciben la asistencia. + +El término crisis, sin embargo, no debe significar necesariamente esto. No debiera implicar una carrera desatinada en una escalada por la administración. Puede significar el instante de la elección, ese momento maravilloso en que la gente se hace consciente de su propia prisión autoimpuesta y de la posibilidad de una vida diferente. _Ésta_ es la crisis que enfrentan hoy simultáneamente Estados Unidos y el mundo. + +### Una elección mundial + +En unas cuantas décadas el mundo se ha uniformado. Las respuestas humanas a los sucesos de todos los días se han vuelto estándar. Aunque todavía los idiomas y los dioses parecen diferentes, la gente se une todos los días a la estupenda mayoría que marcha al compás del mismo tambor. El interruptor de la luz, junto a la puerta, ha reemplazado a las múltiples formas en que los fuegos, las velas y los faroles se encendían antiguamente. El número de quienes encienden interruptores de luz se ha triplicado en el mundo en 10 años; el flujo del agua y el papel se han convertido en condiciones esenciales para aliviar los intestinos. La luz que no proviene de las redes de alto voltaje y la higiene que excluye el papel tisú han funcionado como medidores de la pobreza de miles de personas. La intrusión, soporífera a veces, opaca otras, de los medios masivos de comunicación, penetra muy adentro en el barrio, el pueblo, la sociedad, la escuela. Los ruidos leídos por el locutor y los anunciantes de textos programados, pervierten diariamente las palabras de un lenguaje hablado al que convierten en bloques de construcción para mensajes en paquete. Para tener actualmente la posibilidad de que nuestros hijos jueguen en un ambiente en el que una de cada 10 palabras que oyen les sean dirigidas personalmente, deben estar aislados o apartados temporalmente, o bien, deben ser marginados opulentos a los que se protege cuidadosamente. En cualquier parte del mundo se puede notar un rápido enquistamiento de la aceptación disciplinada que caracteriza al auditorio, al cliente, al comprador. La estandarización de la acción humana se va extendiendo. + +Se hace evidente ahora que el problema crítico que enfrenta la mayor parte de las naciones del mundo es exactamente el mismo: o la gente se convertirá en cifras de una multitud condicionada que avanza hacia una dependencia cada vez mayor —y necesitará, por lo tanto, de batallas salvajes para obtener un mínimo de las drogas que alimenten su hábito— o bien encontrará el valor, que es lo único que puede salvar el pánico: mantenerse sereno y buscar alrededor otro escape que no sea el obvio ya marcado como salida. Sin embargo, muchas de las personas a quienes se les dice que los bolivianos, los canadienses, los húngaros enfrentan todos la misma elección fundamental, no sólo se sienten molestos, sino que se ofenden profundamente. La idea les parece no solamente loca sino chocante. No logran detectar la similitud en esta nueva degradación amarga que va permeando el hambre del indio del Altiplano, la neurosis del trabajador de Amsterdam y la cínica corrupción del burócrata de Varsovia. + +### Hacia una cultura de productos estandarizados + +El desarrollo ha tenido los mismos efectos en todas las sociedades: se han visto atrapadas en una nueva trama de dependencia de mercancías que fluyen del mismo tipo de máquinas, fábricas, clínicas, estudios de televisión, _think tanks_. Para satisfacer esta dependencia se tiene que seguir produciendo siempre más de lo mismo: bienes y servicios estandarizados por ingenieros y destinados a los consumidores, quienes, a su vez, son estandarizados por los educadores y promotores para que crean necesitar lo que se les ofrece. + +Ya sean tangibles o intangibles, son éstos los productos estandarizados del mundo industrial; asumen valor monetario como mercancías y se determinan tanto por la acción del Estado como por el mercado, aunque el nivel de participación de uno y otro varíe en los diferentes regímenes. Las distintas culturas llegan a ser así residuos insípidos de un estilo de acción tradicional, perdidas en un páramo mundial; un terreno árido, desbastado por la maquinaria necesaria para producir y consumir. En las riberas del Sena y en las del Níger, la gente olvidó cómo ordeñar, porque el líquido blanco les llega envasado. Gracias a una mayor protección al consumidor, en Francia la leche es menos tóxica que en Malí. Es verdad que ahora hay mayor cantidad de criaturas que beben leche de vaca, pero los senos de las mujeres, ricas y pobres, se secan por igual. El adicto nace con el primer grito del niño que tiene hambre, cuando su organismo aprehende la leche artificial, abandonando el seno materno que, de este modo, se atrofia. Todas aquellas acciones humanas, autónomas y creativas, necesarias para el florecimiento del universo del hombre, terminan atrofiándose. Los techos de barro o de paja, de caña o de teja, se han ido reemplazando por techos de concreto para unos pocos y de plástico ondulado para la mayor parte. Ni los obstáculos de la selva ni los matices ideológicos han librado a los pobres y a los socialistas de apresurarse en construir carreteras para los ricos, esas vías que los conducen al mundo donde los economistas han tomado el lugar de los sacerdotes. El cuño de las monedas se traga todos los tesoros locales y los ídolos. El dinero devalúa lo que no puede medir. La crisis, pues, es la misma para todos: la opción entre una mayor o una menor dependencia de bienes de consumo industrial. Una dependencia mayor significa la destrucción rápida y total de las culturas como programas de actividades de subsistencia que produzcan satisfacción; una dependencia menor significa el variado florecimiento de valores de uso en culturas de intensa actividad. La elección es esencialmente la misma para ricos y pobres, aunque imaginarlo siquiera sería extremadamente difícil para quienes ya están acostumbrados a vivir en un supermercado, diferente, pero sólo en nombre, de las instituciones para idiotas. + +En las sociedades del industrialismo tardío, toda la vida se organiza en función de las mercancías. Nuestras sociedades de mercado intensivo miden su progreso material de acuerdo con el aumento en el volumen y en la variedad de las mercancías producidas; y, siguiendo esta misma línea, medimos el progreso social de acuerdo con la distribución del acceso a estos bienes y servicios. La economía política se ha convertido en la gran propagandista del servicio de la dominación de los que producen en gran escala. El socialismo se ha degradado al convertirse en una lucha contra la distribución no igualitaria y la economía del bienestar ha identificado el bien público con la distribución de la opulencia y, en su sentido más estricto, con la humillante opulencia del pobre: un día de degradación organizada en un hospital público, cárcel o laboratorio educativo en Estados Unidos, alimentaría a una familia de la India durante un mes. + +Al despreciar todos los costos a los que la Economía clásica fijó precios, la sociedad industrial creó un ambiente dentro del cual la gente no puede vivir sin devorar cada día el equivalente de su propio peso en metales, carburantes y materiales de construcción. Creó un mundo en el que la constante necesidad de protegerse contra los resultados negativos del crecimiento ha cavado nuevos abismos de discriminación, de impotencia y de frustración. Nunca olvidaré la afirmación del yanqui frente a un chileno: “Seremos siempre nosotros los que, en un mundo envenenado, tendremos los filtros de aire de mayor potencia”. Hasta ahora, los movimientos ecológicos al servicio del poder sólo han servido para dar más consistencia a esta orientación, al concentrar la atención pública sobre la irresponsabilidad técnica de quienes irrigan zonas habitacionales con subproductos venenosos o mutágenos y, en el mejor de los casos, han desenmascarado los intereses privados que aumentan la dependencia del individuo de necesidades creadas. Pero aún ahora, después de que se han fijado precios y costos para reflejar el impacto sobre el medio ambiente (el desvalor debido a los perjuicios o el costo de la polarización), no hemos sido capaces de percibir con claridad que este proceso sustituyó, por artículos empacados y producidos en serie, todo lo que la gente hacía o creaba por sí misma. + +Desde hace algunos años, cada semana muere una u otra forma de expresión. Las que permanecen se uniforman cada vez más. Sin embargo, aun quienes se preocupan por la pérdida de variedades genéticas por la multiplicación de isótopos radiactivos, no advierten el agotamiento irreversible de las habilidades artesanales, de los cuentos y de los sentidos de la forma. Esta situación gradual de valores útiles pero no mercantilizables por bienes industriales y por servicios, ha sido la meta compartida de facciones políticas y de regímenes que, de otro modo, se opondrían violentamente. + +Por este camino, trozos cada vez más largos de nuestras vidas se transforman de tal manera que la vida pasa a depender casi exclusivamente del consumo de mercancías. Esto es lo que deberíamos llamar aumento de la intensidad de mercado en las culturas modernas. Desde luego, los diferentes regímenes asignan sus recursos de manera distinta: aquí decide la “sabiduría de la mano escondida” del mercado, allá, la del ideólogo y el planificador. Pero la oposición política entre estos propositores de métodos alternativos para la asignación de los recursos, disfraza solamente el mismo desprecio burdo que tienen todas las facciones y partidos por la libertad y la dignidad personal. La política sobre energéticos en los distintos países nos da un buen ejemplo para estudiar la profunda identidad que existe entre los diferentes promotores del sistema industrial, llámense socialistas o liberales. Si excluimos sitios como Nueva Camboya, sobre la que me falta información, no existe élite en el gobierno ni oposición organizada que conciba un futuro deseable fundado en un instrumental social cuyo consumo de energía per cápita fuera inferior en varios órdenes de magnitud a los niveles que prevalecen hoy en Europa. Todas las corrientes políticas insisten en un presunto imperativo técnico que hace inevitable que el modo de producción moderno sea intensivo también en el uso de la energía. Hasta ahora no existe ningún partido que reconozca que un modo de producción de esta especie castra inevitablemente la capacidad creadora de los individuos y grupos primarios. Todos los partidos insisten en mantener niveles de empleo altos en la fuerza de producción y parecen incapaces de reconocer que los empleos tienden a destruir el valor de uso del tiempo libre. Insisten en que las necesidades de los individuos se definan, en la forma más objetiva y total, por especialistas certificados públicamente para tal competencia, y parecen insensibles a la consecuente expropiación de la vida misma. + +A fines de la Edad Media se usó la asombrosa simplicidad del modelo heliocéntrico como un argumento para desacreditar a la nueva Astronomía. Su elegancia se interpretó como ingenuidad. En nuestros días, no son escasas las teorías centradas en el valor de uso, capaces de analizar el costo social generado por la economía establecida. Estas teorías han sido propuestas por muchos _outsiders_ de la economía que ubican sus perspectivas en una nueva escala de valores: la belleza, la sencillez, la ecología, la vida en comunidad. Como una forma recurrente de soslayar estas teorías, la economía moderna y sus practicantes se han dedicado a falsear y magnificar los fracasos que, con frecuencia, han sufrido estos _outsiders_ al experimentar con nuevos estilos de vida personal, y rehúsan mirar siquiera estas teorías —del mismo modo que el inquisidor legendario rehusó mirar a través del telescopio de Galileo—, ya que sus análisis podrían conducir al desplazamiento del centro convencional del sistema económico vigente. Estos distintos instrumentos analíticos podrían conducirlos a poner los valores de uso no mercantilizables en el centro de una cultura deseable donde solamente se asigne un valor a aquellos bienes mercantiles que fomenten una extensión más amplia de esos mismos valores de uso. Pero lo que sigue contando no es lo que la gente hace o crea, sino el producto de las corporaciones públicas o privadas. Todos colaboran por igual en el esfuerzo por transformar nuestras futuras sociedades en un enorme juego de suma cero, en el que cada ganancia y cada gozo de una persona se transforman inevitablemente en pérdida para las otras. + +En esta carrera quedaron destrozados innumerables conjuntos de infraestructuras con las que la gente enfrentaba la vida, en las que jugaba, comía, tejía lazos de amistad y hacía el amor. Unas cuantas de las llamadas “décadas de desarrollo” bastaron para desmantelar más de dos tercios de los moldes culturales del mundo. Antes de estas décadas, aquellos moldes permitían que la gente satisfaciera la mayor parte de sus necesidades de acuerdo con un modo de subsistencia. Después de ellas, el plástico reemplazo a la cerámica, las bebidas gaseosas reemplazaron a la limonada, el Valium tomó el lugar del té de camomila, y los discos, el de la guitarra. A lo largo de toda la historia, la mejor medida de los tiempos malos ha sido el porcentaje de alimentos que se debían comprar. En tiempos buenos, la mayor parte de las familias conseguían casi todos sus alimentos de lo que ellos cultivaban o adquirían en un marco de relaciones gratuitas. + +Hasta fines del siglo XVIII, el alimento que se producía más allá del horizonte abarcable por la vista del consumidor, que miraba desde un campanario o minarete, era menos de 1% en todo el mundo. Las leyes encami-nadas a controlar el número de aves de corral y de puercos dentro de los muros de la ciudad sugieren que, a excepción de unas cuantas zonas urbanas más extensas, casi la mitad de los alimentos se cultivaban igualmente dentro de la villa. Antes de la segunda Guerra Mundial, los alimentos traídos desde afuera a una región determinada constituían menos de 4% del total que se consumía; además, estas importaciones estaban destinadas, en gran medida, a las 11 ciudades que tenían más de dos millones de habitantes. Actualmente, 40% de la gente sobrevive gracias a que tiene acceso a los mercados interregionales. Concebir hoy día un mundo en el que se redujera radicalmente el mercado mundial en capitales y bienes, representa un tabú por lo menos tan absoluto como concebir un mundo en el que gente autónoma utilizara herramientas convivenciales para liberarse de la necesidad de consumir y para crear valores de uso en abundancia. En este tabú se refleja la creencia de que las actividades útiles por medio de las cuales la gente se expresa y satisface sus necesidades pueden sustituirse indefinidamente por bienes y servicios. + +### La pobreza modernizada + +Pasado cierto umbral, la multiplicación de mercancías induce a la impotencia, a la incapacidad de cultivar alimentos, de cantar o de construir. El afán y el placer, condiciones humanas, llegan a convertirse en privilegio de algunos ricos caprichosos. En Acatzingo, en la época en que Kennedy lanzó la Alianza para el Progreso, como en la mayoría de los pueblitos mexicanos de su tamaño, existían cuatro bandas de músicos que tocaban a cambio de un trago y servían a una población de 800 personas. Actualmente, los discos y las radios conectadas a altoparlantes anegan todo talento local. Sólo ocasionalmente, en un acto de nostalgia, se reúne dinero para traer una banda de marginados de la universidad para cantar las viejas canciones en alguna fiesta especial. El día en que la legislación venezolana instituyó para cada ciudadano un derecho “habitacional” concebido como mercancía, tres cuartas partes de las familias hallaron que las casitas levantadas con sus propias manos quedaban rebajadas a nivel de cobertizos. Además, y esto era lo más importante, existía ya un prejuicio contra la autoconstrucción. No se podía iniciar legalmente la construcción de una casa sin antes presentar el plano diseñado por un arquitecto diplomado. Los desechos y sobrantes de la ciudad de Caracas, útiles hasta entonces como excelentes materiales de construcción, creaban ahora el problema de deshacerse de desperdicios sólidos. Al hombre que intentaba levantar su propia “morada” se le miraba como un desviado que rehusaba cooperar con los grupos de presión locales para la entrega de unidades habitacionales fabricadas en serie. Además, se promulgaron innumerables reglamentos que tildaron su ingenuidad de ilegal y hasta de delictiva. Este ejemplo ilustra el hecho de que son los pobres los primeros en padecer cuando una nueva mercancía castra uno de los tradicionales oficios de subsistencia. El desempleo útil de los cesantes se sacrifica a la expansión del mercado de trabajo. La construcción de la casa como actividad elegida por uno mismo se convierte en el privilegio de algunos ricos ociosos y extravagantes. + +Una vez que se ha incrustado en una cultura la adicción a la opulencia paralizante, genera “pobreza modernizada”. Esta forma de desvalor, que se asocia necesariamente a la multiplicación de productos industriales, escapa a la atención de los economistas porque no puede aprehenderse con sus mediciones, y a la de los servicios sociales porque sus métodos no son operativos para estos casos. Los economistas no disponen de medios efectivos para incluir en sus cálculos lo que pierde la sociedad en relación con cierto goce que no tiene su equivalente en el mercado. Así, se podría actualmente definir a los economistas como los miembros de una cofradía que sólo acepta a aquellas personas que, en el ejercicio de su labor profesional, saben practicar una adiestrada ceguera hacia la consecuencia social más fundamental del crecimiento económico: más allá de cierto umbral, cada grado que se añade en cuanto a la opulencia en mercancías trae como consecuencia un descenso en la habilidad personal para hacer y crear. + +Mientras la pobreza modernizada afectó solamente a los pobres, su existencia y su naturaleza permanecieron ocultas, aun en las conversaciones más corrientes. En la medida en que el desarrollo, o la modernización, llegó a los pobres que hasta entonces habían logrado sobrevivir, a pesar de su exclusión de muchos sectores de la economía de mercado, éstos se vieron implacablemente constreñidos a sobrevivir adquiriendo mercancías en un sistema de compras, lo que para ellos significa, siempre y necesariamente, obtener las escorias del mercado. A los indios de Oaxaca, que anteriormente no tenían acceso a las escuelas, los recluta ahora el sistema educativo para que “ganen” unos certificados que miden precisamente su inferioridad en relación con la población urbana. Además, y he aquí el sarcasmo, sin ese pedazo de papel no pueden siquiera ingresar en los oficios de la construcción. Este proceso —la modernización de renovados aspectos de la pobreza de los pobres— sigue ocultándose, culpando a las víctimas por su apreciación indiferente ante el acceso a los privilegios del progreso. Mientras tanto la alianza _non sancta_ entre los productores de mercancías y sus asistentes profesionales sigue cohesionándose sin cuestionamiento. + +Un resultado de lo que decimos de fuerte significación social es que ahora la pobreza modernizada se convierte en la experiencia común de todos, a excepción de aquellos que son tan ricos que pueden retirarse a su Arcadia. A medida que las facetas de la vida, unas después de otras, se hacen dependientes de los abastecimientos estandarizados, muy pocos nos libramos de esa experiencia recurrente de pobreza modernizada. En Estados Unidos, el consumidor promedio escucha casi 100 avisos publicitarios diariamente, pero sólo una docena de ellos lo hacen reaccionar y, en la mayoría de los casos, en forma negativa. Aun los compradores bien provistos de dinero, junto con la mercancía novedosa, adquieren una nueva experiencia de desutilidad. Sienten que adquirieron algo de dudoso valor, tal vez inútil a corto plazo o aun dañino, algo que exige también de complementos todavía más costosos. A veces, las actividades de los organismos de protección al consumidor vuelven consciente este proceso porque, si bien empiezan por exigir controles de calidad, pueden conducir a una resistencia radical por parte del consumidor. Hay muchos que se hallan casi dispuestos a reconocer abiertamente la existencia de una nueva forma de riqueza: la riqueza _frustradora_ , producida por la expansión cada vez mayor de una cultura de mercado intensivo. Además, los opulentos llegan a presentir el reflejo de su propia condición en el espejo de los pobres. Sin embargo, esta intuición generalmente no se desarrolla más allá de una especie de romanticismo. + +La ideología que identifica el progreso con la opulencia no se restringe, desde luego, a los países ricos. Esa misma ideología degrada las actividades no mercantilizables aun en zonas donde, hasta hace poco, casi todas las necesidades se satisfacían a través de un modo de vida de subsistencia. Los chinos, por ejemplo, inspirándose en su propia tradición, parecían estar dispuestos y ser capaces de redefinir el progreso técnico. Se veían listos para optar por la bicicleta en lugar del jet. Parecía que daban importancia a su propio poder de decisión local como una meta de un pueblo inventivo más que como un medio para la defensa nacional. Pero, en 1977, su propaganda glorifica la capacidad industrial china para dar, a bajo costo, mayor asistencia médica, educación, habitación y bienestar general. Provisionalmente, se asignan funciones meramente tácticas a las hierbas que se encuentran en las bolsas de los médicos descalzos o a los métodos de labor intensiva en la producción. En este caso, como en otros, la producción heterónoma de bienes —es decir, dirigida por otros—, estandarizada para distintas categorías de consumidores anónimos, fomenta las expectativas irreales y, en último término, frustradoras. Además, este proceso corrompe inevitablemente la confianza de la gente en esa siempre sorprendente competencia autónoma que encuentra dentro de sí misma y en su vecino. China representa simplemente el último ejemplo de la particular versión occidental de la modernización por medio de la dependencia de un mercado intensivo, que se apodera de una sociedad tradicional en la misma forma en que algunos cultos irracionales surgieron en comunidades aisladas como resultado de una invasión de esos extraños seres que se mataban en la segunda Guerra Mundial. + +### La metamorfosis de las necesidades + +Sin embargo, tanto en las sociedades tradicionales como en las modernas ha ocurrido un cambio importante en un periodo muy corto: se han modificado radicalmente los medios socialmente deseables para satisfacer las necesidades. El motor atrofió al músculo, la instrucción escolar mortificó la curiosidad, el médico se hizo necesario para todo hombre en pleno vigor. Como consecuencia de esto las necesidades y los deseos adquirieron un carácter que no tiene precedentes históricos. Por vez primera, las necesidades se volvieron casi exclusivamente colimitantes con las mercancías. La libertad para moverse se degradó en el esfuerzo hecho para producir, distribuir y consumir el derecho al transporte. La búsqueda insistente para crear un ámbito de libertad se eclipsó ante el derecho a consumir. Mientras la gente llegaba donde podía llegar por medio de sus propios pies, no requería para su movilidad sino de la libertad de movimiento; ahora que el hombre se percibe como un ente que debe transportarse, los hombres se distinguen unos de otros por la amplitud y calidad de sus derechos al uso de kilómetro-pasajero. El mundo no es ya ancho y ajeno sino una sucesión de lugares de estacionamientos. Para la mayoría de las personas, los deseos de adquirir siguen a las nuevas necesidades y no pueden imaginar siquiera que un hombre moderno pueda aspirar a liberarse de vivir en esta dependencia de ser transportado. Esta situación que se presenta hoy como una interdependencia rígida entre necesidades y mercado, se legitima por medio de un llamado al peritaje de una élite cuyo conocimiento, debido a su misma naturaleza, no puede compartirse. Los economistas de todo tipo informan al público que el número de empleos depende de los vatios en circulación. Los educadores convencen al público de que la productividad depende del nivel de instrucción. Los ginecólogos insisten en que la calidad de la vida infantil y materna depende de su intromisión en ella. Por lo tanto, no podremos cuestionar efectivamente la extensión casi universal de las culturas de mercado intensivo de mercancías mientras no se haya destruido la impunidad de las élites que legitiman el vínculo entre mercancía y necesidad. Este punto queda muy bien ilustrado en el relato que me hizo una mujer acerca del nacimiento de su tercer hijo. Ya para entonces se sentía con experiencia acerca del parto. Se encontraba en el hospital y sintió que el niño iba a nacer. Llamó a la enfermera quien, en vez de ayudarla, corrió en busca de una toalla esterilizada para empujar la cabeza del niño hacia atrás, de vuelta al útero. La enfermera ordenó a la madre que dejara de pujar porque “el doctor Levy aún no ha venido”. + +Ha llegado el momento de tomar una decisión pública. Las sociedades modernas, sean ricas o pobres, pueden tomar dos direcciones opuestas. Pueden producir una nueva lista de bienes —más seguros, con menos desperdicios y más fáciles de compartir— y, por ende, intensificar aún más la dependencia de productos estandarizados. O pueden abordar el problema de relación entre necesidades y satisfacción en una forma completamente nueva. En otras palabras, las sociedades pueden mantener sus economías de un mercado intensivo cambiando solamente el diseño de lo producido, o pueden reducir su dependencia de la mercancía. Esta última solución encierra la aventura de imaginar y construir nuevas infraestructuras en las que individuos y grupos primarios puedan desarrollar un conjunto de herramientas convivenciales. Estarían organizadas de manera que permitieran a la gente formar y satisfacer, directa y personalmente, una creciente proporción de sus necesidades. + +La primera opción mencionada representa una continua identificación del progreso técnico con la multiplicación de mercancías. Los administradores burocráticos del _ethos_ igualitario y los tecnócratas del bienestar, coincidirían en un llamado a la austeridad: reemplazar los bienes que —como los jets— no pueden obviamente compartirse, por un equipamiento llamado “social” —como los autobuses—; distribuir más equitativamente las decrecientes horas de empleo de que se dispone y limitar la tradicional semana laboral a 20 horas; diseñar el nuevo tiempo de vida de ocio para ocuparlo en reentrenamientos o servicios voluntarios, a la manera de Mao, Castro o Kennedy. Este nuevo estadio de sociedad industrial —si bien socialista, efectiva y racional— nos introduciría simplemente en un nuevo estado de la cultura que degrada la satisfacción de los deseos al convertirlos en un alivio repetitivo de necesidades imputadas por medio de artículos estandarizados. En el mejor de los casos, esta alternativa produciría bienes y servicios de tal forma que su distribución fuera más equitativa. La participación simbólica de la gente en las decisiones sobre lo que se debiera hacer podría transferirse, de la vociferación en el mercado al voto en la asamblea política. Se podría suavizar el impacto ambiental de la producción. Entre las mercancías, crecerían ciertamente mucho más rápidamente los servicios que la manufactura de bienes. Enormes sumas de dinero se invierten ya en la _industria oracular_ a fin de que los profetas de la administración puedan fabricar escenarios “alternativos” diseñados para apuntalar esta primera opción. Es interesante notar que estos oráculos convergen en un punto: en que sería insoportable el costo social necesario para producir desde arriba la austeridad indispensable en una sociedad ecológicamente factible, pero que aún continúa centrada en la industria. + +La segunda opción haría caer el telón sobre la dominación absoluta del mercado y fomentaría un _ethos_ de austeridad en beneficio de una variedad de acciones _satisfactorias._ Si bien en la primera alternativa _austeridad_ quiere decir la aceptación de los ukases administrativos en beneficio de la creciente productividad institucional, en la segunda, _austeridad_ querría significar esa virtud social por la cual la gente reconoce y decide los límites máximos de poder articulado que pueda exigir cualquier persona, a fin de conseguir su propia satisfacción y siempre en servicio de los demás. La “austeridad convivencial” inspira a una sociedad a proteger los valores de uso personales frente al enriquecimiento inhabilitante. Si en un lugar las bicicletas pertenecen a la comuna y en otro a los ciclistas, la naturaleza convivencial de la bicicleta como herramienta no cambia en nada. Tales mercancías seguirían produciéndose en gran medida con métodos industriales, pero se verían y se evaluarían en forma distinta. Actualmente las mercancías se consideran solamente como bienes de consumo que alimentan las necesidades creadas por _sus_ inventores. + +Dentro de esta segunda opción, las mercancías se valorizarían por ser materias bases o herramientas que permiten a la gente generar valores de uso para mantener la subsistencia de sus comunidades respectivas. Pero esta opción depende, por supuesto, de una revolución copérnica en nuestra percepción de los valores. Hoy los bienes de consumo y los servicios profesionales constituyen el centro de nuestro sistema económico y los especialistas relacionan nuestras necesidades exclusivamente con ese centro. La inversión social que contemplamos aquí colocaría en el centro de nuestro sistema económico a los valores de uso creados por la misma gente. Es cierto que la discriminación mundial contra los autodidactas ha viciado la confianza de muchas personas para determinar sus propias metas y necesidades. Pero esa misma discriminación ha dado origen a una minoría creciente que está enfurecida por este despojo insidioso. + +## Los servicios profesionales inhabilitantes + +Estas minorías ven ya la amenaza que encierra para ellas —y para toda vida cultural autóctona— los megainstrumentos que expropian sistemáticamente las condiciones ambientales. Ellas están prontas para poner fin a una Edad. Están resueltas a recuperar su autonomía para fijar sus propias metas, decididas a proteger el dominio sobre su propio cuerpo, su memoria y sus capacidades, determinadas a luchar contra la expropiación sistemática del ambiente vital perpetrada por el sistema industrial en expansión. Aunque es cierto que una mayoría se encuentra baldada por el transporte y son sólo unos cuantos los que están decididos a oponerse a una invasión ulterior de redes de carreteras; aunque una mayoría ve sus sueños y sus capacidades de soñar destruidos por el estrangulamiento de sus ritmos vitales y sólo son unos cuantos los que están dispuestos a pagar el precio necesario para rechazar tal situación; aunque una mayoría de mujeres ven su equilibrio hormonal destruido por la píldora anticonceptiva, y una mayoría de empleados, los espacios de silencio interior contaminados, y sean unos cuantos los que se organizan activamente, cada una de estas minorías representa una categoría de pobreza modernizada en la que potencialmente puede reconocerse la mayoría. El industrialismo tardío justificó la organización de la sociedad como un conglomerado de múltiples mayorías, todas estigmatizadas por las burocracias proveedoras de servicios; no obstante, en el interior de cada una de estas mayorías se desarrollan y crecen minorías activas, que se combinan entre sí en una nueva forma de disidencia. + +Pero, para poder dar término a una Edad, ella debe llevar un nombre adecuado. Propongo que se dé el nombre de Edad de las Profesiones Inhabilitantes a estos años medios del siglo XX. Elijo esta designación porque ella compromete a quienes la utilizan. Revela las funciones antisociales ejercidas por los proveedores menos desafiados —por los educadores, los médicos, los asistentes sociales, los científicos y otras bellas personas—. Simultáneamente enjuicia la complacencia de los ciudadanos que se han sometido, como clientes, a esta servidumbre multifacética. Hablar del poder de las profesiones inhabilitantes avergüenza a las víctimas y las lleva a reconocer la conspiración del eterno estudiante, del caso ginecológico o del consumidor, con sus administradores respectivos. Al describir el decenio de los sesenta como el del apogeo de los solucionadores de problemas, se evidencia de inmediato no sólo el orgullo de nuestras élites académicas sino la golosa credulidad de sus víctimas. + +Pero, este enfoque en los fabricantes de la imaginación social y en los valores culturales pretende más que exponer y denunciar: al designar los últimos 25 años como la Edad de las Profesiones Tiránicas, también se está proponiendo una estrategia. Se indica la necesidad de ir más allá de la redistribución experta de mercancías de desecho, irracionales y paralizantes, que son la marca del profesionalismo radical. Lo que propongo va obviamente mucho más allá de la crítica de la propia profesión, que ha ido tomando forma, en los últimos años, tanto en América del Norte y Europa como en ciertos países pobres, entre médicos, abogados o maestros, que se autodefinen frecuentemente como profesionales radicales. + +Esta estrategia exige nada menos que el desenmascaramiento del _ethos_ profesional. La fe y la confianza en el experto profesional, sea éste científico, terapeuta o ejecutivo, constituye el talón de Aquiles del sistema industrial. Por lo tanto, solamente las iniciativas de los ciudadanos y las tecnologías radicales que desafíen directamente la dominación enervante de las profesiones inhabilitantes podrán abrir el camino hacia la conquista de la libertad mediante una competencia no jerárquica, basada en la comunidad. Invalidar el _ethos_ profesional tal como existe actualmente es condición necesaria para el surgimiento de una nueva relación entre necesidades, herramientas contemporáneas y satisfacción personal. El primer paso para obtener esta invalidación liberadora es que el ciudadano adopte una postura escéptica y condescendiente ante el experto profesional. La reconstrucción social empieza por la duda. + +Cada vez que propongo el análisis del poder profesional como la clave para la reconstrucción de la sociedad, se me dice que es un error peligroso escoger este fenómeno como eje de la recuperación del sistema industrial. ¿Acaso las formas organizativas de los establecimientos educativos, médicos y de planificación son otra cosa que el reflejo de la distribución del poder y del privilegio de una élite capitalista? ¿No es irresponsable minar la confianza que el hombre de la calle ha depositado en su protector preparado científicamente, en su médico o en su economista, precisamente en los momentos en que los pobres necesitan protectores, necesitan del acceso al salón de clases, a las clínicas y a los expertos? ¿No debiera enjuiciarse el sistema industrial denunciando con más fuerza a los Rockefeller y a los Stalin? ¿Acaso no es malvado denunciar a la gente que adquirió con tanto esfuerzo el conocimiento necesario para reconocer y servir a nuestras necesidades de bienestar, particularmente si éstos provienen de la misma clase a la que protegen? De hecho, ¿no se debiera señalar y escoger a estas personas como los líderes más aptos para cumplir con las tareas sociales —ya en marcha— y para identificar las necesidades de la gente? + +Las argumentaciones contenidas en estas preguntas sólo presentan una defensa frenética de los privilegios de aquellas élites que, incluso pudiendo perder en ingresos, en realidad lograrían mayor estatus y poder si se hiciera más equitativo el acceso a sus servicios en esta nueva forma de economía de mercado intensivo. Una segunda serie de objeciones que se suscitan ante la posibilidad de una sociedad moderna centrada en los valores de uso, es aún más seria: surge de la conciencia del papel central que ha adquirido la seguridad nacional. Esta objeción particulariza, como punto central del análisis, a los conglomerados de la defensa, que aparentemente se hallan en el centro de toda sociedad burocrática-industrial. El argumento expuesto postula que las fuerzas de seguridad son el motor que está detrás de la reglamentación contemporánea universal en lo que atañe a la disciplina que depende del mercado. Identifica como principales fabricantes de necesidades a las burocracias armadas que nacieron cuando, bajo Luis XIV, Richelieu estableció la primera policía profesional, o sea, agencias profesionales que están actualmente a cargo de los armamentos, de la inteligencia y la propaganda. Desde Hiroshima, estos “servicios” han sido, al parecer, los que determinan la investigación, la planificación de la producción y el empleo. Estos servicios descansan sobre bases civiles: como la escolaridad para la disciplina, el entrenamiento del consumidor para el goce de lo inútil, el acostumbrarse a las velocidades violentas, la ingeniería médica para la vida en un refugio que abarca la tierra y la dependencia estandarizada de los temas de actualidad que dispensan benévolos policías de la cultura. Esta línea de pensamiento ve en la seguridad del Estado al generador de los patrones de producción de la sociedad y piensa que la economía civil es, en gran medida, un resultado o un prerrequisito de lo militar. + +Si fuera válida una argumentación construida alrededor de esta noción, ¿tendría una sociedad de este tipo la posibilidad de renunciar al poder atómico, aun sabiendo cuán venenoso, tiránico o contraproductivo puede resultar el exceso de energía ulterior? ¿Cómo esperar que un Estado conducido por su defensa tolerara la organización de grupos de ciudadanos descontentos que apartan a sus vecindades del consumo para proclamar la libertad de producir —en pequeña e intensiva escala— valores de uso, libertad dada en una atmósfera de austeridad gozosa y satisfactoria? ¿No tendría una sociedad militarizada que moverse en el acto contra los desertores de necesidades, calificarlos de traidores y, si fuera posible, exponerlos no sólo al desprecio sino al ridículo? ¿No tendría una sociedad conducida por la defensa que suprimir aquellos ejemplos que llevarían a una modernidad no violenta, en estos momentos en que la política pública exige una descentralización de la producción de mercancías (que recuerda a Mao) y un consumo más racional, equitativo y supervisado profesionalmente? + +Esta argumentación otorga un crédito indebido a lo militar como fuente de la violencia en un Estado industrial. Debemos denunciar como una ilusión esta presunción de que los requerimientos militares son culpables de la agresividad y destructividad de la sociedad industrial avanzada. Es evidente que si el dominio militar se hubiera anexado de alguna forma el sistema industrial y le hubiera arrancado al control civil las diferentes esferas de iniciativa y de acción sociales, el estado actual de la política hecha por la armada habría alcanzado un nivel irreversible; por lo menos imposible para una reforma civil. Ésta es, de hecho, la argumentación que esgrimen los líderes militares más brillantes de Brasil, quienes ven en las fuerzas armadas a los únicos tutores legítimos de la búsqueda pacífica de la industrialización durante lo que queda de este siglo. + +Pero esto simplemente no es así. El Estado industrial tardío no es un producto del ejército. Más bien el ejército es uno de los síntomas de su orientación firme y totalizadora. Es cierto que el presente modo de organización industrial puede tener sus antecedentes militares más remotos en tiempos napoleónicos. Es cierto que la educación obligatoria para los niños campesinos, en 1830, la atención universal de la salud para el proletariado industrial, en 1850, las crecientes redes de comunicación, lo mismo que la mayor parte de las formas de estandarización industrial, fueron estrategias introducidas en la sociedad, en primer lugar, como requerimientos militares, y sólo más tarde se entendieron como formas dignas de progreso pacífico, civil. Pero el hecho de que los _sistemas_ de salud, de educación y de bienestar necesitaran de una lógica militar para promulgarse como leyes, no significa que no tuvieran relación con el empuje industrial básico que, de hecho, nunca fue violento, pacífico o respetuoso de la gente. + +Hoy día es más fácil tener esta visión. Primero, porque desde el Polaris, ya no es posible distinguir entre ejércitos de tiempos de paz o de guerra y, segundo, porque desde la guerra contra la pobreza la paz está en pie de guerra. Actualmente, las sociedades industriales están constante y totalmente movilizadas; están organizadas para constantes emergencias públicas; son bombardeadas con estrategias variadas en todos los sectores; los campos de batalla de la salud, la educación, el bienestar y la igualdad están sembrados de víctimas y cubiertos de ruinas; las libertades de los ciudadanos se suspenden continuamente para lanzar campañas en contra de males siempre redescubiertos; cada año se descubren nuevos habitantes fronterizos que deben protegerse o recuperarse de algunos nuevos malestares, de alguna ignorancia previamente desconocida. Las necesidades básicas formuladas e imputadas por todas las agencias profesionales son necesidades para la defensa contra males. + +Los profesores y científicos sociales que hoy buscan culpar a los militares por la destructividad de las sociedades mercantilizadas intensamente, son gente que intenta detener, en forma bastante torpe, la erosión de su propia legitimidad. Alegan que los militares empujan al sistema industrial a este estado frustrador y destructivo, y distraen, por este medio, la atención sobre la naturaleza profundamente destructiva de una sociedad de mercado intensivo que lleva a sus ciudadanos a las guerras de hoy. A quienes buscan proteger la autonomía profesional contra la madurez ciudadana y a quienes desean mostrar al profesional como una víctima del Estado militarizado se les responderá con una simple alternativa: la dirección que los ciudadanos libres desean seguir a fin de superar la crisis mundial. + +### Hacia el fin de una época + +Para el sentido común, son cada vez más evidentes las ilusiones que llevaron a instituir a las profesiones como árbitros de las necesidades. A menudo, la gente ve lo que realmente son los procedimientos en el sector de servicios —por ejemplo, los de las compañías de seguros, o los rituales que ocultan a los ojos de la maraña proveedor-consumidor, la oposición que existe entre el ideal en aras del cual se rinde el servicio y la realidad engendrada por este servicio—. Las escuelas que prometen la misma ilustración para todos, generan una meritocracia degradante y una dependencia de por vida de una tutoría cada vez mayor. Los vehículos compelen a todos a ir cada vez más lejos y a correr más. Pero el público aún no tiene claras las posibilidades de elección. Los proyectos patrocinados por los líderes profesionales podrían desembocar en la aparición de los credos políticos compulsivos (con sus versiones que acompañan a un nuevo tipo de fascismo), o bien, los experimentos que emprendieran los ciudadanos podrían desechar nuestra _hybris_ como si fuese otra colección histórica de locuras, si bien neoprometeicas, esencialmente efímeras. Una opción informada requiere que examinemos el papel específico de las profesiones para determinar quién en esta Edad obtiene qué cosa y por qué. + +A fin de ver con claridad el presente, imaginemos a los niños que pronto jugarán entre las ruinas de las escuelas secundarias, de los Hilton y de los hospitales. En estos castillos profesionales convertidos en catedrales, construidos para protegernos de la ignorancia, la incomodidad, el dolor y la muerte, los niños de mañana representarán de nuevo en sus juegos las desilusiones de nuestra Edad de las Profesiones, tal como nosotros reconstruimos las cruzadas de los caballeros contra el pecado y los turcos, en la Edad de la Fe, en antiguos castillos y catedrales. En sus juegos, los niños asociarán el graznido universal que contamina hoy nuestro lenguaje con los arcaísmos heredados de los grandes gángsters y de los vaqueros. Los imagino llamándose unos a otros “Señor Presidente de la Asamblea” o “Señor Secretario” más bien que “Jefe” o “Sheriff”. + +Se recordará la Edad de las Profesiones como aquel tiempo en que la política entraba en descomposición cuando los ciudadanos, guiados por profesores, confiaban a tecnócratas el poder de legislar sobre sus necesidades, la autoridad de decidir quiénes necesitaban qué cosa y el monopolio de los medios que satisfacían estas necesidades. Se la recordará como la Edad de la Escolarización, cuando se entrenaba a la gente durante un tercio de sus vidas para que acumularan necesidades prescritas, y durante los dos tercios restantes pasaban a ser clientes de prestigiosos traficantes que dirigían sus hábitos. Se recordará la Edad de las Profesiones como aquella en que los viajes recreativos significaban la mirada fija y empaquetada hacia los extraños y que la intimidad exigía un previo entrenamiento con Masters y Johnson; cuando la opinión formada era un refrito del programa televisivo de la noche anterior, y votar era dar su aprobación a un vendedor sólo para tener más de lo mismo. + +Los estudiantes del futuro se sentirán tan confundidos por las supuestas diferencias entre las instituciones profesionales capitalistas y las socialistas, como se sienten los estudiantes de hoy con las pretendidas diferencias entre las últimas sectas cristianas reformadas. Descubrirán también que los bibliotecarios profesionales, los cirujanos, los diseñadores de supermercados en los países pobres o en los países socialistas, a fines de cada decenio, terminan teniendo los mismos registros, utilizando los mismos instrumentos y construyendo los mismos espacios que sus colegas de los países ricos habían introducido en los comienzos de la década. Los arqueólogos no fijarán los periodos de nuestra Edad de acuerdo con los restos de cerámica encontrados en las excavaciones, sino con las modas profesionales reflejadas en las tendencias de las publicaciones de las Naciones Unidas. + +Sería pretencioso predecir si esta Edad, en la que las necesidades se proyectan profesionalmente y de antemano, se recordará con una sonrisa o con una maldición. Desde luego yo espero que se recordará como la noche en que papá salió de juerga, malgastó la fortuna de la familia y obligó a sus hijos a empezar desde cero. Desgraciadamente, es mucho más probable que se recuerde como los tiempos en que toda una generación se lanzó a una búsqueda frenética de riqueza empobrecedora, permitiendo la alienación de todas las libertades, y que después de haber puesto la política a merced de las garras organizadas de los receptores de bienestar, dejó que se extinguiera en un totalitarismo experto. + +### Las profesiones dominantes + +Enfrentemos primero el hecho de que las asociaciones de especialistas que actualmente dominan la fabricación, la adjudicación y la satisfacción de necesidades forman un nuevo tipo de cartel. Es importante también saber reconocer las nuevas características esenciales del profesional en el industrialismo tardío. Si no se reconocen, ocurrirá que, inevitablemente, en el momento de la discusión, el nuevo biócrata se ocultará tras la máscara benévola del doctor de familia de antaño; el nuevo pedócrata y sus esfuerzos para “modificar comportamientos”, tomará la forma del inocente maestro de _kindergarden_ que hace unos experimentos interesantes y la lucha que se entable contra el nuevo seleccionador de personal, armado de todo un arsenal psicológico para la degradación, se llevará a cabo ineludiblemente con las antiguas tácticas desarrolladas para defenderse contra el capataz de la fábrica. Se debería bautizar a estos nuevos profesionales con algún término que todavía no tenemos. Las nuevas profesiones se encuentran atrincheradas mucho más profundamente que una burocracia bizantina. Son más internacionales que una Iglesia universal, más estables que un sindicato, dotadas de más capacidades que cualquier chamán y ejercen un dominio más fuerte que el de cualquier mafia sobre aquellos que reclaman controlar. + +Sin embargo, debemos distinguir cuidadosamente entre los nuevos especialistas organizados y los chantajistas mafiosos. Por ejemplo, los educadores pueden actualmente decir a la sociedad qué es lo que deben aprender y pueden descalificar todo lo aprendido fuera de la escuela. De acuerdo con esta clase de monopolio, que les permite impedir que usted haga sus compras en cualquier otra parte o que usted fabrique su propio licor, parecería, a primera vista, que les cuadra la definición que hace el diccionario de la palabra gángster. Pero los gángsters arrinconan una necesidad básica controlando los abastecimientos en provecho propio. Actualmente los médicos y los asistentes sociales —como antes los sacerdotes y abogados— obtienen un poder legal para crear necesidades que, de acuerdo con la ley, solamente ellos pueden satisfacer. Convierten al Estado moderno en una corporación que abarca a otras empresas que, a su vez, facilitan el ejercicio de sus capacidades, garantizadas por las mismas empresas. + +El control legalizado sobre el trabajo ha tomado muchas formas distintas: los soldados ocasionales rehusaban pelear mientras no habían adquirido licencia para saquear. Lisístrata organizó a las mujeres sometidas, para que, rechazando el sexo, obligaran a sus hombres a la paz. Los doctores de Cos se juramentaron para divulgar sólo a sus hijos los secretos del oficio. Fueron las corporaciones las que establecieron los currícula, los rezos, los exámenes, las peregrinaciones y las pruebas que tuvo que pasar Hans Sachs antes de que se le permitiera calzar a sus vecinos del burgo. En los países capitalistas los sindicatos procuran controlar quiénes han de trabajar, durante cuántas horas y cuál será el salario que percibirán. Todas estas asociaciones representan los esfuerzos que hacen los especialistas para determinar cómo y por quién debiera efectuarse un tipo de trabajo. Pero, ninguno de estos grupos constituyen una profesión en sentido estricto. Las profesiones tiránicas de hoy, de las cuales constituyen un buen ejemplo los médicos, el ejemplo literalmente más doloroso, van mucho más allá: ellos deciden qué es lo que se debe fabricar, por quién y cómo se debe administrar. Ellos proclaman un conocimiento especial, incomunicable, no solamente sobre lo que las cosas son y cómo deben hacerse sino sobre la razón de por qué se deben necesitar sus servicios. Los comerciantes venden los bienes que almacenan. Los hombres del gremio garantizan la calidad. Algunos artesanos confeccionan el artículo de acuerdo con las medidas y el antojo del cliente. Los profesionales le dicen a usted qué es lo que necesita. Reclaman para sí el poder de prescribir. No sólo aconsejan lo que es bueno, sino que decretan lo que es correcto. La característica del profesional no es ni el ingreso, ni una larga preparación, ni las tareas delicadas, ni la condición social. Sus ingresos pueden ser bajos o consumidos por los impuestos, su preparación puede demorar semanas en vez de años. Su estatus puede compararse al de la profesión más antigua de la historia. Más bien, es la autoridad que tiene el profesional para tomar la iniciativa de definir a una persona como cliente, para determinar las necesidades de esa persona y para entregarle una prescripción que lo defina en este nuevo rol social. A diferencia de las prostitutas de antaño, el profesional moderno no es quien vende lo que otros dan gratis, es más bien quien decide lo que debe venderse y no debe entregarse gratuitamente. + +Existe otra diferencia entre el poder profesional y el de otras ocupaciones. Este poder proviene de fuentes distintas. Una corporación, un sindicato o una mafia obligan a respetar sus intereses y derechos por medio de las huelgas, del soborno o de la violencia abierta. Una profesión, al igual que un clero, ejerce el poder cedido por una élite cuyos intereses apoya. Tal como un clero ofrece el camino de la salvación siguiendo los pasos de un soberano ungido, una profesión interpreta, protege y suministra un interés especial y de este mundo, a los súbditos de una sociedad moderna. El poder profesional es una forma especial que toma el privilegio de prescribir lo que es correcto para los demás y que, por lo tanto, necesitan. Este poder es la fuente de estatus y de mando en la Edad Industrial tardía. Esta suerte de poder profesional sólo puede existir en las sociedades en las que la pertenencia a la élite misma se adquiere y legitima por medio del estatus profesional. Le viene al dedillo a la Edad en que, hasta el acceso al Parlamento, o sea, a la Cámara de los Comunes, se encuentra, de hecho, restringido a quienes han obtenido el título de maestría que tasa su patrimonio de conocimientos almacenados que se les administraron en la universidad. La autonomía y la licencia profesional para definir las necesidades de la sociedad es la forma lógica que adopta la oligarquía en una cultura política que sustituye las antiguas formas de acreditación por certificados de las universidades. El poder que tienen las profesiones sobre el trabajo que realizan sus miembros es diferente, por lo tanto, no sólo en cuanto a su extensión sino en cuanto a su origen. + +### Las profesiones tiránicas + +El médico ambulante se convirtió en doctor en medicina cuando dejó el comercio de los medicamentos a los farmacéuticos y se reservó para sí mismo la facultad de prescribir. En ese momento adquirió una nueva forma de autoridad, juntando tres roles en un solo personaje. La autoridad sapiente para aconsejar, instruir y dirigir; la autoridad moral que hace su aceptación no sólo útil sino obligatoria; y la autoridad carismática que permite al médico apelar a cierto interés supremo de sus clientes, que no sólo está por encima de su conciencia sino, a veces, hasta por encima de la razón de Estado. Desde luego que este tipo de doctor aún existe, pero dentro del sistema médico moderno es una figura del pasado. Actualmente es bastante más común un nuevo tipo de científico de la salud aplicada. Cada vez más se ocupa de casos y no de personas; se ocupa de las desviaciones que detecta en el caso, más que de la dolencia que aqueja al individuo; protege el interés de la sociedad más que el interés de la persona. Los tipos de autoridad que se acumularon en la imagen del doctor de antaño, durante los años de liberalismo, y que colaboraban con el facultativo individual en el tratamiento del paciente, los detenta actualmente la corporación profesional al servicio del Estado. Es esta institución la que se adjudica hoy una misión social. + +En los últimos 25 años, la medicina se ha convertido, de una profesión liberal, en una profesión dominante al adquirir el poder de indicar lo que constituye una necesidad de salud para la _gente en general_. Los especialistas de la salud, en cuanto corporación, han adquirido la autoridad para determinar qué tipo de atención médica debe suministrarse a la sociedad en general. Ya no es un individuo profesional el que atribuye una “necesidad” a otro individuo como cliente, sino una agencia corporativa la que atribuye una necesidad a capas enteras de la población y es la que, en seguida, se adjudica el mandato de someter a prueba a la población entera a fin de identificar a aquellos que pertenecen al grupo de clientes potenciales. Lo que sucede en la esfera de la atención médica es totalmente coherente con lo que sucede en otros dominios. Cada día, una nueva secta se atribuye una nueva misión terapéutica y esta misión adquiere legitimidad pública. De la misma forma en que los educadores han conquistado el poder de diagnosticar y administrar terapias del comportamiento, los trabajadores sociales, los policías y los arquitectos, al igual que los médicos, gozan de amplia autoridad para crear instrumentos de diagnóstico que utilizan para cazar al cliente, instrumentos que el público ya no osa verificar. Docenas de fabricantes de otras necesidades tratan de imitarlos. Los banqueros internacionales se atribuyen el poder de diagnosticar las necesidades chilenas, bajo Allende o bajo Pinochet, y de definir las condiciones sin las cuales no administrarán las terapias. Los especialistas de la seguridad evalúan el riesgo que representan varias clases de ciudadanos y se atribuyen la competencia de invadir su ámbito privado. Ya no hay manera de parar la escalada de necesidades si no se exponen en forma política aquellas ilusiones que legitiman la tiranía profesional. Muchas profesiones se encuentran tan firmemente establecidas que no solamente ejercen tutoría sobre el ciudadano-vuelto-cliente sino que también conforman su mundo convertido-en-custodia. El lenguaje en que se percibe a sí mismo el ciudadano, su percepción de los derechos y libertades, y su conciencia de las necesidades, derivan de la hegemonía profesional. La diferencia que existe entre el artesano, el profesional liberal y el nuevo tecnócrata puede clarificarse si enfatizamos sus típicas reacciones ante la gente que despreciaba sus respectivos consejos. Si uno despreciaba el consejo del artesano, era un tonto. Si uno despreciaba el consejo liberal, era condenado por la sociedad. Si uno escapa, actualmente de la atención que el cirujano o el psiquiatra han decidido darle, el gobierno o la profesión misma pueden ser inculpadas. + +De artesano-mercader o consejero culto, el profesional se ha transformado en un cruzado filántropo que sabe cómo se debe alimentar a los niños, qué alumnos deben continuar estudios más avanzados y qué medicamentos la gente no debe consumir. Del tutor que observaba mientras uno memorizaba la lección, el maestro de escuela se ha transformado en un educador cuya cruzada moralizadora le da título de entrometerse entre uno y cualquier cosa que desee aprender. Aun los empleados de la perrera de Chicago se han transformado en expertos de control canino. Como resultado de este cambio el costo por eliminar un perro se ha elevado en 20 años, de 7.50 a 320 dólares. Mientras tanto, 5.4% de todas las lesiones tratadas en el hospital Cook County —el más grande del mundo— son mordeduras del mejor amigo del hombre. + +Los profesionales reclaman un monopolio sobre la definición de las desviaciones y sobre sus remedios. Por ejemplo, los abogados afirman que solamente ellos tienen competencia y derecho _legal_ para dar asistencia en un divorcio. Si uno descubre un método para divorcio “hágalo usted mismo”, se encontrará en un lío doble: si no es abogado queda expuesto a la acusación de practicar sin licencia; si es miembro de un despacho de abogados puede ser expulsado por falta de ética profesional. Los profesionales reclaman también un saber oculto sobre la naturaleza humana y sus debilidades, saber que sólo ellos pueden aplicar con utilidad. Los sepultureros, por ejemplo, no se convirtieron en miembros de una profesión por llamarse empresarios de pompas fúnebres, ni por obtener créditos escolares, ni por aumentar sus ingresos o por liberarse del olor que acompaña su negocio al ser elegido uno de ellos como presidente del Club de Leones. Los empresarios de pompas fúnebres forman una profesión, dominante e inhabilitante, desde el momento que tuvieron la fuerza para lograr que la policía detuviera un entierro si ellos no habían embalsamado y encajonado el cadáver. En cualquier campo donde se pueda inventar una necesidad humana, estas nuevas profesiones inhabilitantes se arrogan el estatus de expertos exclusivos del bien público. + +### Las profesiones establecidas + +La transformación de una profesión liberal en dominante equivale al establecimiento legal de una Iglesia de Estado. Los médicos transformados en biócratas, los maestros en gnoseócratas, los empresarios de pompas fúnebres en tanatócratas es algo que está mucho más cerca de las “clerecías” subsidiadas por el Estado que de las asociaciones comerciales. El profesional, como maestro de la línea de moda de la ortodoxia científica, actúa como teólogo. Como empresario moral, actúa en el papel del sacerdote: con su actuación crea la necesidad para su mediación. Como cruzado benefactor actúa en el papel de misionero a la caza de marginados. Como inquisidor pone fuera de la ley al no ortodoxo: impone sus soluciones al recalcitrante que rehúsa reconocerse como problema. Esta investidura multifacética, combinada con la labor de aliviar los inconvenientes específicos de la condición humana, hace que cada profesión sea análoga a un culto establecido. La aceptación pública de las profesiones tiránicas es esencialmente un hecho político. Toda afirmación nueva de legitimidad profesional significa que las tareas políticas de legislar, la revisión judicial de casos y el Poder Ejecutivo pierden algo de su independencia y de sus características propias. Los asuntos públicos pasan de las manos de legos escogidos por sus semejantes a las de una élite que se otorga por sus propios créditos. + +Cuando la medicina sobrepasó recientemente sus limitaciones liberales, invadió el campo legislativo y estableció normas públicas. Los médicos siempre habían determinado en qué consistían las enfermedades; actualmente la medicina determina cuáles son las enfermedades que la sociedad no tolerará. La medicina invadió las cortes de justicia. Los médicos siempre habían diagnosticado quién era el enfermo; sin embargo, la medicina etiqueta actualmente a los que merecen tratamiento. Los médicos liberales prescribían un tratamiento: la medicina dominante posee poderes públicos de rectificación; ella decide qué habrá de hacerse con los enfermos y cómo disponer de ellos. + +En una democracia, el poder de legislar, de aplicar las leyes y de hacer justicia debe derivar de los ciudadanos mismos. Este control ciudadano sobre los poderes clave ha sido restringido, debilitado y hasta abolido por la ascensión de profesiones “clericales”. Un gobierno que dicta sus leyes de acuerdo con las opiniones expertas de tales profesiones puede ser un gobierno _para_ la gente pero nunca _de_ la gente. Éste no es el momento de investigar cuáles fueron las intenciones para debilitar así el poder político. Basta con indicar la descalificación por parte de los profesionales de la opinión del vulgo como condición necesaria para tal subversión. + +Las libertades civiles se fundan en la norma que excluye todo testimonio de oídas de las declaraciones en que se basan las decisiones públicas. La máquina legal sólo funciona a partir de lo que la gente puede ver e interpretar por sí misma. Las opiniones, las creencias, las deducciones o persuasiones no se toman en cuenta cuando entran en conflicto con testigos presenciales. Invirtiendo esta norma, las élites de expertos se han vuelto profesiones dominantes. En los aparatos legislativos y en las cortes de justicia se ha descartado, de hecho, el reglamento contra la evidencia que antes proporcionaban testigos orales y oculares y se ha reemplazado por las opiniones que profieren los miembros de estas élites que se autoacreditan. + +Pero sería arriesgado confundir el uso público de conocimientos expertos con el juicio normativo entregado al ejercicio corporativo de una profesión. Cuando la corte de justicia citaba a un perito artesanal —por ejemplo un fabricante de armas— para que revelara al jurado los secretos de su oficio, en ese mismo lugar podía instruir al jurado sobre su arte. Determinaba, en una demostración práctica, de qué parte del cargador del revólver había provenido la bala. Hoy día, la mayoría de los expertos desempeñan un papel diferente. El profesional dominante aporta al jurado o a los legisladores la opinión de sus colegas, todos iniciados en la materia, en vez de aportar evidencia basada en hechos y en alguna destreza. Actúa como teólogo al servicio de la corte. Exige que se suspenda el reglamento de los testimonios de oídas, y socava inevitablemente el poder de la ley. De este modo el poder democrático se debilita cada vez más. + +### La hegemonía de las necesidades imputadas + +Si no fuera porque la gente está pronta a considerar como carencia lo que los expertos le imputan como necesidad, las profesiones no habrían podido llegar a hacerse dominantes e inhabilitantes. La dependencia entre unos y otros (como tutores y alumnos) se ha hecho resistente al análisis, debido a que se halla oscurecida por un lenguaje degenerado. Las buenas palabras de antaño se han transformado en hierros candentes que reclaman el control de los expertos sobre el hogar, la tienda, el comercio y el espacio y sobre todo lo que se da en medio de ellos. El lenguaje, el bien común más fundamental, se halla contaminando así por estas hilachas de jerga, retorcidas, pegajosas, cada una sujeta al control de una profesión. El empobrecimiento de las palabras, el agotamiento del lenguaje cotidiano y su degeneración en terminología burocrática equivale, de manera más íntimamente degradante, a la degradación ambiental tan a menudo discutida. No se pueden proponer cambios posibles en los planes, las actitudes y las leyes si no nos hacemos más sensibles al rechazo de estos nombres erróneos que sólo ocultan la dominación. Cuando yo aprendí a hablar, de _problemas_ se hablaba solamente en las matemáticas o en el ajedrez, de _soluciones_ sólo cuando eran salinas o legales y _necesitar_ se conjugaba, pero casi no se usaba como sustantivo. Las expresiones “Tengo un problema” o “Tengo una necesidad” sonaban tontas. Cuando llegué a mi adolescencia, y Hitler buscaba soluciones, también se extendió “el problema social”. Se descubrieron “niños problema” con matices siempre nuevos entre los pobres, a medida que los trabajadores sociales aprendían a catalogar a sus víctimas y a estandarizar sus “necesidades”. La necesidad, usada como sustantivo, llegó a ser el forraje que engordó a las profesiones hasta la tiranía. Así se modernizó la pobreza. Los nuevos términos transformaron una experiencia personal y comunitaria en asuntos de técnicas: los pobres se hicieron “necesitados”. + +Durante la segunda mitad de mi vida, “ser necesitado” llegó a ser algo respetable. Las necesidades, calculables e imputables, promovían en la escala social. Tener necesidades dejó de ser un signo de pobreza. El ingreso económico abrió nuevos registros de necesidades. Spok, Comfort y los divulgadores de Nader entrenaron a los legos en la compra de soluciones a los problemas que habían aprendido a cocinar de acuerdo con recetas profesionales. La educación calificó a los graduados para trepar hacia alturas cada vez más enrarecidas y plantar y cultivar allí cepas siempre nuevas de necesidades híbridas. + +Cada vez más un número creciente de medicamentos tuvieron que adquirirse bajo receta autorizada. Aumentó la prescripción y disminuyó la capacidad. Por ejemplo, en medicina, se prescribieron cada vez más medicamentos farmacológicamente activos y la gente perdió su voluntad y su habilidad para enfrentarse a una indisposición o a un malestar. Alrededor de 1 500 productos nuevos aparecen cada año en los estantes de los supermercados norteamericanos: después de un año sólo sobrevive 20%. El resto lo retiran después de un tiempo, habiendo servido a los vendedores como gancho, ya sea para experimentos o por haber sido modas efímeras o por haberse revelado como peligrosos para el consumidor, no económicos para el productor o por haber cedido ante la competencia. Cada vez más, los consumidores se ven forzados a buscar ayuda de los profesionales de la “defensa del consumidor”. + +Además, el reemplazo constante de los productos hace que los deseos se vuelvan superficiales y plásticos. Aunque suene paradójico resulta que el consumo elevado va a la par de una nueva forma de indiferencia de parte del consumidor: mientras mayor sea el número, el volumen y la especificidad de las necesidades que se le atribuyen profesionalmente, más grande se vuelve la indiferencia para satisfacer sus propios deseos, que ya no sabe especificar. Cada vez más, las necesidades se crean por _slogans_ comerciales, las compras se hacen por órdenes del decano universitario o de las expertas en belleza o de los ginecólogos, del dietista y de docenas de otros diagnosticadores con poder para prescribir. Resulta lógico que los quiromantes y los astrólogos nunca hayan vivido tanta prosperidad como hoy. Una asignación de este tipo parece casi razonable en una cultura en la que la acción propia no es el resultado de una experiencia personal en busca de una satisfacción, y en la que el consumidor consecuentemente adaptado sustituye las necesidades sentidas por las aprendidas. A medida que la gente se hace experta en el arte de aprender a necesitar, llega a ser cada vez más escasa la capacidad para aprender a moldear los deseos de acuerdo con la experiencia. A medida que las necesidades se parten en pedacitos cada vez más pequeños, cada uno administrado por el especialista apropiado, el consumidor siente dificultad en integrar en un todo significante —que pudiera desearse con empeño y poseerse con agrado— las ofertas que por separado le hacen sus distintos tutores. Los administradores de la empresa, los consejeros del estilo de vida, los asesores académicos, los expertos en dietas de moda, los desarrolladores de la sensibilidad y otros por el estilo, perciben claramente las nuevas posibilidades de control y se movilizan para equiparar los bienes envasados con estas necesidades astilladas. + +“Necesidad”, usado como sustantivo, es el sobretiraje individual de un modelo profesional; es la réplica en hule-espuma del molde con el que los profesionales marcan sus artículos; es el molde publicitado del panal de miel con el que se fabrican los consumidores. Ser ignorante o no estar convencido de las propias necesidades se ha vuelto el acto de disolución social imperdonable. El buen ciudadano es aquel que se adjudica necesidades engrapadas con tal convicción que ahoga cualquier deseo de buscar alternativas o de renunciar a estas necesidades. + +Cuando yo nací, antes de que Stalin, Hitler o Roosevelt fueran conocidos, sólo los ricos, hipocondriacos y miembros de los sindicatos poderosos, hablaban de necesidad de atención médica cuando les subía la temperatura. Era una necesidad cuestionable, porque los doctores no podían hacer mucho más de lo que había hecho la abuela. En la medicina, la primera mutación de las necesidades llegó con las sulfas y los antibióticos. Cuando el control de las infecciones llegó a ser una rutina simple y efectiva, cada vez más medicamentos pasaron a la lista de las prescripciones. La asignación del papel de enfermo llegó a ser un monopolio del médico. La persona que se sentía _mal_ tenía que ir a una clínica para que la etiquetaran con el nombre de una _enfermedad_ y poder así ser declarada legítimamente miembro de la minoría de los llamados enfermos; o sea, personas excusadas del trabajo, con título para que se les ayudara, puestas bajo las órdenes del doctor y obligadas a que se les cure, a fin de llegar a ser nuevamente útiles. En otras palabras, cuando la técnica farmacológica — _test_ y medicamentos— se volvió tan barata y predecible que la gente podría prescindir del médico, el sacerdocio médico llamó en su auxilio al brazo secular. + +La segunda mutación que experimentaron las necesidades médicas ocurrió cuando el enfermo dejó de ser minoría. Actualmente muy pocas personas se libran de estar bajo las órdenes médicas por algún tiempo. Tanto en Italia, como en Estados Unidos, en Francia o en Bélgica, uno de cada dos ciudadanos está siendo observado simultáneamente por más de tres profesionales de la salud, que lo tratan, lo aconsejan o simplemente lo observan. El objeto de esta atención especializada es, en la mayor parte de los casos, una condición de los dientes, del útero, de las emociones, de la presión sanguínea o de los niveles hormonales, que el paciente mismo no percibe. Los pacientes ya no son minoría. Quienes son minoría actualmente son los distintos tipos de desviados que escapan de un modo u otro a los diferentes roles de paciente. Esta minoría la constituyen los pobres, los campesinos, inmigrantes recientes y varios otros que, a veces por deseo propio, se han convertido en desertores del sistema médico. Hace solamente 20 años constituía un signo de salud normal, que presumía bueno, el poder pasársela sin un médico. La misma condición de no paciente se ve hoy como indicativo de desamparo o de disidencia. Incluso la condición de hipocondriaco ha cambiado. Para un profesional liberal, ésta era la etiqueta aplicable a alguien que entraba dando un portazo, o sea, una designación reservada al enfermo imaginario. Ahora, los médicos la utilizan para referirse a la minoría que se les escapa: hipocondriacos son los sanos imaginarios. Ser parte del sistema profesional, como cliente de por vida, no es ya un estigma que separa al incapacitado del ciudadano común. Vivimos hoy en una sociedad organizada para las mayorías desviadas y para sus guardianes. Ser cliente activo de muchos profesionales nos permite tener un lugar bien definido dentro del reino de los consumidores para quienes funciona esta sociedad. De este modo, la transformación de la medicina, de profesión liberal de consulta en profesión dominante e inhabilitante, ha aumentado inconmensurablemente el número de los necesitados. + +En este momento crítico, las necesidades atribuidas experimentan su tercera mutación. Se están fundiendo en lo que los expertos llaman un problema multidisciplinario y que, por lo tanto, requiere de una solución multiprofesional. En primer lugar, la multiplicación de las mercancías, que trata cada una de ellas de convertirse en una exigencia para el hombre moderno, logró un entrenamiento eficaz del consumidor para que necesitara cuando se ordenara. Después, la fragmentación progresiva de las necesidades en partes cada vez más pequeñas y más desconectadas logró que el cliente dependiera del juicio profesional para poder combinar sus necesidades en un todo que tuviera sentido. Un buen ejemplo nos lo da la industria automotriz. A fines de los años sesenta, el equipo opcional que se necesitaba para hacer deseable un Ford corriente había aumentado enormemente. La mayor parte de este equipo se instalaba en la misma ciudad de Detroit, y el comprador que vivía en Plains o en cualquier otra ciudad solamente tenía la posibilidad de escoger entre el convertible que deseaba, pero con asientos verdes, y los asientos con piel de leopardo que quería, pero con techo duro. El consumidor, que ya antes había aprendido a depender de la mercancía, ahora tiene que aprender a resignarse a que otros escojan en su lugar. + +Por último, el cliente se entrena para que necesite una ayuda-equipo al recibir lo que sus guardianes consideran un “tratamiento satisfactorio”. Los servicios personales que hacen sentirse mejor al consumidor ilustran este punto. La abundancia terapéutica ha agotado el tiempo de vida disponible de muchas personas a quienes los servicios profesionales diagnosticaron de “necesitar aún más”. La intensidad de la economía de servicios ha hecho cada vez más insuficiente el tiempo que se necesita para el consumo de tratamientos pedagógicos, médicos o sociales. La escasez de tiempo puede convertirse muy pronto en el mayor obstáculo para el consumo de servicios prescritos, a menudo financiados por organismos públicos. Síntomas de esta escasez se hacen evidentes desde los primeros años de cualquier persona. Ya en el _kindergarden_ , el niño está sujeto al control de un equipo constituido por especialistas, como el alergista, el patólogo del lenguaje, el pediatra, el psicólogo de niños, el trabajador social, el instructor de educación física y el maestro. Al formar un equipo pedocrático (de poder sobre el niño) de tal tipo, muchos profesionales intentan compartir el tiempo que se ha convertido en el factor más limitante para la atribución de nuevas necesidades. Para el adulto, no es en el colegio, sino en el lugar de trabajo donde se concentran los paquetes de servicios. El administrador del personal, el educador laboral, el entrenador de turno, el planificador de seguros, el animador de conciencias, encuentran más provechoso compartir el tiempo del obrero que competir por él. Un ciudadano sin necesidades sería sospechoso. Se le dice a la gente que necesita de su trabajo no tanto por el dinero que percibe como por las prestaciones que obtiene. Las cosas comunes se extinguieron y se reemplazaron por una nueva matriz hecha de conductos que suministran servicios profesionales. La vida se halla paralizada en un permanente cuidado intensivo. La profecía de Leonardo da Vinci se está cumpliendo: “Los hombres llegarán a tal grado de envilecimiento que estarán contentos de que otros se aprovechen de sus sufrimientos o de la pérdida de su verdadera riqueza: la salud”.[^n01] + +## Para terminar con las necesidades + +La mutilación del ciudadano a causa del dominio profesional se refuerza con el poder de la ilusión. La esperanza de la salvación por medio de la religión cede paso frente a la esperanza de los servicios profesionales de los que el Estado es el supremo administrador. Cada sacerdote especializado se arroga la capacidad de definir las dificultades de la masa en términos de problemas específicos y solucionables mediante cualquier servicio. Aceptar esta pretensión vuelve a legitimar en el profano, cuyo mundo gira en una cámara de resonancias de necesidades, la dócil aceptación de las necesidades que se le atribuyen. No se trata de mirar un horizonte urbano para ver reflejarse en él este dominio. En todas las alturas, los grandes edificios profesionales dominan a las muchedumbres que van de uno a otro en su ininterrumpida peregrinación a los nuevos santuarios de la salud, de la educación o del bienestar. Las casas “sanas” son, desde entonces, departamentos asépticos donde no se puede nacer, ni enfermarse ni morir decentemente. Los vecinos que nos ayudan, los médicos que vienen a domicilio son especies en vías de desaparición. A los sitios de trabajo apropiados para el aprendizaje se les ha sustituido por opacos laberintos de corredores que sólo se abren delante de funcionarios que llevan colgadas en el reverso de la bata su identidad enmicada. Un mundo concebido para el suministro de servicios es la Utopía de los ciudadanos convertidos en beneficiarios de prestaciones de bienestar. + +La mayor adicción a la imputación, la fascinación paralizante que ejerce en los pobres, sería hermosamente irreversible si la gente respondiera realmente al análisis que se hace de sus necesidades. Pero ése no es el caso. Más allá de cierto nivel de intensidad, la medicina engendra la incapacidad y la enfermedad; el sistema de transportes rápidos transforma a los citadinos en pasajeros durante alrededor de una sexta parte de su existencia (con excepción del tiempo de sueño) y, durante otra sexta parte, en condenados que trabajan para pagar a Ford, a Esso y a la administración de las carreteras. El umbral a partir del cual la medicina, la educación o los transportes se vuelven herramientas contraproductivas lo han alcanzado los países donde el impuesto per cápita es comparable, en el mínimo, a Cuba. Contrariamente a las ilusiones propagadas por la línea ortodoxa, en los países del Este y del Occidente esta contraproductividad específica no tiene relación con el _género_ de escuela, de vehículo o de sistema de salud en uso. Llega, en efecto, cuando la intensidad heterónoma sobrepasa, en los procesos de producción, un umbral crítico. + +Nuestras principales instituciones han adquirido la extraña capacidad de alcanzar objetivos inversos a aquellos que originalmente se concibieron y financiaron. Bajo la férula de nuestras más prestigiosas profesiones, nuestras herramientas institucionales tienen paradójicamente como principal producto la contraproductividad —la mutilación sistemática de los ciudadanos—. Una ciudad construida alrededor de vehículos se vuelve impropia para los peatones y ninguna multiplicación de los primeros logrará la inmovilidad fabricada de los segundos —de aquellos a quienes han convertido en enfermos—. La acción autónoma está paralizada por un sobrecrecimiento de los productos y de los tratamientos. Pero eso no representa simplemente una pérdida completa bajo las relaciones de satisfacción que, en ellas mismas, no encuentran cómo insertarse en la era industrial. La incapacidad de producir valores de uso vuelve ineficaces los productos precisamente destinados a reemplazarlos. Productos como el transporte automovilizado, la medicina, la enseñanza, la gestión, se transforman en ruido ambiental destructivo para el consumidor que sólo beneficia a los proveedores de servicios. + +¿Pero entonces por qué no asistimos a rebeliones contra esta deriva de la sociedad industrial avanzada que termina por ser sólo un inmenso sistema mutilante de suministro de servicios? La principal explicación reside en el poder que tiene éste de engendrar ilusiones. Además, la acción, propiamente material sobre el cuerpo y los espíritus, de las instituciones profesionalizadas funciona igualmente como un poderoso ritual generador de fe en los resultados prometidos por la administración. Además de que le enseña a leer al niño, la escuela le enseña que es “mejor” estudiar con profesores y que, sin la escolaridad obligatoria, los pobres leerán menos libros. Además de que permite desplazarse, el autobús, tanto como el vehículo particular, remodela el entorno y hace pasar de moda el caminar. Además de que ayudan a defraudar al fisco, los consejeros jurídicos comprueban que las leyes resuelven problemas. Una parte, siempre creciente, de las funciones de nuestras principales instituciones es la de mantener y reforzar tres juegos de ilusiones que transforman al ciudadano en cliente que sólo puede alcanzar su salvación mediante los expertos. + +### El equívoco entre congestión y parálisis + +La primera ilusión avasalladora es la idea de que la gente nació para consumir y que sólo puede alcanzar cualquier objetivo comprando bienes y servicios. Esta ilusión procede de un enceguecimiento inculcado en relación con el “precio” de los valores de uso en una economía. En ninguno de los modelos económicos que las naciones han elegido seguir figuran variables que correspondan a los valores de uso no mercantil o que introduzcan la eterna contribución de la naturaleza. Sin embargo, ninguna economía sobreviviría si la producción de valores de uso se redujera hasta el punto en que, por ejemplo, mantener la casa o cumplir con el deber conyugal se convirtieran en prestaciones remuneradas. Lo que efectúa o fabrica la gente, y que no puede ni quiere vender, es también inconmensurable e inestimable para la economía como el oxígeno para la función respiratoria. + +La ilusión de que los modelos económicos pueden ignorar los valores de uso se desprende de la convicción de que estas actividades que designamos mediante verbos intransitivos pueden reemplazarse indefinidamente por productos institucionalmente definidos y designados con sustantivos: la enseñanza reemplaza a “aprendo”; el cuidado de la salud reemplaza a “sano”; los transportes reemplazan a “me desplazo”. + +La confusión entre los valores personales y los valores estandarizados se ha extendido a la mayoría de los dominios. Bajo el báculo profesional, los valores de uso se disuelven, caen en desuso y terminan por perder su naturaleza distinta. Cuidado institucional y amor terminan por coincidir en él. Diez años de explotación de una granja se lanzan a una “batidora” pedagógica y, al concluir, equivalen a un diploma universitario. Las cosas que se recogen al azar, y que se incuban en la libertad de la calle, se agregan en tanto “experiencias educativas” a las que se les atiborra a los alumnos. Los contadores del saber parecen ignorar que las dos actividades, al igual que el agua y la gasolina, se mezclan sólo en tanto están emulsionadas —aquí por la percepción de un educador—. Las indulgentes camarillas de buscadores de necesidades no podrían continuar imponiéndonoslas, como tampoco sacándonos dinero de nuestra bolsa para financiar sus exámenes, sus redes y otras imposturas, si no estuviéramos paralizados por esta especie de ávida creencia. + +La utilidad de los bienes de consumo o de productos condicionados está intrínsecamente limitada por dos fronteras que no deben confundirse. En primer lugar, las filas de los que esperan detendrán tarde o temprano el funcionamiento de cualquier sistema que secrete necesidades más rápidamente que los productos destinados a satisfacerlas; en segundo lugar, la dependencia en relación con los productos determinará que, a consecuencia de esas necesidades, tarde o temprano la autonomía se paralizará en los dominios en cuestión. La utilidad de los productos está limitada por la _congestión_ y por la _parálisis_. Una y otra son resultantes de la escalada en cualquier sector de producción, tanto como cada una lo es a su manera. La congestión, que permite medir hasta dónde los productos pueden “acelerarse”, explica por qué el coche privado no es de ninguna utilidad para desplazarse a Manhattan; en compensación, no explica por qué la gente se rompe el lomo trabajando con el objeto de pagar las primas de seguros de coches en los que no puede desplazarse. Tomada aisladamente, tampoco explica por qué la gente se dejó esclavizar de tal forma por los vehículos que simplemente perdió el uso de sus extremidades inferiores. + +Si la gente se hace cada vez más cautiva de una velocidad que la retrasa, de una instrucción que la embrutece y de una medicina que le desequilibra la salud, es porque más allá de cierto umbral de intensidad la dependencia de bienes industriales y de servicios profesionales destruye la potencialidad del hombre, y la destruye de una manera específica. Los productos sólo pueden reemplazar lo que la gente efectúa o fabrica por símisma hasta cierto punto. Los valores de cambio sólo pueden reemplazar los valores de uso de manera satisfactoria hasta cierto punto. Más allá de ese punto, cualquier producto suplementario sólo beneficia al productor profesional, mientras que desorienta y atonta al consumidor satisfaciéndolo con una necesidad que el primero le ha imputado. El placer que causa la satisfacción de una necesidad sólo toma su plena significación por referencia al recuerdo de una acción autónoma personal. Hay límites más allá de los cuales la multiplicación de los productos altera precisamente en el consumidor la facultad de afirmarse actuando. + +Al recibir sólo lo “totalmente hecho”, lo que le prohíbe cualquier posibilidad de actuar por sí mismo, el consumidor se siente inevitablemente frustrado. El grado de bienestar de una sociedad no resulta, en ningún caso, de la adición de dos modos de producción, heterónomo o autónomo, sino de la asociación fructífera de la sinergia entre valores de uso y productos normalizados. + +La producción heterónoma de una mercancía sólo realza y completa hasta cierto punto la producción autónoma del objetivo personal correspondiente. Más allá de cierto punto, la sinergia entre los dos modos de producción se vuelve paradójicamente contra el objetivo pretendido a la vez por el valor de uso y por la mercancía. Esto es un hecho que la vasta corriente ecológica generalmente olvida. Así, la crítica de las centrales nucleares se dirige hacia los peligros de las radiaciones o sobre las amenazas de un despotismo tecnocrático. Pero, fuera de eso, son raros aquellos que osan denunciar su contribución a la subordinación de la energía. Al desconocer que la superproducción energética paraliza la acción del hombre, se reclama _otra_ producción energética, pero no _menor_. De la misma forma, los límites inexorables del crecimiento que son inherentes a cualquier organización prestadora de servicios son todavía ampliamente desconocidos. Debería, en consecuencia, ser evidente que la institucionalización de los cuidados de la salud sólo puede fabricar gente con mala salud o que la formación permanente sólo puede engendrar una cultura para gente programada. La ecología sólo proporcionará puntos de referencia en la vía de una modernidad viable cuando tomemos conciencia de que el entorno formado por el hombre en función de productos aminora a tal punto su facultad de reacción personal que esos productos pierden su valor como medios de satisfacción. Si no se comprende esto, la puesta en marcha de una tecnología industrial más limpia, menos agresiva, podría alcanzar niveles todavía más intangibles de saciedad frustrante. + +La supremacía del mercado conduce a la contraproductividad. La razón fundamental reside en el monopolio que los productos en serie ejercen sobre la formación de las necesidades. Ese monopolio sobrepasa de lejos lo que habitualmente designamos con ese término. De esa forma, un monopolio comercial impone en el mercado su marca de whisky o de automóvil. Un cartel monopolista puede restringir todavía más la libertad, apoderándose, por ejemplo, de los transportes comunitarios para promover los vehículos privados —como lo ha hecho la General Motors comprando y periclitando los tranvías de San Francisco—. Podemos escapar al primero bebiendo ron y, al segundo, rodando en bicicleta. Sin embargo, empleo el término de “monopolio radical” para designar otra realidad: la sustitución de las actividades útiles a las que se libra, o desearía librarse, la gente, por un producto industrial o de servicio profesional. Un monopolio radical paraliza la acción autónoma en beneficio de prestaciones profesionales. En la medida en que los vehículos desorganicen a la gente y sea necesario regular la circulación, la gente será cada vez más incapaz de volver a su casa a pie. Aunque los motores funcionaran con energía solar, los coches estarían hechos con el aire del tiempo que el monopolio radical ejercería todavía, ya que es inseparable de la circulación de velocidad excesiva. De la misma forma, entre más permanezca una persona bajo la autoridad de la enseñanza, tendrá menos tiempo disponible para reflexionar o descubrir cualquier cosa por sí misma. En todos los dominios existe un umbral más allá del cual la abundancia de bienes ofrecidos al consumo vuelve al medio de tal forma impropio para la acción personal que la sinergia posible entre los valores de uso y los productos se vuelve negativa. Paradójica, específica, la contraproductividad se instala. Emplearé este término cada vez que la impotencia que resulta de la sustitución de un valor de uso por su producto prive precisamente a ese producto de _su_ valor. + +### El desconocimiento de las herramientas convivenciales + +El hombre deja de ser definible como tal cuando ya no es capaz de modelar sus propias necesidades mediante el empleo más o menos competente de herramientas que le proporcionó su cultura. A lo largo de la historia, las herramientas han sido, antes que nada, instrumentos de trabajo empleados en una producción doméstica. Las palas y los martillos sólo servían marginalmente para otros fines, ya se tratara de levantar pirámides o de fabricar excedentes disponibles para el trueque, los regalos o, de manera más rara, para un intercambio por dinero. Las ocasiones de obtener un beneficio de ellas eran limitadas. El trabajo, por lo general, sólo estaba destinado para crear valores de uso no intercambiables. Sin embargo, el progreso tecnológico se empeñó en realizar un género muy diferente de herramienta: la herramienta destinada a producir lo “vendible”. Eso comenzó con la Revolución industrial: la intervención de la nueva tecnología reducía el trabajo al papel del chaplinesco robot de _Tiempos modernos_. Pero, en ese estado precoz, el modo industrial de producción todavía no paralizaba a la gente una vez que “dejaba la chamba”. Mientras que ahora, hombres y mujeres, al estar prácticamente sujetos al suministro de fragmentos estandarizados producidos por herramientas accionadas por sus anónimos colegas, no encuentran ya, en el mantenimiento de las herramientas, esa satisfacción directa que estimulaba la evolución de los hombres y de sus culturas. Sus necesidades y su consumo se han multiplicado notablemente, mientras que su satisfacción al manejar herramientas se aquieta —y dejan de llevar una existencia a la vista de la cual su organismo adquirió su forma—. En el mejor de los casos, apenas sobreviven, incluso en un medio tornasolado. Toda su vida no es más que un encantamiento de necesidades que sucesivamente son satisfechas con el fin de suscitar las siguientes necesidades —y la necesidad de satisfacerlas—. Ahí, el hombre-consumidor-pasivo termina por perder hasta la capacidad de hacer la diferencia entre vivir y sobrevivir. En lugar de aprovechar la vida, apuesta sobre la propia esperanza de vida, vibra con la esperanza de estar “bien asistido”. En un ambiente así se vuelve fácil olvidar que sólo se está satisfecho y feliz en la medida en que la conciencia personal de su propia necesidad y los “suministros” destinados a satisfacerlas permanecen en equilibrio. + +La ilusión de que las herramientas al servicio de instituciones de vocación mercantil pueden impunemente destruir las condiciones de vida que reposan sobre medios convivenciales al alcance de cada uno, permite asfixiar cualquier “conciencia” conceptualizando el progreso tecnológico, que se vuelve entonces promotor de productos que autorizan cualquier escalada de la dominación profesional. Esta ilusión dicta que las herramientas, con el fin de ganar en eficacia en la persecución de propósitos específicos, se vuelven inevitablemente más complejas y misteriosas. Sólo hay que pensar en las carlingas y en las grúas. Parece que las herramientas modernas requieren necesariamente operaciones especiales, dotadas de una alta formación técnica y, por lo tanto, susceptibles de inspirar una confianza verdaderamente fundada. + +De hecho, es precisamente lo contrario lo que por lo general es verdad. Entre mayor es la multiplicación de las técnicas, más se parcializan al especializarse, y menos su manejo requiere de una decisión compleja. La confianza del cliente, sobre la que la autonomía del miembro de una profesión liberal o incluso la del artesano se edificaba, ya no es necesaria. A medida que avanzaba la medicina, sólo una muy débil fracción del volumen total de los servicios médicos demostrados útiles exigía una formación avanzada —y una inteligencia notable—. Desde un punto de vista social, deberíamos reservar la designación de “progreso técnico” a los casos en que nuevas herramientas estiraran la capacidad y la eficacia de un mayor número de gente; en particular cuando nuevas herramientas permitieran una producción más autónoma de valores de uso. + +No hay nada _inevitable_ en el monopolio profesional que extiende su dominio sobre la nueva tecnología. Las grandes invenciones del último siglo, como las nuevas aleaciones, los rodajes con baleros, algunos materiales de construcción, los circuitos impresos, algunos análisis y medicamentos, son susceptibles de acrecentar el poder de los dos modos de producción, heterónomo y autónomo. Sólo que la mayor parte de la tecnología no se ha incorporado al herramental convivencial sino a condicionamientos y complejos institucionales. Al ser eminentemente capaz de servir a sus amos, los profesionales han puesto la nueva tecnología al servicio de la producción industrial y con ello han adquirido un monopolio radical. La contraproductividad en la que desemboca la parálisis de la producción de valores de uso resulta de esta noción de progreso tecnológico. + +No existe “imperativo tecnológico” que exija que el rodamiento con baleros se emplee en los vehículos motorizados o que la electrónica se utilice para controlar el funcionamiento cerebral. La institución de la circulación a gran velocidad o la de la protección de la salud mental _no resultan necesariamente_ de los rodamientos con baleros o de los circuitos impresos. Sus funciones están determinadas por las necesidades de servicio para las cuales se hicieron —necesidades que ante todo imputan y refuerzan los profesionales—. Éste es un hecho que, en las profesiones mismas, parece escapar a los jóvenes turcos radicales cuando, al justificar su fidelidad institucional, se presentan como los sacerdotes públicamente investidos del encargo de domesticar el progreso tecnológico. Es también la sujeción respecto a la idea del progreso la que hace que únicamente se considere a la ingeniería como contribución a la eficacia institucional. Sólo a las investigaciones científicas susceptibles de aplicaciones militares o que refuerzan más el dominio profesional se les asignan gruesos créditos. Las aleaciones gracias a las cuales pueden fabricarse bicicletas a la vez más robustas y ligeras proceden de los estudios emprendidos para hacer a los aviones de propulsión más rápidos y a las armas más mortíferas. Pero es principalmente el herramental industrial el que se beneficia con los resultados de la investigación. En esa forma, máquinas ya de por sí enormes se vuelven todavía más complejas, más incomprensibles para el profano. Este prejuicio, al colorear la visión que los científicos y los técnicos tienen de su tarea, viene a reforzar una tendencia ya predominante: rechaza las necesidades que implican una acción autónoma y multiplican las necesidades que implican la adquisición de bienes de consumo. Las herramientas convivenciales que facilitan el disfrute individual de los valores de uso —y que sólo requieren muy poca, o casi ninguna, vigilancia médica, policiaca o administrativa— sólo tienen cabida en dos extremos: en los trabajadores asiáticos despojados y en los estudiantes y profesores ricos, que son las dos especies de gente que va en bicicleta. + +Desde hace poco, ciertos grupos de profesionales, de organismos gubernamentales y de organizaciones internacionales han comenzado a estudiar, desarrollar y preconizar una tecnología “ligera”. Se podría pensar que esos esfuerzos apuntan a escapar de la servidumbre de los imperativos tecnológicos. Pero, en el conjunto, esta nueva tecnología, concebida para la autointervensión en el dominio de la salud, de la enseñanza o de la construcción de viviendas, no es más que otra forma de poderosa sujeción en relación con el suministro de bienes. Así, se pide a los expertos concebir botiquines farmacéuticos familiares que permitan a la gente seguir las directrices que el médico le da por teléfono. Se enseña a las mujeres a descubrir por sí mismas un eventual cáncer de mama con el fin de darle trabajo al cirujano. Los cubanos tienen licencias remuneradas para levantar sus casas prefabricadas. A medida en que el prestigio y la seducción de los productos profesionales se vuelven menos onerosos, terminan por hacer que ricos y pobres se parezcan cada vez más estrechamente entre ellos. Bolivianos y suecos se sienten parecidamente atrasados, subprivilegiados y explotados en la medida en que se instruyen sin profesores diplomados, tienen buena salud sin supervisión médica y se desplazan sin prótesis motorizadas. + +### La confusión entre libertades y derechos + +La tercera ilusión mutilante consiste en confiar a los expertos el cuidado de fijar límites al crecimiento. Se estima que están listas para ser instruidas con lo que no necesitan las poblaciones socialmente condicionadas para experimentar necesidades “sobre pedido”. Los mismos agentes multinacionales que durante una generación han impuesto tanto a los ricos como a los pobres un nivel internacional de consumo de contabilidad, de desodorantes o de energía, patrocinan al Club de Roma. Dócilmente la UNESCO se pone de su parte y forma especialistas de la imputación de necesidades a nivel regional. Así, supuestamente para su bien, a los ricos se les programa para cubrir los gastos de un crecimiento de dominio profesional costoso en ellos y para asignar a los pobres necesidades menos onerosas y más restringidas. Entre los nuevos profesionales algunos son demasiado clarividentes para constatar que la disminución de los productos refuerza también el dirigismo de las necesidades. La planificación central de la descentralización óptima de la producción se volvió la tarea más prestigiosa de 1977. Pero lo que todavía no se reconoce es que alcanzar la salud de los límites decretados por profesionales termina por confundir libertades y derechos. + +En cada una de las siete regiones del mundo definidas por la ONU se ha formado una nueva clerecía para predicar el estilo apropiado de austeridad puesta a punto por los nuevos creadores de necesidades. Los “concientizadores” se esparcen en las comunidades locales para incitar a la gente a que alcance los objetivos de producción descentralizada que se le fijaron. Ordeñar la cabra familiar constituía una libertad; la planificación ha hecho de ello un deber para contribuir al producto nacional bruto. + +La sinergia entre producción autónoma y producción heterónoma se refleja en el equilibrio que mantiene la sociedad entre libertades y derechos. Las libertades protegen los valores de uso, como los derechos protegen el acceso a los productos. De igual manera que los productos pueden asfixiar la posibilidad de crear valores de uso y transformarse en riqueza empobrecedora, la definición profesional de derechos puede asfixiar las libertades y asentar una tiranía que sepulte a la gente bajo sus derechos. + +Se revela muy claramente la confusión si se considera a los especialistas de la salud. La salud es precisamente el ejercicio de libertades y derechos. La salud designa la zona de autonomía en el seno de la cual una persona rige sus propios estados biológicos y las condiciones de su entorno inmediato. La salud es el grado de libertad vivido. Desde ese momento, los que se preocupan del bien público deberían emplearse en garantizar la distribución equitativa de la salud en tanto libertad, la cual, en su momento, depende de condiciones del entorno que únicamente se realizan por intervenciones políticas organizadas. Más allá de cierto nivel de intensidad, el cuidado de la salud profesional, tan equitativamente distribuido como se quiera, asfixiará la salud en tanto libertad. En este sentido fundamental, el cuidado de la salud es una cuestión de libertad bien protegida. + +Es evidente que dicha noción de la salud implica una petición de principio de las libertades inalienables. Es necesario, a este respecto, distinguir claramente entre libertad cívica y derechos cívicos. La libertad de actuar sin que el gobierno ponga trabas tiene un alcance más vasto que los derechos cívicos que el Estado promulga para garantizar a la gente una igual facultad para obtener ciertos bienes y servicios. + +Por regla general, las libertades cívicas no constriñen a los otros a actuar conforme a mis deseos. Tengo la libertad de hablar y de dar a conocer públicamente mi opinión, pero ningún periódico está obligado a imprimirla, como tampoco se exige a mis conciudadanos que lean mi publicación. Soy libre de pintar lo que creo bello, pero ningún museo está constreñido a comprar mi tela. Pero, al mismo tiempo, el Estado, en tanto garante de la libertad, puede promulgar —y lo hace— leyes que protegen la igualdad de los derechos sin la cual sus miembros no gozarían de sus libertades. Esos derechos dan significación y realidad a la igualdad, mientras las libertades dan posibilidad y forma a la libertad. Una manera cierta de asfixiar las libertades de hablar, de aprender, de sanar o de cuidar es delimitarlas metamorfoseando los derechos cívicos en deberes cívicos. La tercera ilusión consiste precisamente en creer que la reivindicación pública de los derechos desemboca ineluctablemente en la protección de las libertades. En efecto, entre más inviste la sociedad a los profesionales de la legitimidad de definir los derechos, más se rebajan las libertades del ciudadano. + +### El derecho al desempleo creador + +En nuestros días, cualquier nueva necesidad profesionalmente comprobada toma, tarde o temprano, la forma de un derecho. Una vez promulgado bajo la presión política, ese derecho engendra nuevos empleos y nuevos productos. En su momento, cada nuevo producto degrada una actividad de la que, hasta aquí, la gente tenía la iniciativa para su propio beneficio; cada nuevo empleo vuelve ilegítimo un trabajo que hasta ese momento efectuaba la gente sin “profesión” —o en lo que no era profesión—. El poder que tienen los profesionales de señalar lo que es bueno, justo, legítimamente fabricable, falsea en “cualquiera” la facultad de vivir “a su medida”. + +Cuando todos los estudiantes en derecho actualmente inscritos en las facultades norteamericanas hayan obtenido su diploma, el número de juristas aumentará 50% en Estados Unidos. La obligación del cuidado legal completará la obligación del cuidado médico, y el “seguro judicial” se volverá del mismo género que el “seguro de enfermedad”. Cuando el derecho del ciudadano a las prestaciones de un abogado se haya instituido, será tan oscurantista y asocial desahogar una querella entre particulares como hoy en día dar a luz en su propia cama. Ya el derecho reconocido a los ciudadanos de Detroit de vivir en una vivienda cuya instalación eléctrica se debe a un profesional hace de aquel que “juega a instalar” la suya un delincuente. La pérdida sucesiva de las libertades de ser útil en otra parte que no sea en un “puesto de trabajo” o fuera de un control profesional es una experiencia de las más penosas, aunque innominada, que se ata a la pobreza modernizada. Actualmente el privilegio más significativo de un estatus social eminente podría bien ser la “facultad de no trabajar” siendo útil —negado cada vez más a la gran mayoría—. El derecho del ciudadano a ser cuidado y aprovisionado casi se ha convertido, a fuerza de reivindicarse, en el derecho de las profesiones y de las industrias a elegir su clientela, con, como consecuencia de sus prestaciones y suministros, el deterioro de las condiciones del medio ambiente que volvía útiles las actividades no retribuidas. De ahí la lucha por una distribución equitativa del tiempo y de la facultad de ser útil a sí mismo y a los otros cuando en su oficio o en su puesto ha sido eficazmente paralizado. Cualquier labor no remunerada se desprecia, si no es que se ignora. La actividad autónoma amenaza el nivel del empleo, engendra la desconfianza y falsea el PNB. Se estima, por otra parte, impropio designarla como un “trabajo”. La “labor” no es más el esfuerzo o la tarea, sino la misteriosa inversión que, uncida con el capital, vuelve una fábrica productiva —y remuneradora—. El trabajo no es más la creación de un valor que el trabajador percibe como tal, sino ante todo un “sitio”, es decir, cualquier cosa que nos sitúe socialmente. Carecer de trabajo es estar tristemente ocioso y no tener la libertad para hacer cosas útiles para sí o para el vecino. La mujer activa que cuida la casa, educa a sus hijos y eventualmente se ocupa de los de otras, se distingue de la mujer que “trabaja” por más inútil o perniciosa que pueda ser la producción en la que se emplea. La actividad, el esfuerzo, el cumplimiento, la utilidad fuera del círculo de las relaciones jerárquicas y no señaladas profesionalmente, representan una amenaza para una sociedad de productos mercantiles. Al escapar a la contabilidad nacional, la creación de valores de uso no limita sólo la necesidad de un aumento de productos, sino también de los puestos de trabajo que los elaboran y de los salarios necesarios para comprarlos. + +Esforzarse en producir algo agradable, amar lo que uno hace, son nociones vacías de sentido en una sociedad donde sólo cuenta la pareja mano de obra/capital. La sensación de cumplimiento que procura la acción ya no tiene sentido más que cuando lo único que importa es el estatus social en el seno de las relaciones de producción, a saber: el lugar, la situación, el puesto o el nombramiento. En la Edad Media, cuando no había salvación fuera de la Iglesia, los teólogos tropezaban con la cuestión de saber lo que Dios haría de los paganos cuando habían llevado una vida “ejemplar”. De la misma manera, en la sociedad contemporánea, el esfuerzo sólo es productivo si se hace incitado por el patrón, y los economistas tropiezan con la cuestión de la utilidad evidente de las personas que escapan al control de una corporación, de un organismo, de un cuerpo de voluntarios o de un campo de trabajo. El trabajo sólo es productivo, respetable y digno del ciudadano cuando su proceso está planificado, dirigido y controlado por un agente profesional que garantiza que responde a una necesidad “nominalizada”. En una sociedad industrial avanzada, se vuelve imposible no querer ejercer un empleo para librarse a un trabajo autónomo y útil. Osar considerarlo es incluso ir demasiado lejos. La infraestructura de la sociedad está arreglada de tal manera que sólo el puesto da acceso a los medios de producción, y ese monopolio de la creación de bienes sobre la creación de valores de uso no deja de reforzarse cuando el Estado se apodera de ellos. No se puede instruir a un niño sin habilitación específica, restablecer una pierna rota en otra parte que en una clínica. Los trabajos domésticos, el artesanado, la agricultura de subsistencia, la tecnología radical, la enseñanza mutua, etc., se reducen al rango de actividades para los ociosos, los improductivos, los más despojados o los más ricos. Una sociedad que engendra una dependencia intensa en relación con las mercancías transforma así a sus sin-trabajo en pobres o en asistidos. En 1945, por cada norteamericano beneficiario de un retiro había 35 trabajadores empleados. En 1977, sólo había 3.2 trabajadores empleados para mantener a un retirado, él mismo dependiente de mucho más servicios de los que su abuelo retirado habría podido imaginar. + +En lo sucesivo, la calidad de una sociedad y de su cultura dependerá del estatus de sus sin-trabajo: ¿serán los ciudadanos productivos más representativos o los asistidos? Una vez más la elección o la crisis parece clara: la sociedad industrial avanzada puede continuar bajo el impulso del sueño integrista de los años sesenta; puede degenerar en un sistema de racionamiento que parsimoniosamente imputa productos y empleos en constante disminución, y que forma siempre más ciudadanos para el consumo estandarizado y para el trabajo inútil. Tal es la línea seguida por la mayor parte de los gobiernos, de Alemania a China, pero, podríamos decir, cada uno según sus medios. En efecto, entre más rico es un país, más urgente parece el deber de racionar el acceso a las plazas y de trabar la actividad útil de los sin-trabajo que perjudicaría al “empleo”. Ciertamente lo inverso es igualmente posible: una sociedad moderna en la que los trabajadores frustrados se organizaran para proteger la libertad de la gente de ser útil sin participar en las actividades llamadas “productivas”, es decir, que suministran productos mercantiles. Pero, también aquí, esta orientación social sólo puede desembocar en una nueva competencia, racional y cínica, en el ciudadano medio confrontado con la imputación profesional de las necesidades. + +## En guardia frente al nuevo profesional + +Hoy, el nuevo profesional se siente claramente amenazado por la acumulación de pruebas de la contraproductividad de sus prestaciones. La gente comienza a ver que su hegemonía la priva del derecho a mirar en la cosa política. El poder simbólico de esos expertos que, al definir las necesidades, esterilizan las habilidades personales, se percibe ahora como más peligroso que su capacidad para dominar las técnicas, la cual se limita a responder a las necesidades que crean. Simultáneamente se escucha cada vez más reclamar la puesta en marcha de una legislación que podría hacernos salir de una edad dominada por el _ethos_ profesional. Muchas exigencias se plantean en este sentido: sustituir la habilitación por los profesionales o la administración de una investidura por ciudadanos elegidos, y no contentarse con hacer intervenir a algunos representantes de consumidores o usuarios en las instancias de decisión; flexibilizar la reglamentación de las prescripciones en las farmacias, así como la de la formación obligatoria o del reciclaje de adultos; proteger las libertades _productivas_ , incluso y sobre todo si son extraindustriales; derecho para el profano calificado de practicar sin habilitación formal; poner a disposición del ciudadano un “estado” de servicios públicos que le permita saber cuales practicantes trabajan por honorarios. Frente a estas amenazas, las principales instituciones profesionales recurren, cada una a su manera, a tres estrategias fundamentales para paliar la erosión de su legitimidad y de su poder. + +### La recuperación por la autarquía + +Esta primera actitud es la del Club de Roma. Fiat, Volkswagen y Ford pagan economistas, ecologistas y sociólogos para que determinen las producciones a las que deben renunciar las industrias con el fin de que el sistema industrial funcione mejor —y pueda así reforzarse—. De la misma forma, los médicos del Club de Cos preconizan renunciar a la cirugía, a la radioterapia y a la quimioterapia en el tratamiento de la mayoría de los cánceres, pues sus intervenciones no hacen más que acrecentar y prolongar muchos meses el sufrimiento de los enfermos sin aumentar por ello su esperanza de vida. Abogados y dentistas prometen vigilar como nunca la competencia, la corrección y las tarifas de sus colegas. + +Una variante de esta actitud se observa en ciertos individuos o en sus organizaciones que cuestionan la Orden de los médicos y de otros creadores de necesidades. Éstos revindican la etiqueta de radicales porque: _1)_ aconsejan a los consumidores en contra de los intereses de la mayoría de sus pares; _2)_ instruyen a los profanos sobre la manera de conducirse en el consejo de administración de los hospitales, de las universidades o de la policía; _3)_ llegan a dar testimonio, frente a comisiones parlamentarias, de la inutilidad de “acciones” propuestas por profesionales y requeridas por el público. Así, en una provincia del oeste de Canadá, los médicos hicieron una relación de algunas 25 acciones médicas que la legislatura pretendía subvencionar mejor. Se trataba, en todos los casos, de actos costosos; los médicos subrayaron, además, que eran muy dolorosos, que muchos de ellos eran muy peligrosos y que su eficacia no estaba probada en ninguno. Estas recomendaciones médicamente “ilustradas” no se siguieron —fracaso que refuerza provisoriamente la creencia en la necesidad de la protección _profesional_ contra la _hybris_ profesional—. + +Que la profesión forme su policía interior, nada es más útil cuando se trata de desenmascarar al incompetente caracterizado —al “carnicero”— o al charlatán puro y simple. Pero se ha probado ampliamente que la profesión sólo protege a los incapaces al reforzar la dependencia del público en relación con sus prestaciones. El médico “crítico”, el jurista “radical”, el promotor y animador del barrio roban clientes a los colegas menos enterados que ellos de lo que está “en el viento”. Las profesiones liberales comenzaron por convencer al público de la necesidad de sus servicios prometiendo velar por la sociedad, por la moralidad o por la formación sanitaria de las capas más pobres. Después, las profesiones dominadoras se arrogaron el “deber” de guiar al público —y de mutilarlo también más— organizándose en clubes que enarbolan los estandartes de las obligaciones ecológicas, económicas y sociales. Esta actitud pone freno a la expansión ulterior del sector profesional, pero refuerza la dependencia del público en el seno del sector mismo. Así, la idea de que los profesionales tienen el _derecho_ de servir al público es de origen muy reciente. Su lucha por establecer y legitimar su derecho corporativo se vuelve una de las amenazas más pesadas contra nuestra sociedad. + +### La recuperación por la autoinvestidura + +La segunda estrategia se dirige a organizar y coordinar las prestaciones de los profesionales con el fin de cubrir todos los aspectos de los problemas humanos. Con ese objeto, se toman prestadas ideas del análisis sistémico y de las investigaciones operacionales con vistas a suministrar soluciones a la vez más nacionales y más exhaustivas. Lo que eso significa en la práctica se puede ver en Canadá. Hace cuatro años, el Ministerio de la Salud lanzó una campaña para convencer al público de que el aumento de los gastos médicos no abatía de ninguna manera las tasas de enfermedad ni de mortalidad. Subrayó que los decesos prematuros se debían a tres causas mayores: los accidentes, principalmente los accidentes de carretera; las afecciones cardiacas y el cáncer de pulmón, contra los cuales los médicos son notoriamente impotentes; al suicidio o al asesinato, fenómenos que escapan a la esfera médica. El ministro preconizó la investigación de nuevos métodos para abordar las cuestiones de salud, junto con una reducción de los gastos médicos. El deber de proteger, fortificar o consolar a quienes su estilo de vida y el entorno destructores típicos del Canadá contemporáneo han alterado la salud lo recuperaron entonces muchos profesores, antiguos y nuevos. Los arquitectos descubrieron que tenían la misión de mejorar la salud de los canadienses; la necesaria vigilancia de los perros errantes —que son una fuente de accidentes— hizo que se agregaran nuevos especialistas a la perrera. La organización de los canadienses se sometió a los nuevos biócratas como nunca lo había hecho con los antiguos terapeutas. El eslogan: “Más vale gastar para estar bien que pagar al médico cuando se está enfermo” no era, en efecto —lo vemos bien hoy en día—, más que la divisa de camarillas buscando canalizar en su beneficio el dinero de los nuevos prosélitos. + +La práctica de la medicina en Estados Unidos ilustra una dinámica similar. La creación de un sistema coordinado de cuidados de salud se ha tragado sumas enormes sin revelarse particularmente eficaz. En 1950, el trabajador norteamericano le consagraba anualmente el equivalente de dos semanas de salario. En 1976, la proporción había alcanzado de cinco a siete semanas de salario: cuando se compra un Ford nuevo, se paga más por la higiene de los obreros que por el metal que contiene el vehículo. A pesar de todos esos esfuerzos, de todos esos gastos, la esperanza de vida de la población masculina adulta no se ha elevado sensiblemente desde hace 100 años. Es más baja que en muchos países pobres y, desde hace 20 años, no ha dejado de descender lenta, pero regularmente. + +Ahí, donde se ha asistido a un retroceso de las enfermedades, éste es imputable a la adopción de un estilo de vida más sano, en particular bajo el aspecto de la nutrición. En menor grado, las vacunas y las acciones simples, como la administración automática de antibióticos, la prescripción de anticonceptivos o la interrupción del embarazo por el método de la aspiración, han contribuido al retroceso de ciertas afecciones. Pero dichas acciones no postulan la necesidad de una intervención profesional. No es porque mantiene lazos más estrechos con una profesión médica que la gente tendrá mejor salud. Muchos médicos “radicales” preconizan precisamente una biocracia siempre más vasta. Se les escapa aparentemente que querer “resolver los problemas” de la gente de manera más racional equivale a actuar en su lugar, a expoliarla de la decisión —incluso si es para alcanzar una igualdad compensatoria—. + +### La recuperación por la profesionalización del cliente + +La tercera estrategia para asegurar la sobrevivencia de las profesiones dominadoras es el más reciente radicalismo en boga. Cuando los profetas de los años sesenta vaticinaban sobre el desarrollo en el umbral de la abundancia, estos creadores de mitos hacían peroratas sobre la autoasistencia de los clientes profesionalizados. + +Desde 1965 sólo en Estados Unidos cerca de 2 700 obras aparecieron para enseñar a ser su propio paciente —con el objeto de visitar al médico sólo cuando eso valiera la pena para él—. Algunas de ellas preconizan la formación de la automedicación, coronada por un examen, después del cual sólo los felices laureados tendrían licencia para comprar aspirinas y administrarlas a sus hijos. Otros proponen que los pacientes profesionalizados se beneficien con tarifas preferenciales en los hospitales y de una disminución en sus cotizaciones de su seguro de enfermedades. Sólo podrán dar a luz en su casa las mujeres debidamente acreditadas —su “profesionalización” permitiría, si fuera el caso, perseguirlas por faltas o negligencia médica—. Una de esas proposiciones “radicales” consistía en poner una de esas habilitaciones no bajo auspicios médicos sino feministas. + +El sueño profesional de arraigar profundamente cada jerarquía de necesidades reviste los colores de la autoasistencia. Por el momento, sus promotores son la nueva tribu de expertos en autoasistencia que ha venido a reemplazar a los especialistas del desarrollo de los años sesenta. Su objetivo es la profesionalización universal de los clientes. Los expertos norteamericanos de la construcción que, el otoño pasado, invadieron México, ilustran la nueva cruzada. + +Hace alrededor de dos años, un profesor de arquitectura de Boston vino a pasar sus vacaciones a México. Un mexicano, amigo mío, lo llevó a ver la nueva ciudad que en 12 años se había desarrollado más allá del aeropuerto de México. Esta aglomeración, que inició con algunas chozas, se ha extendido progresivamente al grado de contar con tres veces más habitantes que Cambridge, Massachusetts. Mi amigo, él mismo arquitecto, quería mostrar al visitante miles de ejemplos de ingenio campesino: la organización, las estructuras, el reúso de materiales de desecho, nada de todo eso se encontraba en los manuales, todo era espontáneo. Su colega tomó cientos de fotografías. Nada más natural. Los amateurs, los no calificados, habían edificado, haciendo funcionar una aglomeración de “cuchitriles” de más de dos millones de habitantes. Las fotografías se analizaron debidamente en Cambridge; al final del año, especialistas norteamericanos recién salidos de los cursos de “arquitectura de comunidades” se empleaban en enseñar a la gente de Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl cuáles eran sus problemas, sus necesidades y las soluciones “adecuadas”. + +## El ethos postprofesional + +Lo inverso de la necesidad y de la pobreza profesionalmente comprobada es la subsistencia moderna. El término “economía de subsistencia” se aplica en etnología a la forma de sobrevivencia de un grupo, en sí mismo marginal, en relación con la dependencia hacia el mercado, en la que la gente fabrica lo que utiliza mediante herramientas tradicionales y en el seno de una organización social frecuentemente heredada tal cual. En el lenguaje corriente, sin embrago, la “economía de subsistencia” evoca una cultura que organiza la impotencia, engendra ilusiones y favorece a la élite. Shalins demostró que la única sociedad en la que el espacio, el tiempo y la autonomía se agota en su lucha por la sobrevivencia es la industrial. Propongo, sin embargo, no sin vacilación, recuperar el término para hablar de “subsistencia moderna”. + +Llamamos “subsistencia moderna” al modo de vida en una economía posindustrial en el seno de la cual la gente logra reducir su dependencia en relación con el mercado, consiguiendo —por medios políticos— una infraestructura en la que técnicas y herramientas sirven, en primer lugar, para crear valores de uso no cuantificados y no cuantificables por los fabricantes profesionales de necesidades. De esas herramientas hablé en otra parte[^n02] proponiendo el término de “herramienta convivencial” para cualquier instrumento concebido con el fin de producir valores de uso. Mostré que el inverso de la pobreza modernizada progresiva es la austeridad convivencial que resulta de una gestión política que protege la igualdad del ejercicio de la libertad en el empleo de dichas herramientas. + +Un reherramentación de la sociedad contemporánea mediante herramientas convivenciales y ya no industriales implica, sin embargo, un desplazamiento del interés en nuestra lucha por la justicia social; implica un nuevo género de subordinación de la justicia distributiva a la justicia participativa. En una sociedad industrial, los individuos están formados en una especialización forzada. Se han vuelto impotentes para modelar o para satisfacer sus propias necesidades. Dependen de mercancías “prescritas” para su intención. El derecho al diagnóstico de necesidades, a la participación de la terapia y —de manera general— a la distribución de bienes, predomina en la ética, la política y la legislación. La primacía dada al _derecho_ de tener necesidades imputadas reduce las _libertades_ de aprender, de sanar o de desplazarse por uno mismo al estado de frágiles lujos. Sin embargo, en una sociedad convivencial lo inverso sería verdad. La protección de la equidad en el ejercicio de las libertades individuales es la preocupación dominante de una sociedad fundada en la tecnología radical, donde la ciencia y la técnica sirven para crear de manera más eficaz valores de uso. Es evidente que una libertad tan equitativamente repartida no tendría ningún sentido si no está fundada en el derecho a un acceso igual a las materias primas, a las herramientas y a los procedimientos. La alimentación, el carburante, el aire puro o el espacio vital no pueden distribuirse de manera más eficaz que las herramientas o los puestos de trabajo si se racionan sin consideración de las necesidades imputadas, es decir, hasta un límite igual para todos, jóvenes o viejos, impedido o presidente. Una sociedad fundada en el empleo moderno y eficaz de las libertades productivas no puede existir si el ejercicio de esas libertades no se limita de manera igual para todos. + +[^n01:] _"Les Carnets de Leonard de Vinci"_, trad. Louise Servicen, Gallimard, París, 1951.] + +[^n02:] Ver "La convivencialidad"] diff --git a/data/pages/es/book/unemployment/index.txt b/data/pages/es/book/unemployment/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d203d7e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/book/unemployment/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +# Desempleo Creador: la decadencia de la sociedad profesional + +* **#@LANG_textfull@#:** [[.:es|Online]] +* **#@LANG_titleorig@#:** _Desempleo Creador: la decadencia de la sociedad profesional_ +* **#@LANG_publicationdate@#:** 1974 +* **#@LANG_comments@#:** Incluye dos capítulos adicionales, tomados de la edición francesa, que fueran incluídos en la versión de "Obras Reunidas - Tomo 1" (FCE, 2006) + +~~NOTOC~~ diff --git a/data/pages/es/index.txt b/data/pages/es/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..448a717 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/es/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +# Español + +## Serie de libros originales + +Ordenados por el año de su primera aparición en cualquier idioma + +* [[.:book:awareness:index|1969 - Celebration Of Awareness]] _(Celebración de la conciencia)_ / _(Alternativas)_ +* [[en:book:church:index|1970 - The Church, Change and Development]] _(La iglesia, cambio y desarrollo)_ +* [[.:book:deschooling:index|1970 - Deschooling Society]] _(La sociedad desescolarizada)_ +* [[.:book:conviviality:index|1973 - Tools for Conviviality]] _(Herramientas para la convivencialidad)_ / _(La convivencialidad)_ +* [[.:book:energy:index|1974 - Energy And Equity]] _(Energía y equidad)_ +* [[.:book:medical:index|1975 - Medical Nemesis - The Expropriation Of Health]] _(Némesis médica - La expropiación de la salud)_ +* [[.:book:unemployment:index|1978 - The Right To Useful Unemployment]] _(El derecho al desempleo útil)_ +* [[.:book:shadow:index|1981 - Shadow Work]] _(Trabajo fantasma)_ +* [[.:book:gender:index|1982 - Gender ]] _(El género vernáculo)_ +* [[.:book:h20:index|1985 - H2O And The Waters Of Forgetfulness]] _(H20 y las aguas del olvido)_ +* [[.:book:abc:index|1988 - ABC - The Alphabetization Of The Popular Mind]] _(ABC - La alfabetización de la mente popular)_ +* [[.:book:mirror:index|1992 - In The Mirror Of The Past - Lectures And Addresses, 1978-1990]] _(En el espejo del pasado - Lecturas y conferencias, 1978-1990)_ +* [[.:book:vineyard:index|1993 - In The Vineyard Of The Text-A Commentary To Hugh's Didascalicon]] _(En el viñedo del texto. Etología de la lectura: un comentario al "Didascalicon" de Hugo de San Víctor)_ + +### Compilaciones + +... + +## Artículos + +* [[es:article:1978-the_message_of_bapus_hut:index|1978 - El mensaje de la choza de Gandhi]] +* [[es:article:1986-disvalue:index|1986 - Desvalor]] +* [[es:article:1995-foreword_deschooling_our_lives|1995 - Prefacio a "Desescolarizando nuestras vidas"]] +* [[es:article:1998-conspiracy:index|1998 - El cultivo de la conspiración]] + + + + + +## Otros recursos + +* [[.:videos:index|Videos]] + + + diff --git a/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/en.txt b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/en.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..3485526 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/en.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../en/book/conviviality/en.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/es.txt b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/es.txt new file mode 120000 index 0000000..61e2428 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/es.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../../es/book/conviviality/es.txt
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/fr.txt b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/fr.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a180063 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/fr.txt @@ -0,0 +1,717 @@ +# La Convivialité + +> Version française en collaboration avec Luce Giard et Vincent Bardet + + +## Avant propos + +L’ idée d’une analyse multidimensionnelle de la surcroissance industrielle a été formulée pour la première fois en 1971 dans un document de travail élaboré avec Valentina Borremans comme texte préparatoire à une réunion latino-américaine tenue au Cidoc en janvier 1972. Une version française, remaniée à l’intention du Zeno Symposium organisé à Chypre par le professeur Richard Wollheim, a paru dans la revue Esprit , en mars 1972, où elle était l’objet d’un débat. + +Ce livre a pris forme à l’occasion de ma participation, en janvier 1972, à une réunion de juristes et de législateurs canadiens, tenue à Ottawa pour discuter de l’orientation de la législation canadienne pendant les dix prochaines années. Ce fait, ainsi que la collaboration de mon ami Greer Taylor, explique l’importance du paradigme de la Common Law dans la seconde partie de l’argumentation. + +À la fin de l’été 1972, l’éditeur Harper & Row a accepté le texte anglais de ce document de travail et je le remercie de l’avoir publié sous forme de livre. Le même texte m’a servi de base pour une série de séminaires tenus au Cidoc et en Inde. Cela m’a donné l’occasion de recevoir nombre de critiques et de précieuses suggestions. Les participants de ces séminaires reconnaîtront leurs idées, souvent même leurs expressions. Qu’ils veuillent bien trouver ici le témoignage de ma vive gratitude, tout particulièrement pour leurs contributions écrites. Les listes bibliographiques, notes de travail, analyses critiques, etc., qui ont servi, à des degrés divers d’achèvement et d’utilité, de matériau et de référence à cette réflexion sont disponibles soit dans la bibliothèque du Cidoc, soit dans les séries de documents que ce Centre publie régulièrement. + +Au printemps 1973, il a fallu que je m’occupe de procurer une version française de cet ouvrage. Je n’étais pas encore prêt à écrire un nouveau livre, mais je me refusais à laisser paraître un simple décalque de l’édition américaine. Aussi ai-je pris comme base de travail la traduction préparée par Vincent Bardet et, avec l’assistance critique et patiente de Luce Giard, j’ai remanié l’ensemble de ce tract que je me permets maintenant de soumettre à la discussion. + +IVAN ILLICH + + +## Introduction + +Au long des années qui viennent, j’ai l’intention de travailler à un épilogue de l’âge industriel. Je voudrais tracer le contour des mutations qui affectent le langage, le Droit, les mythes et les rites, en cette époque où l’on conditionne hommes et produits. Je voudrais dresser un tableau du déclin du mode industriel de production et de la métamorphose des professions qu’il engendre et nourrit. + +Par-dessus tout, je veux m’attacher à montrer ceci : les deux tiers de l’humanité peuvent encore éviter de traverser l’âge industriel s’ils choisissent dès à présent un mode de production fondé sur un équilibre postindustriel, - celui-là même auquel les nations surindustrialisées vont être acculées par la menace du chaos. En vue d’un tel travail, et pour m’y préparer, je soumets ce manifeste à l’attention et à la critique du public. + +Cela fait plusieurs années que je mène une recherche critique sur le monopole du mode industriel de production et sur la possibilité de définir conceptuellement d’autres modes de production post-industriels. Dans un premier temps, j’ai centré mon analyse sur l’outillage éducatif ; les résultats, publiés dans _Une société sans école_[^n01], établissaient les points suivants : + +1. L’éducation universelle par l’école obligatoire est impossible. + +2. Conditionner les masses grâce à l’éducation permanente ne soulève guère de problèmes techniques, mais cela reste moralement moins tolérable que l’ancienne école. De nouveaux systèmes éducatifs sont sur le point d’évincer les systèmes scolaires traditionnels, dans les pays riches comme dans les pays pauvres. Ces systèmes sont des outils de conditionnement puissants et efficaces qui produiront en série une main-d’oeuvre spécialisée, des consommateurs dociles, des usagers résignés. De tels systèmes rentabilisent et généralisent les processus d’éducation à l’échelle de toute une société. Ils ont de quoi séduire. Mais leur séduction cache la destruction : ils ont aussi de quoi détruire, de façon subtile et implacable, les valeurs fondamentales. + +3. Une société qui voudrait répartir équitablement le savoir entre ses membres et leur donner de se rencontrer réellement, devrait assigner des limites pédagogiques à la croissance industrielle, la maintenir en deçà de certains seuils critiques. + +Le système scolaire m’est apparu comme l’exemple type d’un scénario répété en d’autres domaines du complexe industriel : il s’agit de produire un service, dit d’utilité publique, pour satisfaire un besoin, dit élémentaire. Mon attention s’est alors portée sur le système de soins médicaux obligatoires et sur celui des transports qui, passé un certain seuil de vitesse, deviennent aussi, à leur façon, obligatoires. La surproduction industrielle d’un service a des effets seconds aussi catastrophiques et destructeurs que la surproduction d’un bien. Nous voici confrontés à un éventail de limites à la croissance des services d’une société : comme dans le cas des biens, ces limites sont inhérentes au processus de croissance et donc inexorables. Aussi pouvons-nous en conclure que les _limites_ assignables à la croissance doivent concerner _les biens et les services_ produits industriellement. Ce sont elles qu’il nous faut découvrir et rendre manifestes. + +J’avance ici le concept d _’équilibre multidimensionnel_ de la vie humaine. Dans l’espace tracé par ce concept, nous pourrons analyser la relation de l’homme à son outil. En chacune de ses dimensions, cet équilibre correspond à une certaine échelle naturelle. Lorsqu’une activité outillée dépasse un _seuil_ défini par l’échelle _ad hoc_ , elle se retourne d’abord contre sa fin, puis menace de destruction le corps social tout entier. Il nous faut déterminer avec précision ces échelles et les seuils qui permettent de circonscrire le champ de la survie humaine. + +Au stade avancé de la production de masse, une société produit sa propre destruction. La nature est dénaturée. L’homme déraciné, castré dans sa créativité, est verrouillé dans sa capsule individuelle. La collectivité est régie par le jeu combiné d’une polarisation exacerbée et d’une spécialisation à outrance. Le souci de toujours renouveler modèles et marchandises - usure rongeuse du tissu social - produit une accélération du changement qui ruine le recours au _précédent_ comme guide de l’action. Le monopole du mode industriel de production fait des hommes la matière première que travaille l’outil. Et cela n’est plus supportable. Peu importe qu’il s’agisse d’un monopole privé ou public : la dégradation de la nature, la destruction des liens sociaux, la désintégration de l’homme ne pourront jamais servir le peuple. + +Les idéologies régnantes mettent en lumière les contradictions de la société capitaliste. Elles ne fournissent pas le cadre qui permettrait d’analyser la crise du mode industriel de production. J’espère qu’une théorie générale de l’industrialisation sera un jour formulée avec assez de vigueur et de rigueur pour supporter l’assaut de la critique. Pour fonctionner adéquatement, cette théorie devra forger ses concepts, fournir à toutes les parties en présence un langage commun. Les critères conceptuellement définis seront autant d’outils à l’échelle humaine : instruments de mesure, moyens de contrôle, guides pour l’action. On évaluera les techniques disponibles et les différentes programmations sociales qu’elles impliquent. On déterminera les seuils de nocivité des outils, lorsqu’ils se retournent contre leur fin ou qu’ils menacent l’homme ; on limitera le pouvoir de l’outil. On inventera les formes et les rythmes d’un mode de production postindustriel et d’un nouveau monde social. + +On a du mal à imaginer une société où l’organisation industrielle serait équilibrée et compensée par des modes de production complémentaires, distincts et de haut rendement. Nous sommes tellement déformés par les habitudes industrielles que nous n’osons plus envisager le champ des possibles ; pour nous, renoncer à la production de masse, cela veut dire retourner aux chaînes du passé, ou reprendre l’utopie du bon sauvage. Si nous voulons élargir notre angle de vision aux dimensions du réel, il nous faut reconnaître qu’il existe non pas une façon d’utiliser les découvertes scientifiques, mais au moins deux, qui sont antinomiques. Il y a un usage de la découverte qui conduit à la spécialisation des tâches, à l’institutionnalisation des valeurs, à la centralisation du pouvoir. L’homme devient l’accessoire de la méga-machine, un rouage de la bureaucratie. Mais il existe une seconde façon de faire fructifier l’invention, qui accroît le pouvoir et le savoir de chacun, lui permet d’exercer sa créativité, à seule charge de ne pas empiéter sur ce même pouvoir chez autrui. + +Si nous voulons pouvoir dire quelque chose du monde futur, dessiner les contours théoriques d’une société à venir qui ne soit pas hyper-industrielle, il nous faut reconnaître l’existence d’échelles et de limites _naturelles_. L’équilibre de la vie se déploie dans plusieurs dimensions ; fragile et complexe, il ne transgresse pas certaines bornes. Il y a certains seuils à ne pas franchir. Il nous faut reconnaître que l’esclavage humain n’a pas été aboli par la machine, mais en a reçu figure nouvelle. Car, passé un certain seuil, l’outil, de serviteur, devient despote. Passé un certain seuil, la société devient une école, un hôpital, une prison. Alors commence le grand enfermement. Il importe de repérer précisément où se trouve, pour chaque composante de l’équilibre global, ce seuil critique. Alors il sera possible d’articuler de façon nouvelle la triade millénaire de l’homme, de l’outil et de la société. J’appelle _société conviviale_ une société où l’outil moderne est au service de la personne intégrée à la collectivité, et non au service d’un corps de spécialistes. Conviviale est la société où l’homme contrôle l’outil. + +Je suis conscient d’introduire un mot nouveau dans l’usage courant de la langue. Je fonde ma force sur le recours au précédent. Le père de ce vocable est Brillat-Savarin, dans sa _Physiologie du goût : Méditations sur la gastronomie transcendantale_. À moi de préciser, toutefois, que, dans l’acception quelque peu nouvelle que je confère au qualificatif, c’est l’outil qui est convivial et non l’homme. + +L’homme qui trouve sa joie et son équilibre dans l’emploi de l’outil convivial, je l’appelle austère. Il connaît ce que l’espagnol nomme la _convivencialidad_ , il vit dans ce que l’allemand décrit comme la _Mitmenschlichkeit_. Car l’austérité n’a pas vertu d’isolation ou de clôture sur soi. Pour Aristote comme pour Thomas d’Aquin, elle est ce qui fonde l’amitié. En traitant du jeu ordonné et créateur, Thomas définit l’austérité[^n02] comme une vertu qui n’exclut pas tous les plaisirs, mais seulement ceux qui dégradent la relation personnelle. L’austérité fait partie d’une vertu plus fragile qui la dépasse et qui l’englobe : c’est _la joie, l’eutrapelia, l’amitié_. + +## I deux seuils de mutation + +L’année 1913 marque un tournant dans l’histoire de la médecine moderne. À peu près à partir de cette date, le patient a plus d’une chance sur deux qu’un médecin diplômé lui fournisse un traitement efficace - à condition, bien sûr, que son mal soit répertorié par la science médicale de l’époque. Familiers du milieu naturel, les chamans et les guérisseurs n’avaient pas attendu jusque-là pour prétendre à de pareils résultats dans un monde qui vivait dans un état de santé conçu différemment. + +Depuis lors, la médecine a affiné la définition des maux et l’efficacité des traitements. La population en Occident a appris à se sentir malade et à se faire soigner en accord avec les catégories à la mode dans le milieu médical. L’obsession de la quantification en est venue à dominer la clinique, ce qui a permis aux médecins de mesurer l’étendue de leurs succès avec des critères qu’ils avaient eux-mêmes forgés. Ainsi la santé est devenue une marchandise dans une économie de croissance. Cette transformation de la santé en produit de consommation sociale s’est reflétée dans l’importance donnée aux statistiques médicales. + +Mais les résultats statistiques sur lesquels se fonde de plus en plus le prestige de la profession médicale ne sont pas, pour l’essentiel, le fruit de ses activités. La réduction souvent spectaculaire de la morbidité et de la mortalité est due surtout aux transformations de l’habitat et du régime alimentaire, et à l’adoption de certaines règles d’hygiène toutes simples. Les égouts, le traitement au chlore de l’eau, l’attrape-mouches, l’asepsie et les certificats de non-contamination exigés du voyageur ou des prostituées ont eu une influence bénéfique bien plus forte que l’ensemble des « méthodes » de traitements spécialisés très complexes. L’avance de la médecine s’est traduite davantage dans le contrôle des taux d’incidence que dans l’accroissement de la vitalité des individus. + +Dans un certain sens, c’est l’industrialisation, plus que l’homme, qui a profité des progrès de la médecine. Les gens sont devenus capables de travailler plus régulièrement dans des conditions plus déshumanisantes. Pour cacher le caractère profondément destructeur du nouvel outillage, du travail à la chaîne et du règne de la voiture, on a monté en épingle des traitements spectaculaires appliqués aux victimes de l’agression industrielle sous toutes ses formes : vitesse, tension nerveuse, empoisonnement du milieu. Et le médecin s’est transformé en mage, ayant seul le pouvoir de faire des miracles qui exorcisent la peur engendrée par la survie dans un monde devenu menaçant. + +En même temps, les moyens de diagnostiquer certains besoins de traitement et l’instrument thérapeutique correspondant se simplifiaient. Ainsi chacun pourrait déterminer, pour soi, les cas de grossesse ou d’infection, comme chacun pourrait pratiquer un avortement ou traiter bon nombre d’infections. Le paradoxe est que plus l’outil devient simple, plus la profession médicale insiste pour en conserver le monopole. Plus l’initiation du thérapeute voit s’étendre sa durée, plus la population dépend de lui dans l’application des soins les plus élémentaires. L’hygiène, dès l’antiquité une vertu, devient le rituel qu’un corps de spécialistes célèbre sur l’autel de la science. + +Au lendemain de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il est devenu patent que la médecine moderne a de dangereux effets seconds. Mais il a fallu du temps aux médecins pour identifier la nouvelle menace représentée par les microbes rendus résistants à la chimiothérapie, et reconnaître un nouveau genre d’épidémies dans les désordres génétiques dus à l’emploi des rayons X pendant la grossesse. Trente ans plus tôt, Bernard Shaw se plaignait déjà : les médecins cessent de guérir, disait-il, pour prendre en main la vie de leurs patients. Il a fallu attendre les années 50 pour que cette remarque prenne forme d’évidence : en produisant de nouveaux types de maladie, la médecine franchissait un second seuil de mutation. + +Au premier plan des désordres induits par la profession, il faut placer sa prétention à fabriquer une « meilleure » santé. Les premières victimes de ce mal iatrogénique (c’est-à-dire engendré par les médecins) furent les planificateurs et les médecins. Bientôt l’aberration se répandait dans le corps social tout entier. Au cours des quinze années qui ont suivi, la médecine spécialisée est devenue un danger menaçant la santé. On employa des sommes colossales pour éponger les dégâts incommensurables produits par les traitements médicaux. Ce n’est pas tant la guérison qui coûte cher que la prolongation de la maladie : des mourants peuvent végéter longtemps emprisonnés dans un poumon d’acier, dépendants d’un tube de perfusion, ou suspendus au fonctionnement d’un rein artificiel. Survivre dans des villes insalubres et malgré des conditions de travail débilitantes coûte de plus en plus cher. Le monopole médical étend son action à un nombre grandissant de situations de la vie quotidienne. Non seulement le traitement médical, mais encore la recherche biologique ont contribué à cette prolifération des maladies. L’invention de chaque mode de vie et de mort a entraîné la définition parallèle d’une nouvelle norme avec, en correspondance, dans chaque cas, la définition d’une nouvelle déviance, d’une neuve malignité. + +Enfin, on a rendu impossible à la grand-mère, à la tante ou à la voisine de prendre en charge la femme enceinte, le blessé, le malade, l’infirme ou le mourant, ce qui a créé une demande impossible à satisfaire. Au fur et à mesure que monte le prix du service, le soin personnel devient plus difficile, et souvent impossible. En même temps, de plus en plus de situations courantes deviennent justifiables d’un traitement, dès lors que se multiplient des spécialités et des paraprofessions dont la seule fin est de maintenir l’outillage thérapeutique sous le contrôle de la corporation. + +Arrivé au second seuil, c’est la _vie_ qui semble malade dans un environnement délétère. La protection d’une population soumise et dépendante devient le principal souci, et la grosse affaire, de la profession médicale. Les soins coûteux de prévention ou de cure deviennent un privilège : seuls les gros consommateurs de services médicaux y ont droit. Les gens qui peuvent rencontrer un spécialiste, être admis dans un grand hôpital, bénéficier de l’outillage de traitement de la vie, sont les malades dont on trouve le cas intéressant ou les habitants des grandes villes, où le coût de la prévention médicale, de la purification de l’eau et du contrôle de la pollution est exceptionnellement élevé. Paradoxalement, les soins par habitant reviennent d’autant plus cher que le coût de la prévention est déjà plus élevé. Il faut avoir consommé de la prévention et du traitement pour avoir droit à des soins exceptionnels. L’hôpital, comme l’école, repose sur le principe qu’on ne prête qu’aux riches. Ainsi, pour l’éducation, les gros consommateurs d’enseignement auront des bourses de recherche, tandis que les laissés-pour-compte auront l’unique droit d’apprendre leur échec. Pour la médecine, plus de soins aboutiront à plus de souffrances : le riche se fera soigner toujours plus pour les maux engendrés par la médecine, tandis que le pauvre se contentera d’en souffrir. + +Passé le second seuil, les sous-produits de l’industrie médicale affectent des populations entières. Dans les pays riches, la population vieillit. Dès qu’on entre sur le marché du travail, on se met à épargner pour contracter des assurances qui vous garantiront, pour une durée de plus en plus longue, les moyens de consommer les services d’une gériatrie coûteuse. Aux États-Unis, 27 % des dépenses médicales se font en faveur des vieillards qui représentent 9 % de la population. Fait significatif, le premier terrain de collaboration scientifique choisi par Nixon et Brejnev concerne les recherches sur les maladies des riches vieillissants. De toute la terre, les capitalistes accourent dans les hôpitaux de Boston, de Houston et de Denver pour recevoir les soins les plus rares et les plus coûteux, tandis qu’aux États-Unis mêmes, dans les classes pauvres, la mortalité infantile reste comparable à ce qu’elle est dans certains pays tropicaux d’Afrique ou d’Asie. Aux États-Unis, il faut être très riche pour se payer le luxe que tout le monde s’offre en pays pauvre : être assisté sur son lit de mort. En deux jours d’hôpital, un Américain dépense le revenu annuel moyen de la population mondiale. Dans les pays pauvres, grâce à la médecine moderne, plus d’enfants atteignent l’adolescence, et davantage de femmes survivent à des grossesses plus nombreuses. La population augmente, elle dépasse la capacité d’accueil de l’environnement naturel, elle rompt les digues et les structures de la culture traditionnelle. Les médecins occidentaux gavent de médicaments des gens qui, par le passé, avaient appris à vivre _avec_ leurs maladies. Le mal produit est bien pire que le mal guéri, car on engendre de nouveaux genres de maladie dont ni la technique moderne, ni l’immunité naturelle, ni la culture traditionnelle ne peuvent venir à bout. À l’échelle mondiale, et tout particulièrement aux États-Unis, la médecine fabrique une race d’individus vitalement dépendante d’un milieu toujours plus coûteux, toujours plus artificiel, toujours plus hygiéniquement programmé. Au congrès de l’American Medical Association en 1970, le président, sans soulever aucune opposition, exhortait ses collègues pédiatres à considérer tout nouveau-né comme un _patient_ jusqu’à ce qu’il soit certifié en bonne santé. Les enfants nés à l’hôpital, nourris sur ordonnance, bourrés d’antibiotiques, deviennent des adultes qui respirent un air vicié, mangent une nourriture empoisonnée, et vivent une existence d’ombres dans la grande ville moderne. Il leur en coûtera encore plus cher pour élever leurs enfants qui, à leur tour, seront encore plus dépendants du monopole médical. Le monde entier devient un hôpital peuplé de gens qui doivent, à longueur de vie, se plier aux règles d’hygiène et aux prescriptions médicales. + +Cette médecine bureaucratisée gagne la planète entière. En 1968, le Collège de Médecine de Changhaï a dû se rendre à l’évidence : « Nous produisons de soi-disant médecins de première classe… qui ignorent l’existence de cinq cents millions de paysans et servent seulement les minorités urbaines… Ils engagent de grands frais de laboratoire pour des examens de routine…, prescrivent sans nécessité d’énormes quantités d’antibiotiques… et, en l’absence d’hôpitaux et de laboratoires, se trouvent réduits à expliquer les mécanismes de la maladie à des gens pour qui ils ne peuvent rien et à qui cette explication n’apporte rien. » Cette prise de conscience, en Chine, a conduit à une inversion de l’institution. En 1971, rapporte le même Collège, un million de travailleurs de la santé ont atteint un niveau acceptable de compétence. Ces travailleurs sont des paysans. Pendant la saison creuse, ils suivent des cours accélérés : ils apprennent la dissection sur un cochon, réalisent les analyses de laboratoire les plus courantes, acquièrent des connaissances élémentaires de bactériologie, de pathologie, de médecine clinique, d’hygiène et d’acupuncture. Puis ils font leur apprentissage avec des médecins ou des travailleurs de la santé déjà exercés. Après cette première formation, ces _médecins aux pieds nus_ conservent leur travail antérieur, mais s’en absentent si nécessaire pour s’occuper de leurs camarades. Voici ce dont ils sont responsables : l’hygiène du milieu de vie et de travail, l’éducation sanitaire, les vaccinations, les premiers soins, la surveillance des convalescents, les accouchements, le contrôle des naissances et les méthodes d’avortement. + +Dix ans après que la médecine occidentale eut franchi le second seuil, la Chine entreprenait de former un travailleur de santé compétent pour chaque centaine de citoyens. Son exemple prouve qu’il est possible d’inverser d’un coup le fonctionnement d’une institution dominante. Reste à voir jusqu’à quel point cette déprofessionnalisation peut tenir malgré le triomphe de l’idéologie de la croissance illimitée, et la pression des médecins classiques soucieux d’incorporer leurs homonymes aux pieds nus dans la hiérarchie médicale, d’en faire une infanterie de sans-grade, travaillant à temps partiel. + +Mais partout on monte en épingle les symptômes de la maladie de la médecine, sans prendre en considération le désordre profond du système qui les engendre. Les avocats des pauvres accusent l’American Medical Association d’être un bastion de préjugés capitalistes, et ses membres de se remplir les poches. Les porte-parole des minorités critiquent l’absence de contrôle social sur l’administration de la santé et l’organisation des systèmes de soins. Veulent-ils nous faire croire qu’en participant aux conseils d’administration des hôpitaux, ils pourront contrôler les agissements du corps médical ? Les porte-parole de la communauté noire trouvent scandaleux que les fonds de la recherche soient concentrés sur les maladies qui frappent les Blancs vieillissants et surnourris. Ils exigent que des recherches soient engagées sur une forme particulière d’anémie, qui atteint seulement les Noirs. L’électeur espère qu’avec la fin de la guerre du Vietnam, on affectera plus de fonds à la croissance de la production médicale. Toutes ces accusations et ces critiques portent sur les symptômes d’une médecine qui prolifère comme une tumeur maligne et produit la hausse des coûts et de la demande, avec un moins-être général. + +La crise de la médecine a des racines beaucoup plus profondes qu’on pourrait le croire à la seule vue de ses symptômes. Elle fait partie intégrante de la crise de toutes les institutions industrielles. Une organisation complexe de spécialistes s’est développée. Financée et encouragée par la collectivité, elle s’est efforcée de produire une _meilleure_ santé. Les clients n’ont pas manqué, volontaires pour toutes les expériences. Le résultat est qu’on a maintenant perdu le droit de se dire soi-même malade : il faut produire un certificat médical. Bien plus, c’est au médecin comme représentant de la société qu’il revient à présent de choisir l’heure de la mort du patient. Comme le condamné à mort, le malade est scrupuleusement surveillé pour éviter qu’il ne trouve la mort quand elle le saisit. + +Les dates de 1913 et 1955, que nous avons choisies comme indicatrices des deux seuils de mutation, ne sont pas contraignantes. L’important est de comprendre ceci : au début du siècle la pratique médicale s’est engagée dans la vérification scientifique de ses résultats empiriques. L’application de la mesure a marqué pour la médecine moderne le franchissement de son premier seuil. Le second seuil fut atteint lorsque l’utilité marginale du plus-de-spécialisation se mit à décroître, pour autant qu’elle soit quantifiable en termes de bien-être du plus grand nombre. Ce dernier seuil a été dépassé lorsque la _désutilité_ marginale s’est mise à croître à mesure que la croissance de l’institution médicale en venait à signifier davantage de souffrances pour plus de gens. C’est alors que l’institution médicale redoubla d’ardeur pour chanter victoire. Les virtuoses de nouvelles spécialités mettaient soudain en vedette quelques individus atteints de maladies rares. La pratique médicale se centrait sur des opérations spectaculaires effectuées par des équipes hospitalières. La foi dans l’opération-miracle aveuglait le bon sens et ruinait l’antique sagesse en matière de santé et de guérison. Les médecins répandaient l’usage immodéré des drogues chimiques dans le grand public. À présent, le coût social de la médecine n’est plus mesurable en termes classiques. Comment mesurer les faux espoirs, le poids du contrôle social, la prolongation de la souffrance, la solitude, la dégradation du patrimoine génétique et le sentiment de frustration engendrés par l’institution médicale ? + +D’autres institutions industrielles ont franchi ces deux seuils. C’est le cas, en particulier, des grandes industries tertiaires et des activités productives, organisées _scientifiquement_ depuis le milieu du XIXe siècle. L’éducation, les postes, l’assistance sociale, les transports et même les travaux publics ont suivi cette évolution. Dans un premier temps, on applique un nouveau savoir à la solution d’un problème clairement défini et des critères scientifiques permettent de mesurer le gain d’efficience obtenu. Mais, dans un deuxième temps, le progrès réalisé devient un moyen d’exploiter l’ensemble du corps social, de le mettre au service des valeurs qu’une élite spécialisée, garante de sa propre valeur, détermine et révise sans cesse. + +Dans le cas des transports, il a fallu un siècle pour passer de la libération par les véhicules à moteur à l’esclavage de la voiture. Les transports à vapeur ont commencé d’être utilisés pendant la guerre de Sécession. Ce nouveau système a donné à beaucoup de gens la possibilité de voyager en chemin de fer à la vitesse d’un carrosse royal, et dans un confort dont nul roi n’avait osé rêver. Peu à peu on se mit à confondre bonne circulation et grande vitesse. Depuis que l’industrie des transports a franchi son second seuil de mutation, les véhicules créent plus de distances qu’ils n’en suppriment. L’ensemble de la société consacre de plus en plus de temps à la circulation qui est supposée lui en faire gagner. L’Américain type consacre, pour sa part, plus de 1500 heures par an à sa voiture : il y est assis, en marche ou à l’arrêt, il travaille pour la payer, pour acquitter l’essence, les pneus, les péages, l’assurance, les contraventions et les impôts. Il consacre donc quatre heures par jour à sa voiture, qu’il s’en serve, s’en occupe ou travaille pour elle. Et encore, ici ne sont pas prises en compte toutes ses activités orientées par le transport : le temps passé à l’hôpital, au tribunal ou au garage, le temps passé à regarder à la télévision la publicité automobile, le temps passé à gagner de l’argent pour voyager pendant les vacances, etc. À cet Américain, il faut donc 1500 heures pour faire 10 000 kilomètres de route ; 6 kilomètres lui prennent une heure. + +La vision que l’on a de la crise sociale actuelle est illuminée par la compréhension des deux seuils de mutation décrits ci-dessus. En une décennie plusieurs institutions dominantes ont, ensemble, sauté gaillardement le second seuil. L’école n’est plus un bon outil d’éducation, ni la voiture un bon outil de transport, ni la chaîne de montage un mode acceptable de production. L’école produit des cancres et la vitesse dévore le temps. + +La réaction caractéristique des années 60 devant la montée de l’insatisfaction a été l’ _escalade_ de la technique et de la bureaucratie. L’escalade du pouvoir de s’autodétruire devient le rite sacrificiel des sociétés hautement industrialisées. La guerre du Vietnam a été, à cet égard, l’occasion d’un dévoilement et d’une occultation. Elle a dévoilé à la planète entière le rituel _en exercice_ sur un petit champ de bataille. Mais, ce faisant, elle a détourné notre attention des secteurs soi-disant paisibles où le même rite est répété plus discrètement. L’histoire de la guerre démontre qu’une armée conviviale de cyclistes et de piétons peut retourner à son profit le déferlement de puissance anonyme de l’ennemi. Pourtant, maintenant que la guerre est « finie », nombreux sont les Américains qui pensent qu’avec l’argent dépensé annuellement à se faire vaincre par les Vietnamiens, il serait possible de vaincre plutôt la pauvreté domestique. D’autres veulent affecter les vingt milliards de dollars du budget de guerre au renforcement de la coopération internationale, ce qui en multiplierait par dix les ressources actuelles. Ni les uns ni les autres ne comprennent que la même structure institutionnelle sous-tend la guerre pacifique contre la pauvreté et la guerre sanglante contre la dissidence. Tous haussent encore d’un degré l’escalade qu’ils entendent éliminer. + +## La reconstruction conviviale + +### L outil et la crise + +Les symptômes d’une crise planétaire qui va s’accélérant sont manifestes. On en a de tous côtés cherché le pourquoi. J’avance pour ma part l’explication suivante : la crise s’enracine dans l’échec de l’entreprise moderne, à savoir la substitution de la machine à l’homme. Le grand projet s’est métamorphosé en un implacable procès d’asservissement du producteur et d’intoxication du consommateur. + +La relation de l’homme à l’outil est devenue une relation de l’outil à l’homme. Ici il faut savoir reconnaître l’échec. Cela fait une centaine d’années que nous essayons de faire travailler la machine _pour l’homme_ et d’éduquer l’homme à _servir la machine_. On s’aperçoit maintenant que la machine ne « marche » pas, que l’homme ne saurait se conformer à ses exigences, se faire à vie son serviteur. Durant un siècle, l’humanité s’est livrée à une expérience fondée sur l’hypothèse suivante : l’outil peut remplacer l’esclave. Or il est manifeste qu’employé à de tels desseins, c’est l’outil qui de l’homme fait son esclave. La dictature du prolétariat et la civilisation des loisirs sont deux variantes politiques de la même domination par un outillage industriel en constante expansion. L’échec de cette grande aventure fait conclure à la fausseté de l’hypothèse. + +La solution de la crise exige une radicale volte-face : ce n’est qu’en renversant la structure profonde qui règle le rapport de l’homme à l’outil que nous pourrons nous donner des outils justes. L’outil juste répond à trois exigences : il est générateur d’efficience sans dégrader l’autonomie personnelle, il ne suscite ni esclaves ni maîtres, il élargit le rayon d’action personnel. L’homme a besoin d’un outil _avec lequel travailler_ , non d’un outillage qui _travaille à sa place_. Il a besoin d’une technologie qui tire le meilleur parti de l’énergie et de l’imagination personnelles, non d’une technologie qui l’asservisse et le programme. + +Je crois qu’il faut _inverser_ radicalement les institutions industrielles, _reconstruire_ la société de fond en comble. Pour être efficient et rencontrer les besoins humains qu’il détermine aussi, un nouveau système de production doit retrouver la dimension personnelle et communautaire. La personne, la cellule de base conjuguent de façon optimale l’efficacité et l’autonomie : c’est seulement à leur échelle que se déterminera le besoin humain dont la production sociale est réalisable. + +Qu’il se déplace ou qu’il demeure, l’homme a besoin d’outils. Il en a besoin pour communiquer avec autrui comme pour se soigner. L’homme qui chemine et prend des simples n’est pas l’homme qui fait du cent sur l’autoroute et prend des antibiotiques. Mais chacun ne peut tout faire par soi et dépend de ce que lui fournit son milieu naturel et culturel. L’outil et donc la fourniture d’objets et de services varient d’une civilisation à l’autre. + +L’homme ne se nourrit pas seulement de biens et de services, mais de la liberté de façonner les objets qui l’entourent, de leur donner forme à son goût, de s’en servir avec et pour les autres. Dans les pays riches, les prisonniers disposent souvent de plus de biens et de services que leur propre famille, mais ils n’ont pas voix au chapitre sur la façon dont les choses sont faites, ni droit de regard sur ce qu’on en fait. Dégradés au rang de consommateurs-usagers à l’état pur, ils sont privés de _convivialité_. + +J’entends par _convivialité_ l’inverse de la productivité industrielle. Chacun de nous se définit par relation à autrui et au milieu et par la structure profonde des outils qu’il utilise. Ces outils peuvent se ranger en une série continue avec, aux deux extrêmes, l’outil dominant et l’outil convivial. Le passage de la productivité à la convivialité est le passage de la répétition du manque à la spontanéité du don. La relation industrielle est réflexe conditionné, réponse stéréotypée de l’individu aux messages émis par un autre usager, qu’il ne connaîtra jamais, ou par un milieu artificiel, qu’il ne comprendra jamais. La relation conviviale, toujours neuve, est le fait de personnes qui participent à la création de la vie sociale. Passer de la productivité à la convivialité, c’est substituer à une valeur technique une valeur éthique, à une valeur matérialisée une valeur réalisée. _La convivialité est la liberté individuelle réalisée dans la relation de production au sein d’une société dotée d’outils efficaces_. Lorsqu’une société, n’importe laquelle, refoule la convivialité en deçà d’un certain niveau, elle devient la proie du manque ; car aucune hypertrophie de la productivité ne parviendra jamais à satisfaire les besoins créés et multipliés à l’envi. + +### L alternative + +L’institution industrielle a ses fins qui justifient les moyens. Le dogme de la croissance accélérée justifie la sacralisation de la productivité industrielle, aux dépens de la convivialité. La société déracinée d’aujourd’hui nous apparaît dès lors comme un théâtre de la peste, un spectacle d’ombres productrices de demandes et génératrices de manques. C’est seulement _si_ _l’_ _on inverse la logique de l’institution_ qu’il devient possible de renverser le mouvement. Par cette inversion radicale, la science et la technologie modernes ne seront pas annihilées, mais doteront l’activité humaine d’une efficacité sans précédent. Par cette inversion, toute industrie et toute bureaucratie ne seront pas détruites, mais éliminées comme entraves à d’autres modes de production. Et la convivialité sera restaurée au coeur de systèmes politiques qui protègent, garantissent et renforcent l’exercice optimal de la ressource la mieux distribuée sur terre : _l’énergie personnelle que contrôle la personne_. J’entends établir qu’à partir de maintenant, il nous faut assurer collectivement la défense de notre vie et de notre travail contre les outils et les institutions qui menacent ou méconnaissent le droit des personnes à utiliser leur énergie de façon créative. J’entends démontrer qu’à cet effet il nous faut expliciter la structure formelle commune au procès de décision éthique, légale et politique : c’est elle qui garantit que _la limitation et le contrôle des outils sociaux_ soient le fait d’un processus de participation et non d’un oracle d’experts. + +L’idéal proposé par la tradition socialiste ne se traduira dans la réalité que si l’on inverse les institutions régnantes et que si l’on substitue à l’outillage industriel des outils conviviaux. En retour, le réoutillage de la société a toutes les chances de rester un voeu pieux si les idéaux socialistes de justice ne l’emportent pas. C’est pourquoi il faut saluer la crise ouverte des institutions dominantes comme l’aube d’une _libération_ révolutionnaire à l’égard de celles qui mutilent la liberté élémentaire de l’être humain, dans le seul but de gaver toujours plus d’usagers. Cette crise planétaire des institutions peut nous faire accéder à un _nouvel état de conscience_ touchant la nature de l’outil et l’action à mener pour que la majorité des gens en prennent le contrôle. Si les outils ne sont pas dès maintenant soumis à un contrôle politique, la coopération des bureaucrates du bien-être et des bureaucrates de l’idéologie nous fera crever de « bonheur ». La liberté et la dignité de l’être humain continueront à se dégrader, ainsi s’établira un asservissement sans précédent de l’homme à son outil. + +À la menace d’une apocalypse technocratique, j’oppose la vision d’une société conviviale. La société conviviale reposera sur des contrats sociaux qui garantissent à chacun l’accès le plus large et le plus libre aux outils de la communauté, à la seule condition de ne pas léser l’égale liberté d’autrui. + +### Les valeurs de base + +De nos jours, on a tendance à confier à un corps de spécialistes la tâche de sonder et de dire le futur. On remet le pouvoir aux hommes politiques qui promettent de construire la méga-machine à produire le futur. On accepte une croissante disparité des niveaux d’énergie et de pouvoir, car le développement de la productivité requiert l’inégalité. Plus la distribution est égalitaire, plus le contrôle de la production est centralisé. Les institutions politiques elles-mêmes fonctionnent comme des mécanismes de pression et de répression qui dressent le citoyen et redressent le déviant, pour les rendre conformes aux objectifs de production. Le Droit est subordonné au bien de l’institution. Le consensus de la foi utilitaire rabaisse la justice au simple rang d’une distribution équitable des produits de l’institution. + +Une société qui définit le bien comme la satisfaction maximale du plus grand nombre de gens par la plus grande consommation de biens et de services industriels mutile de façon intolérable l’autonomie de la personne. Une solution politique de rechange à cet utilitarisme définirait le bien par la capacité de chacun de façonner l’image de son propre avenir. Cette redéfinition du bien ne devient opérationnelle que par l’application de critères négatifs. Il s’agit avant tout de proscrire les outils et les lois qui entravent l’exercice de la liberté personnelle. Une telle entreprise collective limiterait les dimensions des outils afin de défendre des valeurs essentielles que j’appellerai : _survie, équité, autonomie créatrice_ , mais qu’on pourrait également désigner par les trois critères mathématiques de _viabilité_ , courbe de _distribution des inputs_ et courbe de _contrôle des outputs_. Ces valeurs sont à la base de toute structure conviviale, même si lois et moeurs varient d’une culture à l’autre. + +Chacune de ces valeurs limite à sa manière l’outil. La _survie_ est la condition nécessaire, mais non suffisante de l’équité : on peut survivre en prison. L _’équité_ , dans la distribution des produits industriels, est la condition nécessaire, mais non suffisante d’un travail convivial : on peut devenir prisonnier de l’outillage. L’ _autonomie_ comme pouvoir de contrôle sur l’énergie enveloppe les deux premières valeurs citées et définit le _travail convivial_. Celui-ci a pour condition l’établissement de structures qui rendent possible cette distribution équitable de l’énergie. Nous devons et, grâce au progrès scientifique, nous pouvons édifier une société post-industrielle en sorte que l’exercice de la créativité d’une personne n’impose jamais à autrui un travail, un savoir ou une consommation obligatoire. À l’âge de la technologie scientifique, _seule une structure conviviale de l’outil peut conjuguer survie et équité_. L’équité demande à la fois qu’on partage le pouvoir et l’avoir. Tandis que la course à l’énergie conduit à l’holocauste, la centralisation du contrôle de l’énergie entre les mains d’un léviathan bureaucratique sacrifierait le contrôle égalitaire de l’énergie à la fiction d’une distribution équitable des produits obtenus. La structuration conviviale des outils est une nécessité et une urgence dès lors que la science libère de nouvelles formes d’énergie. Une structure conviviale de l’outil rend l’équité réalisable et la justice praticable, elle constitue la seule garantie de survie. + +### Le prix de cette inversion + +Pourtant le passage du présent état de choses à un mode de production convivial menacera beaucoup de gens jusque dans leur possibilité de survivre. Dans l’opinion de l’homme industrialisé, les premiers à souffrir et à mourir en raison des limites imposées à l’industrie seraient les pauvres. Mais déjà la domination de l’homme sur l’outil a pris un tour suicidaire. La survie du Bangla-Desh dépend du blé canadien et la santé des New-Yorkais demande la mise à sac des ressources planétaires. Le passage à une société conviviale s’accompagnera d’extrêmes souffrances : famine chez les uns, panique chez les autres. Cette transition, seuls ont le droit de la souhaiter ceux qui savent que l’organisation industrielle dominante est en train de produire des souffrances encore pires sous prétexte de les soulager. Pour être possible, la survie dans l’équité exige des sacrifices et postule un choix. Elle exige un renoncement général à la surpopulation, à la surabondance et au surpouvoir, qu’ils soient le fait d’individus ou de groupes. Cela revient à renoncer à cette illusion qui substitue au souci du prochain, c’est-à-dire du _plus proche_ , l’insupportable prétention d’organiser la vie aux antipodes. Cela revient à renoncer au pouvoir, pour le service des autres comme de soi. La survie dans l’équité ne sera ni le fait d’un oukase des bureaucrates ni l’effet d’un calcul des technocrates. Elle est le résultat du réalisme des humbles. La convivialité n’a pas de prix, mais on sait trop bien ce qu’il en coûtera de se déprendre du modèle actuel. L’homme retrouvera la joie de la sobriété et l’austérité libératrice en réapprenant à dépendre de l’autre, au lieu de se faire l’esclave de l’énergie et de la bureaucratie toute-puissante. + +### Les limites de ma démonstration + +Je n’ai ici d’autre but que de fournir une méthodologie permettant de détecter les moyens qui se sont changés en fins. Je m’attache à la rugosité de l’outil, pas à la subtilité de l’intention. La rigueur de mon propos m’interdira de traiter des questions voisines, complémentaires ou subordonnées. + +**1.** Il ne me servirait de rien d’offrir une fiction détaillée de la société future. Je veux donner un guide pour l’action et laisser libre cours à l’imagination. La _vie_ dans une société conviviale et moderne nous réservera des surprises qui dépasseront notre imagination et notre espérance. Je ne propose _pas une utopie normative_ , mais les conditions formelles d’une procédure qui permette à chaque collectivité de choisir continuellement son utopie réalisable. La convivialité est multiforme. + +**2.** Je ne propose ici _ni un traité d’organisation_ des institutions _ni un manuel technique_ de fabrication de l’outil juste _ni un mode d’emploi_ de l’institution conviviale. Je ne suis ni le commis voyageur d’une « meilleure » technologie ni le propagandiste d’une idéologie. J’entends seulement définir des indicateurs qui clignotent chaque fois que l’outil manipule l’homme, afin de pouvoir proscrire les instruments et les institutions qui détruisent le mode de vie convivial. Ce manifeste est donc un guide, un détecteur, à utiliser comme tel. Le paradoxe est que nous sommes maintenant parvenus, dans notre habileté à outiller l’action humaine, à un niveau jadis impensable et que c’est pourtant justement à notre époque qu’il est devenu difficile d’imaginer une société simplement outillée, où l’homme pourrait parvenir à ses fins en utilisant une énergie placée sous contrôle personnel. Nos rêves sont standardisés, notre imagination industrialisée, notre fantaisie programmée. Nous ne sommes capables de concevoir que des systèmes hyper-outillés d’habitudes sociales, adaptés à la logique de la production de masse. Nous avons quasiment perdu le pouvoir de rêver un monde où la parole soit prise et partagée, où personne ne puisse limiter la créativité d’autrui, où chacun puisse changer la vie. + +Le monde actuel est divisé en deux : il y a ceux qui n’ont pas assez et ceux qui ont trop ; ceux que les voitures chassent de la route et ceux qui conduisent ces voitures. Les pauvres sont frustrés et les riches toujours insatisfaits. Une société équipée du roulement à billes et qui irait au rythme de l’homme serait incomparablement plus efficace que toutes les sociétés rugueuses du passé, et incomparablement plus autonome que toutes les sociétés programmées du présent. Nous voici à l’âge des hommes-machines, incapables d’envisager, dans sa richesse et dans sa concrétude, le rayon d’action offert par des outils modernes maintenus dans certaines limites. Dans l’esprit de ces hommes, nulle place n’est réservée au saut qualitatif qu’impliquerait une économie en équilibre stable avec le monde qu’elle habite. Dans leur cervelle, nulle case ne s’offre pour une société libérée des horaires et des traitements que lui impose la croissance de l’outillage. L’homme-machine ne connaît pas la joie placée à portée de main, dans une pauvreté voulue ; il ne sait pas la sobre ivresse de la vie. Une société où chacun saurait ce qui est assez serait peut-être une société pauvre, elle serait sûrement riche de surprises et libre. + +**3.** Je m’arrête à la structure de l’outil, _non à la structure de caractère de l’individu et de la communauté_. Bien sûr, la reconstruction sociale, spécialement dans les pays riches, implique que le regard acquière la transparence, que le sourire se fasse attentif et que les gestes s’adoucissent : elle exige une reconstruction de l’homme et du genre de la société. Mais ici je ne parle pas en psychologue, bien que je sois sûr que dominer l’outil permettra de réduire les distorsions du caractère social. + +Chaque ville a son histoire et sa culture, et pourtant aujourd’hui chaque paysage urbain subit la même dégradation. Toutes les autoroutes, tous les hôpitaux, toutes les salles de classe, tous les bureaux, tous les grands ensembles et tous les supermarchés se ressemblent. Les mêmes outils produisent les mêmes effets. Tous les policiers en patrouille motorisée et tous les spécialistes en informatique se ressemblent ; sur toute la surface de la planète, ils ont la même apparence et font les mêmes gestes, alors que, d’une région à l’autre, les pauvres diffèrent. À moins de réoutiller la société, nous n’échapperons pas à la progressive homogénéisation de tous, au déracinement culturel et à la standardisation des relations personnelles. Une recherche complémentaire de celle que j’entreprends serait à mener sur les caractères de l’homme « industriel » qui entravent ou menacent le réoutillage. Mais je ne donne pas de recettes pour changer l’homme et refaire une nouvelle société, et je ne prétends pas savoir comment les personnalités et les cultures vont changer. Il est toutefois une certitude : une pluralité d’outils limités et d’organisations conviviales encouragerait une diversité de modes de vie, qu’elle tienne davantage de la mémoire, c’est-à-dire de l’héritage du passé, ou de l’invention, c’est-à-dire d’une création à nouveaux frais. + +**4.** Je m’écarterais également de mon propos _en m’occupant de stratégie ou de tactique politique_. À l’exception, peut-être, de la Chine de Mao, aucun gouvernement actuel ne pourrait restructurer son projet de société en suivant une ligne conviviale. Les dirigeants des partis et des industries sont comme les officiers d’un bateau postés aux leviers de commande des institutions dominantes : entreprises multinationales, États, partis politiques et mouvements organisés, monopoles professionnels, etc. Ils peuvent changer de route, de cargaison et d’équipage, mais non de métier. Ils peuvent même produire une demande qui rencontre l’offre de l’outil, ou limiter cette offre pour maximaliser le profit. Le président d’une entreprise européenne ou celui d’une commune chinoise peut faciliter la participation complice des travailleurs à la direction de la production, mais il n’a pas le pouvoir d’inverser la structure de l’institution qu’il dirige. + +Les institutions dominantes optimisent la production du méga-outillage et l’orientent vers un peuple de fantômes. Les dirigeants d’aujourd’hui forment une nouvelle classe d’hommes ; choisis pour leur personnalité, leur savoir et leur goût du pouvoir, ce sont des hommes entraînés à assurer tout à la fois la croissance du produit brut et la mise en condition du client. Ils détiennent le pouvoir et tiennent l’énergie, laissant au public l’illusion de conserver la propriété légale de l’outillage. Ce sont eux qu’il faut liquider. Mais il ne servirait à rien de les massacrer, surtout si c’est pour se borner à les remplacer. La nouvelle équipe au pouvoir se prétendrait seulement plus légitime, mieux fondée à manipuler ce pouvoir hérité et tout structuré. Il n’y a qu’une façon de liquider les dirigeants, c’est de briser la machinerie qui les rend nécessaires - et par là-même la demande massive qui assure leur empire. La profession de PDG n’a pas d’avenir dans une société conviviale, comme le professeur n’a pas de place dans une société sans école : une espèce s’éteint quand elle perd sa raison d’être. + +L’inverse, c’est un milieu propice à la production qui est l’oeuvre d’un peuple anarchique. Mais le politicien qui a conquis le pouvoir est le dernier à comprendre le pouvoir du renoncement. Dans une société où la décision politique endigue l’efficacité de l’outil, non seulement les destins personnels s’épanouiront, mais de nouvelles formes de participation politique verront le jour. L’homme fait l’outil. Il se fait par l’outil. L’outil convivial supprime certaines échelles de pouvoir, de contrainte et de programmation, celles, précisément, qui tendent à uniformiser tous les gouvernements actuels. L’adoption d’un mode de production convivial ne préjuge en faveur d’aucune forme déterminée de gouvernement, pas plus qu’elle n’exclut une fédération mondiale, des accords entre nations, entre communes, ou le maintien de certains types de gouvernement traditionnels. Au coeur d’une société conviviale, il y a la vie politique, mais ici je m’en tiens à décrire les critères structuraux négatifs de la production et la structure formelle sur laquelle fonder un nouveau pluralisme politique. + +**5.** Une méthodologie qui nous permette de détecter la destruction de la société par le méga-outillage postule la reconnaissance de la survie dans l’équité comme valeur fondamentale. Elle implique l’élaboration d’une théorie de justice. Mais ce manifeste ne peut être _ni un traité ni même un abrégé d’éthique_. Pour les nécessités de mon argumentation, je dois me contenter d’énoncer simplement les valeurs fondamentales de cette théorie. + +**6.** Dans une société post-industrielle et conviviale, les problèmes économiques ne disparaîtront pas du jour au lendemain, pas plus qu’ils ne se résoudront d’eux-mêmes. Reconnaître que le PNB ne mesure pas le bien-être n’élimine pas le besoin d’une notion pour quantifier le transfert injuste du pouvoir. Assigner à la croissance industrielle des limites non monétaires et politiquement définies entraînera la révision de beaucoup de notions économiques consacrées, mais ne fera pas disparaître pour autant l’inégalité entre les hommes. Limiter l’exploitation de l’homme par l’outil risque de lui substituer de nouvelles formes d’exploitation de l’homme par l’homme. En fait, l’individu aura, plus qu’à l’âge industriel ou pré-industriel, le pouvoir de s’investir dans la société, de provoquer le changement. + +Même limité, l’outil convivial sera incomparablement plus efficient que l’outil primitif et, à la différence de l’outillage industriel, il sera à la portée de chacun. Mais certains en tireront davantage de profit que d’autres. On dira que la limitation de l’outillage restera lettre morte tant qu’ _une nouvelle théorie économique_ n’aura pas atteint le stade opérationnel pour assurer la redistribution dans une société décentralisée. C’est tout à fait exact, mais _tel n’est pas_ _mon propos_. Je propose une théorie sur l’efficacité et la distribution des moyens de production, pas une théorie qui porte directement sur la réorganisation financière. Je propose d’identifier six classes de bornes imposables à l’expansion de la production : chacune d’entre elles représente une dimension naturelle dans laquelle les unités de mesure de l’économie sont réduites à une classe de facteurs sans dimension. + +### L industrialisation du manque + +Une méthodologie qui permette de repérer la perversion de l’outil devenu sa propre fin rencontrera une forte résistance chez ceux qui sont habitués à mesurer le bien en termes de francs ou de dollars. Platon disait que le mauvais homme d’État croit pouvoir tout mesurer et mêle la considération de l’inférieur et du supérieur à la recherche de ce qui convient mieux au but retenu. Notre attitude envers la production a été façonnée, au long des siècles, par la succession de tels hommes d’État. Peu à peu les institutions n’ont pas seulement façonné notre demande, elles ont aussi donné forme à notre logique, c’est-à-dire à notre sens de la mesure. D’abord on réclame ce que produit l’institution, bientôt on croit ne plus pouvoir s’en passer. Et moins on jouit de ce qui est devenu une nécessité, plus on ressent le besoin de le quantifier. Le besoin personnel devient un manque mesurable. + +L’invention de l’« éducation » est un exemple de ce que j’avance. On a tendance à oublier que le besoin d’ _éducation_ , dans son acception moderne, est une invention récente. Elle était inconnue avant la Réforme, sinon comme le dressage du premier âge que les animaux et les hommes prodiguent à leurs petits. On la distinguait clairement de l’instruction, nécessaire à l’enfant, et de l’étude, où certains s’engageaient plus tard, sous la direction d’un maître. Pour Voltaire, l’éducation était encore un néologisme présomptueux, employé par des maîtres d’école infatués. + +L’entreprise consistant à faire passer tous les hommes par des degrés successifs d’illumination a ses racines profondes dans l’alchimie, le Grand Art du Moyen Âge finissant. On considère à juste titre Jan Amos Comenius, évêque morave du XVIIe siècle, pansophiste et pédagogue ainsi qu’il se nommait lui-même, comme l’un des fondateurs de l’école moderne. Il fut l’un des premiers à proposer sept ou douze degrés d’apprentissage obligatoire. Dans sa _Magna Didactica_ , il décrit l’école comme un instrument pour « tout apprendre entièrement à tous » _(omnes, omnia, omnino)_ et il esquisse le projet d’une production en chaîne du savoir qui diminue le coût et augmente la valeur de l’éducation, afin de permettre à chacun d’accéder à la plénitude de l’humanité. Mais Comenius ne fut pas seulement l’un des premiers théoriciens de la production de masse, ce fut aussi un alchimiste qui adapta le vocabulaire technique de la transmutation des éléments à l’art d’élever les enfants. L’alchimiste veut raffiner les éléments de base en purifiant leurs esprits à travers douze étapes successives d’illumination. Au terme de ce processus, pour leur plus grand bien et celui de l’univers, les éléments sont transformables en métal précieux : le résidu de matière ayant subi sept classes de traitement donne de l’argent, et ce qui subsiste après douze épreuves donne de l’or. Naturellement les alchimistes échouaient toujours, quelle que fût la constance de leurs efforts, mais toujours leur science en fournissait une nouvelle bonne raison, et ils se remettaient à la tâche avec ténacité. L’échec de l’alchimie culmine dans l’échec de l’industrie. + +Le mode industriel de production a été pour la première fois pleinement rationalisé à l’occasion de la fabrication d’un nouveau bien de service : _l’éducation_. La pédagogie a ajouté un chapitre à l’histoire du Grand Art. L’éducation devint la quête du processus alchimique d’où naîtrait un nouveau type d’homme, requis par le milieu façonné par la magie scientifique. Mais, quel que fût le prix payé par les générations successives, il se révéla chaque fois que la plupart des élèves n’étaient pas dignes d’accéder aux plus hauts degrés de l’illumination, et devaient être exclus du jeu parce qu’inaptes à mener la « vraie » vie offerte en ce monde créé par l’homme. + +La redéfinition des processus d’acquisition du savoir en termes de scolarisation n’a pas seulement justifié l’école en lui donnant l’apparence de la nécessité ; elle a aussi créé une nouvelle sorte de pauvres, les non-scolarisés, et une nouvelle sorte de ségrégation sociale, la discrimination de ceux qui manquent d’éducation par ceux qui sont fiers d’en avoir reçu. L’individu scolarisé sait exactement à quel niveau de la pyramide hiérarchique du savoir il s’en est tenu, et il connaît avec précision sa distance au pinacle. Une fois qu’il a accepté de se laisser définir d’après son degré de savoir par une administration, il accepte sans broncher par la suite que des bureaucrates déterminent son besoin de santé, que des technocrates définissent son manque de mobilité. Ainsi façonné à la mentalité du consommateur-usager, il ne peut plus voir la perversion des moyens en fins inhérente à la structure même de la production industrielle du nécessaire comme du luxe. Conditionné à croire que l’école peut lui fournir un stock de savoir, il en vient à croire également que les transports peuvent lui épargner du temps ou que, dans ses applications militaires, la physique atomique peut le protéger. Il s’accroche à l’idée que le niveau des salaires correspond au niveau de vie et que la croissance du tertiaire reflète une hausse de la qualité de la vie. En réalité l’industrialisation des besoins réduit toute satisfaction à un acte de vérification opérationnelle, remplace la joie de vivre par le plaisir d’appliquer une mesure. + +Le service _éducation_ et l’institution _école_ se justifient mutuellement. La collectivité n’a qu’une seule façon de sortir de ce cercle vicieux, c’est de prendre conscience que l’institution en est arrivée à fixer elle-même les fins : l’institution pose des valeurs abstraites, puis les matérialise en enchaînant l’homme à des mécanismes implacables. Comment en sortir ? Il faut s’interroger soi-même : qui m’enchaîne, qui m’accoutume à ses drogues ? Poser la question, c’est déjà y répondre. C’est se libérer de l’oppression du non-sens et du manque, chacun reconnaissant sa propre capacité d’apprendre, de se mouvoir, de se soigner, de se faire entendre et comprendre. Cette libération est obligatoirement instantanée, car il n’y a pas de moyen terme entre l’inconscience et l’éveil. Le manque que la société industrielle entretient avec soin ne survit pas à la découverte que personnes et communautés peuvent elles-mêmes satisfaire leurs véritables besoins. + +La définition industrielle des valeurs rend extrêmement difficile à l’usager de percevoir la structure profonde des moyens sociaux. Il a du mal à saisir qu’il existe une autre voie que l’aliénation du travail, l’industrialisation du manque et la surefficience de l’outil. Il a du mal à imaginer que l’on puisse gagner en rendement social ce que l’on perd en rentabilité industrielle. La crainte qu’en refusant le présent on retourne à l’esclavage du passé l’enferme dans la prison multinationale d’aujourd’hui, qu’elle s’appelle l’usine Berliet ou l’École. + +Jadis l’existence dorée de quelques-uns s’appuyait sur l’asservissement des autres. L’efficience de chacun était faible : la vie aisée d’une minorité exigeait la mainmise sur le travail de la majorité. Or une série de récentes découvertes, très simples, mais inconcevables au XVIIIe siècle, ont augmenté l’efficience de l’homme. Le roulement à billes, la scie ou le soc de charrue en acier, la pompe ou la bicyclette ont multiplié le rendement horaire de l’homme et facilité son travail. Entre le haut Moyen Âge et le Siècle des Lumières, en Occident, plus d’un authentique humaniste s’est fourvoyé dans le rêve alchimique. L’illusion consistait à croire que la machine était un homme artificiel qui remplacerait l’esclave. + +### L autre possibilité une structure conviviale + +Une société conviviale est une société qui donne à l’homme la possibilité d’exercer l’action la plus autonome et la plus créative, à l’aide d’outils moins contrôlables par autrui. La productivité se conjugue en termes d’avoir, la convivialité en termes d’être. Tandis que la croissance de l’outillage au-delà des seuils critiques produit toujours plus d’uniformisation réglementée, de dépendance, d’exploitation et d’impuissance, le respect des limites garantirait un libre épanouissement de l’autonomie et de la créativité humaines. Il est bien clair que j’emploie le terme d _’outil_ au sens le plus large possible d’instrument ou de moyen, soit qu’il soit né de l’activité fabricatrice, organisatrice ou rationalisante de l’homme, soit que, tel le silex préhistorique, il soit simplement approprié par la main pour réaliser une tâche spécifique, c’est-à-dire mis au service d’une intentionnalité. + +Un balai, un crayon à bille, un tournevis, une seringue, une brique, un moteur sont des outils au même titre qu’une automobile ou un téléviseur. Une usine de cassoulet ou une centrale électrique, qui sont des institutions productrices de biens, entrent aussi dans la catégorie de l’outil. Il faut également ranger dans l’outillage les institutions productrices de services comme l’école, l’organisation médicale, la recherche, les moyens de communication ou les centres de planification. Les lois du mariage ou les programmes scolaires façonnent la vie sociale au même titre que le réseau routier. La catégorie de l’outil englobe tous les instruments raisonnés de l’action humaine, la machine et son mode d’emploi, le code et son opérateur, le pain et les jeux du cirque. On voit que le champ couvert par le concept d’outil varie de culture à culture. Il dépend de la prise qu’une société donnée exerce sur sa structure et son environnement. Tout objet pris comme moyen d’une fin devient outil. + +L’outil est inhérent à la relation sociale. Lorsque j’agis en tant qu’homme, je me sers d’outils. Suivant que je le maîtrise ou qu’il me domine, l’outil me relie ou me lie au corps social. Pour autant que je maîtrise l’outil, je charge le monde de mon sens ; pour autant que l’outil me domine, sa structure me façonne et informe la représentation que j’ai de moi-même. L’outil convivial est celui qui me laisse la plus grande latitude et le plus grand pouvoir de modifier le monde au gré de mon intention. L’outil industriel me dénie ce pouvoir ; bien plus, à travers lui, un autre que moi détermine ma demande, rétrécit ma marge de contrôle et régit mon sens. La plupart des outils qui m’environnent aujourd’hui ne sauraient être utilisés de façon conviviale. + +L’outil est à la fois instrument de contrôle et transformateur d’énergie. L’homme dispose, on le sait, de deux types d’énergie, celle qu’il tire de lui-même (ou énergie métabolique) et celle qu’il puise à l’extérieur. Il manie la première, il manipule la seconde. C’est pourquoi je distinguerai de même entre l’outil maniable et l’outil manipulable. + +_L’outil maniable_ adapte l’énergie métabolique à une tâche spécifique. Il est multivalent, comme le silex originel, le simple marteau ou le couteau de poche. Il est univalent, et hautement élaboré, comme le tour de potier, le métier à tisser, la machine à coudre à pédale ou la fraise du dentiste. L’outil maniable peut atteindre à la complexité d’une organisation de transports qui tire de l’énergie humaine le maximum de mobilité - tel un système de vélos et de tricycles auquel correspondrait un réseau de pistes cyclables peut-être couvertes et de stations d’entretien. L’outil maniable est conducteur d’énergie métabolique ; la main, le pied ont prise sur lui. L’énergie qu’il réclame est productible par quiconque mange et respire. + +_L’outil manipulable_ est mû, au moins en partie, par l’énergie extérieure. Il peut servir à multiplier l’énergie humaine : les boeufs tirent la charrue, mais pour la guider il faut un laboureur. De même un monte-charge ou une scie électrique conjugue l’énergie métabolique avec l’énergie exogène. Cependant l’outil manipulable peut dépasser l’échelle humaine. L’énergie fournie par le pilote d’un avion supersonique ne représente plus une part significative de l’énergie consommée en vol. Le pilote est un simple opérateur, dont l’action est régie par les données qu’un ordinateur digère pour lui. Il y a encore quelqu’un dans le cockpit parce que l’ordinateur est imparfait, ou parce que le syndicat des pilotes de ligne est puissant et organisé. + +_L’outil est convivial_ dans la mesure où chacun peut l’utiliser, sans difficulté, aussi souvent ou aussi rarement qu’il le désire, à des fins qu’il détermine lui-même. L’usage que chacun en fait n’empiète pas sur la liberté d’autrui d’en faire autant. Personne n’a besoin d’un diplôme pour avoir le droit de s’en servir ; on peut le prendre ou non. Entre l’homme et le monde, il est conducteur de sens, traducteur d’intentionnalité. + +Certaines institutions sont, structurellement, des outils conviviaux et ce, indépendamment de leur niveau technologique. Le téléphone en est un exemple. À la seule condition de pouvoir acheter un jeton, chacun peut appeler le correspondant de son choix, pour lui dire ce qu’il veut : les dernières informations boursières, des injures ou des paroles d’amour. Aucun bureaucrate ne pourra fixer d’avance le contenu d’une communication ; tout au plus, pourra-t-il en violer le secret ou au contraire le protéger. Quand des ordinateurs infatigables gardent occupées plus de la moitié des lignes californiennes et, de ce fait, restreignent la liberté des communications personnelles, c’est la compagnie téléphonique qui est fautive, car elle détourne l’exploitation d’une licence concédée à l’origine pour donner la parole aux personnes. Quand une population entière se laisse intoxiquer par un usage abusif du téléphone et perd ainsi l’habitude d’échanger des lettres ou des visites, l’erreur tient à ce recours immodéré à un nouvel outil, convivial par essence, mais dont la fonction est dénaturée par une fausse extension de son champ d’action. + +L’outil maniable appelle l’usage convivial. S’il ne s’y prête pas, c’est que l’institution en réserve l’usage au monopole d’une profession, comme on le fait par exemple en plaçant les bibliothèques dans l’enceinte de l’école ou en décrétant que l’extraction des dents et autres simples interventions sont des actes médicaux réalisables par les seuls spécialistes. Mais l’outil peut aussi être l’objet d’une sorte de ségrégation ; c’est le cas lorsque des moteurs sont conçus de telle sorte qu’on ne puisse y faire soi-même de menues réparations avec une pince et un tournevis. Le monopole de l’institution sur ce type d’outils maniables est un abus, il pervertit l’usage de l’outil, mais celui-ci n’en est pas dénaturé pour autant, pas plus que le couteau du meurtrier ne cesse d’être un couteau. + +Le caractère convivial ou non de l’outil ne dépend pas en principe de son niveau de complexité. Ce qui vient d’être dit du téléphone pourrait être répété point par point au sujet du système des postes, ou de celui des transports fluviaux en Indochine. Chacun de ces systèmes est une structure institutionnelle qui maximise la liberté de la personne, même s’il peut être détourné de sa fin et perverti dans son usage. Le téléphone est le produit d’une technique avancée ; les postes peuvent fonctionner à divers niveaux techniques, mais elles exigent toujours beaucoup d’organisation ; le réseau des canaux et des pirogues intègre une programmation minimale, dans le cadre d’une technique coutumière. + +### L équilibre institutionnel + +Lorsqu’elle approche de son second seuil, l’institution pervertit l’usage de l’outil maniable. Alors s’ouvre le règne des manipulations. On prend de plus en plus le moyen pour la fin. Ainsi réunir les conditions de l’enseignement coûte plus cher qu’enseigner et le coût de la formation n’est plus compensé par le fruit de la production. Les moyens de la fin poursuivie par l’institution deviennent de moins en moins accessibles à une personne autonome ou plus exactement s’intègrent dans une chaîne de maillons solidaires qu’il faut accepter en son entier. Aux États-Unis, sans voiture pas de voyage en avion, et sans voyage en avion pas de congrès de spécialistes. Les outils qui atteindraient les mêmes fins en exigeant moins de l’usager, en respectant sa liberté de manoeuvre, sont évincés du marché. Pendant que disparaissent les trottoirs, la complexité du réseau routier ne fait que croître. + +Il est possible que certains moyens de production non conviviaux apparaissent comme désirables dans une société post-industrielle. Il est probable que, même dans un monde convivial, certaines collectivités choisissent d’avoir plus d’abondance au prix d’une moindre créativité. Il est à peu près sûr que, pendant la période de transition, l’électricité ne sera pas partout le résultat d’une production domestique. Bien sûr, le conducteur d’un train ne peut ni s’écarter de la voie ferrée ni choisir ses arrêts ou son horaire. Les cap-horniers n’étaient pas moins assujettis à une route précise que les pétroliers modernes, bien au contraire. La transmission des messages téléphoniques se fait sur une certaine bande de fréquence, elle doit être dirigée par une administration centrale, même si elle ne concerne qu’une zone limitée. En vérité, il n’y a aucune raison pour proscrire d’une société conviviale tout outil puissant et toute production centralisée. Dans l’optique conviviale, l’équilibre entre la justice dans la participation et l’égalité dans la distribution peut varier d’une société à l’autre, en fonction de l’histoire, des idéaux et de l’environnement de cette société. + +Il n’est pas essentiel que les institutions manipulatrices ou les biens et les services susceptibles d’intoxiquer soient totalement absents d’une société conviviale. Ce qui importe, c’est qu’une telle société réalise un équilibre entre d’une part l’outillage producteur d’une demande qu’il est conçu pour satisfaire, et de l’autre les outils qui stimulent l’accomplissement personnel. Le premier matérialise des programmes abstraits concernant les hommes en général ; les seconds favorisent l’aptitude de chacun à poursuivre ses fins, à sa manière propre, inimitable. + +Il n’est pas question de proscrire un outil du seul fait que, selon l’un de nos critères de classification, nous pouvons le dire anticonvivial. Ces critères sont des guides pour l’action. Une société peut s’en servir pour restructurer la totalité de son outillage, en fonction du style et du degré de convivialité qu’elle désire. Une société conviviale n’interdit pas l’école. Elle proscrit le système scolaire perverti en outil obligatoire, fondé sur la ségrégation et le rejet des recalés. Une société conviviale ne supprime les transports interurbains à grande vitesse que si leur existence empêche de garantir à l’ensemble de la population la possibilité de circuler à la vitesse et au rythme souhaités. Une société conviviale n’est même pas tenue de refuser la télévision, bien que celle-ci laisse à la discrétion de quelques producteurs et beaux parleurs le soin de choisir et de fabriquer ce qu’on fera « avaler » à la masse des téléspectateurs ; mais une telle société doit protéger la personne contre l’obligation de se transformer en voyeur. On le voit, les critères de la convivialité ne sont pas des règles à appliquer mécaniquement, ce sont des indicateurs de l’action politique, qui concernent ce qu’il faut éviter. Critères de détection d’une menace, ils permettent à chacun de faire valoir sa propre liberté. + +### L aveuglement présent et l exemple du passé + +Dans le temps présent, les critères institutionnels de l’action humaine sont à l’opposé des nôtres, y compris dans les sociétés marxistes où la classe des travailleurs se croit au pouvoir. Le planificateur socialiste rivalise avec le chantre de la libre entreprise, pour démontrer que ses principes assurent à une société le maximum de productivité. La politique économique socialiste se définit bien souvent par le souci d’accroître la productivité industrielle de tout pays socialiste. Le monopole de l’interprétation industrielle du marxisme sert de barrage et de moyen de chantage contre toute forme de marxisme hétérodoxe. Reste à savoir si la Chine, après la mort de Mao, abandonnera elle aussi la convivialité productive pour se tourner vers la productivité standardisée. L’interprétation exclusivement industrielle du socialisme permet aux communistes et aux capitalistes de parler le même langage, de mesurer de semblable façon le degré de développement atteint par une société. Une société où la plupart des gens dépendent, quant aux biens et aux services qu’ils reçoivent, des qualités d’imagination, d’amour et d’habileté de chacun, est de la sorte considérée comme _sous-développée_. En retour, une société où la vie quotidienne n’est plus qu’une suite de commandes sur le catalogue du grand magasin universel est tenue pour _avancée_. Et le révolutionnaire n’est plus qu’un entraîneur sportif : champion du Tiers Monde ou porte-parole des minorités sous-consommatrices, il endigue la frustration des masses à qui il révèle leur _retard_ ; il canalise la violence populaire et la transforme en _énergie de rattrapage_. + +Chacun des aspects de la société industrielle est une composante d’un système d’ensemble qui implique l’escalade de la production et l’augmentation de la demande indispensable pour justifier le coût social total. C’est pourquoi, en concentrant la critique sociale sur la mauvaise gestion, la corruption, l’insuffisance de la recherche ou le retard technologique, on ne fait que distraire l’attention du public du seul problème qui compte : la structure inhérente à l’outil pris comme moyen et déterminant un manque général croissant. Une autre erreur consiste à croire que la frustration actuelle est due principalement à la propriété privée des moyens de production et que l’appropriation publique de ces moyens par l’intermédiaire d’un organisme central de planification protégerait les intérêts de la majorité et conduirait à une répartition équitable de l’abondance. La structure antihumaine de l’outil ne sera pas transformée par le remède proposé. Aussi longtemps qu’on attaquera le trust Ford pour la seule raison qu’il enrichit Monsieur Ford, on entretiendra l’illusion que les usines Ford pourraient enrichir la collectivité. Aussi longtemps que la population supposera qu’elle peut tirer profit de l’automobile, elle ne tiendra pas grief à Ford de construire des voitures. Tant qu’elle partagera l’illusion qu’on peut augmenter la vitesse de déplacement de chacun, la société continuera à critiquer son propre système politique au lieu d’imaginer un autre système de transports. La solution, pourtant, est à portée de main : elle ne réside pas dans un certain mode d’appropriation de l’outil, mais dans la découverte du caractère de certains outils, à savoir que personne ne pourra jamais les _posséder._ Le concept d’appropriation ne saurait s’appliquer à un outillage incontrôlable. La question urgente serait de déterminer quels outils peuvent être contrôlés dans l’intérêt général et de comprendre qu’un outil incontrôlable représente une insupportable menace. Quant à savoir comment organiser un exercice privé du contrôle qui réponde à l’intérêt général, cela est secondaire. + +Certains outils sont toujours destructeurs, quelles que soient les mains qui les détiennent, que ce soient la Mafia, les capitalistes, une firme multinationale, l’État ou même un collectif de travailleurs. Il en est ainsi par exemple pour les réseaux d’autoroutes à voies multiples, les systèmes de communication à grande distance qui utilisent une large bande de fréquence, et aussi l’exploitation minière à ciel ouvert, ou encore l’école. L’outil destructeur accroît l’uniformisation, la dépendance, l’exploitation et l’impuissance ; il dérobe au pauvre sa part de convivialité pour mieux frustrer le riche de la sienne. + +L’homme moderne a du mal à penser le développement et la modernisation en termes d’abaissement plutôt que d’accroissement de la consommation d’énergie. Pour lui, une technique avancée rime avec une profonde intervention dans les processus physiques, mentaux et sociaux. Si nous voulons appréhender l’outillage avec justesse, il nous faut quitter l’illusion qu’un haut degré de culture implique une consommation d’énergie aussi élevée que possible. Dans les anciennes civilisations, les ressources en énergie étaient très équitablement réparties. Chaque être humain, par sa constitution biologique, disposait de toute l’énergie potentielle nécessaire sa vie durant pour transformer consciemment le milieu physique, selon sa volonté, puisque la source en était son propre corps à la seule condition d’être maintenu en bonne santé. Dans ces conditions, contrôler de plus grandes quantités d’énergie physique ne résultait que de manipulations psychiques ou d’une domination politique. + +Pour édifier les pyramides de Teotihuacân, au Mexique, pour façonner les rizières en terrasses d’Ibagué, aux Philippines, les hommes n’ont guère eu besoin d’outils manipulables. La coupole de Saint-Pierre de Rome et les canaux d’Angkor Vat ont été faits sans engins de terrassement, à force de bras. Les généraux de César recevaient les nouvelles par l’entremise de _jinetes_ , les Fugger et les chefs incas utilisaient des coureurs. Jusqu’au XVIIIe siècle, les galères de la République de Venise et tous les messagers ont voyagé à moins de 120 kilomètres par jour. L’armée de Napoléon se déplaçait toujours à la lenteur de celle de César. La main ou le pied actionnait la navette et le rouet, le tour de potier et la scie à bois. L’énergie métabolique de l’homme alimentait l’agriculture, l’artisanat et la guerre. L’ingéniosité de l’individu canalisait l’énergie animale dans certaines tâches sociales. Les puissants de la terre n’avaient pas d’autre énergie à contrôler que celle fournie, de gré ou de force, par leurs sujets eux-mêmes. + +Bien sûr, le métabolisme humain ne suffisait pas à procurer toute l’énergie désirable, mais il en restait, dans la majorité des cultures, la source principale. L’homme savait certes mettre à profit certaines forces naturelles. Il gardait le feu pour cuire ses aliments et, plus tard, pour forger des armes, il savait tirer l’eau de la terre, descendre les fleuves, naviguer à voile, utiliser la force de pesanteur, dresser l’animal à tirer sa charrue. Mais le total de ces ressources restait secondaire et de faible rendement. La société athénienne du VIe siècle ou celle du Quattrocento florentin savaient harmonieusement utiliser les forces naturelles, mais la construction des temples et des palais fut, pour l’essentiel, l’oeuvre de la seule énergie humaine. Certes, l’homme pouvait réduire une ville en cendres ou faire du Sahara un désert, mais cette explosion d’énergie une fois déclenchée échappait à son pouvoir de contrôle. + +Il est possible de donner une valeur approchée de la somme d’énergie physique dont disposaient les sociétés traditionnelles. L’être humain brûle en moyenne 2500 calories par jour, dont les quatre cinquièmes servent uniquement à le maintenir en vie, à faire battre son coeur et tourner son cerveau. Le restant peut être appliqué à des tâches diverses, mais n’est pas tout entier transformable en travail. Il faut faire la part non seulement des jeux de l’enfance, mais aussi et surtout des activités de survie quotidienne : se lever, préparer la nourriture, se protéger contre le froid ou contre la menace d’autrui. Privé du ressort de ces activités, l’homme devient inapte au travail : la société peut les façonner, mais elle ne peut les supprimer pour affecter à d’autres tâches l’énergie qu’elles requièrent. La coutume, le langage et le Droit déterminent la forme des poteries que fabrique l’esclave, mais le maître ne peut priver son esclave de toit, sauf à se priver lui-même d’esclave. Par l’addition de multiples petites charges d’énergie individuelle mises à la disposition de la collectivité, on construisait des temples, on déplaçait des montagnes, on tissait des vêtements, on faisait la guerre, on transportait le monarque et on l’honorait. + +L’énergie était limitée, elle était fonction du niveau de population, elle prenait source dans la vigueur des corps. Son efficacité dépendait du degré de développement - et de répartition dans la population - des outils maniables. L’outil donnait prise à l’énergie métabolique sur la tâche. Il jouait avec les forces, que ce soit celle de pesanteur ou celle du vent, mais il n’amplifiait pas la force de travail. Pour disposer de plus de pouvoir physique que le voisin, il fallait l’asservir. Si le maître utilisait des formes d’énergie non humaines, il ne pouvait les maîtriser que pour autant qu’il régnait sur d’autres hommes. Chaque paire de boeufs demandait un bouvier. Même le feu de la forge réclamait un gardien qui veillât sur lui. Le pouvoir politique était la maîtrise de la volonté d’autrui, la maîtrise de la force physique d’autrui était la détention de l’autorité. + +Dans les sociétés pré-industrielles, le pouvoir politique ne pouvait contrôler que l’énergie _excédentaire_ fournie par la population. À chaque gain d’efficience obtenu grâce à un nouvel outil ou à un nouveau mode d’organisation, la population risquait d’être privée du contrôle de ce surplus d’énergie. Tout accroissement d’efficience permettait à la classe dominante de s’approprier une part accrue de l’énergie totale disponible. Ainsi à l’évolution des techniques correspondait une évolution parallèle des classes sociales. On taxait l’individu en lui enlevant une partie de son produit personnel, ou bien on l’affectait à des corvées supplémentaires. L’idéologie, la structure de l’économie, l’armement et le mode de vie favorisaient cette concentration de la maîtrise de l’énergie biologique en excédent entre les mains de quelques-uns. + +Cependant une telle concentration n’a pas, d’une culture à l’autre, les mêmes effets sur la répartition des fruits de l’effort social. Au mieux elle accroît le rayon d’action des énergies personnelles. La société paysanne en Europe centrale, à la fin du Moyen Âge, en est un bon exemple. Trois récentes inventions - l’étrier, la ferrure des chevaux et le collier d’épaules - triplaient le rendement du cheval. Ainsi équipé, un cheval tirant la charrue rendait possible l’assolement triennal et la mise en culture de nouvelles terres ; attelé à une charrette, il élevait au carré le rayon d’action du paysan, d’où le mouvement de concentration de l’habitat en villages groupés autour d’une église, puis d’une école. Au pire, la concentration du pouvoir de disposer de l’énergie conduisit à l’établissement de grands empires propagés par des armées mercenaires et alimentés par des paysans réduits en esclavage. + +Vers la fin de l’Âge du Fer, soit du règne d’Agrippa au siècle de Watt, la masse totale d’énergie disponible augmenta rapidement. En fait, la plupart des grandes mutations techniques antérieures à la découverte de l’électricité se sont produites au haut Moyen Âge. L’invention du trois-mâts qui tirait un meilleur parti de la force du vent rendit possible la navigation circumplanétaire. Le creusement des canaux européens et l’invention de l’écluse rendirent possibles des transports réguliers acheminant de lourdes charges. Les brasseurs, les teinturiers, les potiers, les briquetiers, les sucriers et les saliniers bénéficièrent de l’amélioration et de la diffusion des moulins à vent et des moulins à eau. À la forge située dans la forêt se substitue la forge au bord du torrent, au gros marteau les lourds moulinets des pilons broyeurs de minerai, au panier monté à dos d’homme le treuil qui permet de hisser des bennes. La force hydraulique actionne des soufflets pour l’aération des galeries ; grâce à des norias, elle pompe l’eau pour assécher le fond de la mine, et l’homme s’enfonce plus avant sous terre. On disait encore du paysan derrière sa charrue qu’il « laboure », du mineur on dira qu’il « travaille ». Puis le chariot muni d’un avant-train pivotant et d’essieux mobiles permet de doubler la vitesse de déplacement : en profitent pareillement la poste et le transport des passagers dès le XVIIIe siècle. Pour la première fois dans l’histoire des hommes, on peut franchir plus de 1oo kilomètres par jour. Villes et campagnes, les unes plus lentement que les autres, en furent transformées, peu à peu remodelées. + +Dans son livre _The Myth of the machine : the Pentagon of power_, Lewis Mumford souligne les caractéristiques spécifiques qui firent de l’activité minière le prototype des formes ultérieures de mécanisation : « … indifférence aux facteurs humains, à la pollution et à la destruction du milieu, accent mis sur un processus physicochimique en vue d’obtenir le métal ou le carburant désiré et, par-dessus tout, isolement géographique et mental par rapport au monde concret du fermier et de l’artisan, et au monde spirituel de l’Église, de l’Université et de la Cité. Par son effet destructeur sur l’environnement et son mépris des risques imposés à l’homme, l’activité minière se rapproche beaucoup de l’activité guerrière - comme la guerre, la mine produit souvent un type d’homme dur et digne, habitué à affronter le danger et la mort (…), le soldat vu sous son meilleur jour. Mais l’ _animus_ destructeur de la mine, son sinistre labeur, son aura de misère humaine et de dégradation du paysage, tout cela, l’activité minière le transmit aux industries utilisatrices de sa production. Le coût social dépassait largement le gain mécanique ». Ainsi à l’outil actionné au rythme de l’homme succédait un homme agissant au rythme de l’outil et tous les modes d’agir humains s’en trouvaient transformés. + +### Une nouvelle compréhension du travail + +À la fin du Moyen Âge, le vieux rêve alchimique de fabriquer un _homoncule_ en laboratoire prit, peu à peu, la forme de la création de robots qui travaillent pour l’homme et de l’éducation de l’homme à travailler à leur côté. Cette nouvelle attitude envers l’activité productrice est reflétée par l’introduction d’un mot nouveau. _Tripalliare_ signifiait torturer sur le _trepalium_ , mentionné au VIe siècle comme étant un pal formé de trois épieux, supplice ayant remplacé dans le monde chrétien celui de la croix. Au XIIe siècle, le mot _travail_ en français, _trabajo_ en espagnol, désignait une épreuve douloureuse. + +Il faut attendre le XVIe siècle pour que « travail » puisse être employé en lieu et place d _’ouvrage_ ou de _labeur_. À l’ _oeuvre (poièsis)_ de l’homme artiste et libre, au _labeur (poneros)_ de l’homme contraint par autrui ou par la nature, s’ajoute alors le _travail_ au rythme de la machine. Puis le mot « travailleur » glisse de sens vers « laboureur » et « ouvrier » : à la fin du XIXe siècle, les trois termes se distinguent à peine. + +L’idéologie de l’organisation industrielle de l’outillage et de l’organisation capitaliste de l’économie vit le jour plusieurs siècles avant ce qu’il est convenu d’appeler la Révolution industrielle. Dès l’époque de Bacon, les Européens commencèrent à effectuer des opérations relevant d’un nouvel état d’esprit : gagner du temps, rétrécir l’espace, accroître l’énergie, multiplier les biens, jeter par-dessus bord les normes naturelles, prolonger la durée de la vie, remplacer les organismes vivants par des mécanismes qui les simulent ou amplifient une fonction particulière. De tels impératifs sont devenus les dogmes de la science et de la technique dans nos sociétés, ils n’ont valeur d’axiomes que parce qu’ils ne sont pas soumis à l’analyse. Le même changement d’état d’esprit est reflété par le passage du rythme rituel à la régularité mécanique : l’accent est mis sur la ponctualité, la mesure de l’espace et la comptabilisation des votes, de sorte que des objets concrets et des événements complexes sont transformés en quanta abstraits. Cette passion capitaliste pour un ordre répétitif a miné l’équilibre qualitatif entre l’ouvrier et son outillage faible. + +L’émergence de nouvelles formes d’énergie et de pouvoir a changé le rapport que l’homme entretenait avec le temps. Le prêt à intérêt était condamné par l’Église comme une pratique contre nature : l’argent était par nature un moyen d’échange pour acheter le nécessaire, non un capital qui pût _travailler_ ou porter des fruits. Au XVIIe siècle, l’Église elle-même abandonna cette conception, quoique ce fût à regret, pour accepter le fait que les chrétiens étaient devenus des capitalistes marchands. L’usage de la montre se généralisa et, avec lui, l’idée du « manque » de temps. Le temps devint de l’argent : j’ai gagné du temps, il me reste du temps, comment vais-je le dépenser ? Je manque de temps, je ne peux pas me payer le luxe de gaspiller mon temps à cela ; une heure, c’est déjà ça de gagné ! + +Bientôt on commença à considérer ouvertement l’homme comme une source d’énergie. On chercha à mesurer la prestation quotidienne maximale que l’on pouvait attendre d’un homme, puis à comparer le coût de l’entretien et la puissance de l’homme avec ceux du cheval. L’homme fut redéfini comme source d’énergie mécanique. On remarqua que les galériens n’étaient pas très efficients puisqu’ils restaient liés au mouvement singulier de la rame. En revanche, les prisonniers condamnés au supplice de l’écureuil, encore utilisé au XIXe siècle dans les prisons anglaises, fournissaient une puissance rotative capable d’alimenter n’importe quelle nouvelle machine. + +Le nouveau rapport de l’homme à son outillage durant la Révolution industrielle prend racine, comme le capitalisme, dans le XVIe siècle ; à son tour, il appela de nouvelles sources d’énergie. La machine à vapeur est plus un effet de cette soif d’énergie qu’une cause de la Révolution industrielle. Avec le chemin de fer, cette précieuse machine devint mobile et l’homme se fit usager. En 1782, la diligence franchissait 100 kilomètres par jour entre Paris et Marseille ; en 1855, Napoléon III se vantait de parcourir 100 kilomètres à l’heure. Peu à peu, la machine mit l’homme en mouvement : en 1900, un travailleur français non employé dans l’agriculture franchissait en moyenne trente fois autant de kilomètres que son homologue en 1850. C’est alors la fin tout à la fois de l’Âge du Fer et de la Révolution industrielle. À l’habileté à se mouvoir se substitue le recours aux transports. Le faire en série remplace le savoir-faire, l’industrialisation devient la norme. + +Au XXe siècle, l’homme met en perce de gigantesques réservoirs naturels d’énergie. Le niveau énergétique ainsi atteint produit ses propres normes, il détermine les caractères techniques de l’outil et, plus encore, la place nouvelle de l’homme. À l’oeuvre, au labeur, au travail vient alors s’ajouter le service de la machine : obligé de s’adapter à son rythme, le travailleur se transforme en opérateur de moteurs ou en employé de bureau. Et le rythme de la production exige la docilité du consommateur qui accepte un produit standardisé et conditionné. Alors on a moins besoin de journaliers dans les champs, le serf cesse d’être rentable. Le travailleur, aussi, cesse d’être rentable, dès lors que l’automation achève la transformation ouverte par l’industrialisation, et poursuivie par la production de masse. Le charme discret du conditionnement abstrait par la méga-machine remplace le claquement du fouet à l’oreille de l’esclave-laboureur et l’avance implacable de la chaîne déclenche le geste stéréotypé de l’esclave-ouvrier. + + + +Nous avons ainsi passé en revue quatre niveaux énergétiques qui peuvent marquer l’organisation d’une société, la structure de ses outils et le style dominant de ses activités productrices. Ces quatre organisations circonscrivent respectivement le champ de l’oeuvre indépendante et créatrice, du labeur sous la loi de la nécessité, du travail à la cadence de la chaîne et du fonctionnement « conditionné opérationnellement » à l’intérieur de la mégamachine. La manière dont ces différents genres d’activité participent aux échanges de l’économie et affrontent les lois du marché est révélatrice de leurs différences mutuelles. Le créateur d’une oeuvre ne peut pas s’offrir lui-même sur le marché, il peut seulement proposer le fruit de son activité. Le laboureur et le travailleur peuvent offrir à autrui leur force et leur compétence. Enfin la place du fonctionnaire et de l’opérateur est devenue elle-même une marchandise. Le droit d’opérer sur une machine et de bénéficier des privilèges afférents est obtenu à l’issue de la consommation d’une série de traitements préalables : curriculum scolaire, conditionnement professionnel, éducation permanente. + +Nous sommes tous fils de notre temps et nous avons la plus grande peine à imaginer un type de production postindustriel et pourtant humain. Pour nous, limiter l’outillage industriel évoque le retour à l’enfer de la mine et au chronomètre de l’usine, ou au trimard du fermier qui a des concurrents mécanisés. L’ouvrier qui plonge un pneu dans une solution d’acide sulfurique bouillant doit répéter ce geste absurde et épuisant à chaque gémissement de la machine ; il est véritablement attaché à la machine. De son côté, le travail des champs n’est plus ce qu’il était pour le serf ou pour le paysan. Pour le serf, c’était le labeur au service d’un maître qui le commandait ; pour le paysan, c’était le labour de son champ à lui, il l’organisait en fonction de la croissance des plantes, de l’appétit des bêtes, et du temps qu’il ferait le lendemain. L’ouvrier agricole mexicain, qui va travailler aux États-Unis et ne dispose pas d’outils manipulables, se trouve dans une situation absurde. Il est pris entre deux feux : ou bien il doit s’épuiser à rivaliser avec les performances exécutées par ceux qui possèdent tracteurs et machines à usages multiples, ou bien il fait fonctionner cette machinerie moderne en ayant conscience d’être brimé, exploité et berné, avec le sentiment d’être une simple pièce de rechange pour la méga-machine. L’idée le dépasse qu’on puisse utiliser des outils maniables à la fois moins fatigants que l’ancienne charrue, moins aliénants que la moissonneuse-batteuse et plus productifs que l’une et l’autre. + +Aucun des types d’outillage réalisables par le passé ne pouvait à la fois rendre possibles un genre de société et un mode d’activité marqués du sceau de l’efficience et de la convivialité. Mais aujourd’hui nous pouvons concevoir des outils qui permettent d’éliminer l’esclavage de l’homme à l’égard de l’homme, sans pour autant l’asservir à la machine. La condition de ce progrès est le renversement du cadre d’institutions qui régit l’application des résultats tirés des sciences et des techniques. De nos jours, l’avancée scientifique est identifiée à la substitution à l’initiative humaine d’un outillage programmé, mais ce qu’on prend ainsi pour l’effet de la logique du savoir n’est en bonne réalité que la conséquence d’un préjugé idéologique. + +La science et la technique étayent le mode industriel de production et imposent de ce fait la mise au rancart de tout outillage spécifiquement lié à un travail autonome et créateur. Un tel processus n’est pas contenu en germe dans les découvertes scientifiques, et ce n’est pas davantage la conséquence nécessaire de leur application. C’est le résultat d’un parti pris absolu en faveur du développement du mode industriel de production. La recherche s’efforce de réduire partout les blocages secondaires qui entravent la croissance d’un processus spécifique de production. À chacune des découvertes ainsi obtenues par une programmation de longue date, on pavoise comme s’il s’agissait d’une coûteuse percée à grand-peine réalisée dans l’intérêt public. En fait, la recherche est presque totalement au service du développement industriel. Une technique avancée pourrait tout aussi bien réduire le poids du labeur et, de cent façons, servir l’expansion de l’oeuvre de production personnelle. Sciences de la nature et sciences de l’homme pourraient servir à créer des outils, tracer leur cadre d’utilisation et forger leurs règles d’emploi de sorte que l’on atteigne à une incessante recréation de la personne, du groupe et du milieu, à un total déploiement de l’initiative et de l’imagination de chacun. + +Nous pouvons aujourd’hui comprendre la nature de façon nouvelle. Le tout est de savoir à quelles fins. C’est l’heure du choix entre la constitution d’une société hyper-industrielle, électronique et cybernétique, ou la réunion d’un large éventail d’outils modernes et conviviaux. Un même poids d’acier peut servir à produire une scie à métaux, une machine à coudre ou un élément industriel : dans les deux premiers cas, l’efficacité de mille personnes sera multipliée par trois ou par dix ; dans le dernier, une large part de leur savoir-faire perdra sa raison d’être. Il faut choisir entre distribuer à des millions de personnes, au même moment, l’image colorée d’un pitre s’agitant sur le petit écran, ou donner à chaque groupe humain le pouvoir de produire et de distribuer ses propres programmes dans les centres vidéo. Dans la première hypothèse, la technique est mise au service de la promotion du spécialiste régie par des bureaucrates. Toujours plus de planificateurs feront des études de marché, dresseront des équilibres prévisionnels et façonneront la demande de toujours plus de gens dans un nombre croissant de secteurs. Il y aura toujours plus de choses utiles fournies à des inutiles. Mais une autre possibilité s’offre. La science peut aussi s’employer à simplifier l’outillage, à rendre chacun capable de façonner son environnement immédiat, c’est-à-dire capable de se charger de sens en chargeant le monde de signes. + +### La déprofessionnalisation + +#### 1 la médecine + +À l’image de ce que fit la Réforme en arrachant le monopole de l’écriture aux clercs, nous pouvons arracher le malade aux médecins. Il n’est pas besoin d’être très savant pour appliquer les découvertes fondamentales de la médecine moderne, pour déceler et soigner la plupart des maux curables, pour soulager la souffrance d’autrui et l’accompagner à l’approche de la mort. Nous avons du mal à le croire, parce que, compliqué à dessein, le rituel médical nous voile la simplicité des actes. J’ai une amie noire de dix-sept ans qui est récemment passée en jugement pour avoir soigné la syphilis primaire de cent trente camarades d’école. Un détail d’ordre technique, souligné par un expert, lui a valu l’acquittement : ses résultats étaient statistiquement meilleurs que ceux du Service de Santé américain. Six semaines après le traitement, elle a pu faire des examens de contrôle sur tous ses patients, sans exception. Il s’agit de savoir si le progrès doit signifier une indépendance accrue ou une croissante dépendance. + +La possibilité de confier des soins médicaux à des non-spécialistes va à l’encontre de notre conception du _mieux-être_ , due à l’organisation régnante de la médecine. Conçue comme une _entreprise industrielle_ , elle est aux mains de _producteurs_ (médecins, hôpitaux, laboratoires pharmaceutiques) qui encouragent la diffusion des procédés de pointe coûteux et compliqués, et réduisent ainsi le malade et son entourage au statut de _clients_ dociles. Organisée en système de distribution sociale de bienfaits, la médecine incite la population à lutter pour obtenir toujours plus de soins dispensés par des professionnels en matière d’hygiène, de prévention, d’anesthésie ou d’assistance aux mourants. Jadis le désir de justice distributive se fondait sur la confiance dans l’autonomie. Aujourd’hui, figée dans le _monopole d’une hiérarchie monolithique_ , la médecine protège ses frontières en encourageant la formation de paraprofessionnels auxquels sont sous-traités les soins autrefois dispensés par l’entourage du malade. Ce faisant, l’organisation médicale protège son monopole orthodoxe de la concurrence déloyale de toute guérison obtenue par des moyens hétérodoxes. En fait, chacun peut soigner son prochain et, dans ce domaine, tout n’est pas nécessairement matière à enseignement. Simplement, dans une société où chacun pourrait et devrait soigner son prochain, certains seraient plus experts que d’autres. Dans une société où l’on naîtrait et mourrait chez soi, où l’infirme et l’idiot ne seraient pas bannis de la place publique, où l’on saurait distinguer la vocation médicale de la profession de plombier, il se trouverait des gens pour aider les autres à vivre, à souffrir et à mourir. + +L’évidente complicité du professionnel et de son client ne suffit pas à expliquer la résistance du public à l’idée de déprofessionnaliser les soins. À la source de l’impuissance de l’homme industrialisé, on trouve l’autre fonction de la médecine présente qui sert de rituel pour conjurer la mort. Le patient se confie au médecin non seulement à cause de sa souffrance, mais par peur de la mort, pour s’en protéger. L’identification de toute maladie à la menace de mort est d’origine assez récente. En perdant la distinction entre la guérison d’une maladie curable et la préparation à l’acceptation du mal incurable, le médecin moderne a perdu le droit de ses prédécesseurs à se distinguer clairement du sorcier et du charlatan ; et son client a perdu la capacité de distinguer entre le soulagement de la souffrance et le recours à la conjuration. Par la célébration du rituel médical, le médecin masque la divergence entre le fait qu’il professe et la réalité qu’il crée, entre la lutte contre la souffrance et la mort d’un côté et l’éloignement de la mort au prix d’une souffrance prolongée de l’autre. Le courage de se soigner seul n’appartient qu’à l’homme qui a le courage de faire face à la mort. + +#### 2 le système des transports + +Au début des années 30, sous la présidence de Cardenas, le Mexique se dota d’un système moderne de transports. En quelques années, les quatre cinquièmes de la population furent touchés par les avantages du transport automobile. Les principaux villages furent reliés par des routes en terre ou des pistes. De gros camions, simples et solides, faisaient le trajet à une vitesse bien inférieure à 30 km/h. Les passagers s’entassaient sur des bancs cloués au plancher, tandis que les bagages et les marchandises étaient à l’arrière ou sur le toit. Sur de courtes distances, le camion ne battait pas des gens habitués à cheminer lourdement chargés, mais il donnait à chacun la possibilité de parcourir de longues distances. L’homme ne conduisait plus son cochon au marché : il le prenait avec lui dans le camion. N’importe qui, au Mexique, pouvait se rendre en n’importe quel point du pays en quelques jours. + +Depuis 1945, chaque année, on dépense plus pour le système routier. On construit des autoroutes entre quelques grands centres. Des voitures fragiles filent sur des routes bien goudronnées. Les poids lourds vont d’une usine à l’autre. Les vieux camions tout terrain et tout usage ont été repoussés dans la montagne. Dans la plupart des régions, le paysan doit prendre un car pour aller au marché acheter des produits industrialisés, mais il lui est impossible de charger dans ce véhicule son cochon, aussi doit-il le vendre au marchand de bestiaux ambulant. Il finance la construction de routes qui profitent aux détenteurs des divers monopoles spécialisés. Il est obligé de le faire sous prétexte qu’en dernière instance, ce sera lui le bénéficiaire du progrès. + +En échange d’un trajet occasionnel sur le siège capitonné d’un autobus à air conditionné, le Mexicain moyen a perdu beaucoup de la mobilité que lui assurait l’ancien système, sans pour autant gagner en liberté. Une étude menée dans deux grands États typiques au Mexique - l’un désertique, l’autre montagneux et tropical - confirme ces vues. Moins de 1 % de la population, dans chacun de ces deux États, a parcouru en 1970 plus de vingt kilomètres en moins d’une heure. Un système de vélos et de charrettes, motorisés au besoin, aurait constitué, pour 99 % de la population, une solution techniquement beaucoup plus efficace que le réseau d’autoroutes tant vanté. De tels véhicules peuvent être construits et entretenus à relativement peu de frais, ils opéreraient sur un réseau routier fort analogue à celui de l’Empire inca. L’argument en faveur de la production massive de voitures et de routes est qu’elles sont une condition du développement, que sans elles une région est coupée du marché mondial. Reste à savoir si l’intégration au marché monétaire, qui en est de nos jours l’éclatant symbole, est bien le but du développement. + +Depuis quelques années, les avocats du développement commencent à admettre que les voitures, telles qu’on les utilise, ne sont pas efficientes. Ils attribuent ce manque d’efficience au fait que les véhicules sont conçus en vue de l’appropriation privée, et non du bien public. En fait, le système moderne des transports n’est pas efficient, parce qu’on assimile tout gain de vitesse à un progrès de la circulation. De même que l’exigence d’un mieux-être à tout prix, la course à la vitesse est une forme de désordre mental. En pays capitaliste, le grand voyage est une question d’argent. En pays socialiste, c’est une question de pouvoir. La vitesse est un nouveau facteur de stratification sociale dans les sociétés surefficientes. + +L’intoxication à la vitesse est un bon terrain pour le contrôle social sur les conditions du développement. L’industrie des transports, sous toutes ses formes, avale 23 % du budget total de la nation américaine, consomme 35 % de l’énergie, est à la fois la principale source de pollution et la plus importante raison d’endettement des ménages. Cette même industrie dévore souvent une fraction encore plus lourde du budget annuel des municipalités latino-américaines. Ce qui apparaît sous la rubrique « développement », dans les statistiques, est en fait la voiture du médecin ou du politicien. Elle coûte plus cher à l’ensemble de la population qu’aux Égyptiens la construction de la plus grande pyramide. + +La Thaïlande, par exemple, est célèbre dans l’histoire pour son système de canaux, les _klongs_. Ces canaux quadrillaient le pays. Ils assuraient la circulation des hommes, du riz et des impôts. Certains villages étaient isolés pendant la saison sèche, mais le rythme saisonnier de la vie faisait de cet isolement périodique une occasion de méditer et de faire la fête. Un peuple qui s’offre de longues vacances et les remplit d’activités n’est certainement pas un peuple pauvre. Durant les cinq dernières années, les canaux les plus importants ont été comblés et transformés en routes. Les conducteurs de bus sont payés au kilomètre, et les voitures restent encore peu nombreuses. Aussi, pendant une courte période, les Thaïlandais vont probablement battre les records mondiaux de vitesse en autobus. Mais ils vont payer cher la destruction de voies d’eau millénaires. Les économistes disent que les autobus et les voitures injectent de la monnaie dans l’économie. Cela est vrai, mais à quel prix ! Combien de familles vont perdre leur ancestral bateau de riz et, avec lui, la liberté ? Jamais les automobilistes n’auraient pu les concurrencer si la Banque mondiale ne leur avait payé les routes, et si le gouvernement thaïlandais n’avait promulgué de nouvelles lois qui autorisent la profanation des canaux. + +#### 3 l industrie de la construction + +Le Droit et la Finance sont derrière l’industrie, ils lui donnent le pouvoir d’ôter à l’homme la faculté de construire sa propre maison. Tout récemment, le Mexique a lancé un grand programme ayant pour but de fournir à chaque travailleur un logement décent. Dans un premier temps, on établit de nouvelles normes pour la construction d’unités d’habitation. Ces normes devaient protéger l’acquéreur d’une maison contre les abus de l’industrie de la construction. Mais, paradoxalement, ces normes mêmes ont privé encore plus de gens de la possibilité traditionnelle de se construire une maison. Car le nouveau code de l’habitat édicte des conditions minimales qu’un travailleur qui construit sa maison sur son temps libre ne peut pas remplir. De plus, le loyer d’un logement construit industriellement dépasse le revenu total de 80 % de la population. Ce « logement décent », comme on dit, ne peut être occupé que par des gens aisés ou par ceux à qui la loi octroie une allocation de logement. + +Les logements qui ne satisfont pas aux normes industrielles sont décrétés dangereux et insalubres. On refuse une aide publique à l’écrasante majorité de la population, qui n’a pas les moyens d’acheter une maison, mais qui pourrait s’en construire une. Les fonds publics destinés à l’amélioration des conditions d’habitat dans les quartiers pauvres sont affectés à la construction de villes nouvelles, près des capitales provinciales et régionales, où pourront vivre les fonctionnaires, les ouvriers syndiqués et ceux qui ont du piston. Tous ces gens sont employés dans le secteur moderne de l’économie, ils _ont du travail_. On peut facilement les repérer à ce qu’ils parlent de leur travail au substantif. Les autres Mexicains, qui ne travaillent que de loin en loin, ou pas du tout, ou atteignent à peine le niveau de subsistance, utilisent la forme verbale quand, par hasard, il leur est possible de _travailler_. + +Les gens qui ont du travail reçoivent des subventions pour construire leur maison ; en plus, tous les services publics sont organisés pour leur faire la vie belle. Dans la ville de Mexico, 10 % de la population consomme environ 50 % de l’eau courante et, sur le haut plateau, l’eau est très rare. Le code d’urbanisme impose des normes bien plus basses que celles des pays riches mais, en prescrivant comment il faut construire les maisons, il crée une croissante rareté de logements. La prétention d’une société à fournir des logements toujours meilleurs relève de la même aberration que celle des médecins à assurer toujours plus de mieux-être, ou que celle des ingénieurs à produire toujours plus de vitesse. On se fixe dans l’abstrait des buts impossibles à atteindre, ensuite on prend les moyens pour des fins. + +Ce qui s’est passé au Mexique est arrivé dans toute l’Amérique latine, y compris à Cuba, dans les années 60\. C’est aussi arrivé au Massachusetts : en 1945, le tiers des ménages habitait une maison qui était soit entièrement l’oeuvre de ses occupants, soit bâtie sur leur plan et sous leur direction. En 1970, la proportion de telles maisons ne représentait plus que les 11 % du total. Entre-temps, le logement était devenu le problème n° 1\. Pourtant, grâce aux nouveaux outils et matériaux disponibles, construire une maison est devenu plus facile à présent, mais ce sont les institutions sociales - règlements, syndicats, clauses hypothécaires - qui s’y opposent à leur manière. + +La plupart des gens ne se sentent réellement chez eux que si une part significative de la valeur de leur maison est le fruit de leur propre labeur. Une politique conviviale s’attacherait d’abord à définir ce qu’il est impossible d’obtenir par soi-même quand on bâtit sa maison. En conséquence, elle assurerait à chacun l’accès à un minimum d’espace, d’eau, d’éléments préfabriqués, d’outils conviviaux allant de la perceuse au monte-charge, et, probablement aussi, l’accès à un minimum de crédit. Une telle inversion de la politique actuelle donnerait à une société post-industrielle des logements modernes aussi séduisants pour ses membres que l’étaient, pour les anciens Mayas, les maisons qui sont encore la règle au Yucatan. + +Aujourd’hui les soins, les transports, le logement sont conçus comme devant être les résultats d’une action qui exige l’intervention de professionnels. Cette intervention se concrétise par addition de quanta successifs, le quantum en étant l’unité de mesure minimale. Trois ans d’école ont de pires effets que l’absence de scolarisation : ils font de l’enfant qui abandonne un raté. Ce qui est vrai de l’école l’est aussi de la médecine, des transports, du logement, de l’agriculture ou de la justice. Les transports motorisés ne sont rentables qu’à partir d’une certaine vitesse. L’action en justice n’est rentable que si l’importance du dommage subi justifie le coût de la procédure. Semer de nouvelles espèces n’est rentable que si le fermier dispose de suffisamment de terres et de capital. Il est fatal que des outils surpuissants, conçus pour atteindre des buts sociaux fixés abstraitement, fournissent des produits par quanta inaccessibles au plus grand nombre. Au surplus, ces outils sont _intégrés_. C’est la même minorité qui utilise l’école, l’avion, le télétype et l’air conditionné. La productivité exige le recours à des quanta tout préparés de valeurs définies par les institutions et une gestion productive exige qu’un même individu ait accès à la fois à tous ces lots bien conditionnés. La demande de chaque produit spécifique est régie par la loi d’un milieu outillé qui concourt à maintenir l’environnement produit par les autres professions. Les gens qui vivent entre leur voiture et leur appartement dans un gratte-ciel doivent pouvoir terminer leur existence à l’hôpital. Par définition, tous ces biens sont rares et le deviennent de plus en plus à mesure que les professions se spécialisent et élèvent le niveau de normes qui les régissent. Dès lors, tout nouveau quantum lancé sur le marché frustre plus d’individus qu’il n’en comble. + +Les statistiques qui démontrent la croissance du produit et la haute consommation par tête de quanta spécialisés masquent l’ampleur des coûts invisibles. Les gens sont mieux éduqués, mieux soignés, mieux transportés, mieux distraits et même souvent mieux nourris, à la seule condition que, pour unité de mesure de ce _mieux_ , on accepte docilement les objectifs fixés par les experts. La possibilité d’instaurer une société conviviale dépend de la reconnaissance du caractère destructeur de l’impérialisme politique, économique et technique. Il est plus important pour une société post-industrielle de fixer des critères pour la conception de l’outillage - et des limites à sa croissance - que de se donner des objectifs de production, comme c’est le cas aujourd’hui. En rendant le développement de la productivité obligatoire et systématique, notre génération menace l’humanité dans sa survie. Pour traduire dans la pratique la possibilité théorique d’un mode de vie post-industriel et convivial, il nous faut repérer les seuils à partir desquels l’institution produit de la frustration, et les limites à partir desquelles l’outillage exerce un effet destructeur sur la société en son entier. + +## L équilibre + +Ouvert, l’équilibre humain est susceptible de se modifier en fonction de paramètres souples mais finis : si les hommes peuvent changer, ils le font à l’intérieur de certaines limites. À l’inverse, la dynamique du système industriel actuel fonde son instabilité : il est organisé en vue d’une croissance indéfinie, et de la création illimitée de besoins nouveaux - qui deviennent vite contraignants dans le cadre industriel. Une fois établi comme dominant dans une société, le mode industriel de production fournira l’un ou l’autre bien de consommation, mais ne posera pas de limite à l’industrialisation des valeurs. Un tel processus de croissance fait à l’homme une demande déplacée : trouver satisfaction dans la soumission à la logique de l’outil. Or la structure de la force productive façonne les relations sociales. + +La demande que l’outil fait à l’homme devient de plus en plus coûteuse ; c’est le coût de l’ajustement de l’homme au service de son outil, reflété par la croissance du tertiaire dans le produit global. Il devient de plus en plus nécessaire de manipuler l’homme pour vaincre la résistance de son équilibre vital à la dynamique industrielle ; et cela prend la forme des multiples thérapies pédagogique, médicale, administrative. L’éducation produit des consommateurs compétitifs ; la médecine les maintient en vie dans l’environnement outillé qui leur est désormais indispensable ; et la bureaucratie reflète la nécessité que le corps social exerce son contrôle sur les individus appliqués à un travail insensé. Qu’à travers l’assurance, la police et l’armée croisse le coût de la défense des nouveaux privilèges, cela caractérise la situation inhérente à une société de consommation ; il est inévitable qu’elle comporte deux types d’esclaves, ceux qui sont intoxiqués et ceux qui ont envie de l’être, les initiés et les néophytes. + +Il est temps de centrer le débat politique sur les façons dont la structure de la force productive menace l’homme. Un tel débat sera dévié par ceux qui s’attachent à prescrire des palliatifs, masquant ainsi la cause profonde du blocage des systèmes de santé, de transport, d’éducation, de logement - et c’est jusqu’aux instances juridique et politique qui sont bloquées. La crise écologique, par exemple, est traitée superficiellement lorsqu’on ne souligne pas ceci : la mise en place de dispositifs antipolluants n’aura d’effets que si elle s’accompagne d’une diminution de la production globale. Autrement ces mesures transfèrent les ordures chez nos voisins, les réservent à nos enfants, ou les déversent sur le tiers monde. Juguler la pollution créée localement par une grande industrie exige des investissements, en matériel et en énergie, qui recréent, ailleurs, le même dommage à plus large échelle. Si l’on rend obligatoires les dispositifs antipolluants, on ne fait qu’augmenter le coût unitaire de production. Certes, l’on conserve un peu d’air respirable pour la collectivité, dès lors que moins de gens peuvent s’offrir le luxe de conduire une voiture, de dormir dans une maison climatisée, ou de prendre l’avion pour aller pêcher en fin de semaine ; au lieu de dégrader l’environnement physique, on accentue les écarts sociaux. La structure des forces de production menace les relations sociales plus directement que le fonctionnement biologique. Passer du charbon à l’atome, c’est passer du smog aujourd’hui à des niveaux accrus de radiation demain. Lorsqu’ils transportent leurs raffineries outre-mer, où le contrôle de la pollution est moins sévère, les Américains se préservent eux-mêmes (sinon les Vénézuéliens) d’odeurs désagréables en réservant la puanteur au Venezuela et sans diminuer l’empoisonnement de la planète. + +La surcroissance de l’outil menace les personnes de façon radicalement nouvelle et, en même temps, analogue aux formes classiques de nuisance et de dommage. La menace est nouvelle en ce que bourreaux et victimes sont confondus dans la dualité opérateurs/clients d’outils inexorablement destructeurs. À ce jeu quelques-uns partent gagnants, mais tout le monde arrive perdant. + +Je distinguerai cinq menaces portées à la population de la planète par le développement industriel avancé : + +1. La surcroissance menace le droit de l’homme à s’enraciner dans l’ _environnement_ avec lequel il a évolué. + +2. L’industrialisation menace le droit de l’homme à l’ _autonomie_ dans l’action. + +3. La surprogrammation de l’homme en vue de son nouvel environnement menace sa _créativité_. + +4. La complexification des processus de production menace son droit à la parole, c’est-à-dire à la _politique_. + +5. Le renforcement des mécanismes d’usure menace le droit de l’homme à sa tradition, son _recours au précédent_ à travers le langage, le mythe et le rituel. + +Je décrirai ces cinq menaces : à la fois distinctes et interconnectées, régies par une mortelle inversion des moyens en fins. La frustration profonde engendrée par voie de satisfaction obligatoire et outillée constitue une _sixième menace_ , qui n’est pas la moins subtile, mais qu’on ne saurait situer dans aucune atteinte déterminée d’un droit déjà défini. Le classement que j’opère a pour but de rendre le dommage (la _nouvelle_ menace) reconnaissable en terminologie traditionnelle. Un outil anonyme porté au secours de la partie blessée infecte la plaie, voilà un fait nouveau ; pour autant, le mal qui menace chacun n’est pas nouveau. Cette première classification des torts subis peut servir de base à des actions en justice où les gens lésés par le fonctionnement des outils viendraient faire valoir leur droit. L’explication de ces catégories de dommages peut être le moyen de reconquérir des principes de procédure politico-juridique grâce auxquels les gens puissent saisir, mettre en accusation et corriger le déséquilibre actuel du complexe institutionnel de l’industrie. + +Je postule que les principes sous-jacents à toute procédure sont au nombre de trois et s’appliquent dans l’ordre moral, politique et juridique : + +a) _ _ Un conflit soulevé par une personne est légitime. + +b) _ _ La dialectique de l’histoire a le pas sur les processus présents de décision. + +c) _ _ Le recours à la population, à des pairs choisis entre égaux, scelle les décisions communautaires. + +Inverser à la racine le fonctionnement de nos plus importantes institutions, voilà une révolution autrement profonde que de donner l’assaut à l’avoir ou au pouvoir, que de remettre au public les titres de propriété, comme on nous le propose. Une telle révolution n’est à envisager - et à engager - que si l’on parvient à reconquérir (et à s’accorder sur) une structure formelle de procédure. + +Avant d’approfondir la procédure politique seule capable de sauvegarder l’équilibre humain, il convient de centrer l’analyse sur chacune des dimensions où se présente la menace. + +### La dégradation de l environnement + +L’importance de l’équilibre entre l’homme et la biosphère a été reconnue, soudain elle commence à préoccuper beaucoup de gens. La dégradation de l’environnement est dramatique et spectaculaire. Pendant des années, à Mexico, la circulation automobile a régulièrement augmenté sous un ciel d’azur. Puis, d’un coup, le smog s’est répandu, il est devenu pire qu’à Los Angeles. Des poisons d’une puissance inconnue sont injectés dans notre biosystème. Pas moyen de passer l’éponge, ni de savoir comment ces poisons vont s’additionner pour, soudain, réduire la planète, comme déjà le lac Érié ou le lac Baïkal, à une chose morte. L’anthropogenèse est évolution avec une niche cosmique. La terre est notre demeure. Et voici que l’homme menace sa demeure. + +On voit d’ordinaire dans le surpeuplement, la surabondance et la perversion de l’outil, les trois forces qui se conjuguent pour mettre en péril l’équilibre écologique. Paul Ehrlich souligne le fait que si l’on veut honnêtement contrôler la bombe démographique et stabiliser la consommation, on s’expose à être traité « d’antipeuple et d’antipauvre ». Il insiste : « des mesures impopulaires (limitant à la fois les naissances et la consommation) sont le seul espoir qu’a l’humanité d’éviter une misère sans précédent ». Ehrlich, suivi d’autres avocats du degré zéro de croissance de la population, veut conjuguer contrôle des naissances et efficience industrielle. De son côté, Barry Commoner met l’accent sur le fait que la perversion de l’outil, troisième inconnue de l’équation, est, pour la plus grande part, responsable de la récente dégradation de l’environnement. Il s’expose à la critique d’être un démagogue briseur-de-machines. Commoner, comme bien d’autres écologues, veut plutôt réoutiller l’industrie qu’inverser, à la racine, la structure de base de l’outil. + +La fascination provoquée par la crise écologique a limité la discussion sur la survie à la considération d’un seul équilibre, celui que menace l’outil polluant. Mais ce débat reste unidimensionnel, donc sans objet, même si on y fait intervenir trois variables, chacune caractérisant un déséquilibre entre l’homme et son environnement. Le surpeuplement rend plus de gens dépendants de ressources limitées, la surabondance oblige chacun à dépenser plus d’énergie, et l’outil destructeur dégrade sans bienfait cette énergie. + +Si l’on considère ces trois forces comme les seules menaces, et la biosphère comme l’objet menacé, deux questions - pas plus - méritent d’être discutées : + +a) Quel facteur (ou quelle force) a le plus dégradé les ressources génétiques, et lequel est le plus menaçant pour le proche avenir ? + +b) Quel facteur, dans la mesure où il est réductible ou invertible, requiert de notre part le plus d’attention ? Les uns disent qu’il est plus facile de s’en tirer avec la population, les autres qu’il est plus aisé de réduire une production productrice d’entropie. + +L’honnêteté oblige chacun de nous à reconnaître la nécessité d’une limitation de la procréation, de la consommation et du gaspillage ; mais il importe davantage d’abandonner l’illusion que les machines puissent travailler pour nous ou les thérapeutes nous rendre capables de nous servir d’eux. La seule solution à la crise écologique est que les gens saisissent qu’ils seraient plus heureux s’ils pouvaient _travailler_ ensemble et _prendre soin_ l’un de l’autre. Une telle inversion des vues courantes réclame de qui l’opère du courage intellectuel. En effet il s’expose à une critique qui, pour n’être guère éclairée, n’en est pas moins douloureuse à recevoir : il ne sera pas seulement traité « d’antipeuple et d’antipauvre », mais aussi d’obscurantiste opposé à l’école, au savoir et au progrès. Le déséquilibre écologique est une surcharge qui se conjugue avec d’autres pour opérer, chacune dans une dimension particulière, la distorsion de l’équilibre vital. Plus loin, je montrerai que, dans une telle perspective, le surpeuplement est le résultat d’un déséquilibre de l’éducation, que la surabondance provient de la monopolisation industrielle des valeurs personnelles, que la perversion de l’outil est l’implacable effet d’une inversion des moyens en fins. + +Le débat unidimensionnel mené par les tenants de divers remèdes-miracles, qui conjuguent la croissance industrielle avec la survie en équité, ne peut qu’alimenter l’illusoire espoir qu’en quelque façon l’action humaine convenablement outillée répondra aux exigences du monde conçu comme Totalité-Outil. Une survie garantie bureaucratiquement dans de telles conditions signifierait l’expansion de l’industrialisation du tertiaire jusqu’au point où le guidage de l’évolution planétaire serait identifié à un système centralement planifié de production et de reproduction. + +Selon les partisans d’une telle solution, esprits portés à l’outillage, la conservation du milieu physique pourrait devenir le principal souci du léviathan bureaucratique placé aux leviers qui règlent les niveaux de reproduction, de demande, de production et de consommation. Une telle réponse technocratique à la croissance démographique, à la pollution et à la surabondance, ne peut être fondée que sur un développement accru de l’industrialisation des valeurs. La croyance en la possibilité d’un tel développement est elle-même fondée sur un postulat erroné, à savoir : « L’achèvement historique de la science et de la technologie a rendu possible le déplacement des valeurs, leur matérialisation en tâches techniques. Dès lors le problème brûlant est celui de la redéfinition des valeurs en termes techniques, comme éléments d’un procès technologique. Techniques, les nouvelles fins seraient opératoires non seulement à l’usage, mais lors du projet et de la construction de l’outillage[^n03]. » + +Le rétablissement d’un équilibre écologique dépend de la capacité du corps social à réagir contre la progressive matérialisation des valeurs, leur transformation en tâches techniques. Faute de quoi l’homme se trouvera encerclé par les produits de son outillage, enfermé à huis clos. Enveloppé par un milieu physique, social et psychique, qu’il se sera forgé, il sera prisonnier de sa coquille-outil, incapable de retrouver l’antique milieu avec lequel il s’était formé. L’équilibre écologique ne sera rétabli que si nous reconnaissons que seule la personne a des fins, que seule elle peut travailler à les réaliser. + +### Le monopole radical + +Les outils surefficients peuvent détruire l’équilibre entre l’homme et la nature et détruire l’environnement. Mais des outils peuvent être surefficients d’une tout autre manière : ils peuvent altérer le rapport entre ce que les gens ont besoin de faire eux-mêmes et ce qu’ils tirent de l’industrie. Dans cette seconde dimension, une production surefficiente donne jour à un monopole radical. + +Par _monopole radical_ , j’entends un type de domination par un produit qui va bien au-delà de ce que l’on désigne ainsi à l’habitude. On entend généralement par monopole le contrôle exclusif par une firme des moyens de production ou de vente d’un bien ou d’un service. On dira que Coca-Cola prend le monopole des boissons non alcoolisées au Nicaragua en y étant le seul fabricant de telles boissons qui dispose de moyens modernes de publicité. Nestlé impose sa marque de chocolat en contrôlant le marché de la matière première, un fabricant de voitures en contrôlant les importations étrangères, une chaîne de télévision en prenant une licence d’exclusivité. Cela fait un siècle que les monopoles de ce style ont été reconnus comme de dangereux sous-produits de la croissance industrielle, et que des dispositifs légaux de contrôle ont été instaurés avec fort peu de résultats. Normalement la législation opposée à la constitution des monopoles a eu pour intention d’éviter que, par leur entremise, il soit imposé une limite à la croissance ; ici n’entrait nul souci de protéger l’individu. + +Ce premier type de monopole réduit le choix offert au consommateur, voire l’oblige à acheter un produit sur le marché, mais il est bien rare qu’il limite par ailleurs sa liberté. Un homme assoiffé peut désirer une boisson non alcoolisée, fraîche et gazeuse, et se trouver limité au choix d’une seule marque, mais il reste libre d’étancher sa soif en buvant de la bière ou de l’eau. C’est seulement si et lorsque sa soif se traduit sans autre possibilité dans le besoin compulsif, l’achat obligatoire d’une petite bouteille d’une quelconque boisson, que s’installe le monopole radical. Par ce terme, j’entends la domination d’un type de produit plutôt que celle d’une marque. Dans un tel cas, un procès de production industriel exerce un contrôle exclusif sur la satisfaction d’un besoin pressant, en excluant tout recours, dans ce but, à des activités non industrielles. + +Les transports peuvent ainsi prendre le monopole de la circulation. Les voitures peuvent façonner une ville, éliminant pratiquement les déplacements à pied ou à bicyclette, comme à Los Angeles. La construction de routes pour autobus peut réduire à néant la circulation fluviale, comme en Thaïlande. Que l’automobile restreigne le droit à la marche, et non pas qu’il y ait plus de gens à conduire des Chevrolet que des Peugeot, voilà le monopole radical. Que les gens soient obligés de se faire transporter et deviennent impuissants à circuler sans moteur, voilà le monopole radical. Ce que les transports à moteur font aux gens en vertu de ce monopole radical est tout à fait distinct et indépendant de ce qu’ils font en brûlant de l’essence qui pourrait être transformée en aliments dans un monde surpeuplé. Cela est distinct, aussi, de l’homicide automobile. Bien sûr les voitures brûlent en holocauste de l’essence, bien sûr elles sont coûteuses. Bien sûr, dès 1908, les Américains célébraient la cent millionième victime de l’automobile. Mais le monopole radical établi par le véhicule à moteur a sa propre façon de détruire. Les voitures créent les distances, la vitesse sous toutes ses formes rétrécit l’espace. On enfonce des autoroutes à travers des régions surpeuplées, ensuite on extorque aux gens un péage pour les « autoriser » à franchir les distances que le système du transport exige de soi. Ce monopole des transports, comme une bête monstrueuse, dévore l’espace. Même si les avions et les autobus fonctionnaient comme service public sans polluer l’air et le silence et sans épuiser les ressources en énergie, leur vitesse inhumaine n’en dégraderait pas moins la mobilité naturelle de l’homme, et le contraindrait à donner toujours plus de temps à la circulation mécanique. + +L’école, elle aussi, peut exercer un monopole radical sur le savoir en le redéfinissant comme éducation. Aussi longtemps que les gens acceptent la définition de la réalité que leur donne le maître, les autodidactes sont officiellement étiquetés comme « non éduqués ». La médecine moderne prive ceux qui souffrent des soins qui ne sont pas l’objet d’une prescription médicale. Il y a monopole radical lorsque l’outil programmé évince le pouvoir-faire de l’individu. Cette domination de l’outil instaure la consommation obligatoire et dès lors restreint l’autonomie de la personne. C’est là un type particulier de contrôle social, renforcé par la consommation obligatoire d’une production de masse que seules les grosses industries peuvent assurer. + +Le fait que des entreprises organisées de pompes funèbres en viennent à contrôler les enterrements démontre comment fonctionne un monopole radical et en quoi il diffère d’autres formes de comportement culturel. Au Mexique, il y a encore une génération, l’ouverture de la fosse et la bénédiction du corps étaient les deux seules opérations effectuées par des spécialistes : le fossoyeur et le prêtre. Une mort dans la famille créait des obligations sociales, qui pouvaient être prises en charge par les proches. La veillée, les obsèques et le repas avaient pour fonction d’harmoniser les disputes, de laisser libre cours à la douleur, de célébrer la vie et la fatalité de la mort. La plupart des usages y étaient de nature rituelle, ils étaient l’objet d’attentives prescriptions qui différaient en chaque région. Puis des entreprises de pompes funèbres se sont installées dans toutes les grandes villes. Au début, elles eurent du mal à trouver des clients parce que, même là, les gens savaient encore enterrer leurs morts. Dans les années 60, ces entreprises obtinrent le contrôle des nouveaux cimetières et commencèrent à offrir des forfaits incluant le cercueil, la cérémonie et l’embaumement du défunt. Maintenant une loi est passée qui rend obligatoire le recours aux bons offices des croque-morts. Lorsqu’il aura le contrôle du cadavre, le patron des pompes funèbres aura pris le monopole radical de l’enterrement, de même que le médecin est sur le point de prendre celui de la mort. + +La récente controverse sur les services de santé aux États-Unis jette une lumière brutale sur la forteresse qu’est un monopole radical. Dans la discussion, chaque parti politique fait du service de la maladie le problème brûlant, et relègue de ce fait le service de la santé dans un champ dont la politique n’a rien de bien important à dire. Chaque parti promet plus d’argent aux médecins, aux hôpitaux et aux pharmaciens. De telles promesses ne servent pas la grande masse, mais contribuent à accroître le pouvoir, détenu par une minorité de spécialistes, de déterminer les outils dont les hommes doivent se servir pour conserver la santé, soigner la maladie et combattre la mort. Plus d’argent affermira la mainmise de l’industrie de la santé sur les fonds publics, en redoublera le prestige et le pouvoir arbitraire. Placé dans les mains d’une minorité, un tel pouvoir augmentera la souffrance humaine et diminuera l’initiative de la personne. On mettra plus d’argent dans des outils qui ne font que reculer une mort certaine, et dans des services qui mutilent encore plus les droits élémentaires de ceux qui veulent se soigner les uns les autres. Plus d’argent dépensé sous le contrôle des spécialistes de la santé signifie plus de gens conditionnés de façon opérationnelle à jouer le rôle du malade, un rôle qu’ils n’ont même plus le droit de tenir à leur gré. Une fois le rôle accepté, leurs besoins les plus simples ne peuvent être satisfaits sans passer par des services qui sont par définition professionnelle soumis à la rareté. + +Les hommes ont la capacité innée de soigner, de réconforter, de se déplacer, d’acquérir du savoir, de construire leurs maisons et d’enterrer leurs morts. Chacun de ces pouvoirs rencontre un besoin. Les moyens de satisfaire ces besoins ne manquent pas, tant que les hommes restent dépendants de ce qu’ils peuvent faire par et pour eux-mêmes, le recours à des professionnels étant marginal. De telles activités ont une valeur d’usage, et n’ont pas été affectées de valeur d’échange. Leur _exercice_ n’est pas considéré comme un _travail_. + +Ces satisfactions élémentaires se raréfient lorsque l’environnement social est transformé de telle sorte que les besoins élémentaires ne peuvent plus être satisfaits hors commerce. Et un monopole radical s’établit quand les gens abandonnent leur capacité innée de faire ce qu’ils peuvent pour eux-mêmes et pour les autres, en échange de quelque chose de « mieux » que peut seulement produire pour eux un outil dominant. Le monopole radical reflète l’industrialisation des valeurs. À la réponse personnelle, il substitue l’objet standardisé ; il crée de nouvelles formes de rareté et un nouvel instrument de mesure, donc de classement, du niveau de consommation des gens. Ce reclassement provoque la hausse du coût unitaire de prestation du service, module l’attribution des privilèges, restreint l’accès aux ressources, et installe les gens dans la dépendance. Les gens ont besoin d’une défense contre le monopole radical. Ils ont besoin de se défendre contre la mort et la sépulture standardisées, que la consommation leur soit imposée par l’intérêt de la libre entreprise des médecins et des croque-morts, ou par le gouvernement pour le bien de l’hygiène. Cette défense, ils en ont besoin même si la plupart d’entre eux sont désormais tributaires des services spécialisés. Si le besoin d’une défense contre le monopole radical n’est pas reconnu, celui-ci renforcera et affinera son outillage, jusqu’à entraîner un dépassement du seuil humain de résistance à l’inaction et à la passivité. + +Il n’est pas toujours facile de déterminer ce qui constitue la consommation obligatoire. Le monopole scolaire n’est pas fondé d’abord sur une loi qui réprimerait, chez les parents ou leurs enfants, la désertion scolaire. Non qu’il n’y ait de telles lois, mais l’école s’appuie sur une autre tactique : ségrégation des non-scolarisés, centralisation de l’outillage du savoir sous le contrôle des maîtres, traitement social privilégié des étudiants. S’il est important de se défendre contre des lois qui rendent obligatoires l’éducation, la vaccination ou la prolongation de la vie humaine, cela ne saurait suffire. Les procédures qui permettent déjà de se protéger contre la privation d’un bien ou d’un droit sont à étendre aux cas où la partie menacée veut se défendre de l’obligation de consommer, et ceci quel que soit le type de consommation en jeu. Le seuil d’intolérabilité d’un monopole radical ne peut être fixé d’avance, mais on peut anticiper sur la menace. La législation qui définit la nature précise du monopole considéré comme intolérable doit être le fruit d’un procès politique. + +Il est aussi difficile de se défendre contre la généralisation du monopole que contre l’extension de la pollution. Les gens affrontent plus volontiers un danger menaçant leurs intérêts privés que ceux du corps social pris comme un tout. Il y a beaucoup plus d’ennemis avoués des voitures que de la conduite automobile. Les mêmes qui s’opposent aux voitures, en tant qu’elles polluent l’air et le silence et monopolisent la circulation, conduisent une automobile dont ils jugent le pouvoir de pollution négligeable, et n’ont aucunement le sentiment d’aliéner leur liberté lorsqu’ils sont au volant. La défense contre le monopole est encore plus difficile si l’on prend en compte les facteurs suivants. D’une part la société est d’ores et déjà encombrée d’autoroutes, d’écoles et d’hôpitaux ; de l’autre, la capacité innée que l’homme a de poser des actes indépendants est paralysée depuis si longtemps qu’elle semble s’être atrophiée ; enfin les solutions offrant une autre possibilité, pour être simples, semblent devoir être hors de portée de l’imagination. Il est difficile de se débarrasser du monopole lorsqu’il a gelé la forme du monde physique, sclérosé le comportement et mutilé l’imagination. Quand on découvre le monopole radical, il est en général trop tard. + +Un monopole commercial est brisé aux frais de la minorité qui en profite, donc aux frais de ceux qui d’habitude se débrouillent pour échapper aux contrôles. Puisque la collectivité supporte déjà le coût du monopole radical, celui-ci ne sera brisé que si cette même collectivité prend conscience qu’elle se porterait mieux en finançant la destruction du monopole plutôt que sa perpétuation. Et elle n’acceptera d’en payer le prix qu’en mettant en balance d’une part les promesses d’une société conviviale et de l’autre les mirages d’une société de progrès. Les gens choisiront la bicyclette quand ils auront calculé le prix des véhicules rapides. Personne n’acceptera de payer s’il confond convivialité et indigence. + +Certains symptômes du monopole radical commencent à émerger à la conscience sociale, et par-dessus tout celui-ci : même dans les pays surdéveloppés, et quel que soit leur régime politique, le taux de croissance de la frustration excède largement celui de la production. Bien sûr, des politiques d’aménagement de la frustration distraient sans peine l’attention de la profonde nature du monopole. Mais à chaque succès superficiel qui corrige des distorsions et dilue la critique en de vagues réformes, le monopole ici discuté s’enracine encore plus solidement. + +Le premier des palliatifs est la défense du consommateur. Le consommateur ne peut se passer d’une voiture. Il achète telle ou telle marque. Il découvre que la plupart des voitures sont dangereuses, à n’importe quelle vitesse. Alors il s’organise avec d’autres consommateurs pour obtenir aussi bien des voitures plus sûres, de meilleure qualité et moins périssables, que des routes plus larges et moins dangereuses. La victoire du consommateur est une victoire à la Pyrrhus : un regain de confiance individuelle dans les véhicules surpuissants (qu’ils soient publics ou privés) signifie plus de dépendance collective à leur égard - et toujours plus de frustration chez ceux qui, soit qu’ils le doivent soit qu’ils le veuillent, pratiquent la marche. + +Que les consommateurs « accrochés » à un produit s’organisent pour se défendre, cela a pour effet immédiat d’accroître la qualité de la drogue fournie et la puissance du fournisseur, et peut en dernière instance amener la croissance à rencontrer ses propres limites : il se peut que les voitures deviennent un jour trop coûteuses à l’achat et les médicaments trop violents pour les essais. C’est en exacerbant les contradictions inhérentes à un tel procès d’industrialisation des valeurs que les majorités peuvent se rendre à même de prendre pleine conscience de ces contradictions. Il est possible que le consommateur averti, qui choisit ses achats, en vienne à découvrir qu’il s’en sortirait mieux en se débrouillant tout seul. + +Le second palliatif, qui vise à égaliser le taux de croissance de la production et celui de la frustration, est la planification. L’illusion régnante est que des planificateurs animés d’idéaux socialistes peuvent de quelque façon créer une société socialiste où les travailleurs industriels formeraient la majorité. Les tenants de cette idée négligent le fait suivant : la marge d’adaptation d’outils anticonviviaux (qui manipulent la personne) à une société socialiste est extrêmement étroite. Le recours aux transports, à l’éducation ou à la médecine, une fois réalisée leur gratuité, court le risque d’être renforcé par les gardiens de l’ordre moral : on accusera le sous-consommateur de saboter l’effort national. Dans une économie de marché, celui qui veut soigner sa grippe en restant au lit est pénalisé par un manque à gagner. Dans une société qui en appelle au « peuple » pour atteindre des objectifs de production déterminés au sommet, refuser la consommation médicale équivaut à faire profession d’immoralité publique. + +La défense contre le monopole radical est possible à une condition : que se dégage, au plan politique, un accord unanime sur la nécessité de mettre un terme à la croissance. Un tel consensus se situe à l’exact opposé de l’attitude qui sous-tend toutes les oppositions politiques et qui consiste à réclamer plus de choses utiles pour plus de gens inutiles. + +L’équilibre entre l’homme et son environnement d’une part, entre la possibilité d’exercer une activité créative et la somme des besoins élémentaires à satisfaire de la sorte, d’autre part, ce double équilibre approche maintenant du point de rupture. Le grand nombre, pourtant, ne se sent pas concerné. Il me faut ici expliquer pourquoi le grand nombre est aveugle ou impuissant devant le danger. L’aveuglement, je le crois, est l’effet d’un troisième déséquilibre, celui du savoir ; quant à l’impuissance, c’est le fait de la perturbation d’un quatrième équilibre, que j’appelle équilibre du pouvoir. + +### La surprogrammation + +L’équilibre du savoir est déterminé par le rapport de deux variables : d’une part le savoir qui provient de relations créatives entre l’homme et son environnement, de l’autre le savoir réifié de l’homme agi par son milieu outillé. + +Le premier savoir est l’effet des noeuds de relations qui s’établissent spontanément entre des personnes, dans l’emploi d’outils conviviaux. Le second savoir est le fait d’un dressage intentionnel et programmé. L’apprentissage de la langue maternelle relève du premier savoir, l’ingestion des mathématiques à l’école relève du second. Personne de sensé n’ira dire que parler, marcher ou s’occuper d’un petit enfant soit le résultat d’une éducation formelle ; il en va d’ordinaire autrement pour les mathématiques, la danse classique ou la peinture. + +L’équilibre du savoir change suivant le lieu et le temps. Le rite est prégnant : un musulman sait un peu d’arabe par l’effet de sa prière. Cette acquisition de savoir s’opère par interaction dans le milieu circonscrit par une tradition. C’est de façon analogue que les paysans reprennent le folklore de leur terroir. Classes et castes multiplient les occasions d’apprendre : le riche _sait_ se tenir à table et parler dans le monde (il souligne d’ailleurs que « cela ne s’apprend pas »), le pauvre saura survivre dignement là où aucune école n’a appris au riche à s’en sortir. + +Première est la structure de l’outil pour l’acquisition du premier savoir : moins nos outils sont conviviaux, plus ils alimentent l’enseignement. Dans certaines tribus, de petite taille et de grande cohésion, le savoir est partagé très équitablement entre la plupart des membres de la tribu, chacun sait la plus grande part de ce que tout le monde sait. À l’étape ultérieure du procès de civilisation, de nouveaux outils sont introduits, plus de gens savent plus de choses, mais tout le monde ne sait plus faire toute chose également bien. La maîtrise, toutefois, n’implique pas encore le monopole de la compréhension : on peut avoir la compréhension de ce que fait un forgeron sans en être un soi-même, on n’a pas besoin d’être cuisinier pour savoir comment on fait la cuisine. Ce jeu combiné d’une information largement répandue et d’une aptitude générale à en tirer parti caractérise une société où prévaut l’outil convivial. Si la technique de l’artisan peut être comprise en observant son travail, les ressources complexes qu’il met en oeuvre ne peuvent être acquises qu’à l’issue d’une longue opération disciplinée : l’apprentissage. Le savoir global d’une société s’épanouit quand, à la fois, se développent le savoir acquis spontanément et le savoir reçu d’un maître ; alors rigueur et liberté se conjuguent harmonieusement. L’extension du champ d’équilibre du savoir ne peut aller à l’infini ; elle est grosse de sa limite. Ce champ est optimisable, il n’est pas indéfini. D’abord parce que l’empan d’une vie humaine est limité. Ensuite (et cela est tout aussi inexorable) parce que spécialisation de l’outil et division du travail sont en interaction, et requièrent, au-delà d’un certain point, une surprogrammation de l’opérateur et du client. La plus grande part du savoir de chacun est dès lors l’effet du vouloir et du pouvoir d’autrui. La culture peut fleurir en d’innombrables variétés, mais il est des bornes matérielles qu’elle ne peut contourner. + +Dans quel environnement l’enfant des villes voit-il le jour ? Dans un ensemble complexe de systèmes qui signifient une chose pour ceux qui les conçoivent, et une autre pour ceux qui les emploient. Placé au contact de milliers de systèmes, placé à leurs terminaisons, l’homme des villes sait se servir du téléphone et de la télévision, mais il ne sait comment ça marche. L’acquisition spontanée du savoir est confinée aux mécanismes d’ajustement à un confort massifié. L’homme des villes est de moins en moins à l’aise pour faire sa chose à lui. Faire la cuisine, la cour ou l’amour devient matière à enseignement. Dévié par et vers l’éducation, l’équilibre du savoir se dégrade. Les gens savent ce qu’on leur a appris, mais ils n’apprennent plus par eux-mêmes. Ils sentent qu’ils ont besoin d’être éduqués. + +Le savoir est dès lors un bien et, comme tout bien mis sur le marché, il est soumis à la rareté. Celer la nature de cette rareté est la fonction - fort coûteuse - d’une éducation multiforme. L’éducation, c’est la préparation programmée à la « vie active » moyennant l’ingurgitation d’instructions massives et standardisées produites par l’école. Mais l’éducation, c’est aussi le branchement continu sur le flux d’informations médiatisées (informations _sur_ ce qui se passe), c’est le « message » de chaque bien manufacturé. Quelquefois le message est écrit sur la boîte, et il faut le lire. Si le produit est plus élaboré, sa forme, sa couleur, les associations provoquées dictent à l’usager la façon de s’en servir. Permanente, l’éducation l’est en particulier, comme médecine de saison, pour le cadre, le policier et l’ouvrier qualifié, périodiquement dépassés par l’innovation dans leur propre branche. Lorsque les gens s’usent, doivent sans cesse retourner sur les bancs de l’école pour prendre un bain de savoir et de sécurité, lorsque l’analyste doit être reprogrammé à chaque nouvelle génération d’ordinateurs, alors, vraiment, l’éducation est un bien soumis à la rareté. Ainsi l’éducation devient, dans la société, la question à la fois la plus brûlante et la plus mystifiante. + +Partout le taux de croissance du coût de la formation est supérieur à celui du produit global. Deux interprétations sont possibles. Pour l’une, l’éducation est un moyen de parvenir à ces fins économiques. De ce point de vue l’investissement du savoir dans l’homme est requis par la nécessité d’élever la productivité. La disparité des taux de croissance du tertiaire thérapeutique signifie que la production globale approche de l’asymptote. Pour parer au danger, il faut trouver le moyen d’augmenter le rapport coût/bénéfice dans l’orthopédie pédagogique. Les écoles seront les premières frappées lors du procès de rationalisation des mécanismes de capitalisation du savoir. À mon avis c’est dommage. Pour destructrice et inefficace qu’elle soit, l’école, par son caractère traditionnel, assure un minimum de défense à l’enfant. Les éducateurs libérés des entraves inhérentes au système scolaire pourraient se révéler des « conditionneurs » très efficaces. + +Le point de départ de la seconde interprétation est opposé : le tertiaire, sans qu’on puisse l’assimiler à la seule éducation, est le produit social le plus précieux de la croissance industrielle. En ce sens, le déclin de l’utilité marginale de l’éducation ne saurait justifier une limitation de sa production. Tout au contraire, la substitution à la demande des biens de la demande des services marque à la fois la transition d’une société vers une économie stable et une hausse de la « qualité de vie ». Neuf sur dix des propositions avancées sur ce que sera l’an 2000 décrivent dans leur dernier chapitre le bonheur comme une avalanche de consommation tertiaire. + +Ces deux interprétations dévient l’une et l’autre l’équilibre du savoir : elles concourent au développement des techniques de manipulation éducative, et font avorter toute curiosité personnelle. Considérer l’éducation comme moyen de production ou comme produit de luxe revient au même dès lors qu’on en redemande. Dans les deux cas, on dévie l’équilibre du savoir en faveur de plus d’enseignement. Les deux positions reposent sur le même postulat affecté d’un caractère de fatalité : le monde moderne est tellement artificiel, aliéné, arcane, qu’il dépasse la portée du tout-venant et ne peut être connu que par les grands initiés et leurs disciples. + +Substituer le réveil de l’éducation à l’éveil du savoir, c’est étouffer dans l’homme le poète, geler son pouvoir de donner sens au monde. Pour peu qu’on le coupe de la nature, qu’on le prive de travail créatif, qu’on mutile sa curiosité, l’homme est déraciné, ligoté, il se fane. Surdéterminer l’environnement physique, c’est le rendre physiologiquement hostile. Noyer l’homme dans le bien-être, c’est l’enchaîner au monopole radical. Pourrir l’équilibre du savoir, c’est faire de l’homme la marionnette de ses outils. Englué dans son bonheur climatisé, l’homme est châtré : ne lui reste que la rage qui le fait tuer ou se tuer. + +Toujours il y a eu des poètes et des bouffons pour se soulever contre l’écrasement de la pensée créative par le dogme. Métaphorisant, ils dévoilent l’a-pensée littérale. L’humour étaye leur démonstration : le sérieux est insensé. Ils s’éveillent à la merveille, dissolvent la certitude, bannissent la crainte et dénouent les corps. Le prophète dénonce les croyances, manifeste les superstitions, éveille les personnes, en tire la force et la flamme. Les sommations que lancent poésie, intuition, théorie, à l’avance du dogme sur l’esprit, ont-elles de quoi mener à une révolution de l’éveil ? Ce n’est pas impossible. Mais il faut, pour que l’équilibre du savoir puisse être redressé, qu’Église et État soient séparés, que bureaucratie de la vérité et bureaucratie du bien-être soient divisées, que le savoir obligatoire et l’action politique soient distingués. L’écriture poétique ne fera éclater la société qu’en se coulant dans le moule du procès politique. + +Le Droit a déjà servi à délier des lois l’idéologie. Le Droit, qui a déjà défendu le corps social contre les prétentions exagérées des clercs, peut le faire maintenant contre celles des éducateurs. Il n’y a pas loin de l’obligation d’aller à l’école, ou ailleurs, à celle d’aller à l’église. Un jour, le Droit pourra réaliser la séparation de l’éducation et de la politique, en principe constitutive de la société. Mais dès maintenant le Droit peut servir à combattre la prolifération du tertiaire et son emploi à la reproduction d’une société de classes. + +Comprendre véritablement la hausse du coût de l’éducation suppose connues les deux faces du problème : premièrement, l’outil non convivial a des retombées éducatives qui atteignent un seuil d’intolérabilité ; deuxièmement, une éducation non convivialement outillée n’est pas économiquement viable. + +Le premier point nous ouvre à la nécessité d’une transition vers une société où travail, loisir et politique favoriseraient l’apprentissage, une société qui fonctionnerait avec moins d’éducation formelle. Le second point nous ouvre à la possibilité de mettre en place des solutions éducatives qui faciliteraient une acquisition spontanée du savoir, et confineraient l’enseignement programmé à des cas limités et clairement spécifiés. Pour surmonter la _crise de communication_ , il faut souligner la distorsion parallèle dans l’outillage de l’énergie et de l’information. + +Sur toute la surface de la planète, l’outil hautement capitalisé requiert un homme bourré d’un stock de savoir. Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, la rationalisation de la production a pénétré les régions dites retardées et les métastases industrielles exercent sur l’école une intense demande de personnel programmé. La prolifération du bien-être exige le conditionnement approprié pour vivre avec. Ce que les gens apprennent dans les écoles qui se multiplient en Malaisie ou au Brésil, c’est avant tout à mesurer le temps avec la montre du programmeur, estimer l’avancement avec les lunettes du bureaucrate, apprécier la consommation accrue avec le coeur du marchand, et considérer le pourquoi du travail avec les yeux du responsable syndical. Cela, ce n’est pas le maître qui le leur enseigne, mais le parcours programmé produit et oblitéré en même temps par la structure scolaire. Ce qu’enseigne le maître n’a guère d’importance dès lors que les enfants doivent passer des centaines d’heures assemblés par classes d’âges, entrer dans la routine du programme (le parcours ou curriculum), et recevoir un diplôme en fonction de leur capacité à s’y soumettre. Qu’apprend-on à l’école ? On apprend que plus on y passe d’heures, plus on vaut cher sur le marché. On apprend à valoriser la consommation échelonnée de programmes. On apprend que tout ce que produit une institution dominante vaut et coûte cher, même ce qui ne se voit pas, comme l’éducation ou la santé. On apprend à valoriser l’avancement hiérarchique, la soumission et la passivité, et même la déviance-type que le maître interprétera comme symptôme de créativité. On apprend à briguer sans indiscipline les faveurs du bureaucrate qui préside aux séances quotidiennes, à l’école le professeur, à l’usine le patron. On apprend à se définir comme détenteur d’un stock de savoir dans la spécialité où l’on a investi son temps. On apprend, enfin, à accepter sans broncher _sa place_ dans la société, à savoir la classe et la carrière précises qui correspondent respectivement au niveau et au champ de spécialisation scolaire. + +Les règles d’embauche dans les industries naissantes des pays pauvres sont telles que seuls les scolarisés prennent les places rares, parce qu’ils sont les seuls à avoir appris à se taire à l’école. Les places à la chaîne sont définies comme les plus productives, les mieux payées, de sorte que l’accès aux produits industriels est interdit aux non-scolarisés. Fabriqués par la machine, chaussures, sacs, vêtements, nourritures congelées et boissons gazeuses évincent du marché des biens équivalents qui étaient convivialement produits. L’école sert l’industrialisation en justifiant au tiers monde l’existence de deux secteurs, celui du marché et celui de la subsistance : celui de la pauvreté modernisée et celui d’une nouvelle misère des pauvres. Au fur et à mesure que la production se concentre et se capitalise, l’école publique, pour continuer à jouer son rôle d’écran, coûte plus cher à ceux qui y vont, mais fait payer la note à ceux qui n’y vont pas. + +L’éducation ne devient pas une nécessité seulement parce qu’il faut diplômer les gens pour sélectionner ceux à qui on donnera du travail, mais encore pour contrôler ceux qui accèdent à la consommation. C’est la croissance industrielle elle-même qui conduit l’éducation à exercer le contrôle social indispensable à un usage efficient des produits. L’industrie du logement dans les pays d’Amérique latine est un bon exemple des dysfonctions éducatives produites par les architectes. Dans ces pays, les grandes villes sont entourées de vastes zones, _favelas, barriadas_ ou _poblaciones_ , où les gens dressent eux-mêmes leurs abris. Cela ne coûterait pas cher de préfabriquer des éléments d’habitation et de bâtiments de services communs faciles à assembler. Les gens pourraient se construire des abris plus durables, plus confortables et plus salubres, en même temps qu’ils apprendraient l’emploi de nouveaux matériaux et de nouveaux systèmes. Au lieu de cela, au lieu d’encourager l’aptitude innée des personnes à façonner leur propre environnement, les gouvernements parachutent dans ces bidonvilles des services communs conçus pour une population vivant dans des maisons modernes types. Par leur seule présence, l’école neuve, la route goudronnée et le poste de police en acier et en verre définissent comme modèle l’édifice construit par des spécialistes, et posent de la sorte sur la maison que l’on se construit soi-même le sceau du bidonville, la réduisant à n’être qu’une baraque en tôles. Une telle définition est instituée par la loi, qui refuse le permis de construire aux gens qui ne peuvent fournir un plan signé par un architecte. Ainsi prive-t-on les gens de leur aptitude naturelle à investir leur temps personnel dans la création de valeurs d’usage, et les oblige-t-on à un travail salarié : ils pourront alors échanger leurs salaires contre l’espace industriellement conditionné. On les prive aussi de la possibilité d’apprendre en construisant. + +La société industrielle exige que les uns soient programmés à conduire des camions, les autres à construire des maisons. À d’autres encore, on doit enseigner à vivre dans les grands ensembles. Instituteurs, travailleurs sociaux et policiers travaillent la main dans la main pour maintenir les individus sous-payés ou en chômage partiel dans des maisons qu’ils ne peuvent ni construire eux-mêmes ni modifier. Ainsi, la somme économisée dans la construction des HLM fait augmenter, bien sûr, le coût d’entretien de l’immeuble, mais exige en dépenses tertiaires un multiple de cette économie : pour instruire, animer, promouvoir, c’est-à-dire pour contrôler, conformer et conditionner le locataire consentant. Pour caser plus de gens sur moins de territoire, le Brésil et le Venezuela ont fait l’expérience des grands immeubles. D’abord, il a fallu que la police déloge les gens de leurs « taudis » et les reloge dans des appartements. Ensuite les travailleurs sociaux ont été confrontés à la rude tâche de socialiser des locataires insuffisamment scolarisés pour comprendre d’eux-mêmes qu’on n’élève pas des cochons noirs sur le balcon d’un onzième étage et qu’on ne fait pas pousser des haricots rouges dans sa baignoire. + +À New York, les gens qui n’ont pas douze années de scolarité sont considérés comme des infirmes : ils deviennent inemployables et sont contrôlés par des travailleurs sociaux qui décident comment ils vont vivre. Le monopole radical de l’outil surefficient extorque au corps social un croissant (et coûteux) conditionnement de ses clients. Les voitures produites par Ford requièrent, pour être réparées, des mécaniciens recyclés par ses soins. Les faiseurs du miracle vert sortent des semences à haut rendement qui ne peuvent être utilisées que par une minorité disposant d’un double engrais : celui du chimiste et celui de l’éducateur. Plus de santé, plus de vitesse ou plus de récoltes, cela signifie des individus plus réceptifs, plus passifs, plus disciplinés. Les écoles productrices de contrôle social, prenant en charge la plus grande part du coût de ces conquêtes douteuses, le masquent par là-même. + +En cédant aux pressions exercées sur elle au nom du contrôle social, l’école atteint et dépasse son second seuil critique. Les planificateurs fabriquent des programmes plus variés et plus complexes, dont l’utilité marginale decline de ce fait même. + +Pendant que l’école élargit le champ de ses prétentions, d’autres services se découvrent une mission d’éducateurs. La presse, la radio et la télévision ne sont plus seulement des moyens de communication, dès lors qu’on les met consciemment au service de l’intégration sociale. Les hebdomadaires connaissent l’expansion en se remplissant d’informations stéréotypées, ils deviennent des produits finis, livrant tout emballée une information filtrée, aseptisée, prédigérée. Cette « meilleure » information supplante l’ancienne discussion du _forum ;_ sous prétexte d’informer, elle suscite une boulimie docile d’aliments tout préparés et tue la capacité native à trier, maîtriser, organiser l’information. On offre au public quelques vedettes ou quelques spécialistes vulgarisés par l’emballeur du savoir, on confine la voix des lecteurs dans leur courrier ou dans les réponses (aux diverses enquêtes proposées) qu’ils envoient docilement. + +Or les hommes n’ont pas besoin de davantage d’enseignement. Ils ont besoin d’apprendre certaines choses. Il leur faut apprendre à renoncer, ce qui ne s’apprend pas à l’école, apprendre à vivre à l’intérieur de certaines limites, comme l’exige par exemple la nécessité de répondre à la question de la natalité. La survie humaine dépend de la capacité des intéressés d’apprendre vite _par eux-mêmes_ ce qu’ils _ne peuvent pas_ faire. Les hommes doivent apprendre à contrôler leur reproduction, leur consommation et leur usage des choses. Il est impossible _d’éduquer_ les gens à la pauvreté volontaire, de même que la maîtrise de soi ne peut être le résultat d’une manipulation. Il est impossible d _’enseigner_ la renonciation joyeuse et équilibrée dans un monde totalement structuré en vue de produire toujours plus et de créer l’illusion que cela coûte toujours moins cher. + +Il faut que chacun apprenne le pourquoi et le comment de la contraception. La raison en est claire : l’homme a évolué sur une parcelle du cosmos ; borné par les ressources de l’écosphère, son univers ne peut admettre qu’un nombre limité d’occupants. Par la technique, il a modifié les caractéristiques de sa niche écologique. L’écosphère peut maintenant accueillir plus de gens, chacun moins adapté vitalement à son environnement - chacun ayant en moyenne moins d’espace, moins de compétence, moins de tradition. La tentative de fabriquer un environnement _meilleur_ s’est révélée aussi présomptueuse que celles d’améliorer la santé, l’éducation ou la communication. Le résultat, c’est qu’il y a maintenant plus de gens qui se sentent de moins en moins chez eux. Les nouveaux outils qui ont favorisé l’accroissement de la population ne peuvent pas assurer sa survie. La mise en place d’outils encore plus puissants augmente le nombre des frustrés plus vite que le chiffre total de la population. Sur un marché gavé, le manque s’accentue et exige toujours davantage la programmation des clients. + +Toute planification est garantie par un facteur clé, à savoir le contrôle du nombre des gens pour lesquels on planifie. Mais, jusqu’à présent, toute planification de la population a échoué : les gens ne limitent leur natalité que lorsqu’ils en ont eux-mêmes décidé. Le paradoxe est que l’homme oppose sa plus grande résistance à l’enseignement dont il aurait pourtant besoin au plus haut degré. Tout programme de contrôle des naissances sur le modèle industriel échouera là où ont échoué l’école et l’hôpital. Au début jouera l’effet de séduction ; puis viendra l’escalade de l’avortement et de la stérilisation ; enfin ce sera l’argument massue pour perpétrer génocides, paupéricides et autres méga-morts. + +Sans la pratique d’une contraception volontaire et efficace, l’humanité sera écrasée par son nombre, avant même d’être écrasée par la puissance de son propre outillage. Mais la généralisation de la contraception ne peut en aucun cas résulter d’un outil-miracle. Une pratique nouvelle, à l’opposé du présent, ne peut résulter que d’une relation nouvelle de l’homme à son outil. Le contrôle de l’outil, dont je parle, demande la généralisation de la contraception. Mais la contraception demande, pour être efficace, la généralisation de l’état d’esprit convivial dont s’accompagne le contrôle de l’outil en question. + +Les systèmes requis par le contrôle des naissances sont l’exemple type de l’outil convivial moderne. Ils intègrent les données de la science la plus avancée à des instruments utilisables au prix d’un minimum de bon sens et d’apprentissage. Ces systèmes offrent de nouveaux moyens d’exercer les pratiques millénaires de contraception, de stérilisation et d’avortement. Ils peuvent, grâce à leur faible coût, être rendus accessibles à chacun. Dans leur variété, ils conviennent aux croyances, aux occupations et aux situations les plus diverses. De toute évidence, de tels outils structurent la relation que chacun entretient avec son propre corps et avec autrui. + +Le contrôle des naissances est une entreprise à réaliser sur un horizon temporel très limité. Il ne peut l’être que de façon conviviale. C’est un contresens de vouloir forcer à l’emploi de l’outil convivial des gens que l’on continue, quant au reste, à conditionner à la seule consommation. Il est absurde de demander à un paysan brésilien de se servir de préservatifs dès lors qu’on lui a _appris à dépendre_ du médecin pour les piqûres et les ordonnances, du juge pour le règlement des litiges, et de l’instituteur pour l’alphabétisation. C’est un contresens de légiférer actuellement sur l’avortement comme « acte médical », quand il est devenu plus simple que jamais de reconnaître le début d’une grossesse ou de l’interrompre. Il est tout aussi utopique d’imaginer qu’en Inde les médecins vont confier d’eux-mêmes les stérilisations à des assistants analphabètes formés en conséquence. Le jour où les intéressés prendront conscience que cette opération délicate peut être aussi bien, sinon mieux, menée par un profane, pourvu qu’il soit capable de l’attention et de l’habileté que requiert, par exemple, la pratique ancestrale du tissage, c’en sera fait du monopole médical sur des opérations qui ne sont pas trop coûteuses pour être hors de portée du plus grand nombre. Au fur et à mesure que des outils post-industriels rationnels se répandront, les tabous du spécialiste suivront l’outillage industriel dans sa chute, comme ils l’avaient accompagné dans sa gloire. L’outil simple, pauvre, transparent est un humble serviteur ; l’outil élaboré, complexe, secret est un maître arrogant. + +### La polarisation + +L’industrialisation multiplie les gens et les choses. Les sous-privilégiés croissent en nombre, tandis que les privilégiés consomment toujours plus. En conséquence, la faim grandit chez les pauvres et la peur chez les riches. Conduit par la famine et le sentiment d’impuissance, le pauvre réclame une industrialisation accélérée ; poussé par la peur et le désir de protéger son mieux-être, le riche s’engage dans une protection toujours plus rageuse et rigide. Tandis que le pouvoir se polarise, l’insatisfaction se généralise. La chance qui nous est donnée de créer pour tout le monde plus de bonheur avec moins d’abondance est reléguée au point aveugle de la vision sociale. + +Un tel aveuglement est le fait du déséquilibre de la balance du savoir. Les intoxiqués à l’éducation font de bons consommateurs et de bons usagers. Ils voient leur croissance personnelle sous la forme d’une accumulation de biens et de services produits par l’industrie. Plutôt que de faire les choses par eux-mêmes, ils préfèrent les recevoir emballées par l’institution. Ils étouffent leur pouvoir inné d’appréhender le réel. Le déséquilibre de la balance du savoir explique que la poussée du monopole radical des biens et des services soit presque imperceptible à l’usager. Mais cela ne nous dit pas pourquoi celui-ci se sent tellement impuissant à modifier les dysfonctions dans la mesure où il les perçoit. + +C’est là qu’intervient l’effet d’un quatrième type de bouleversement : la polarisation croissante du pouvoir. Sous la poussée de la méga-machine en expansion, le pouvoir de décider du destin de tous se concentre entre les mains de quelques-uns. Et, dans cette frénésie de croissance, les innovations qui améliorent le sort de la minorité privilégiée croissent encore plus rapidement que le produit global. + +Une hausse de 3 % du niveau de vie américain coûte vingt-cinq fois plus cher qu’une hausse égale du niveau de vie en Inde, - l’Inde est pourtant plus peuplée et plus prolifique que l’Amérique du Nord. La condition du pauvre peut être améliorée si le riche consomme moins, tandis que celle du riche ne peut l’être qu’au prix de la spoliation mortelle du pauvre. Le riche prétend qu’en exploitant le pauvre il l’enrichit puisqu’en dernière instance il crée l’abondance pour tous. Les élites des pays pauvres répandent cette fable. + +Le riche s’enrichira et dépouillera plus d’un pauvre dans la décennie qui vient. Le fait que le marché international leur fournisse du blé imposera aux pays pauvres la construction de réseaux de transport et de distribution, à un prix social qui aurait de fait suffi à transformer l’agriculture locale. Mais l’angoisse qui nous étreint ne doit à aucun prix nous empêcher de bien comprendre la structure de la répartition du pouvoir, car c’est la quatrième dimension par où la surcroissance exerce ses effets destructeurs. L’industrialisation sans frein fabrique la pauvreté moderne. Il est vrai que les pauvres ont un peu plus d’argent, mais ils peuvent faire moins avec leurs quelques sous. La modernisation de la pauvreté va de pair avec la concentration du pouvoir : il faut bien le comprendre ou l’on manque la nature profonde de la polarisation. + +La pauvreté se modernise : son seuil monétaire s’élève parce que de nouveaux produits industriels sont présentés comme des biens de première nécessité, tout en restant hors de portée du plus grand nombre. Dans le tiers monde, le fermier pauvre est chassé de ses terres par la révolution verte. Il gagne plus comme salarié agricole, mais ses enfants ne mangent plus comme avant. Le citoyen américain qui gagne dix fois plus que le salarié agricole est lui aussi désespérément pauvre. Tous deux paient toujours plus cher un moins-être croissant. + +De façon complémentaire, l’écart entre riches et pauvres s’accroît, parce que le contrôle de la production est centralisé en vue de produire toujours plus pour le plus grand nombre. Tandis que la hausse des seuils de pauvreté est l’effet de la structure du produit industriel, l’accroissement de l’écart entre pauvres et puissants tient à la structure de l’outil. Ceux qui veulent résoudre le premier aspect du problème sans porter attention au second ne font que remplacer le manque de choses par un manque de voix. La redistribution du produit n’est pas le remède à la polarisation du contrôle. + +On pallie par l’impôt les effets de surface de la concentration industrielle du pouvoir. L’impôt sur le revenu trouve son complément dans les systèmes de sécurité sociale, d’allocations et de distribution équitable du bien-être. Il se peut même qu’au-delà d’un certain seuil on étatise le capital, ou bien qu’on décide de réduire l’éventail des salaires. Mais un tel contrôle du revenu privé ne peut être efficace que s’il se double d’un contrôle de la consommation des privilèges de l’individu en raison de sa fonction de producteur. Il n’a par lui-même aucun effet égalisateur sur les vrais privilèges dans une société où le travail est promu au premier plan et la vie domestique reléguée au second. Aussi longtemps que les travailleurs seront classés en fonction du degré de capitalisation de force de travail que chacun représente, la minorité détentrice de stocks de savoir haut titrés s’arrogera régulièrement tous les privilèges qui permettent de _gagner du temps_. La concentration des privilèges entre les mains de quelques-uns est inhérente à la productivité industrielle. + +Il y a seulement un siècle, personne n’aurait pu imaginer la concentration du pouvoir et de l’énergie qui nous semble normale aujourd’hui. Dans une société moderne, l’énergie industrialisée excède considérablement l’énergie métabolique globale, c’est-à-dire l’énergie dont dispose le corps humain pour effectuer des tâches. Le rapport de l’énergie mécanique à l’énergie humaine disponible est de 15 en Chine et de 300 aux États-Unis. Et les réseaux électriques concentrent plus efficacement le contrôle de l’énergie et l’exercice du pouvoir que ne le faisait le fouet dans les vieilles civilisations. La répartition sociale du contrôle de la consommation d’énergie a été modifiée de façon radicale. Le fonctionnement et, encore plus, le dessin de l’infrastructure énergétique d’une société moderne imposent l’idéologie du groupe dominant, avec une force et une pénétration inconcevables pour le prêtre de l’Ancienne Égypte ou pour le banquier du XVIIe siècle. En tant qu’instrument de domination, la monnaie perd sa valeur au profit du carburant. Si le capital est ce qui fournit l’énergie du changement, l’inflation énergétique a réduit le grand nombre à l’indigence. + +Au fur et à mesure que l’outil grossit, le nombre d’opérateurs potentiels diminue. Au fur et à mesure que l’outil devient plus efficient, l’opérateur emploie plus de biens et de services coûteux. Sur les chantiers guatémaltèques, l’ingénieur est le seul à avoir l’air conditionné dans son baraquement. Son temps est si précieux qu’il prend l’avion pour se rendre dans la capitale, et ses décisions si importantes qu’il les communique par un émetteur radio à ondes courtes. Bien sûr, l’ingénieur a gagné ses privilèges en accaparant les fonds publics pour obtenir ses diplômes. Le manoeuvre indien ne peut évaluer la situation relativement privilégiée de son contremaître ; au contraire, les géomètres et les dessinateurs, qui ont été scolarisés, mais pas diplômés, ressentent tout à coup de façon plus aiguë la chaleur du chantier et l’éloignement de leur famille. Ils sont relativement appauvris de toute efficience supplémentaire gagnée par leur patron. + +Jamais l’outil n’a été aussi puissant. Et jamais il n’a été à ce point accaparé par une élite. Le droit divin volait moins au secours des rois d’antan que la croissance des services à celui des cadres d’aujourd’hui, dans l’intérêt supérieur de la production. Les Soviétiques justifient les transports supersoniques en disant qu’ils épargnent du temps à leurs savants. Les transports à grande vitesse, les réseaux de télécommunication, les soins médicaux spéciaux et l’assistance illimitée de la bureaucratie sont présentés comme des nécessités pour tirer le maximum des individus qui ont été l’objet du maximum de capitalisation. + +La société du méga-outil dépend pour sa survie de multiples systèmes qui empêchent le grand nombre de faire valoir leur parole. Ce dernier privilège est réservé aux individus reconnus comme étant les plus productifs. Normalement on mesure la productivité d’un individu par l’investissement éducatif dont il a été l’objet, par l’importance du rituel d’initiation auquel il a été soumis. Plus grand est le stock de savoir injecté à un individu donné, plus grande est la valeur sociale affectée à ses décisions, plus légitime, aussi, est sa demande de produits industriels de pointe. + +Lorsque s’effondre le pouvoir assis sur le savoir certifié à l’école, des formes plus antiques de ségrégation reviennent sur le devant de la scène : la force de travail d’un individu vaut _moins_ dès lors qu’il est noir, de sexe féminin, étranger, qu’il ne pense pas droit, ne peut passer certaines ordalies. Le moindre rôle de l’école dans la sélection d’une méritocratie ouvre la porte à des procédés de sélection plus primitifs. Ainsi le décor est installé pour la multiplication des minorités et le développement spectaculaire de leurs revendications. Chacun réclamant son dû expose inévitablement la minorité dont il fait partie à être la victime de ses propres fins. + +Au fur et à mesure qu’elles couvrent des institutions plus rares et plus vastes, les hiérarchies s’élèvent et s’agglutinent. Une place de cadre dans une industrie de pointe, voilà le produit le plus convoité et le plus disputé de la croissance. Les autres, ceux qui courent en vain derrière, sont le plus grand nombre, ils sont répartis en une variété de classes « inférieures » : les sous-éduqués, les femmes, les homosexuels, les jeunes, les vieux, etc. Chaque jour est inventé un nouveau type d’infériorité. Les mouvements minoritaires, que ce soit celui des femmes, des Noirs, ou des mal-pensants, réussissent au mieux à grappiller des diplômes et des carrières pour quelques-uns de leurs membres sortis du rang. Ils chantent victoire lorsqu’ils obtiennent la reconnaissance du principe : _à travail égal, salaire égal_. D’où le paradoxe : d’une part ces mouvements renforcent la croyance que les besoins d’une société égalitaire ne peuvent être satisfaits sans passer par un travail spécialisé et une hiérarchie bureaucratisée, de l’autre ils accumulent de fabuleux quanta de frustration que la moindre étincelle fera exploser. + +Il importe peu de savoir à quelles fins spécifiques les minorités s’organisent, si elles veulent une répartition équitable de la consommation, de bonnes places, ou le pouvoir formel de gouverner des outils ingouvernables. Aussi longtemps qu’une minorité agit en vue d’obtenir son dû dans une société de croissance, elle n’obtiendra, pour la plupart de ses membres, qu’un sentiment toujours plus aigu d’insatisfaction. + +Quant aux oppositions qui veulent obtenir le contrôle des institutions existantes, elles leur donnent par là une légitimité d’un type nouveau, en même temps qu’elles en exacerbent les contradictions. Changer l’équipe dirigeante, ce n’est pas une révolution. Que signifie le pouvoir aux travailleurs, le pouvoir noir, le pouvoir des femmes, ou celui des jeunes, si ce n’est que le pouvoir de se substituer au pouvoir en place ? Un tel pouvoir est au plus celui de mieux gérer une croissance, ainsi mise en état de poursuivre sa course glorieuse grâce à ces providentielles prises de pouvoir. L’école, qu’on y enseigne le marxisme ou le fascisme, reproduit une pyramide de classes de recalés. L’avion, qu’on y donne à l’occasion accès à un travailleur en vacances, reproduit une hiérarchie sociale avec une classe supérieure de gens dont le temps est supposé plus précieux que celui d’autrui. + +De nouvelles classes de sous-consommateurs et de sous-employés sont à compter parmi les inévitables sous-produits de la croissance industrielle. Les femmes, les Noirs, les fils de pauvres en viennent à s’organiser. L’organisation leur fait prendre conscience de leur condition commune. Pour le moment, les minorités organisées réclament le droit à l’avoir, ainsi elles soutiennent le _statu quo._ Exiger « à travail égal, salaire égal », c’est consolider l’idée d’un travail inégal. Le jour où elles réclameront un égal droit au pouvoir, ces minorités pourront devenir le pivot de la reconstruction sociale. La société industrielle ne résisterait pas à l’assaut d’un vigoureux mouvement des femmes, par exemple, qui réclamerait un travail égal pour chacun, sans distinction aucune. Toutes les classes, toutes les races comptent des femmes. Elles exercent la plupart de leurs activités quotidiennes de façon non industrielle. Les sociétés industrielles sont viables précisément parce que les femmes sont là pour réaliser les tâches quotidiennes qui se dérobent à l’industrialisation. Mais une société régie par les critères de l’efficience industrielle dégrade et dévalue le travail domestique. En fait, celui-ci deviendrait encore plus inhumain s’il entrait dans le monde industriel. On imagine plus facilement l’Amérique du Nord cessant d’exploiter la sous-industrialisation de l’Amérique latine que cessant d’affecter ses femmes aux corvées non industrialisables. L’expansion de l’industrie s’arrêterait si les femmes nous forçaient à reconnaître que la société n’est plus viable quand un seul mode de production exerce sa domination sur l’ensemble. Il est urgent de prendre conscience de la pluralité des modes de production, chacun valable et respectable, qu’une société, pour être viable, doit faire coexister. Une telle prise de conscience nous rendrait maîtres de la croissance industrielle. La croissance s’arrêterait si les femmes et les autres minorités éloignées du pouvoir exigeaient un travail également créatif pour chacun, au lieu de réclamer l’égalité des droits sur le méga-outillage manipulé jusqu’à maintenant par l’homme seul. Seule une structure de production qui protège l’égale répartition du pouvoir permet une égale jouissance de l’avoir. + +### L usure obsolescence + +La reconstruction conviviale suppose le démantèlement de l’actuel monopole de l’industrie, non la suppression de toute production industrielle. Elle demande que soit réduite la polarisation sociale due à l’outil, afin que coexiste une pluralité dynamique de structures complémentaires dans la force productive et donc une pluralité de milieux et d’élites. Elle réclame l’adoption d’outils mettant en oeuvre l’énergie du corps humain, non la régression vers une exploitation de l’homme. Elle exige une considérable réduction de la série de traitements obligatoires, mais n’empêche personne de se faire enseigner ou soigner s’il le désire. Une société conviviale n’est pas non plus une société gelée. Sa dynamique est fonction de l’ampleur de répartition du contrôle de l’énergie, c’est-à-dire du pouvoir d’opérer un changement réel. Dans le système actuel d’usure programmée à grande échelle, quelques centres de décision imposent l’innovation à l’ensemble de la société et privent les communautés de base de choisir leurs lendemains. De ce fait, l’outil impose la direction et le rythme de l’innovation. Un processus ininterrompu de reconstruction conviviale est possible à condition que le corps social protège le pouvoir des personnes et des collectivités de modifier et renouveler leurs styles de vie, leurs outils, leur milieu, autrement dit leur pouvoir de donner au réel figure nouvelle. Dans cette menace industrielle sur le passé et l’avenir, sur la tradition de l’utopie, réside la cinquième dimension selon laquelle sauvegarder l’équilibre. + +La polarisation sociale, on l’a vu, résulte de deux facteurs combinés : la hausse du coût des biens et des services produits et emballés par l’industrie, et la rareté croissante des emplois considérés comme hautement productifs. L’usure, de son côté, produit la dévalorisation. Cette _dévalorisation_ n’est pas l’effet d’un taux global de changement, mais du changement qui affecte les produits exerçant un monopole radical. La _polarisation_ sociale est déterminée par le fait suivant : le coût des biens et des services standardisés est devenu tel que la plupart des gens n’y peuvent pas accéder. Plus on augmente leur production, plus on égalise une distribution, plus on exclut le consommateur du contrôle sur ce qu’il reçoit. L’usure, de son côté, peut devenir intolérable même à qui n’est pas évincé du marché. Elle oblige le consommateur à se détacher continuellement de ce qu’il a été forcé de désirer, de payer et d’installer dans son existence. La nécessité artificielle et l’usure planifiée sont deux dimensions distinctes de la surefficience, qui étayent une société où la hiérarchie sédimente le privilège. + +Il n’importe guère que l’usure forcée détruise de vieux modèles ou de vieux systèmes. Ford peut se débarrasser d’un vieux modèle en ne fournissant plus de pièces de rechange, et la police peut écarter de la voie publique les vieilles voitures, qui ne répondent pas aux nouvelles normes de sécurité. Par manque d’essence ou par désir d’efficience, on pourrait remplacer la voiture par l’aérotrain. Le renouvellement est intérieur à un mode industriel de production doublé d’une idéologie de progrès. Le produit ne peut être amélioré que si la méga-machine est _réoutillée_. Et, pour que « ça paie », d’immenses marchés doivent être créés _en vue_ du nouveau modèle. La meilleure façon d’ouvrir un marché est d’assimiler le produit nouveau à un important privilège. Si cela marche, le vieux modèle est dévalorisé, et le consommateur s’abandonne à l’idéologie de la croissance illimitée qui touche à la « qualité » améliorée du bien de consommation. Les individus, mais aussi les pays, se classent socialement selon l’ancienneté de leur stock d’outils et de biens. Certains, le petit nombre, peuvent se payer le luxe d’avoir toujours le dernier modèle, les autres se servent encore de voitures, de machines à laver et de postes de radio qui ont cinq ou quinze ans d’âge ; ils passent probablement leurs vacances dans des hôtels tout aussi démodés, c’est-à-dire déclassés. Le niveau d’usure de leur consommation indique exactement où ils se placent dans l’échelle sociale. + +Le classement social des individus en fonction de l’âge des objets qu’ils utilisent n’est pas l’apanage du seul capitalisme. Partout où l’économie est fondée sur la production et l’emballage massifs de biens et de services sujets à l’usure, seuls quelques privilégiés ont accès aux produits de dernier cri. Seules quelques infirmières assistent aux cours d’anesthésie les plus modernes, et seuls quelques bureaucrates peuvent rouler ou voler dans le dernier modèle de véhicule. Chacun, dans l’élite constituée au sein de la minorité, reconnaît et classe autrui selon l’âge de ses outils, sinon de son équipement domestique, du moins de son matériel de bureau. + +L’innovation coûte cher ; pour justifier la dépense, le gestionnaire doit prouver qu’elle est un facteur de progrès. Pour chiffrer ce progrès, dans une économie planifiée, le département de recherche et développement appelle à son secours la pseudo-science, et dans une économie de marché, celui des ventes recourt aux études de marché. En tout état de cause, l’innovation périodique nourrit la croyance qui l’a engendrée, l’illusion que ce qui est nouveau est mieux. Cette croyance est devenue partie intégrante de la mentalité moderne. On oublie seulement que toutes les fois qu’une société industrielle se nourrit de cette illusion, chaque nouvelle unité lancée sur le marché crée plus de besoins qu’elle n’en comble. Si ce qui est nouveau est mieux, ce qui est vieux n’est pas si bon ; le lot de l’humanité, dans son écrasante majorité, est alors bien mauvais. Le nouveau modèle produit une nouvelle pauvreté. Le consommateur, l’usager, ressent durement la distance entre ce qu’il a et ce qu’il serait mieux d’avoir. Il mesure la valeur d’un produit à sa nouveauté, et se prête à une éducation permanente, en vue de la consommation et de l’usage de l’innovation. Rien n’échappe à l’usure, pas même les concepts. La logique du « toujours mieux » remplace celle du bien comme élément structurant de l’action. + +Une société engagée dans la course au mieux-être ressent comme une menace l’idée même d’une quelconque limitation du progrès. Alors l’individu qui ne change pas d’objets connaît la rancoeur de l’échec et celui qui en change découvre le vertige du manque. Ce qu’il a l’écoeure, ce qu’il veut avoir le rend malade. Le changement accéléré produit sur lui les mêmes effets que l’accoutumance à une drogue : on essaye, on recommence, on est accroché, on est malade, on manque. La dialectique de l’histoire est brisée. Le rapport entre le présent et la tradition s’évanouit. Le langage perd ses racines, la mémoire sociale se fige, le précédent perd son emprise sur le droit. L’accord sur l’action légale, sociale et politique s’oriente vers l’alchimie de l’avenir. + +Mais si l’on établit des bornes à la croissance, objecte-t-on, et si l’on se met à produire une somme finie et durable de biens industrialisés, c’en sera fini de la liberté d’expérimenter et d’innover. L’objection serait justifiée s’il était ici question de retenir un nouveau modèle d’économie de croissance. Aujourd’hui le modèle du dernier chic est justement une production propre et limitée de biens, et un développement illimité de services. Mais ce n’est pas ce qui m’intéresse, car je ne parle pas de l’avenir de la société industrielle, mais du passage à une société diversifiant les modes de production. La limitation du produit industriel a pour but, à nos yeux, de libérer l’avenir, de l’ouvrir à la surprise des actions personnelles. + +L’innovation industrielle est programmée, futile, réactionnaire. Le renouvellement des outils conviviaux aura la spontanéité et la fraîcheur des êtres qui les manieront. À l’heure actuelle, le progrès du savoir-faire est d’ailleurs entravé par l’assimilation de la recherche scientifique au développement industriel. La plupart des outils de la recherche sont réservés à des chercheurs programmés en vue d’interpréter le monde en termes de profit et de pouvoir. Et la plupart des buts de la recherche sont déterminés par des mobiles de puissance et d’efficience. La plus large part du coût de la recherche est due à son caractère secret, compétitif, impersonnel. À l’opposé, rien n’empêche la recherche conviviale d’être aussi une recherche fondamentale. La recherche conduite pour le plaisir nous réserve, j’en suis sûr, plus de surprises que celle du grain de sable qui bloque la grosse machine. L’innovation du savoir comme celle du pouvoir peut fleurir là seulement où elle est protégée de l’usure industrielle. + +Une société gelée serait tout aussi insupportable à l’homme que la société de l’accélération : entre les deux se place la société d’innovation conviviale. Le changement accéléré enlève tout sens à la régie d’une société par le Droit. La raison en est que le Droit se fonde sur le précédent. Au-delà d’un certain seuil d’accélération, il n’y a plus de place pour cette référence au précédent, et donc pour le jugement. En perdant ce recours au Droit, la société se condamne à l’éducation. L’exercice du contrôle social mis au service du _plan_ devient la tâche des spécialistes. L’idéologue remplace le juriste. L’éducateur façonne l’individu à être dressé et redressé tout au long de son existence. Cent fois sur le métier on remet cet ouvrage, pour produire un individu fasciné par le profit, et toujours mieux adapté aux exigences de l’industrie. La production d’outils en vue d’adapter l’homme à son milieu devient l’industrie dominante lorsque le rythme de changement du milieu dépasse un certain seuil. La reconstruction conviviale exige que soit limité le taux d’usure et d’innovation obligatoire. L’homme est un être fragile. Il naît dans le langage, vit dans le Droit et meurt dans le mythe. Soumis à un changement démesuré, l’homme perd sa qualité d’homme. + +### L insatisfaction + +On a passé en revue cinq circuits différents. En chacun d’eux, l’outil surefficient menace un équilibre. Il menace l’équilibre de la _vie_ , il menace l’équilibre de l’ _énergie_ , il menace l’équilibre du _savoir_ , il menace l’équilibre du _pouvoir_ , enfin il menace le _droit à l’histoire_. + +La perversion de l’outil menace de saccager le milieu physique. Le monopole radical menace de geler la créativité. La surprogrammation menace de transformer la planète en une vaste zone de services. La polarisation menace d’instaurer un despotisme structurel et irréversible. Enfin, l’usure menace de déraciner l’espèce humaine. Dans chacun de ces circuits, et chaque fois selon une dimension différente, l’outil surefficient affecte la relation de l’homme à son environnement : il menace de provoquer un court-circuit fatal. + +Notre analyse serait incomplète si elle concernait un circuit à l’exclusion des autres. Chacun de ces équilibres doit être protégé. Les _outputs_ d’une énergie propre peuvent être équitablement distribués par un monopole radical intolérable. L’école obligatoire ou les médias omniprésents peuvent affecter l’équilibre du savoir, et ouvrir la route à une polarisation de la société, c’est-à-dire à un despotisme du savoir. N’importe quelle industrie peut engendrer une accélération insupportable des rythmes d’usure. Les cultures ont fleuri au coeur d’une multiplicité de géographies aujourd’hui menacée. Mais, à présent, ce sont aussi le milieu social et le milieu psychique qui risquent la destruction. L’espèce humaine sera peut-être empoisonnée par la pollution. Elle peut aussi s’évanouir et disparaître par manque de langage, de droit, ou de mythe. Si le monopole radical dégrade l’homme et si la polarisation le menace, le choc du futur peut, lui, le désintégrer. + +Dans chacun des circuits, on l’a vu, on peut déterminer des critères et repérer des seuils, qui permettent de vérifier la dégradation des divers équilibres. Il est possible de désigner ces seuils dans un langage compréhensible pour tous. Au cours d’un processus politique, la population peut se servir de tels critères pour maintenir le développement de l’outil en deçà des seuils critiques. Les bornes ainsi tracées circonscriraient le type de structures des forces productives qui restent contrôlables par la population : le pouvoir d’indiquer ces bornes forme l’appendice techno-politique nécessaire à toute constitution contemporaine. Au-delà, l’outil échappe à tout contrôle politique. Le pouvoir que l’homme a de faire valoir son droit disparaît lorsqu’il se lie à des processus dans lesquels il n’a plus aucunement voix au chapitre. Pour autant qu’il puisse encore en jouir, son corps, ses loisirs, sa liberté et ses attaches, en un mot le sens de sa vie, lui sont concédés comme un facteur d’optimisation de la logique de l’outil. À ce stade, l’homme est devenu matière première pour la méga-machine, la plus malléable des matières premières. Les seuils critiques circonscrivent un espace qui est celui de la survie humaine. Si cet espace n’est pas borné par le Droit, dignité et liberté de la personne seront écrasées. + +À l’heure actuelle, la recherche scientifique s’oriente massivement vers cette réduction de l’homme, à travers la poursuite de deux objectifs : d’une part assurer l’avancée technologique qui permette de mieux produire de meilleurs produits, de l’autre appliquer l’analyse des systèmes à la manipulation de la survie de l’espèce humaine afin de mieux préserver sa consommation. Pour permettre à l’homme de s’épanouir, la recherche future doit aller dans un sens radicalement opposé, elle doit aller à la racine du mal. Donnons-lui le nom de _recherche radicale_. La recherche radicale poursuit aussi deux objectifs : d’une part fournir les critères qui permettent de déterminer quand un outil atteint un seuil de nocivité ; de l’autre inventer des outils qui optimisent l’équilibre de la vie, et donc maximisent la liberté de chacun. Le premier objectif vise la formulation des cinq classes de seuils identifiées dans ce qui précède. Le second objectif vise les limitations des techniques du bien-être. + +La recherche radicale n’est ni une nouvelle discipline scientifique ni une entreprise interdisciplinaire. C’est l’analyse dimensionnelle de la relation de l’homme à son outil. + +Personne ne niera que son existence sociale se développe sur plusieurs échelles, dans plusieurs milieux concentriques : la cellule de base, l’unité de production, la ville, l’État, la terre enfin. Chacun de ces milieux a son espace et son temps, ses hommes et ses ressources en énergie. Il y a dysfonction de l’outil dans l’un de ces milieux lorsque l’espace, le temps et l’énergie requis par l’ensemble des outils excèdent l’ _échelle naturelle_ correspondante. Ces échelles naturelles sont susceptibles d’identification, sans qu’on prétende pouvoir dire quelque chose de la nature de l’homme ou de la société. Ces échelles définissent en termes négatifs et de proscription l’espace à l’intérieur duquel le phénomène humain peut être observé. Mais elles ne contribuent en rien à dire de quelle nature est ce phénomène, pas plus qu’elles ne formulent de prescription. En ce sens, on peut parler de l’ _homéostase_ de l’homme dans son milieu, que menace toute dysfonction de l’outil, et définir la politique comme le processus par lequel les hommes assument la responsabilité de cette homéostase. + +Il est temps de cesser de définir les besoins humains en termes abstraits, avant de les soumettre, comme des problèmes, au traitement de la technocratie, qui pratique la méthode de l’escalade. Il est temps de commencer à chercher à l’intérieur de quelles bornes des collectivités d’hommes concrets peuvent se servir de la technique pour satisfaire leurs besoins sans porter préjudice à autrui. Identifier l’anathème marque le premier pas de la recherche radicale. + +Les seuils au-delà desquels se profile la destruction ne déterminent pas la fourchette des degrés auxquels une société limite volontairement l’usage de ses outils. Les seuils dessinent le champ de la survie possible, les limites de la fourchette figurent la clôture d’une culture. Les seuils naturels sont l’effet de la nécessité, les limites culturelles sont le fait de la liberté. Les seuils configurent le Droit constitutif de toute société, les limites préfigurent la justice conviviale d’une société particulière. La nécessité de déterminer des seuils et de ne pas franchir les bornes ainsi définies est la même pour toutes les sociétés. La fixation des limites dépend du mode de vie et du degré de liberté souhaités par chaque collectivité. + +Il est une forme de dysfonction dans laquelle la croissance ne détruit pas encore la vie, mais pervertit déjà l’usage de l’outil. L’outil n’est pas optimal, il n’est pas intolérable non plus ; encore tolérable, mais déjà surefficient, il dégrade un équilibre de nature plus subjective et plus subtile que ceux décrits précédemment : _l’équilibre de_ _l’_ _action_. C’est l’équilibre entre le prix personnellement payé et le résultat obtenu, c’est la conscience que _moyens et fins s’équilibrent_. Lorsque l’outil asservit la fin qu’il devrait servir, l’usager devient la proie d’une profonde insatisfaction. S’il ne lâche pas l’outil - ou si l’outil ne le lâche plus -, il devient fou. Dans l’Hadès, le châtiment le plus épouvantable était réservé au blasphémateur : le juge des enfers le condamnait à une activité frénétique. Le rocher de Sisyphe est l’outil perverti. Le comble est que, dans une société où ce type d’activité est la règle, on forme les hommes à rivaliser entre eux pour conquérir le droit de se frustrer eux-mêmes. Mus par la rivalité, aveuglés par le désir, c’est à qui parmi eux sera le premier intoxiqué à l’outil. + +Comme je l’ai développé ailleurs[^n04], la prédominance du transport sur la circulation des gens peut servir à illustrer la différence entre ce qui est borne de l’équilibre et ce qui est une limite choisie pour faire fleurir l’égalité dans la jouissance de la liberté. Protéger l’environnement, cela peut signifier interdire les transports supersoniques. Éviter que la polarisation sociale devienne intolérable, cela peut signifier interdire les transports aériens. Se défendre contre le monopole radical, cela peut signifier interdire les voitures. En l’absence de telles mesures, le transport menace la société. L’équilibre des fins et des moyens que je souligne ici nous fournit un nouveau critère de sélection de l’outil. La considération de ce nouvel équilibre nous conduira peut-être à proscrire tous les transports publics à vitesse supérieure à celle de la bicyclette. + +Chaque véhicule, quel qu’il soit, dont la vitesse maximale dépasse un certain seuil, accroît la perte de temps et d’argent de l’usager moyen. Toutes les fois qu’en un point du système de circulation, la vitesse maximale excède un certain seuil, cela veut dire que plus de gens vont passer plus de temps à l’arrêt d’autobus, sur le périphérique embouteillé, ou dans un lit d’hôpital. Cela veut dire aussi qu’ils vont passer plus de temps à payer le système de transport qu’ils sont forcés d’utiliser. + +Le seuil critique d’une vitesse dépend d’une multitude de facteurs : les conditions géographiques, culturelles, économiques, techniques, financières. Avec autant de paramètres pour une inconnue, on pourrait s’attendre à ce que la fourchette d’estimation du seuil critique de vitesse soit très large. Il n’en est rien. Elle est même tellement basse et tellement étroite qu’elle paraît improbable à la plupart des spécialistes de la circulation. + +Il y a dysfonction dans la circulation dès qu’elle admet, en un point quelconque du système, une vitesse supérieure à celle d’une bicyclette. C’est pourquoi la vélocité du vélo peut servir de critère à la détermination du seuil critique de vitesse. Tout dépassement en un point quelconque du système accroît la somme de temps affectée par l’ensemble des usagers au service de l’industrie des transports. + +La surabondance de biens mène à la rareté de temps. Le temps se raréfie parce qu’il faut le temps de consommer et de se faire soigner, et parce que l’accoutumance à la production rend plus coûteuse encore la désaccoutumance. Plus le consommateur s’enrichit, et plus il est conscient des degrés qu’il a gravis, à la maison comme au bureau. Plus il est haut perché dans la pyramide de la production, et moins il a le temps de s’abandonner aux activités qu’on ne saurait comptabiliser. Il devient difficile de gagner du temps quand on prend trop d’arrhes sur l’avenir. Staffan Linder souligne le fait que nous avons tendance à suremployer le futur. Lorsque le futur devient le présent, nous avons sans cesse le sentiment de manquer de temps, simplement parce que nous avons prévu des journées de trente heures. Comme s’il ne suffisait pas que le temps coûte plus ou moins cher et, d’une façon générale, de plus en plus cher dans une société d’abondance, le suremploi du futur engendre un _stress_ dévastateur. + +L’industrie des transports produit de la rareté de temps. Dans une société où beaucoup de gens emploient des véhicules rapides, _tout le monde_ doit y consacrer plus de temps et d’argent. Une fois l’équilibre rompu et le seuil de vitesse dépassé, la rivalité devient féroce entre l’industrie du transport et les autres industries, afin de contrôler les espaces et l’énergie disponibles. Et, lorsque la vitesse croît de façon linéaire, la mêlée croît de façon exponentielle. Le temps consacré à la circulation empiète sur le temps de travail comme il dévore le temps de loisir. + +Les plus gros véhicules ne doivent jamais être vides, les plus rapides doivent bouger sans cesse. Les capsules individuelles deviennent ruineuses. Les transports publics ne desservent plus que les grands axes. Il faut que ça tourne, toujours plus vite. Lorsque sa vitesse augmente, le véhicule devient le tyran de l’existence quotidienne. On prévoit tant de temps, il en faut deux fois plus. On s’engage des mois, voire des années à l’avance. Certains de ces engagements, pris à grands frais, ne peuvent être tenus. On est habité par le sentiment de l’échec. On vit sous tension. L’homme n’est pas programmable à volonté. Lorsque, pour l’équilibre de l’action, le seuil critique est dépassé, c’est la grande empoignade entre l’industrie de la vitesse et les autres, pour savoir qui va dépouiller l’homme de la part d’humanité qui lui reste. + +La vitesse est le vecteur-clé pour déceler comment l’industrie du transport affecte l’équilibre vital. À considérer les cinq premières dimensions, il en faut beaucoup moins qu’on ne pourrait croire pour que les transports se retournent contre l’homme en brisant les échelles naturelles. Mais il est un autre fait encore plus surprenant. La vitesse qui, par application de l’ensemble des cinq premiers critères définis, apparaît comme tolérable est du même ordre de grandeur que la vitesse qui optimise la circulation désirable, celle qui, au moindre coût de temps social, assure l’équité à la fois du rayon d’action et des possibilités d’accès maximalisées par la technique. La grande diversité des fourchettes d’ordre technique qui figurent la clôture respective de chaque civilisation s’inscrit naturellement dans l’espace de la technologie tolérable. Les bornes du tolérable coïncident, dans l’ordre de grandeur, avec la limite supérieure de la fourchette du désirable. + +Ce constat du contresens que constitue la surproduction n’est pas à dresser seulement pour les transports. On retrouve le même type de résultats négatifs à propos des investissements faits en médecine. Aux États-Unis, on a calculé que plus de 95 % des dépenses médicales consacrées à des malades dont on sait la mort proche n’ont aucun effet bénéfique sur leur bien-être ; on intensifie seulement leur souffrance, on les rend totalement dépendants de soins impersonnels, sans prolonger la durée de leur existence. La rentabilité maximale d’un service se situe à l’intérieur de certaines limites. Passé un certain seuil, la santé d’un patient se mesure à sa note d’hôpital, comme la richesse d’une nation se mesure à la note de frais globale qu’est le PNB. À l’échelle de l’individu comme à celle de la collectivité, il faut toujours payer. + +Il faut payer pour rémunérer le capital, il faut payer aussi les pots cassés par la croissance. En pratiquant l’escalade de la technique, la médecine cesse d’abord de guérir, puis elle cesse de prolonger la vie humaine. Elle se transforme en rituel de négation de la mort : l’individu suradapté à la machine fait son dernier tour de piste, spectaculaire. Il aura fait le meilleur temps. + +Dans une première étape, la recherche radicale s’attache à étudier la hausse des désutilités marginales, et les menaces engendrées par la croissance. Dans une seconde étape, elle s’applique à découvrir les systèmes et les institutions qui optimisent les modes de production conviviaux. Une telle recherche soulève des résistances, dont les moindres ne sont pas d’ordre psychique. L’homme suroutillé est comme le _junkie_ : l’accoutumance déforme l’ensemble de son système de valeurs et mutile sa capacité de jugement. Les drogués de tout genre sont prêts à payer toujours plus pour jouir toujours moins. Ils tolèrent l’escalade de la désutilité marginale. Rien ne peut les affecter dès lors qu’un seul souci les anime : faire monter la mise. De tels esprits considèrent les transports comme un moyen de produire le plaisir de la vitesse plutôt que comme un moyen d’accroître la liberté et la joie dans la circulation. Ils n’accepteront pas sans mal cette évidence que l’homme est un être naturellement mobile et que la technique, sous la forme de la bicyclette, élève la mobilité d’une société jusqu’à un nouvel ordre de grandeur au-delà duquel aucune accélération du véhicule ne pourrait la faire augmenter. + +La recherche radicale s’attache à rendre sensible la relation entre l’homme et l’outil, puis à la rendre transparente, à identifier les ressources dont nous disposons et les effets que l’on peut attendre de leurs différents emplois possibles. + +Rendre sensible la dégradation des équilibres qui fondent la survie, telle est la tâche immédiate de la recherche radicale. La recherche radicale repère les catégories de population les plus menacées et les aide à discerner la menace. Elle fait prendre conscience à des individus ou à des groupes jusque-là divisés que les mêmes menaces pèsent sur leurs libertés fondamentales. Elle montre que toute exigence de liberté réelle, formulée par qui que ce soit, sert toujours l’intérêt du grand nombre. + +La désaccoutumance de la croissance sera douloureuse. Elle sera douloureuse pour la génération de transition, et surtout pour les plus intoxiqués de ses membres. Puisse le souvenir de telles souffrances préserver de nos errements les générations futures. + +## Les trois obstacles à l inversion politique + +Nous avons vu l’équilibre de la vie se déployer dans cinq dimensions. En chacune d’elles, seul le maintien d’un équilibre déterminé qui la caractérise garantit l’homéostase constitutive de la vie humaine. L’intervention dans l’écosphère ne demeure rationnelle qu’à la condition de ne pas franchir les limites génétiques. L’institution ne suscite la culture que si elle autorise et rend effectif un subtil équilibre entre l’action personnelle autonome et les contraintes directrices qu’elle-même impose. L’effacement des barrières géographiques et culturelles ne peut promouvoir l’originalité sociale que s’il s’accompagne d’une réduction de l’écart énergétique entre les privilégiés et le grand nombre. Un accroissement du taux d’innovation n’a de valeur que s’il accentue un plus profond enracinement dans la tradition et dans la plénitude du sens. + +D’instrument, l’outil peut devenir maître, puis bourreau de l’homme. La relation s’inverse plus vite qu’on ne s’y attend : la charrue fait de l’homme le seigneur d’un jardin, puis bientôt un errant dans un sahel de poussière. Le vaccin qui sélectionne ses victimes engendre une race capable de survivre seulement dans un milieu conditionné. Nos enfants naissent amoindris dans un monde inhumain. L _’homo faber_ , d’apprenti sorcier, se transforme en poubelle vorace. + +L’outil peut croître de deux façons, soit qu’il augmente le pouvoir de l’homme, soit qu’il le remplace. Dans le premier cas, la personne conduit son existence propre, en prend le contrôle et la responsabilité. Dans le second cas, c’est finalement la machine qui l’emporte : elle réduit à la fois les choix de l’opérateur et de l’usager-consommateur, puis elle leur impose à tous deux sa logique et ses exigences. Menacée par l’omnipotence de l’outil, la survie de l’espèce dépend de l’établissement de procédures qui permettent à tout le monde de distinguer clairement entre ces deux façons de rationaliser et d’employer l’outil et, par là, incitent à choisir la survie dans la liberté. Dans l’accomplissement de cette tâche, trois obstacles nous barrent le chemin : l’idolâtrie de la science, la corruption du langage quotidien et la dévaluation des procédures formelles qui structurent la prise des décisions sociales. + +### La démythologisation de la science + +Par-dessus tout, le débat politique est gelé par une tromperie concernant la _science_. Le mot en est venu à désigner une entreprise institutionnelle plutôt qu’une activité personnelle, la solution d’une série de casse-tête plutôt que l’imprévisible déploiement de la créativité humaine. La science est maintenant une agence de services fantôme et omniprésente, qui produit du _meilleur savoir_ , tout comme la médecine, de la meilleure santé. Le dommage causé par ce contresens sur la nature du savoir est encore plus radical que le mal fait par la mercantilisation de l’éducation, de la santé et du mouvoir. Le leurre de la meilleure santé corrompt le corps social, car chacun se préoccupe de moins en moins de la qualité de l’environnement, de l’hygiène de son mode de vie ou de sa propre capacité à soigner autrui. L’institutionnalisation du savoir mène à une dégradation globale plus profonde parce qu’elle détermine la structure commune des autres produits. Dans une société qui se définit par la consommation du savoir, la créativité est mutilée, l’imagination s’atrophie. + +Cette perversion de la science est fondée sur la croyance en deux espèces de savoir : celui, inférieur, de l’individu, et le savoir, supérieur, de la science. Le premier savoir serait du domaine de l’opinion, l’expression d’une subjectivité, et le progrès n’en aurait rien à faire. Le second serait objectif, défini par la science et répandu par des porte-parole experts. Ce savoir objectif est considéré comme un bien qui peut être stocké et constamment amélioré. C’est une ressource stratégique, un capital, la plus précieuse des matières premières, l’élément-base de ce qu’on s’est mis à appeler la _prise de décision_ , celle-ci étant à son tour conçue comme un processus impersonnel et technique. Sous le nouveau règne de l’ordinateur et de la dynamique de groupe, le citoyen abdique tout pouvoir en faveur de l’expert, seul compétent. + +Le monde n’est porteur d’aucun message, d’aucune information. Il est ce qu’il est. Tout message concernant le monde est produit par un organisme vivant qui agit sur lui. Lorsqu’on parle d’informations stockées en dehors de l’organisme humain, on tombe dans un piège sémantique. Les livres et les ordinateurs font partie du monde. Ils fournissent des données lorsqu’un oeil est là pour les lire. En confondant le _médium_ avec le message, le réceptacle avec l’information elle-même, les données avec la décision, nous reléguons de façon cavalière le problème du savoir et de la connaissance au point aveugle de notre esprit. + +Intoxiqués par la croyance en un meilleur avenir, les individus cessent de se fier à leur propre jugement et demandent qu’on leur dise la vérité sur ce qu’ils « savent ». Intoxiqués par la croyance en une meilleure prise des décisions, ils ont du mal à décider tout seuls et bientôt perdent confiance dans leur propre pouvoir de le faire. L’impuissance croissante de l’individu à prendre seul des décisions affecte la structure même de son attente. Autrefois les hommes se disputaient une rareté bien concrète, à présent ils réclament un mécanisme distributeur pour combler un manque illusoire. Le rituel bureaucratique organise la consommation frénétique du menu social : programme d’éducation, traitement médical ou action en justice. Le conflit personnel est privé de toute légitimité, dès lors que la science promet l’abondance pour tous et prétend donner à chacun selon ses manques personnels et sociaux, objectivement identifiés. Les individus, qui ont désappris à reconnaître leurs propres besoins comme à réclamer leurs propres droits, deviennent les proies de la méga-machine qui définit à leur place leurs manques et leurs revendications. La personne ne peut plus de soi contribuer au renouvellement continu de la vie sociale. L’homme en vient à se méfier de la parole, il s’accroche à un savoir supposé. Le vote remplace la palabre ; l’isoloir, la terrasse de café. Le citoyen s’assoit en face de l’écran et se tait. + +Les règles du sens commun qui permettaient aux hommes de conjuguer et de partager leurs expériences sont détruites. Le consommateur-usager a besoin de sa dose de savoir garanti soigneusement conditionné. Il trouve sa sécurité dans la certitude de lire le même journal que son voisin, de regarder la même émission télévisée que son patron. Il se contente d’avoir accès au même robinet de savoir que son supérieur, plutôt que de chercher à instaurer l’égalité des conditions qui donneraient à sa parole le même poids qu’à celle du patron. La dépendance, partout acceptée comme allant de soi, à l’égard du savoir hautement qualifié produit par la science, la technique et la politique, érode la confiance traditionnelle dans la véracité du témoin et vide de leur sens les principales manières dont les hommes peuvent échanger leurs propres certitudes. Jusque devant les tribunaux, l’expertise rivalise de poids avec les témoignages. L’expert est quasiment admis comme témoin patenté, on oublie que sa déposition ne représente que le ouï-dire, l’ _opinion_ d’une profession. Sociologues et psychiatres accordent ou refusent le droit à la parole, à une parole audible. En mettant sa foi dans l’expert, l’homme se dépouille de sa compétence juridique d’abord, politique ensuite. Leur confiance dans la toute-puissance de la science incite les gouvernements et leurs administrés à se bercer de l’illusion d’éliminer les conflits suscités par une évidente raréfaction de l’eau, de l’air ou de l’énergie, à croire aveuglément aux oracles des experts qui promettent des miracles multiplicateurs. + +Nourrie du mythe de la science, la société abandonne même aux experts le soin de fixer les limites de la croissance. Or une telle délégation de pouvoir détruit le fonctionnement politique ; à la parole comme mesure de toutes choses, elle substitue l’obéissance à un mythe et finalement légitime en quelque sorte les expériences conduites sur des hommes. L’expert ne représente pas le citoyen, il fait partie d’une élite dont l’autorité se fonde sur la possession exclusive d’un savoir non communicable ; mais en fait ce savoir ne lui confère aucune aptitude particulière à définir les bornes de l’équilibre de la vie. L’expert ne pourra jamais dire où se situe le seuil de la tolérance humaine. C’est la personne qui le détermine, en communauté ; nul ne peut abdiquer ce droit. Bien sûr, il est possible de faire des expériences sur des êtres humains. Les médecins nazis ont exploré les limites d’endurance de l’organisme. Ils ont découvert combien de temps l’individu moyen peut supporter la torture, mais cela ne leur a rien révélé sur ce que quelqu’un peut tenir pour tolérable. Fait significatif, ces médecins ont été condamnés sur la base d’un pacte signé à Nuremberg deux jours après la destruction d’Hiroshima, à la veille de celle de Nagasaki. + +Ce qu’un peuple peut endurer demeure hors de portée de toute expérience. On peut dire ce qu’il advient d’un groupe d’hommes particuliers placés dans une situation extrême : prisonniers, naufragés ou cobayes. Mais cela ne peut servir à déterminer le degré de souffrance et de frustration qu’une société donnée acceptera de subir à cause de l’outillage qu’elle aura elle-même forgé. Certes des opérations scientifiques de mesure peuvent indiquer qu’un certain type de comportement menace un équilibre vital majeur. Mais seule une majorité d’hommes de jugement, qui connaissent la complexité des réalités quotidiennes et qui en tiennent compte dans leurs agissements, peuvent trouver comment limiter les fins que se donnent la société et les individus. La science peut mettre en lumière les dimensions du royaume de l’homme dans le cosmos. Mais il faut une communauté politique d’hommes conscients de la force de leur raison, du poids de leur parole, du sérieux de leurs actes pour choisir, librement, l’austérité qui garantira leur propre vitalité. + +### La redécouverte du langage + +Entre 1830 et 1850, une douzaine de savants ont découvert et formulé la loi de conservation de l’énergie. La plupart d’entre eux étaient des ingénieurs qui, chacun pour son compte, ont redéfini l’énergie cosmique en termes de poids soulevable par une machine. Grâce aux opérations de mesure effectuées en laboratoire, on se croyait enfin capable de réduire à un dénominateur commun l’énergie primordiale, la _vis viva_ de la tradition. C’est alors que les sciences exactes se mirent à dominer la recherche. + +À la même époque, et de façon analogue, l’industrie commença à concurrencer les autres modes de production. Les réussites industrielles devinrent la mesure et la règle de l’économie tout entière. Bientôt on tint pour subsidiaires toutes les activités productives auxquelles on ne pouvait pas appliquer les règles de mesure et les critères d’efficience valables pour la production à la chaîne : il en fut ainsi des travaux domestiques, de l’artisanat et de l’agriculture de subsistance. Le mode industriel de production commença par dégrader le réseau de relations productives qui avaient jusque-là coexisté dans la société, pour ensuite le frapper de paralysie. + +Ce monopole qu’exerce un seul mode de production sur toutes les relations productives est plus insidieux et plus dangereux que la concurrence entre firmes, mais il est moins visible. Il est facile de connaître le gagnant dans la concurrence de surface : c’est l’usine qui utilise le capital de façon intensive, l’affaire la mieux organisée, la branche industrielle la plus esclavagiste et la mieux protégée, l’entreprise qui gaspille avec la plus grande discrétion ou celle qui fabrique le plus d’armements. À large échelle, cette course prend la forme d’une concurrence entre firmes multinationales et nations en voie d’industrialisation. Mais ce jeu mortel entre titans détourne l’attention de sa propre fonction rituelle. À mesure que s’étend le champ de concurrence, une même structure industrielle se développe à travers le monde et polarise la société. Le mode industriel de production établit sa domination non seulement sur les ressources et l’outillage, mais aussi sur l’imagination et les désirs d’un nombre croissant d’individus. C’est le monopole radical généralisé, non plus celui d’une branche d’industrie, mais celui du mode industriel de production. L’homme lui-même est _industrialisé_ en quelque sorte. Les systèmes politiques font assaut d’ingéniosité et d’agilité sémantique pour baptiser de noms opposés cette même structure industrielle partout en expansion, sans comprendre, pourtant, qu’elle échappe partout à leur contrôle. Tout au contraire, l’antagonisme entre pays pauvres et pays riches, entre nations soumises à une planification centrale et nations où règne la loi du marché, est le masque nécessaire pour que ce monopole paraisse bénéfique. + +Étendue au monde entier, cette industrialisation de l’homme entraîne la dégradation de tous les langages et il devient très difficile de trouver les mots qui parleraient d’un monde opposé à celui qui les a engendrés. Le langage reflète le monopole que le mode industriel de production exerce sur la perception et la motivation. Dans les nations industrielles, quand l’homme parle de ses oeuvres, les mots qu’il emploie désignent les produits de l’industrie. Le langage réfléchit la matérialisation de la conscience. Quand il apprend quelque chose par la lecture, l’homme dit qu’il a _acquis de l’éducation_. Le glissement fonctionnel du verbe au substantif souligne l’appauvrissement de l’imagination sociale. La pratique nominaliste du langage sert à marquer des relations de propriété : les gens parlent du _travail_ qu’ils _ont_. Dans toute l’Amérique latine, seuls ceux qui ont un emploi disent qu’ils _ont_ du travail, les paysans (qui sont la grande majorité) disent qu’ils le _font :_ « On va travailler, mais on n’a pas de travail !» Les travailleurs modernes et syndiqués n’attendent pas seulement de l’industrie qu’elle produise plus de biens et de services, mais aussi plus de travail pour plus de gens. Ce n’est pas seulement le faire qui est substantivé, mais aussi le vouloir. Le logement est plus un bien qu’une activité ; l’abri devient un bien qu’on se procure ou qu’on revendique parce qu’on est privé du pouvoir de lui donner soi-même forme. On acquiert du savoir, de la mobilité, et même de la sensibilité ou de la santé. On _a_ du travail ou de la santé, comme on _a_ du plaisir. + +Le glissement du verbe au substantif reflète l’appauvrissement du concept de propriété. _Possession, mainmise, abus_ ne peuvent pas désigner la relation de l’individu ou du groupe à une institution telle que l’école. Car, dans sa fonction essentielle, un tel outil échappe, comme nous l’avons vu, à tout contrôle. Les affirmations de propriété concernant l’outil en viennent à désigner la capacité d’en détenir les produits, que ce soit l’intérêt tiré du capital ou les objets manufacturés, ou encore toute espèce de prestige lié à l’une ou l’autre de ces opérations. Le consommateur-usager intégral, l’homme pleinement industrialisé, n’a en fait prise sur rien d’autre que sur ce qu’il consomme. Il dit : _mon éducation, mes déplacements, mes loisirs, ma santé_. À mesure que le champ de son faire rétrécit, il réclame des produits dont il se dit _propriétaire._ Soumis au monopole d’un seul mode de production, l’usager a perdu tout sens de la pluralité des styles d’avoir. Dans les langues polynésiennes, il y a des formes verbales distinctes pour exprimer la relation que j’entretiens avec mes actes (qui me suivent), mon nez (qui peut m’être ôté), mes proches (que je n’ai pas choisis), ma pirogue (sans laquelle je ne serais pas vraiment un homme), une boisson (que je vous offre) et la même boisson (que je m’apprête à boire). + +Dans une société où le langage s’est substantivé, les prédicats sont formulés en termes de lutte contre la rareté dans le cadre concurrentiel. « Je veux apprendre » devient « je veux acquérir une éducation ». La décision d’agir est remplacée par la demande d’un billet à la loterie scolaire. « J’ai envie d’aller quelque part » se transforme en « je veux un moyen de transport ». À l’insistance sur le droit d’agir, on substitue l’insistance sur le droit d’avoir. Dans le premier cas, le sujet est acteur, dans le second, usager. Le changement de la langue étaye l’expansion du mode industriel de production : la concurrence régie par des valeurs industrialisées se reflète dans la nominalisation du langage. La lutte concurrentielle prend inévitablement forme de jeu _(zero-sum game)_ où ce qu’un joueur perd se transforme en gain pour les autres joueurs. Dans la mêlée, les gens jouent pour les noms tels qu’ils les perçoivent : en valorisant uniquement l’apprentissage dont elle est le lieu, l’école définit l’ _éducation_ comme objet de compétition. _Alma mater_ a trop d’enfants accrochés à ses mamelles : celui qui avale sa ration d’éducation en prive un frère de lait. + +Le conflit personnel n’est pas forcément une lutte pour s’emparer d’un bien rare. Il peut aussi exprimer un désaccord sur les moyens de mieux assurer l’autonomie de la personne. Dans ce cas, le conflit devient créateur de liberté ; mais le langage nominaliste a obscurci cette profonde vérité que le conflit peut être créateur de droit pour les deux adversaires, - créateur du droit de faire des choses qui, par définition, ne sont ni des biens ni des objets rares. Le conflit conduira au droit de marcher, de parler, de lire, d’écrire ou d’enregistrer à égalité, de participer au changement social, de respirer un air pur et d’employer des outils conviviaux. Ce faisant, il privera les deux parties d’un bien déterminé, pour l’amour d’un gain inappréciable : une neuve liberté partagée. En limitant la consommation forcée, on libère le champ de l’action. + +Le code opératoire de l’outillage industriel s’engrène sur le parler quotidien. La parole de l’homme qui habite en poète est à peine tolérée, comme une protestation marginale, et tant qu’elle ne dérange pas la foule qui fait queue devant l’appareil distributeur des produits. Si nous n’accédons pas à un nouveau degré de conscience, qui nous permette de retrouver la fonction conviviale du langage, nous ne parviendrons jamais à inverser ce processus d’industrialisation de l’homme. Mais si chacun se sert du langage pour revendiquer son droit à l’action sociale plutôt qu’à la consommation, le langage deviendra le moyen de rendre sa transparence à la relation de l’homme avec l’outil. + +### Le recouvrement du droit + +La loi et le Droit, dans leurs formes actuelles, sont, de façon écrasante, au service d’une société en expansion indéfinie. Le processus par lequel les hommes décident de ce qui doit être fait est maintenant asservi à l’idéologie de la productivité : il faut produire plus, plus de savoir et de décisions, plus de biens et de services. Après la perversion du savoir et celle du langage, la perversion du Droit est le troisième obstacle à une actualisation politique des limites. Les partis, les modes de législation et l’appareil judiciaire ont été réquisitionnés au service de la croissance des écoles, des syndicats, des hôpitaux et des autoroutes, sans parler des usines. Peu à peu, non seulement la police, mais aussi les organes législatifs et les tribunaux en sont venus à être tenus pour un outillage au service de l’État industriel. Qu’ils défendent parfois l’individu devant les prétentions de l’industrie, c’est l’alibi de leur docilité à servir le monopole radical et de leur servilité à légitimer une concentration toujours plus forte des pouvoirs. À leur manière propre, les magistrats deviennent un corps d’ingénieurs de la croissance. En démocratie populaire ou capitaliste, ils sont les alliés « objectifs » de l’outil contre l’homme. Avec l’idolâtrie de la science et la corruption du langage, cette dégradation du Droit est un obstacle majeur au réoutillage de la société. + +On comprend qu’une autre société est possible quand on parvient à l’exprimer clairement. On provoque son apparition quand on découvre le procédé par lequel la société présente prend ses décisions. On organise sa structure quand on utilise la langue maternelle et les procédures traditionnelles du Droit pour servir des buts opposés à ceux que se fixe leur présent usage. Car, dans chaque société, il y a une structure profonde qui organise la prise de décision. Cette structure existe partout où des hommes s’assemblent. Le même processus peut donner naissance à des décisions contradictoires, parce que la structure ne sert pas seulement la définition des valeurs personnelles, mais aussi la survie d’un comportement institutionnalisé. L’existence de contradictions ne contredit pas l’existence d’une structure cohérente qui les engendre, bien au contraire. Je peux décider d’acquérir une éducation, même si j’ai par ailleurs décidé qu’il vaudrait mieux apprendre en participant à la vie quotidienne. Je peux me laisser emporter à l’hôpital, même si j’ai décidé que je souffrirais moins et que je mourrais plus facilement en restant chez moi. De même que la saisie de dissonances cognitives fonde la poésie, de même la coexistence de normes contradictoires manifeste l’existence de procédures normatives. + +Les hommes n’ont plus confiance dans les procédures disponibles, non qu’elles aient été perverties en elles-mêmes, mais parce qu’on en fait constamment un usage abusif. On les utilise pour gaver les gens d’arguments éthiques, politiques ou légaux ; elles sont devenues des rouages de la production illimitée. Les Églises prêchent l’humilité, la charité et la pauvreté, et financent des programmes de développement industriel. Les socialistes sont devenus les défenseurs sans scrupules du monopole industriel. La bureaucratie du Droit s’est alliée à celles de l’idéologie et du bien-être général, pour défendre la croissance de l’outil. Bientôt ce sera à l’ordinateur de décider des idées, des lois et des techniques indispensables à la croissance. + +Si nous ne nous mettons pas d’accord sur une procédure efficace, durable et conviviale, afin de contrôler les outils sociaux, l’inversion de la structure institutionnelle existante ne pourra être ni amorcée ni surtout maintenue. Il se trouvera toujours des cadres supérieurs pour vouloir augmenter la productivité de l’institution, et des tribuns pour promettre la lune aux foules avides. + +Chaque fois que l’on propose d’utiliser le Droit comme outil d’inversion de la société, trois objections surgissent. La première est superficielle : chacun ne peut pas être juriste, donc chacun ne peut pas manier le Droit pour son compte. Naturellement, cela n’est vrai que dans une certaine mesure. Des systèmes para-juridiques pourraient s’établir dans certaines communautés, puis être incorporés à la structure d’ensemble. Bien plus, la participation du profane pourrait recevoir un champ d’action plus vaste et se révéler précieuse dans les procédures de médiation, de conciliation ou d’arbitrage. Mais, pour autant que l’objection soit fondée, elle demeure hors sujet. Le Droit s’applique à la régulation des outils régissant la vie quotidienne, il n’y a donc aucune raison pour que la majorité des procès ne soit pas décentralisée, démystifiée et débureaucratisée. Il reste que certains problèmes sociaux se posent à grande échelle, ils sont complexes et risquent de le demeurer longtemps ; ils exigent un outillage juridique à leur mesure. S’il doit servir à de vastes ensembles d’hommes, chacun porteur d’une tradition séculaire, pour négocier des proscriptions à l’échelle mondiale, le Droit, en tant que procès de régulation de ces problèmes sociaux, est de fait un outillage requérant des experts pour opérateurs. Mais cela ne signifie pas que ces experts doivent être docteurs en droit ou former un mandarinat. + +La seconde objection touche directement notre sujet, et elle va beaucoup plus loin : les actuels opérateurs de l’outillage juridique social sont profondément intoxiqués par la mythologie de la croissance. Leur vision du possible et du faisable reste conforme à l’endoctrinement industriel. Ce serait folie d’espérer que les cadres d’une société productiviste se transforment en vestales de la société conviviale. La portée de cette observation est complétée et soulignée par une troisième objection : le système juridique n’est pas seulement un ensemble de règles écrites, c’est un procès continu à travers lequel les lois se façonnent et s’appliquent à des situations réelles. À travers la série des actes juridiques, la collectivité se donne un certain cadre mental. Il en résulte un contenu du Droit qui reflète l’idéologie des législateurs et des juges. La manière dont ces derniers perçoivent l’idéologie sous-jacente à toute culture devient une mythologie officielle qui se concrétise dans les lois qu’ils formulent et appliquent. Le corps des lois qui régule une société industrielle en reflète inévitablement l’idéologie, les caractéristiques sociales et la structure de classes, en même temps qu’il les renforce et en assure la reproduction. Quel que soit son label idéologique, toute société moderne situe toujours le bien commun dans l’ordre du _plus_ : plus de pouvoir aux entreprises et aux experts, plus de consommation aux usagers. + +Si ces objections soulignent une difficulté fondamentale dans l’usage du Droit aux fins d’inverser la société, elles passent cependant à côté de la question. Je fais soigneusement la distinction entre le corps des lois et la structure formelle qui l’élabore, de même que j’ai distingué entre l’usage des slogans, auxquels les institutions ont recours, et la pratique du langage quotidien ; de même, je distinguerai, par la suite, entre un ensemble de politiques et le processus formel qui leur donne naissance. + +Il est bien évident que, s’agissant du Droit, comme du savoir ou du langage, c’est à la structure régissant en profondeur la répartition du sens que nous nous attachons. C’est du plein recouvrement et du libre usage de cette structure que dépend l’éveil des forces capables de transfigurer « l’alliance pour le progrès ». + +En un temps où l’ _opération_ est devenue une fin en soi, on n’insistera jamais assez sur la distinction entre les fins et les moyens, entre le procédé et la substance. Nous vivons dans ce monde, où le langage nous parle, le savoir nous pense et le Droit nous agit. Le langage se réduit à l’émission et à la réception des messages ; la pensée, à l’accumulation des informations ; le Droit, au règlement du plan. Pour retrouver cette distinction cruciale entre le procédé et la substance, l’analyse du procédé juridique peut nous servir de paradigme. Car cette distinction est à la racine de tout Droit, bien que chaque exemple de Droit se caractérise par le style particulier de son procès formel. Ici j’appuierai mon argumentation sur le recours au droit anglo-américain. + +### L exemple du droit coutumier + +La structure formelle de la _common law_ présente deux traits dominants et complémentaires qui la rendent particulièrement adaptable aux besoins d’un temps de crise. Le système se fonde sur la continuité et l’opposition antagonique ou contradictoire des parties _(adversary nature of the common law)_. + +La continuité inhérente au procès d’élaboration du Droit conserve, en un sens, la substance du corps des lois. Cela n’est pas aussi évident au stade législatif. Le législateur a toute latitude pour innover, du moment qu’il reste à l’intérieur du cadre constitutionnel. Mais toute nouvelle loi doit s’inscrire dans le contexte de la législation existante, et de ce fait elle ne peut s’écarter trop largement du droit régnant. + +Il est clair que la fonction de la jurisprudence est d’assurer la continuité de la substance du Droit, en l’actualisant. Les tribunaux appliquent le Droit à des situations réelles. La jurisprudence tranche de même façon deux cas identiques ou décide, au contraire, que le même fait ne signifie plus aujourd’hui la même chose qu’hier. Le Droit représente l’autorité souveraine que le passé exerce sur le conflit présent, la continuité d’un procès dialectique. Le tribunal donne au conflit un statut social, puis incorpore le jugement rendu au corps du Droit. Dans le processus juridique, l’expérience sociale du passé est réactualisée en vue des besoins présents ; à l’avenir, le présent jugement servira à son tour de précédent pour régler d’autres différends. + +La continuité de la structure formelle qui régit le processus juridique ne se réduit pas à la simple incorporation d’un ensemble de préjugés dans un ensemble de lois. Du seul point de vue formel, ce mode de continuité ne vise pas à préserver le contenu de telle ou telle loi. Bien au contraire, il pourrait servir à préserver le développement continu du droit d’une société régie par des principes inverses. Rien dans la plupart des constitutions n’interdit de légiférer sur une limitation de la productivité, des privilèges bureaucratiques, de la spécialisation ou du monopole radical. En principe, à condition d’être inversement orientée, la procédure législative et jurisprudentielle pourrait servir à formuler ce Droit nouveau et à le faire respecter. + +Tout aussi important est le caractère contradictoire de la procédure de la _common law_. D’un point de vue formel, la _common law_ n’a rien à faire avec la définition de ce qui est bien en matière éthique ou technique. C’est un outil pour comprendre des relations, lorsqu’elles éclatent sous forme de conflits réels. Il revient aux parties concernées de réclamer leur droit ou de revendiquer ce qu’elles jugent bon. Ainsi fonctionne la structure, au niveau législatif comme au niveau jurisprudentiel. En équilibrant des intérêts opposés, la décision devrait retenir ce qui est en théorie préférable pour tout le monde. + +Dans les dernières générations, cet équilibre, toujours déformé par l’un ou l’autre préjugé, a été globalement infléchi en faveur de la société de croissance. Mais la fréquente perversion de la structure juridique ne prêche pas contre son inversion. Bien au contraire, rien n’empêche des parties globalement opposées à la société productiviste, libérées de l’illusion que la croissance peut supprimer l’injustice sociale et conscientes de la nécessité des limites, d’avoir recours à cet outil. Certes il ne suffit pas qu’apparaisse un nouveau type de plaideur ; il faut aussi que le législateur se désintoxique de la croissance, que les parties en présence insistent sur la protection de leurs intérêts et que, dans ce but, elles se livrent à une réévaluation systématique des évidences et des certitudes trop bien établies. + +La loi comme la jurisprudence suppose que les parties soumettent les conflits d’intérêts sociaux au jugement d’un tribunal impartial. Ce tribunal ou cette chambre opère de façon continue. Le juge idéal est une personne ordinaire, prudente, indifférente au fond de l’affaire à débattre, experte dans l’exercice de la procédure. Mais, dans la réalité de la vie, le juge est un homme de son temps et de son milieu. En fait, le tribunal en est venu à servir la concentration du pouvoir et la croissance de la production industrielle. Non seulement le juge et le législateur sont poussés à croire qu’une affaire est bien jugée et le conflit convenablement résolu quand la balance de la justice est inclinée en faveur de l’intérêt global des industries, mais encore la société a conditionné le plaignant à exiger qu’elles croissent. On revendique une plus grosse tranche du gâteau institutionnel plutôt que la protection contre une institution qui mutile la liberté. Mais l’usage abusif de l’outil juridique ne corrompt pas sa nature propre. + +Une objection est souvent soulevée quand on présente les procédures qui opposent formellement des adversaires comme étant l’outil-clé qui permet de limiter la croissance industrielle : à savoir, les sociétés sont déjà lourdement dépendantes de telles procédures, bien souvent inefficaces. Les réformateurs d’Amérique du Nord revendiquent le droit à l’opposition légale pour les Noirs, les Indiens, les femmes, les travailleurs, les infirmes, les consommateurs organisés. La procédure devient longue, incommode et coûteuse, la plupart des plaignants ne peuvent aller jusqu’au bout. Les affaires traînent et les décisions viennent trop tard. La procédure devient un jeu, qui crée de nouveaux antagonismes, de nouvelles compétitions. Elle est détournée de sa fin, la décision devient un bien rare. La société de croissance récupère ainsi l’usager de la procédure formelle. + +L’objection qu’on oppose à cette multiplication des procédures n’est nullement déplacée si elle vise leur prolifération comme moyen de résoudre des conflits personnels. Mais ici les conflits entre personnes ou les luttes des groupes entre eux ne sont pas mon sujet. Ce qui m’intéresse n’est pas l’opposition entre une classe d’hommes exploités et une autre classe propriétaire des outils, mais l’opposition qui se place d’abord entre l’homme et la structure technique de l’outil, ensuite - et par voie de conséquence - entre l’homme et des professions dont l’intérêt consiste à maintenir cette structure technique. Dans la société, le conflit fondamental touche des actes, des faits ou des objets sur lesquels des personnes entrent en opposition formelle avec les entreprises et les institutions manipulatrices. Formellement la procédure contradictoire est le modèle de l’outil dont disposent les citoyens pour s’opposer aux menaces que l’industrie fait peser. + +À de rares exceptions près, les lois et les corps législatifs, les tribunaux et les jugements, les plaignants et leurs requêtes sont profondément pervertis par l’accord unanime et écrasant qui accepte sans murmure le mode industriel de production et ses slogans : _toujours plus, c’est toujours mieux_ , et d’ailleurs les entreprises et les institutions savent mieux que les personnes quel est l’intérêt public et comment le servir. Mais cette unanimité confondante n’infirme en rien ma thèse : une révolution qui néglige d’utiliser les procédures juridiques et politiques se condamne à l’échec. Seule une active majorité d’individus et de groupes cherchant, par une procédure conviviale commune, à recouvrer leurs propres droits, peuvent arracher au léviathan le pouvoir de déterminer les bornes qu’il faut imposer à la croissance pour survivre et celui de choisir les limites qui optimisent une civilisation. + +Pour entamer la lutte contre les préjugés régnants, pour conduire à l’inversion, certains de ceux qui appartiennent aux grandes professions peuvent jouer le rôle d’éclaireurs. Lorsqu’ils prennent conscience de la crise de l’école, les éducateurs se mettent habituellement en quête d’une solution-miracle pour enseigner plus de choses à plus de gens. Leurs efforts et leurs prétentions amplifient l’importance de la minorité des pédagogues qui insistent sur les _limites pédagogiques_ de la croissance industrielle. De la même façon, les médecins ont tendance à croire qu’au moins une partie de leur savoir est exprimable seulement en termes ésotériques. À leurs yeux, un confrère qui sécularise les actes médicaux n’est qu’un profanateur. Il est vain d’attendre de l’Ordre des médecins, des syndicats de l’Éducation nationale ou de l’Association des ingénieurs de la circulation qu’ils expliquent en termes simples, tirés du langage courant, le gangstérisme professionnel de leurs collègues. Il est tout aussi vain de penser que les députés, les juristes et les magistrats vont soudain reconnaître l’indépendance du Droit par rapport à leur notion préconçue du bien - qui se confond avec la fourniture de la plus grande quantité de produits au plus grand nombre de gens. Car tous sont dressés à arbitrer les conflits en faveur de leur propre branche d’activité, soit qu’ils parlent au nom des patrons, des salariés, des usagers ou de leurs collègues eux-mêmes. Mais il se trouvera, ici ou là, et par exception, un médecin pour aider autrui à vivre de façon responsable, à accepter la souffrance, à affronter la mort ; et pareillement il se trouvera par exception des juristes pour aider les personnes à utiliser la structure formelle du Droit en vue de défendre leurs intérêts dans le cadre d’une société conviviale. Même si le jugement rendu doit finalement ne pas satisfaire les demandeurs, l’action servira toujours à mettre en lumière le litige. + +Nul doute que le recours à la procédure aux fins d’immobiliser et d’inverser nos institutions dominantes n’apparaisse aux plus puissants parmi leurs cadres, ou aux plus intoxiqués parmi leurs usagers, comme un détournement du Droit et une subversion du seul ordre qu’ils reconnaissent. En soi, le recours à une procédure conviviale en bonne et due forme est une monstruosité et un crime aux yeux du bureaucrate, même s’il se dit juge. + +## L inversion politique + +Si, dans un très proche avenir, l’humanité ne limite pas l’impact de son outillage sur l’environnement et ne met pas en oeuvre un contrôle efficace des naissances, nos descendants connaîtront l’effroyable apocalypse prédite par maint écologue. La société peut cantonner sa survie dans les limites fixées et renforcées par une dictature bureaucratique, ou bien réagir _politiquement_ à la menace en recourant aux procédures juridiques et politiques. La falsification idéologique du passé nous voile l’existence et la nécessité de ce choix. + +La gestion bureaucratique de la survie humaine est un choix acceptable d’un point de vue éthique ou politique. Mais elle doit échouer. Il se peut que, terrorisés par l’évidence croissante de la surpopulation, de l’amenuisement des ressources et de l’organisation insensée de la vie quotidienne, les gens remettent de leur plein gré leurs destinées entre les mains d’un Grand Frère et de ses agents anonymes. Il se peut que les technocrates soient chargés de conduire le troupeau au bord de l’abîme, c’est-à-dire de fixer des limites multidimensionnelles à la croissance, juste en deçà du seuil de l’autodestruction. Une telle fantaisie suicidaire maintiendrait le système industriel au plus haut degré de productivité qui soit endurable. + +L’homme vivrait protégé dans une bulle de plastique qui l’obligerait à survivre comme le condamné à mort avant l’exécution. Le seuil de tolérance de l’homme en matière de programmation et de manipulation deviendrait bientôt l’obstacle le plus sérieux à la croissance. Et l’entreprise alchimique renaîtrait de ses cendres : on tâcherait de produire et de faire obéir le mutant monstrueux enfanté par le cauchemar de la raison. Pour garantir sa survie dans un monde rationnel et artificiel, la science et la technique s’attacheraient à outiller le psychisme de l’homme. De la naissance à la mort, l’humanité serait confinée dans l’école permanente étendue à l’échelle du monde, traitée à vie dans le grand hôpital planétaire et reliée nuit et jour à d’implacables chaînes de communication. Ainsi fonctionnerait le monde de la Grande Organisation. Pourtant les échecs antérieurs des thérapies de masse laissent espérer aussi la faillite de cet ultime projet de contrôle planétaire. + +L’installation du fascisme techno-bureaucratique n’est pas inscrite dans les astres. Il y a une autre possibilité : un processus politique qui permette à la population de déterminer le maximum que chacun peut exiger, dans un monde aux ressources manifestement limitées ; un processus d’agrément portant sur la fixation et le maintien de limites à la croissance de l’outillage ; un processus d’encouragement de la recherche radicale de sorte qu’un nombre croissant de gens puissent _faire toujours plus avec toujours moins_. Un tel programme peut encore paraître utopique à l’heure qu’il est : si on laisse la crise s’aggraver, on le trouvera bientôt d’un extrême réalisme. + +### Les mythes et les majorités + +L’empêchement dernier à la restructuration de la société n’est ni le manque d’information sur les limites nécessaires, ni le manque d’hommes résolus à les accepter si elles deviennent inévitables, c’est le pouvoir de la mythologie politique. + +Dans une société riche, chacun est plus ou moins consommateur-usager ; de quelque manière, chacun joue son rôle dans la destruction du milieu. Le mythe transforme cette multiplicité de déprédateurs en une majorité politique. De ce fait, cette multiplicité d’individus atomisés devient un bloc mythique d’électeurs qui s’accordent sur un problème inexistant : la majorité silencieuse, gardiens invisibles et invincibles des intérêts investis dans la croissance, qui paralyse toute action politique réelle. Après plus ample analyse, cette majorité est un ensemble fictif de personnes théoriquement douées de raison. En réalité, il y a une multiplicité d’individus : l’expert en écologie qui se rend en Boeing à une conférence contre la pollution ; l’économiste qui sait que la hausse de la productivité raréfie le travail et qui tâche de créer de nouveaux emplois, etc. Ni l’un ni l’autre ne représente les intérêts du travailleur spécialisé de Detroit qui achète à crédit un poste de télévision en couleur, ou du paysan mexicain qui, pour adhérer à la Révolution verte, utilise l’insecticide interdit depuis cinq ans aux États-Unis. Mais, en dépit de leur diversité, une commune adhésion à la croissance les réunit, car leur satisfaction en dépend. Toutefois seul le mythe leur prête l’homogénéité d’une majorité politique opposée aux limites. Chacun a sa raison pour désirer la croissance industrielle et sa raison pour en sentir la menace. Pour le moment, un vote contre la croissance tout court serait aussi vide de sens qu’un vote en faveur du PNB. + +Une commune idéologie ne crée pas une majorité, elle n’a d’efficacité qu’à condition de s’enraciner dans l’interprétation de l’intérêt rationnel de chacun et de donner à cet intérêt une forme politique. L’action politique de la personne en face d’un conflit social essentiel ne dépend pas de l’idéologie préalablement acceptée, mais de deux facteurs : _a)_ le style qui marquera la transformation du conflit latent entre l’homme et l’outil en une crise ouverte, exigeant une réaction globale et sans précédent ; _b)_ le surgissement d’une multiplicité de nouvelles élites qui fournissent une grille interprétative afin de reformuler les valeurs et de réévaluer les intérêts. + +### De la catastrophe à la crise + +Je ne fais que conjecturer l’aggravation de la crise. Mais je puis exposer avec précision la conduite à tenir devant et dans la crise. Je crois que la croissance s’arrêtera d’elle-même. La paralysie synergétique des systèmes nourriciers provoquera l’effondrement général du mode industriel de production. Les administrations croient stabiliser et harmoniser la croissance en affinant les mécanismes et les systèmes de contrôle, mais elles ne font que précipiter la méga-machine institutionnelle vers son second seuil de mutation. En un temps très court, la population perdra confiance non seulement dans les institutions dominantes, mais aussi dans les gestionnaires de la crise. Le pouvoir qu’ont ces institutions de définir des valeurs (l’éducation, la vitesse, la santé, le bien-être, l’information, etc.) s’évanouira soudainement quand sera reconnu son caractère d’illusion. + +Un événement imprévisible et probablement mineur servira de détonateur à la crise, comme la panique de Wall Street a précipité la Grande Dépression. Une coïncidence fortuite rendra manifeste la contradiction structurelle entre les fins officielles de nos institutions et leurs véritables résultats. Ce qui déjà est évident pour quelques-uns sautera tout à coup aux yeux du grand nombre : l’organisation de l’économie tout entière en vue du _mieux-être_ est l’obstacle majeur au _bien-être_. Comme d’autres intuitions largement partagées, celle-ci aura la vertu de retourner complètement l’imagination populaire. Du jour au lendemain, d’importantes institutions perdront toute respectabilité, toute légitimité et leur réputation de servir le bien public. C’est ce qui est arrivé à l’Église de Rome sous la Réforme et à la monarchie française en 1793. En l’espace d’une nuit, l’impensable devenait l’évidence. + +Une mutation soudaine n’est de l’ordre ni de la rétroaction ni de la révolution. Regardez les blancs tourbillons au pied d’une cascade de montagne. Les saisons se succèdent, l’eau surabonde ou s’écoule en un maigre filet ; toujours les spirales d’écume semblent demeurer semblables. Mais qu’une pierre tombe au fond du bassin, et voici le dessin modifié du tout au tout, sans retour. L’éveil de la conscience se produit aussi tout d’un coup. La majorité silencieuse aujourd’hui adhère totalement à la thèse de la croissance, mais nul ne peut prévoir son comportement politique lorsque la crise éclatera. Quand un peuple perd confiance dans la productivité industrielle, et plus seulement dans le papier-monnaie, tout peut arriver. L’inversion devient vraiment possible. + +À l’heure actuelle, on essaye encore de boucher les failles de chaque système. Aucun remède ne marche, mais on a encore les moyens de tous se les offrir, l’un après l’autre. Les gouvernements s’attaquent à la crise des services publics, de l’éducation, des transports, du système judiciaire, de la jeunesse. Chaque aspect de la crise globale est séparé des autres, expliqué de façon autonome et traité en particulier. On propose des solutions de rechange qui rendent crédible la réforme sectorielle : les écoles d’avant-garde contre les écoles traditionnelles redoublent la demande d’éducation ; les villes satellites contre l’aérotrain renforcent la conviction que le développement des villes est une fatalité ; une meilleure formation des médecins contre la prolifération des professions paramédicales nourrit l’industrie de la santé. Et, comme chaque terme de l’alternative a ses partisans, on ne choisit pas en général, ou plutôt on essaie les deux à la fois. En résultat, on tâche de faire un gâteau toujours plus gros, mais c’est en pure perte. + +On imite l’attitude de Coolidge face aux premiers signes de la Grande Dépression, en mésinterprétant de façon analogue l’annonce d’une crise bien plus radicale. L’analyse générale des systèmes est censée relier entre elles les crises institutionnelles, mais elle ne fait que conduire à plus de planification, de centralisation et de bureaucratisation, afin de parachever le contrôle de la population, de l’abondance et de l’industrie destructrice et inefficace. La croissance de la production des décisions, des contrôles et des thérapies est supposée compenser l’extension du chômage dans les secteurs de fabrication. Fascinée par la production industrielle, la population reste aveugle à la possibilité d’une société post-industrielle où coexisteraient plusieurs modes de production complémentaires. Essayer de susciter une ère à la fois hyperindustrielle et écologiquement réalisable, c’est accélérer la dégradation des autres composantes de l’équilibre multidimensionnel de la vie. Le coût de la défense du _statu quo_ monte en flèche. + +Il faudrait être géomancien pour prédire quelle série d’événements jouera le rôle de l’effondrement de Wall Street et déclenchera la crise imminente. Mais il n’est guère besoin d’avoir du génie pour prévoir que ce sera la première crise mondiale mettant en question le système industriel en lui-même et non plus localisée au sein de ce système. Bientôt un événement se produira qui aura pour effet de geler la croissance de l’outillage. Le moment venu, le bruit de l’effondrement obnubilera les esprits et empêchera d’en entendre le sens. + +Il nous reste encore une chance de comprendre les causes de la crise globale du système qui nous menace et de nous préparer justement à ne pas l’assimiler à une crise partielle, intérieure au système. Si nous voulons en anticiper les effets, nous devons chercher comment une brusque transformation portera au pouvoir des groupes sociaux étouffés jusqu’alors. Ce n’est pas la catastrophe en tant que telle qui tirera ces groupes du néant pour les hisser sur le pavois ; mais la catastrophe affaiblira les puissances régnantes qui écrasaient ces groupes et leur interdisaient de participer au processus social. L’effet de surprise affaiblit le contrôle, déroute les contrôleurs et installe au premier rang ceux qui gardent leur sang-froid. + +Une fois le contrôle affaibli, les contrôleurs se cherchent de nouveaux alliés. Dans l’état industriel affaibli par la Grande Crise, les gouvernants n’ont pu se passer des travailleurs organisés, aussi ces derniers ont-ils reçu une part de pouvoir structurel. Sur le marché du travail tendu par la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l’industrie n’a pu se passer des travailleurs noirs, aussi ont-ils commencé à se poser comme pouvoir. À présent, s’étant fait une place, l’élite noire tend à devenir un pilier du système établi, à l’image de ce que fut antérieurement le sort des syndicats. En fait l’issue de la crise imminente dépend de l’apparition d’élites impossibles à récupérer. + +### À l intérieur de la crise + +Les forces qui tendent à limiter la production sont déjà en travail à l’intérieur du corps social. Une recherche publique et radicale peut aider de façon significative ces hommes et ces femmes à gagner en cohésion et en lucidité dans leur condamnation d’une croissance qu’ils jugent destructrice. Gageons que leurs voix se feront mieux entendre quand la crise de la société surproductive s’aggravera. Ils ne forment nul parti, mais ce sont les porte-parole d’une majorité dont chacun est membre en puissance. Plus inattendue sera la crise, plus soudainement leurs appels à l’austérité joyeuse et équilibrée deviendront un programme de limitations rationnelles. Pour être à même de contrôler la situation le moment venu, ces minorités doivent saisir la nature profonde de la crise et savoir la formuler dans un langage qui porte : affirmer ce qu’elles veulent, ce qu’elles peuvent, ce dont elles n’ont aucun besoin. Dès maintenant, ces gens peuvent identifier ce à quoi renoncer. La reprise du langage quotidien est le premier pivot de cette inversion politique. Il en faut un second. + +Davantage de croissance conduit obligatoirement au désastre, mais celui-ci présente un double visage. L’événement catastrophique peut être la fin de la civilisation politique, ou même de l’espèce « homme ». Ce peut être aussi la Grande Crise, c’est-à-dire l’occasion d’un choix sans précédent. Prévisible et inattendue, la catastrophe ne sera une _crisis_ , au sens propre du mot, que si, au moment où elle frappe, les prisonniers du progrès demandent à s’échapper du paradis industriel et qu’une porte s’ouvre dans l’enceinte de la prison dorée. Il faudra alors démontrer que l’évanouissement du mirage industriel donne l’occasion de choisir un mode de production convivial et efficace. Pour l’heure, la préparation à cette tâche est la clef d’une nouvelle pratique politique. + +Il faudra des groupes capables d’analyser avec cohérence la catastrophe et de l’exprimer en langage ordinaire. Ils devront savoir plaider la cause d’une société qui se donne des bornes, et le faire en termes concrets, compréhensibles par tous, désirables en général et immédiatement applicables. Le sacrifice est la rançon du choix, inévitable prix à payer pour obtenir ce que l’on veut, ou, du moins, pour se libérer de l’intolérable. Mais il ne suffit pas de se servir des mots de tous les jours comme de bons outils pour mettre en lumière le vrai visage de la réalité ; il faudra aussi être capable de manier un outil social qui convienne à la détermination du bien public. + +Comme il a été expliqué plus haut, cet outil est la structure formelle de la politique et du Droit. À l’heure du désastre, la catastrophe se transformera en crise si un groupe de gens lucides gardant leur sang-froid sait inspirer confiance à ses concitoyens. Leur crédibilité dépendra de leur habileté à démontrer qu’il est non seulement nécessaire, mais possible d’instaurer une société conviviale, à condition d’utiliser consciemment une procédure réglée, qui reconnaisse au conflit d’intérêts sa légitimité, donne valeur au précédent, et attribue un caractère exécutoire à la décision d’hommes ordinaires, reconnus par la communauté comme la représentant. À l’heure du désastre, seul l’enracinement dans l’histoire peut donner la confiance nécessaire pour bouleverser le présent. L’usage convivial de la procédure garantit qu’une révolution institutionnelle demeure un outil dont la pratique engendre les fins. Un recours lucide à la procédure, fait dans un esprit d’opposition continue à la bureaucratie est la seule manière possible d’éviter que la révolution ne se transforme elle-même en institution. Que l’application de cette procédure à l’inversion radicale des principales institutions soit baptisée Révolution culturelle, recouvrement de la structure formelle du Droit, socialisme de participation ou retour à l’esprit des _Fueros de España_ n’est qu’une question de dénomination. + +### La mutation soudaine + +Lorsque je parle de l’apparition de groupes d’intérêts et de leur préparation, je ne fais référence ni à des noyaux de terroristes ni à des dévots ni à des experts d’un nouveau genre. Et plus particulièrement, je ne fais pas référence à un parti politique qui prendrait le pouvoir au moment de la crise. Gérer la crise, ce serait précipiter l’issue fatale. Un parti bien soudé, bien entraîné pourrait asseoir son pouvoir au moment précis où il faut faire un choix qui reste intérieur à un système englobant. C’est ainsi que les États-Unis ont dû « choisir » le contrôle des outils de production pendant la Grande Dépression. C’est ainsi que les pays d’Europe de l’Est ont dû « choisir » le stalinisme au lendemain de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Mais la crise dont je décris la venue prochaine n’est pas intérieure à la société industrielle, elle concerne le mode industriel de production en lui-même. Cette crise oblige l’homme à choisir entre les outils conviviaux et l’écrasement par la méga-machine, entre la croissance indéfinie et l’acceptation des bornes multidimensionnelles. La seule réponse possible consiste à reconnaître sa profondeur et à accepter le seul principe de solution qui s’offre : établir, par accord politique, une autolimitation. Plus nombreux et divers en seront les hérauts, plus profonde sera la saisie de ce que le sacrifice est nécessaire, de ce qu’il protège des intérêts divers et qu’il est la base d’un nouveau pluralisme culturel. + +Je ne parle pas non plus d’une majorité opposée à la croissance au nom de principes abstraits. Ce serait une nouvelle majorité fantôme. À la vérité, la formation d’une élite organisée, chantant l’orthodoxie de l’anticroissance, est concevable. Cette élite est probablement en formation. Mais un tel choeur, avec pour tout programme l’anticroissance, est l’antidote industriel à l’imagination révolutionnaire. En incitant la population à accepter une limitation de la production industrielle sans mettre en question la structure de base de la société industrielle, on donnerait obligatoirement plus de pouvoir aux bureaucrates qui optimisent la croissance, et on en deviendrait soi-même l’otage. La production stabilisée de biens et de services très rationalisés et standardisés éloignerait encore plus, si c’était possible, de la production conviviale que ne le fait la société industrielle de croissance. + +Les tenants d’une société qui se donne des bornes n’ont pas besoin de réunir une majorité. En démocratie, une majorité électorale n’est pas fondée sur l’adhésion explicite de tous ses membres à une idéologie ou à une valeur déterminée. Une majorité électorale favorable à la limitation des institutions serait fort hétérogène : elle comprendrait les victimes d’un aspect particulier de la surproduction, les absents de la fête industrielle et les gens qui refusent en bloc le style de la société totalement rationalisée. L’exemple de l’école peut illustrer le fonctionnement d’une majorité électorale dans la politique traditionnelle. Les gens sans enfant renâclent devant le poids budgétaire de l’Éducation nationale. Les uns trouvent qu’ils paient, sans raison. Les autres soutiennent les écoles confessionnelles. Certains refusent l’obligation scolaire parce qu’elle fait du mal aux enfants, d’autres la combattent parce qu’elle renforce la ségrégation sociale. Tous ces gens pourraient former une majorité électorale, mais ils ne constituent ni une secte ni un parti. Actuellement ils pourraient efficacement réduire les prétentions de l’école mais, ce faisant, ils renforceraient la légitimité du produit scolaire qui est « l’éducation ». Quand les affaires vont leur train, limiter une institution dominante par un vote majoritaire prend toujours un tour réactionnaire. + +Mais une majorité peut avoir un effet révolutionnaire lors d’une crise atteignant la société de manière radicale. L’arrivée simultanée de plusieurs institutions à leur second seuil de mutation donne le signal d’alarme. La crise ne saurait tarder. Elle a déjà commencé. Le désastre qui va suivre manifestera clairement que la société industrielle en tant que telle, et pas seulement ses divers organes, a dépassé les bornes. + +L’État-nation est devenu le gardien d’outils si puissants qu’il ne peut plus jouer son rôle de cadre politique. De même que Giap a su utiliser la machine de guerre américaine pour gagner sa guerre à lui, de même les entreprises multinationales et les professions transnationales peuvent se servir du Droit et du système démocratique pour asseoir leur empire. Alors que la démocratie américaine peut survivre à la victoire de Giap, elle ne survivra pas à celle de l’ITT et consorts. Lorsque la crise totale approche, il devient manifeste que l’État-nation moderne est un conglomérat de sociétés anonymes où chaque outillage vise à promouvoir son propre produit, à servir ses intérêts propres. L’ensemble produit _du bien-être_ , sous forme d’éducation, de santé, etc., et le succès se mesure à la croissance du capital de toutes ces sociétés. À l’occasion, les partis politiques rassemblent tous les actionnaires pour élire un conseil d’administration. Les partis soutiennent le droit de l’électeur à réclamer un plus haut niveau de consommation _individuelle_ , ce qui signifie un plus haut degré de consommation _industrielle_. Les gens peuvent toujours réclamer plus de transports rapides, mais le jugement à porter sur le système de transport fondé sur l’automobile ou sur le train, et absorbant une large part du revenu national, est laissé à la discrétion des experts. Les partis soutiennent un État dont le but avoué est la croissance du PNB, il n’y a rien à attendre d’eux lorsque le pire arrivera. + +Quand les affaires vont, la procédure contradictoire de règlement d’un conflit entre l’entreprise et l’individu renforce la légitimité de la dépendance de ce dernier. Mais au moment de la crise structurelle, même la réduction volontaire de la surefficience, acceptée par les institutions dominantes, ne pourra les empêcher de sombrer. Une crise généralisée ouvre la voie à une reconstruction de la société. La perte de légitimité de l’État comme société par actions ne ruine pas, mais réaffirme la nécessité d’une procédure constitutionnelle. La perte de crédibilité des partis devenus des factions rivales d’actionnaires ne fait que souligner l’importance du recours à des procédures contradictoires en politique. La perte de crédibilité des revendications antagonistes pour obtenir plus de consommation individuelle souligne l’importance du recours à ces mêmes procédures contradictoires, quand il s’agit d’harmoniser des séries opposées de limitations concernant l’ensemble de la société. La même crise générale peut asseoir durablement un contrat social qui abandonne le pouvoir de prescrire le bien-être au despotisme techno-bureaucratique et à l’orthodoxie idéologique, ou bien être l’occasion de construire une société conviviale, en continuelle transformation à l’intérieur d’un cadre matériel défini par des proscriptions rationnelles et politiques. + +Les procédures politique et juridique sont structurellement imbriquées l’une dans l’autre. Toutes deux façonnent et expriment la structure de la liberté dans l’histoire. Cela reconnu, la procédure formelle peut être le meilleur outil théâtral, symbolique et convivial de l’action politique. Le Droit garde toute sa puissance, même lorsqu’une société réserve à des privilégiés l’accès à la machine juridique, même lorsqu’elle bafoue systématiquement la justice et pare le despotisme du manteau de simulacres de tribunaux. Quand un homme défend le recours au langage ordinaire et à la procédure formelle, cependant que ses compagnons de la révolution le traînent au banc des accusés, le recours d’un individu à la structure formelle inscrite dans l’histoire d’un peuple reste l’outil le plus puissant pour dire le vrai, pour dénoncer l’hypertrophie cancéreuse et la domination du mode industriel de production comme la dernière forme d’idolâtrie. L’angoisse me ronge quand je vois que notre seul pouvoir pour endiguer le flot mortel tient dans le mot et, plus exactement, dans le _verbe_ , venu à nous et trouvé dans notre histoire. Seul, dans sa fragilité, le verbe peut rassembler la foule des hommes pour que le déferlement de la violence se transforme en reconstruction conviviale. + +S’ils savent définir des critères de limitation de l’outillage, les pays pauvres entameront plus facilement leur reconstruction sociale et, surtout, accéderont directement à un mode de production post-industriel et convivial. Les limites qu’ils devront adopter sont du même ordre que celles que les nations industrialisées devront bien accepter pour survivre : la convivialité accessible dès maintenant aux « sous-développés » coûtera un prix inouï aux « développés ». + +Une dernière objection se présente souvent quand on propose l’orientation conviviale à une société pauvre : pour choisir une vie austère avec des outils conviviaux, il faut se défendre contre l’impérialisme des méga-outils en expansion. Une telle défense ne serait pas possible sans une armée moderne, qui à son tour exige une industrie en pleine croissance. En réalité, la reconstruction de la société ne peut être protégée par une armée puissante, d’abord parce qu’il y aurait contradiction dans les termes, ensuite parce qu’aucune armée moderne d’un pays pauvre ne peut le défendre contre un tel pouvoir. La convivialité sera l’oeuvre exclusive de personnes utilisant un outillage effectivement contrôlé. Les mercenaires de l’impérialisme peuvent empoisonner ou détruire une société conviviale, ils ne peuvent la conquérir. + + + +[^n01:]Éditions du Seuil, 1971.] + +[^n02:]_"Austeritas secundum quod est virtus non exeludit omnes delectationes, sed superfluas et inordinatas : unde videtur pertine re ad affabilitatem, quam Philosophus, lib. 4 Ethic, cap. VI « amicitiam » nominar, vel ad cutrapeliam, sive jocunditarem."_ _(Summa Theologica_ , IIa IIae, q. 168, art. 4, ad 3 m.)] + +[^n03:]H. Marcuse _L’Homme unidimensionnel_ , Seuil, coll. Points, 1971.] + +[^n04:]Illich : _Énergie et Équité_ , Seuil, Paris, 1973.] diff --git a/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/index.txt b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a716249 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/fr/book/conviviality/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +# Tools for Conviviality + +## Versions + +### English + +* First publication: 1973 +* First publisher: Harper & Row +* **[[.:en|Access]]** +* Comments: ? + + +### Spanish + +* **[[.:es|Access]]** + + +### French + +* **[[.:fr|Access]]** diff --git a/data/pages/fr/index.txt b/data/pages/fr/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac48c23 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/fr/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +# English + +## Original books series + +* [[en:book:awareness:index|1969 - Celebration Of Awareness]] +* [[en:book:deschooling:index|1971 - Deschooling Society]] +* [[en:book:conviviality:index|1973 - Tools for Conviviality]] +* [[en:book:energy:index|1974 - Energy And Equity]] +* [[en:book:medical:index|1975 - Medical Nemesis-The Expropriation Of Health]] +* [[en:book:unemployment:index|1978 - The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies]] +* [[en:book:shadow:index|1981 - Shadow Work]] +* [[en:book:gender:index|1982 - Gender ]] +* [[en:book:h20:index|1985 - H2O And The Waters Of Forgetfulness]] +* [[en:book:abc:index|1988 - ABC-The Alphabetization Of The Popular Mind]] +* [[en:book:mirror:index|1992 - In The Mirror Of The Past-Lectures And Addresses, 1978-1990]] +* [[en:book:vineyard:index|1993 - In The Vineyard Of The Text-A Commentary To Hugh's Didascalicon]] + +---- + + +* [[en:1969:index|1969 - Celebration Of Awareness]] +* [[en:1971:index|1971 - Deschooling Society]] +* [[en:1973:index|1973 - Tools for Conviviality]] +* [[en:1974:index|1974 - Energy And Equity]] +* [[en:1975:index|1975 - Medical Nemesis-The Expropriation Of Health]] +* [[en:1978:index|1978 - The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies]] +* [[en:1981:index|1981 - Shadow Work]] +* [[en:1982:index|1982 - Gender ]] +* [[en:1985:index|1985 - H2O And The Waters Of Forgetfulness]] +* [[en:1988:index|1988 - ABC-The Alphabetization Of The Popular Mind]] +* [[en:1992:index|1992 - In The Mirror Of The Past-Lectures And Addresses, 1978-1990]] +* [[en:1993:index|1993 - In The Vineyard Of The Text-A Commentary To Hugh's Didascalicon]] + + +### Compilations + +* [[en:1977:index|1977 - Toward A History Of Needs]] ((includes "Energy And Equity" and "The Right To Useful Unemployment And Its Professional Enemies")) +* [[en:1977b:index|1977 - Disabling professions]] ((includes only on text of Illich and from other authors)) + +## Other resources + +* [[en:videos:index|Videos]]
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/pages/index.txt b/data/pages/index.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..09678cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/index.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ + +* [[en:index|Browse in English]] +* [[es:index|Navega en Español]] + +---- + +* [[cidoc:index|CIDOC Collections]] + diff --git a/data/pages/sandbox.txt b/data/pages/sandbox.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ae6430 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/pages/sandbox.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +I suggest that these hopeful brothers and sisters be called Epimethean men. [^n03] + + +[^n03:] The three quotations are from _"People"_ from the book Selected Poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Translated and with Introduction by Robin Milner Gulland and Peter Levi. Published by E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1962, and reprinted with their permission. ]
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